Suggested Investigatory Projects

Project - 1
AIM:
To study various factors on which the internal resistance/EMF of a cell depends.

THEORY:
The internal resistance of a cell is defined as the resistance offered by its electrolyte to the flow of ions. The
internal resistance of a cell
1. is inversely proportional to facing surface area of electrodes in electrolyte.
2. is directly proportional to distance between the electrodes.
3. decreases with increase in temperature of electrolyte.
4. is inversely proportional to concentration of electrolyte.
The internal resistance of a cell is given by
l l
r= 1 2 R

l1
where l1 and l2 are the balancing lengths without resistance and with resistance (shunt), respectively
and R is the shunt resistance in parallel with the given cell.

Figure 1.1: Circuit diagram for internal resistance of a cell

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
A battery (battery eliminator), a potentiometer, two way keys, a rheostat of low resistance, a galvanometer,
a high resistance, an ammeter, a cell (Leclanche or Daniel cell), a Jockey, a set square connecting wires,
water bath, thermometer (0-100C), burner, tripod stand and wire gauze.

Physics Lab Manual - XII 1

METHOD:
Step 1
1. First of all, arrange apparatus as shown in the given circuit diagram.
2. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sand paper and make tight connections according to the
circuit diagram. Make sure the plugs of the resistance box are tight.
3. Check the e.m.f. of the battery and cell and ensure that e.m.f. of the battery is more than that of the
given cell, otherwise null or balance point will not be obtained (E > E).
4. Draw maximum current from the battery, making rheostat resistance small.
5. In order to check the correctness of the connections, insert the plug in the key K 1 and note the
ammeter reading. Take out 2000 ohm resistance plug from the resistance box. Place the jockey first
at the end P of the Wire and then at the end Q. If the galvanometer shows deflection in opposite
directions in the two cases, the connections are correct.
6. Adjust the rheostat without inserting the plug in the key K2 so that a null point is obtained on the
fourth wire of potentiometer.
7. Put the 2000 ohm plug back in its position in resistance box and by slightly adjusting the jockey near
the previously obtained position of null point, obtain the null point position accurately, using a set
square.
8. Now measure balancing length l1 between this point and the end P of the wire.
9. Pull out the 2000 ohms plug again from the resistance box R.B. Introduce the plugs in key K 1, as
well as in key K2. Take out a small resistance (1-5 ) from the resistance box R connected in parallel
with the cell.
10. Move the jockey along the potentiometer wire and obtain null point.
11. Insert 2000 ohms plug back in its position in BB. and if necessary make further adjustment for sharp
null point.
12. Measure the balancing length l2 from end P.
13. Take out the plug keys at K1 and K2. Wait for some time and for the same value of current (as shown
by the ammeter).
14. Repeat the steps 7 to 13. Repeat the observations for different values of R repeating each
observation twice.
15. Finally, calculate the internal resistance of cell by using the above relation for r.
Step 2
In order to see the effect of distance between the electrodes on internal resistance keeping the other
factors constant. Alter the separation between the electrodes and measure the internal resistance in each
case. Draw a graph between the separation between the electrodes and the internal resistance.
Step 3
In order to see the effect of the area (size) of electrodes in electrolyte on internal resistance keeping the
other factors constant, increase the area of electrodes in electrolyte by dipping them into electrolyte and
measure the internal resistance of cell in each case. Draw a graph between the two.
Step 4
To observe the effect of the temperature of electrolyte on the internal resistance by keeping other factors
constant, keep the primary cell in water bath to heat the electrolyte. Find the internal resistance at different
temperatures. Draw a graph between the two.

2 Physics Lab Manual - XII

Step 5
In order to observe the effect of the concentration (nature) of electrolyte on internal resistance by keeping
the other factors constant, decrease the concentration of electrolyte by adding the distilled water and note
the internal resistance of cell in each case. Draw a graph between the two.

