Abstract
The use of aircraft to support blasting operations in mines, quarries and construction sites goes back to
the early days of aviation. Invaluable at times, aircraft use has been limited by cost, the unpredictability
of weather impacts and other factors. Recently several technologies have matured to open up a new way
to acquire aerial data with unmanned aircraft systems (UAS), commonly called drones. Equally
important, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration has recently implemented an exemption process
and rulemaking to implement the commercial use of UAS into the United States National Airspace.
The skies are opening for many applications of UAS. The most notable may be photogrammetry, which
is the science of making measurements from photographs, especially for determining the exact positions
of surface points. Hundreds of aerial images can be collected over dozens of acres with UAS in less
than an hour and processed using gaming laptop computers into a detailed 3D model in about the same
amount of time. UAS can also provide visual perspectives that are otherwise unattainable because of
cost or safety. Highwalls and other places that are hard to reach can be inspected up close with high
definition video obtained with UAS without putting anyone at risk of falling. During the blasting cycle,
UAS can help ensure the blast area is secure, film the blast in high definition at the most optimum angle
and help the blaster-in-charge with the post-blast inspection. Other applications such as measuring
detonation gasses remotely in real time and using infrared detection optics are still emerging. The next
few years should be fast-paced and exciting for the growing use of UAS.
The use of aerial photography as a decision making tool is not a new idea; the
first known aerial photo was taken in 1858 by French photographer and
balloonist, Gaspar Fritz Tournachon. In 1855 he had patented the idea of using
aerial photographs in mapmaking and surveying. Gradually, improvements in
photographic technology made it easier to take cameras into the skies. Besides
hot air balloons, early pioneers also used kites, pigeons and rockets to carry their
cameras aloft. The first successful aerial photograph from a rocket was taken by
Alfred Nobel in 1897.
Figure 1.During
The first aerial photography taken from an airplane occurred in 1909 by Wilbur Wright. Cartoonists
World
risky depiction
War I, aerial photography soon replaced sketching and drawing by the aerial observers. The battleofmaps
used by both sides were produced from aerial photographs. Following the end early
of theaerial
war, the aerial
photography.
camera was turned into non-military purpose. Sherman Fairchild took the first overlapping photographs
and made an aerial map of Manhattan Island. This aerial map became a
commercial success and was used by several New York City agencies and
businesses.
The use of aerial photography continued to shape the world and in 1936 Captain
Albert W. Stevens made the first photograph that captured the curvature of the
earth. In 1938 the chief of the German General Staff, General Werner Von
Fritsch, was credited with saying The nation with the best photo
reconnaissance will win the next war. Indeed, intelligence gathered by the
British using the Wild photogrammetry machine smuggled out of Switzerland
may have turned the tide of WWII. One could carry Von Fritchs statement Figure 2. Fairchilds
map oftechnology
forward into modern day business and say "The companies that utilize aerial imaging Lower will
achieve the greatest level of success in risk assessment and risk management." Manhattan in 1920.
Today, unmanned aerial photography is in wide-spread use for a diverse set of commercial, industrial,
agriculture and governmental applications. The combined maturation of
technologies such as digital imaging, global position systems (GPS), personal
computing and UAS provides tools that were in recent history unavailable or
cost effective. The use of UAS now makes it possible to better manage mine
and project planning, blast area security, post blast inspection, pre-blast surveys
of structures, accident and incident investigation and the list goes on. Figure 3. WWII-era
Wild
photogrammetry
Regulatory machine.
The United States is far behind the rest of the world in integrating UAS into the National Airspace
(NAS). Most other countries, including Canada, have had a reasonable set of regulations that facilitate
Copyright 2016 International Society of Explosives Engineers
2016G - Unmanned Aircraft Systems Use in Blasting Operations 2 of 11
the recreational and commercial use of UAS while providing safety for years. These regulations
typically deal with issues such as maximum size, first-person viewing (FVP) flight, privacy, exclusion
zones and other flight restrictions. Not surprisingly, the majority of innovative UAS technology is
located outside the U.S.
The Federal Aviation Administration claims jurisdiction over all aircraft in the NAS, including UAS.
FAA has a different regulatory approach for government/academia, hobbyists and commercial UAS
operators. Government agencies must obtain a Certificate of Waiver Authorization (COA) from FAA to
operate UAS in the NAS. Hobbyists must follow general regulations such as staying away from crowds,
airports and under 400 feet above ground level.