OBSERVATION:
1. Internal resistance of cell
(a) Least count of ammeter = _________ A. Zero
correction in ammeter = _________ A. Emf of
the driving cell E = _________ V.
Emf of the standard cell (Leclanche or Daniel cell) E = _________ V.
Internal resistance of cell as determined in step 1 = _________ .
(b) Table for internal resistance for step 1:

S. Ammeter Position of null points (cm) Shunt Resistance l1

l2
r= R
No. Reading (A) With R (l1) Without R, l2 R () l1

1.
2.
3.
4.
2. In order to study the effect of separation between the electodes
(a) EMF of cell E = _________ V
Area of electrodes = _________
cm2 Temperature = _________ C
(b) Table for effect of separation between electrodes for step 2:
Separation between Balancing length Balancing l1
l2
S. No. r= l
R
r/d
electrodes d (cm) cm (l ) length cm (l ) m 1
1 2

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

We observe that internal resistance increases with increases in separation between the electrodes
of r d.
3. Effect on the internal resistance because of area (size) of the electrodes.
(a) EMF of cell E = _________ V Distance
between the electrodes = cm
Temperature of electrolyte = c
Physics Lab Manual - XII 3
 (b) Table for the effect of area of electrodes:
S. Area of Balancing Balancing Resistance l1 rA
electrodes A length l1 length l2 r= 1 2
No. 2 (cm) (cm) R () R cm
(cm ) l2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

From the above table, we observe that internal resistance of the cell decreases as the area of electrodes

dipped into the cell is increased and vice versa. Besides, the product rA is constant, showing that r
1
A .
4. Effect of temperature of electrolyte on the internal resistance.
(a) Emf of cell E = _________
Distance between electrodes d = _________
Area of electrodes A = _________
Current in ammeter = _________
(b) Table for the effect of temperature:
Temperature l l Resistance l
S. No. r= 1 R () Tr
1
1 2

(T) C (cm) (cm) R () l2

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

From the above table, we observe that the internal resistance of a cell decreases as the temperature of its
1
electrolyte increases and vice-versa as Tr remains constant, showing that r
T
5. The effect of the concentration of electrolyte
(a) Emf of cell E = __________ V.
Distance between electrodes d = __________ cm.
Area of electrodes A = __________ cm2
Temperature T = ............ C
Current in ammeter = __________ A
(b) Table for the effect of concentration

4 Physics Lab Manual - XII

 Concentration Balancing Balancing Resistance l
1
S. No. of electrolyte (C) length I length I r= 1 R () rc
1 2 l2
(mol / cm3) (cm) (cm)
R ()
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
From the above table, we observe that the internal resistance of a cell decreases as the concentration of

1
the electrolyte of the cell is increased also, the product rc comes out to be constant showing that r c .

CONCLUSION:
1. Emf of a cell is constant E = ............ V.
2. Internal resistance of a cell is directly proportional to the separation between electrodes.
3. Internal resistance of a cell is inversely proportional to the area of the electrodes dipped in electrolyte.
4. Internal resistance of a cell is inversely proportional to the temperature of electrolytes.
5. Internal resistance of a cell is inversely proportional to the concentration of the electrolyte.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Introduce the plugs in the keys only when the observations are to be taken.
2. Make sure the connections are neat, clean and tight.
3. The positive poles of the battery E and cells E1 and E2 should be connected to the terminal at the
zero of the wires.
4. Do not rub the jockey key along the wire. It should touch the wire gently.
5. The ammeter reading must remain constant for a particular set of observations, If necessary, adjust
the rheostat for this purpose.
6. The emf of the battery should be greater than the emfs of either of the two cells.
7. The emf of the battery should be greater than that of the cell.
8. Some high resistance plug should always be taken out from resistance box before the jockey is
moved along the wire.
9. For one set of observations the ammeter reading should remain constant. While finding the null
point, pass current for a short time only.
10. Rheostat should be adjusted so that initial null point lies on last wire of the potentiometer.
11. The jockey should not be rubbed against the potentiometer wire.
12. The cell should not be disturbed during experiment.

Project - 2
AIM:
To study the variations in current flowing in a circuit containing an LDR, because of a variation in
1. the power of the incandescent lamps used to illuminate the LDR (keeping all the lamps at a fixed
distance).
Physics Lab Manual - XII 5
 2. the distance of an incandescent lamp (of fixed power) used to illuminate the LDR.

THEORY:
The resistance of an LDR decreases with an increase in the intensity of light incident on it. In the dark, its
resistance may be as high as 10 M, whereas in normal daylight it may be as low as 0.1 k. The intensity
of incident light may be altered in two ways:
1. by changing the power of the source of light.
2. by changing the distance of the same source from the exposed surface.
According to the laws of photometry:
1. intensity of radiations emitted from a source increases directly with increase in its power.
2. intensity of radiations falling on a surface per second decreases inversely with the square of the
distance of the source of light from it.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
A multimeter, an LDR mounted on a box with its two ends connected to binding terminals, a metre scale,
two clamps, bulbs (20 W, 40 W, 60 W, 100 W), a box fitted with a lamp holder and a hole (1 cm diameter) in
opposite face, with some small holes on the side faces of the box for air circulation, PVC pipes 0.5 in
diameter and 40 cm, 60 cm, 80 cm and 100 cm in length.

METHOD:
1. First of all, place, the metre scale along the edge of your work table and fix it with the help of clamps.
2. Set the box A alongside the scale on the table so that its front face is on the zero mark on the scale.
3. Set box B alongside the scale so that its front face is roughly at 20 cm mark.
4. Adjust the 40 cm pipe between the two boxes so that its ends fit in holes in A and B. Ensure that it is
horizontal.
5. Next, connect the multimeter in binding terminals B1 and B2.
6. Adjust the multimeter for measuring resistance. Fix it for megaohm (MW) range and find the
resistance of the LDR when no light is incident on it.
7. Put a 20 W bulb in bulb holder of box A.
8. Insert the plug in the plug shoe and switch on the bulb.
9. Note the resistance of the LDR with the help of multimeter bringing down its range to k.
10. Repeat the experiment with bulbs of 40 W, 60 W and 100 W.
11. Repeat steps 48 with 60 cm, 80 cm and 1 metre long pipes.
12. Note the observations as suggested in the following table.

OBSERVATION:
Table: For Resistance of an LDR with variation in power and distance of source of light
Resistance of an LDR at a distance Range of multimeter to be
S. No. Power of Bulb20 cm 40 cm 60 cm 80 cm 100 cm used
() () () () () (Few ohms to megaohms)

1. 20 W
2. 40 W

6 Physics Lab Manual - XII

 3. 60 W
4. 100 W
5. Not exposed to light

Now do the following:

1. Plot a graph between resistance of the LDR and power of the bulb, taking resistance (R) on y-axis
and power (P) on x-axis with separation 40 cm.
The graph may be of the form shown in Figure 2.1 similar graphs for other values of r = 60 cm, 80
cm, 100 cm, etc., will be obtained having similar straight line graphs with different slopes.
2. Plot a graph between resistance (R) of the LDR and the reciprocal of square of distance (1/x 2) of the
source from it, taking resistance on y-axis and (1/x 2) on x-axis. Plot the graph for bulbs of power
20W, 40W, 60W and 100W separately. The graphs are likely to be of the form shown in Figure. 2.2.

Figure 2.1
CONCLUSION:
From the observations and graphs, it is clear that:
1. the normal resistance of the LDR (in dark) is very high ~ megaohms (106 ).
2. the LDR is exposed to light, and there is significant fall in its resistance.
3. the resistance of an LDR falls sharply when it is exposed to light from bulbs of increasing power kept at
the same distance. The corresponding graphs (R versus P) being straight lines, slope downwards. This
indicates the resistance of an LDR decreases linearly with the increase in intensity of illumination.
4. When a lamp of fixed power is kept at different distances from the LDR, its resistance increases as
the distance increases. The R versus (1/x2) curve is a straight line sloping upwards. This shows:
(a) the intensity of light incident on the LDR decreases inversely as the square of distance, i.e.
1
Ix 2 , and
(b) resistance of LDR increases linearly with decrease in intensity of illumination.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Make sure the multimeter is set to appropriate range to measure resistance.
2. The source of light should be adjusted in such a manner that light falls normally on LDR.
3. Perform the experiment preferably in a dark room.
4. The zero of the multimeter should be carefully adjusted.
5. The box containing an LDR must remain fixed all through the experiment.