Any person operating a UAS for commercial purpose falls under the FAA civil operations regulations,
the same regulations that apply to general aircraft. Most small UAS cannot comply with those
regulations, so Congress included Section 333 in the FAA Modernization and Reform Act of 2012
(FMRA). Section 333 of the FMRA allows FAA to waive certain inapplicable regulations and approve
commercial UAS operations on a case-by-case basis.
In late 2014, the FAA started granting regulatory exemptions and COAs to commercial operators under
their Section 333 authorization. FAA requires strict safety procedures such as using certified pilots as
UAS operators, using a visual observer, limitations on flight operations such as maintaining a visual-
line-of-sight (VLOS) with the UAS, and using registered aircraft. Individual COAs are needed under
most industrial-commercial circumstances and involve a lengthy process in which many specific details
of the UAS mission must be described to FAA before approval.
FAA issued a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (NPRM) in February 2015 on commercial operation of
UAS under 55 pounds. The NPRM has terms that are similar to those that exemption holders currently
must follow. A Final Rule is expected in 2016 or 2017.
Figure 4. If used commercially, FAA regulates the aircraft shown above equally.
Dual purpose point-and-shoot/video cameras are often integrated into the UAS and provide the image
resolution needed for quality photogrammetry and most other imaging applications. Entry level UAS
cameras have still resolution of 12-14 megapixels and video resolution up to 4K. Some UAS platforms
can integrate higher quality cameras, forward-looking-infrared (FLIR) cameras, and other specialty
optics. Integrating gas and other types of sensors onto UAS platforms is achievable. The only limits to
the camera or sensors that one can put on a UAS are weight and what you are willing to lose.
UAS Applications
The science of photogrammetry involves making measurements from photographs, especially for
determining the exact positions of surface points in three dimensions (3D). Advancements in countries
regulatory approach, UAS platforms, digital cameras, global position systems (GPS), Internet
accessibility, software development and personal computers have recently opened the power of
photogrammetry to the masses.
The size of a pixel is the limit of accuracy with photogrammetry. In practice, accuracy under 3 pixels is
common. A good aerial survey with UAS will produce very accurate relative results (1 pixel or less)
without the need of any reference points. This accuracy is achieved because the exact location of where
each image was taken, relative to the other images, is precisely determined by the software. Survey-
grade absolute accuracy can be achieved with the inclusion of ground control points (GCPs) or by using
a real time kinematic (RTK) GPS receiver to geotag the images taken by the UAS (Kerr, 2015).
On April 25, 2015, a consulting company specializing in the use of UAS conducted a UAS survey at 150
ft altitude of a 100 acre (0.42 sq km) stockyard that had 6 GCPs. We created an 85 million 3D point
cloud model with an average ground sampling distance (GSD), or average pixel size, of 0.87 inches
(2.15 cm). The models point cloud came within 0.5 inches (1.2 cm) in all 3-axis of 4 of the GCPs but
was only within 3-6 inches (7.6-15 cm) of 2 of the GCPs.
With four GCPs right-on with the model and two GCPs slightly off, it is possible that the error was
related to inaccurate location of the two GCPs. We were not involved with placing the GCPs.
1
Based on ERM LLC experience. Other UAS operators may have different opinions and experiences.
Figure 8. Topographical map of point cloud model shown in Figure 6 with one meter (3.28 ft) divisions.
Figure 10. Orthomosaic (left) and DSM (right) image of quarry stockyard.
Besides photogrammetry, UAS can provide visual perspectives when there is a danger of falling or when
using traditional aircraft would be unsafe or cost prohibitive. Table 4 describes several applications for
imaging with UAS.
Conclusions
We can envision a future with UAS fully integrated into the entire blasting cycle. A 3D model before
blasting begins provides valuable blast planning data. On the day of the blast, UAS helps the BIC clear
the blast area, maneuvers into the optimum position and films the shot, helps the BIC with the post-blast
inspection and finally takes images of the muck pile for fragmentation analysis. After the muck is
removed, the full cycle is completed by making another 3D model.
Figure 13 shows many of the elements of the blasting cycle that may implement UAS. The maturity of
several technologies at the same time has made for affordable UAS applications. Regulations and
technology will continue to evolve rapidly and provide new and unexpected opportunities. It would not
surprise us if years from now, someone reads this paper and thinks, How could they have not talked
about applying UAS to [blank]?
Figure 13. View of project showing elements that may benefit from UAS.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Mark Wagner of WipWare for his contributions to Figure 9.