Physics Lab Manual - XII 7

 Project - 3
AIM:
To find the refractive indices of (a) water (b) oil (transparent) using a plane mirror, a equiconvex lens,
(made from a glass of known refractive index) and an adjustable object needle.

THEORY:
1. If f1 and f2 be the focal length of the glass convex lens and liquid lens and f be the focal length of their

combination, then.
1 = 1 + 1 or f = ff
f f f f f
1 2 1

2. Liquid lens formed a plano-concave lens with R1 = R and R2 = , then by using lens makess formula

1 = (n 1 1
f 1)2
R1 R2
= 1 1
(n 1)
R
1
= (n 1) 0
R

1=n
1 f2 R
R
n= +1
f2

where n = Refractive index of the liquit and R is the radius of curvature of the lower surface of the
convex lens.
3. The radius of the lower surface of the convex lens is given by
l h
R = 6h 2 + 2

Here, l is the average distance between the legs of spherometer and h is the difference in the
reading of the spherometer when placed first on convex lens and then on a plane mirror.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Clamp, a plane mirror, kerosene oil, a convex lens, an optical needle, stand, knitting needle, plumb line,
half meter scale, glass slab, a spherometer.

METHOD:
For focal length of convex lens:
1. First find rough focal length of convex lens.
2. Put a plane mirror on the horizontal base of the iron stand and then a convex lens on the plane mirror.
3. Hold the needle in the clamp stand and adjust its position on the stand in such a manner that there is
no parallax between tip of the needle and its image (the tip of needle appears touching the tip of its
8 Physics Lab Manual - XII
 image). 8

9 Figure 3.1: Focal length of glass convex lens and liquid lens
combination
4. Note down the distance between
tip and upper surface of the lens
by using a plumb line and half
meter scale. Also measure the
distance between tip of needle
and upper surface of the mirror.
Take the mean of these two
readings. This mean distance
will be equal to the focal length
of the convex lens (f1).
For focal length of the combination:
5. Put a few drops of water on the
place mirror and place the
convex lens over it with its same
face above as before. The water
spreads in the form of a layer and acts like a plano-concave lens as shown in the given figure.
6. Repeat the steps 3 and 4 to find the equivalent focal length of combination.
7. Note the observation as suggested in table 1.
8. Redo the steps 5, 6, 7 for other transparent liquid (kerosene oil).
For radius of curvature of convex lens surface:
9. Find the pitch and the least count of the spherometer.
10. Remove the convex lens and dry it completely.
11. Place the spherometer on the lens surface.
12. Place all the three legs of spherometer symmetrically on the lens and adjust the central screw tip just
to touch the surface of the lens.
13. Remove the spherometer from the surface of lens and place it on
the plane mirror and turn the central screw so that its tip touches
the plane mirror surface. Record the readings as suggested in
Table 2.
14. Follow the steps 10 and 11 three more times.
 15. Get the impressions of three legs of spherometer, on paper and
mark them and their average distance.
l +l +l
l= 1 2 3

OBSERVATION: Figure 3.2:

1. Rough focal length of convex lens = ________ cm.

Physics Lab Manual - XII 9

 Table 1: To find the focal length of lens and combination
Distance of needle tip Focal length

Arrangement From lens surface From plane mirror Mean x

x = x1 + x2
x1 (cm) x2 (cm) 2
(cm)

Without liquid f1 = _______

With water fw = _______

With other
transparent liquit f = _______
l

(kerosene)
Table 2: To find h

Initial C.S.R. No. of Final C.S.R. on m = (a b) if a > b = h = n pitch

S. No on convex complete plane mirror surface
(100 + a b) if a < b + m L.C.
lens (a) rotation (n) (b)
1.
2.
3.

Mean value h = _______ mm

= _______ cm

CONCLUSION:
1. The refractive index of water nw = _________
2. The refractive index of other liquid (kerosene oil) n1 = _________

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Make sure the plane mirror is a clean and fully shining surface.
2. The liquid taken must be transparent.
3. Remove the parallax tip to tip.
4. Ensure that the eye remains at a distance about 30 cm from the needle while removing the parallax.,
5. Only few drops of liquid should be taken so that its layer remains thick.
6. The legs of spherometer should be vertical.
7. Make sure the centre leg of spherometer is turned in one direction only.

Project - 4
AIM:
To design an appropriate logic gate combination for a given truth table.

10 Physics Lab Manual - XII

THEORY:
Truth tables help us to list all values of a function in a natural way. There are many ways to represent
function values. One such method is Karnaugh map (in short K-map), which is named after its originator
Maurice Karnaugh.
K-map is defined as a graphical display of the fundamental products in a truth table. This map is nothing
but a rectangle made up of certain number of squares. Each square represents a minterm or maxterm.
Boolean expression made entirely of minterms or maxterms is known as Canonical Expression. It can be
represented in two forms:
1. Sum-of-Products (S-O-P)
2. Product-of-Sums (P-O-S)
When a boolean expression is represented purely as sum of minterms or product terms, it is said to be in
Canonical sum-of-products form.
Minterm is defined as a product of all the literals (primed or unprimed)/(with or without bar) within the logic
system, e.g., if x = 0, y = 1 and z = 0, then minterm will be xyz or x y z , i.e. for variable with a value 0 take
its complement and the variable with a value 1 will be multiplied as it is.
Truth Table: For minterms (product terms) for three inputs
Input Output Minterm
x y z F
0 0 0 0 x y z
0 0 1 1 x y z
0 1 0 1 x y z
0 1 1 0 x yz
1 0 0 1 x y
1 0 1 0 x y z
1 1 0 0 xy z
1 1 1 0 x y z

Addition of all the minterms, for which output is 1, gives the desired Canonical S-O-P expressions. We get
xyz+xyz+xyz=F
It is the desired Canonical sum-of-products form.
When a boolean expression is represented purely as product of maxterms, it is said to be in Canonical
product-of-sums form of expression.
Maxterm is defined as a sum of all the literals (primed or unprimed)/(with or without bar) within the logic
system, e.g. if the values of variable are x = 0, y = 1 and z = 1, its maxterm will be x + y + z or x + y + z ,
i.e. for variable with a value 1 take its complement and the variable with value 0 is added as it is.
Truth Table: For maxterms (sum terms) for three inputs
Input Output Maxterms
x y z F
0 0 0 1 x+y+z
0 0 1 0 x+y+ z
0 1 0 1 x+ y +z

Physics Lab Manual - XII 11

 0 1 1 0 x + y +z
1 0 0 1 x +y+z
1 0 1 0 x +y+ z
1 1 0 1 x +y +z
1 1 1 1 x +y +z
Now, by multiplying all maxterms, for which output is 0, we get the desired product of sums expression
which is (x + y + z ) (x + y + z ) (x + y + z ) = F
In S-O-P reduction each square of K-map represents a minterm of the given function. Hence, for a function
of n variables, there would be a map of 2n squares, each representing a minterm.

Figure 4.1: 2-Variables K-map representing minterms

Following is a 2 variables K-map for S-O-P reduction. You

can note that in every square a number is written. These
subscripted numbers denotes that this square
corresponds to that numbers minterm.
The 0s and 1s marked for each row and each column
designate the values of variables x and y, respectively.
Notice that x is seen with a bar in row 0 and without bar in row 1. Similarly, y appears with bar in column 0
and without bar in column 1.
If we mark the squares whose minterms belong to a given function, the two variables K-map becomes
another useful way to represent any one of the 16 boolean functions of two variables As an example, the
function xy is shown in the given figure since xy is equal to m 3, 1 is placed inside the square that belongs to
m3. Similarly, the function x + y is represented in the map of figure 4.2 (b) by three squares marked with 1s.
These squares are found from the minterms of the function:
x + y = x y + xy + xy = m1 + m2 + m3
The three squares could also be determined from the intersection of variable x in the
second row and variable y in the second column, which
encloses the area belonging to x or y. Figure 4.2: Representation of
MATERIALS REQUIRED: functions in the map

Two AND gates, two OR gates, two NOT gates assembled on cardboards with regulated power supply,
input and output leads.

METHOD:
The design of the appropriate logic gate begins from the verbal outline of the problem and ends in a logic
circuit diagram. The experiment includes, the following steps:
1. State the problem.
2. Find the number of available input variables and required output variables.
3. Mark the input and output variables using letter symbols.
4. Derive the truth table and obtain the simplified boolean function for each output. For example, by
using Karnaugh map.
5. Draw the logic diagram.
S-O-P reduction using K-map:
1. First study the given truth table and then draw an empty K-map for the two input variables.
2. Map the given function by entering 1s for the outputs as 1 in the corresponding squares.

12 Physics Lab Manual - XII

 3. Enter 0s in all left out empty squares.
4. Encircle adjacent 1s in the forms of octets, quads and pairs.
5. Write the reduced expressions for all the groups and OR (+) them.
6. Finally, draw the logic diagram.
P-O-S reduction using K-map:
1. Make a study of the given truth table and draw an empty K-map for two given input variables.
2. Map the given function by entering 0s for the outputs as 0 in the corresponding squares.
3. Enter 1s in all left out empty squares.
4. Encircle adjacent 0s in the form of octets, quads and pairs.
5. Give the reduced expressions for all the groups and AND () them.
6. Finally, draw the logic diagram.
In this case, let the given truth table be:

A B F
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

Referring to the steps of S-O-P reduction using K-map, 2-variables K-

map is shown below.
As there are two variables, the number of minterms will be four.
Hence, the K-map consists of four squares one for each minterm.
Reduced expression F = AB + AB
The logic diagram for the output obtained is drawn below.

Figure 4.3 :

Figure 4.4 :

Take assembled circuit of XOR gate and then verify the given truth table.

CONCLUSION:
Appropriate logic gate combination for a given truth table is XOR gate.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The K-map should be drawn carefully.
2. The logic gate diagram should be drawn carefully using appropriate symbols.

Physics Lab Manual - XII 13

 Project - 5
AIM:
To investigate the relation between the ratio of
1. Input and output voltage and
2. Number of turns in the secondary coil and primary coil of a self designed transformer.

THEORY:
The working of a transformer is mainly based on mutual induction phenomenon. Let an ideal transformer in
which the primary and secondary coil have negligible resistance and all the flux in the core links both
primary and secondary windings. Then,
The induced emf in the primary coil
d
= N
p P dt
The induced emf in the secondary coil,
d
=N
s S dt
where the is the magnetic flux linked with each turn of primary and secondary coil at a time t. then
s N
=N = K = Transformation ratio ... (1)
s

p
p

For an ideal transformation, there is no loss of energy,

then Input power = output power
Ip p = Is s

Ip = s = K = K ... (2)
I p
s

Figure 5.1: Self-designed transformer

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Two a.c. voltmeters, copper wires of different gauge (diameter), an iron rod, two a.c. ammeters.

METHOD:
1. First of all take thick iron rod and cover it with a thick paper and wind a large number of turns of thin

14 Physics Lab Manual - XII

 Cu wire on thick paper (say 60). This constitutes primary coil of the transformer.
2. Now cover the primary coil using a sheet of paper and wound relatively smaller number of turns (say
20), of thick copper wire on it. This constitutes the secondary coil. It is a step down transformer.
3. Connect P1P2 to a.c. mains (say 220 V). Measure the input voltage and current by using a.c.
voltmeter and ammeter respectively.
4. In the similar manner, measure the output voltage and current through S1S2.
5. Connect the S1S2 to a. c. mains and again measure voltage and current through primary and
secondary coil of step-up transformer.
6. Repeat all steps for other self made transformer by changing number of primary turns in secondary
coils.

OBSERVATION:
1. Least count of a.c. voltmeters = _________
2. Zero error voltmeters = _________
3. Range of voltmeters = _________
4. L.C. of a.c. ammeter = _________
5. Zero error ammeter = _________
6. Range error ammeter = _________
7. Applied A.C. voltage = _________

S. No. of turns No. of turns Voltage in Current in Voltage in Current in

No. in primary in Secondary primary secondary Loss of
P. coil I secondary
coil (NP) coil (Ns) coil P coil eS power B
P
coil IS
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
CONCLUSION:

N
1. The output current of the transformer across the secondary coil depends upon the turn ratio N
s
w.r.t
p
input current.
N
2. The output voltage of the transformer across the secondary coil depends upon the turn ratio N
s

p
w.r.t. input voltage.
3. There is loss of power between input and output coil of a transformer.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Stay away from the high voltage.
2. The a.c. main supply should remain constant, while taking the readings of current and voltage.

Physics Lab Manual - XII 15

 Project - 6

Figure 6.2: -i graph

AIM:
To investigate the dependence of the angle of deviation on the angle of incidence, using a hollow prism
filled one by one with different transparent fluids.

THEORY:
Light is a type of electromagnetic wave. It
travels in space with a constant velocity, c =
3 108 m s1. Its speed in all optical media
is usually lesser than c and has different
values in different media. A ray of light gets
refracted in passing from one medium to
another due to the difference in velocity. The
amount of refraction in the path of a ray of
light or refractivity of a medium is defined as
the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum to
the speed of light in that medium (c m) and is
known as refractive index of the
medium. i.e., Figure 6.1: Refraction through a prism
n= c
cm
The difference in the direction of original path of light (i.e., incident
ray) and the path in the medium (refracted ray) is deviation in the
path of light and is represented by
= ir
When a ray of light passes through a piece of a medium and
emerges out in the same medium again it suffers refraction twice.
The total deviation is the algebraic sum of the deviations suffered at
each refraction.
= 1 + 2
In case of a prism, on each refraction the ray moves away from the
direction of incidence and therefore, the ray bends towards its base
and has substantial deviation ().
The angle of deviation changes with change in angle of incidence as shown in the given figure, the shape
of the graphs being identical for all materials, only the value of angle of minimum deviation and slopes of
curves will be different as the value of n is different.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
A protractor, a thin-walled hollow glass prism having a hole at its top to fill up experimental liquids, a drawing
board, 6 sheets of unruled white paper, a few drawing pins and a few pins, a cellotape, experimental liquids, viz.,
water, alcohol, glycerin, etc., a pencil, a half metre scale and a few sheets of graph papers.

16 Physics Lab Manual - XII

METHOD:
1. First of all fill up the hollow prism with any experimental fluid. Cover the hole with a cover slip and
seal it by using plasticine. Wipe off liquid with a clean cloth or tissue paper from its sides.
2. Now take a white sheet of paper and fix it on the drawing board by using drawing pins or cellotape.
3. Draw a line XX near the middle of the paper parallel to its length.
4. Place the liquid filled prism on the sheet of paper as shown in figure 6.2 and by using a sharp pencil
draw its boundary ABC. Remove the prism.
5. Mark a point F on side BA, slightly above the midpoint towards A. Draw a perpendicular NFN1 on line
AB and then draw a line EF making an angle 30 with line NF.
6. Fix a pin P1 vertically on line EF close to the point F and another pin Q1 at a distance more than 10
cm from P1 on line EF.
7. Place the prism in its position ABC. See the pins P 1 and Q1 through the face AC of the prism. Aligning
with the images of P1 and Q1, insert a third pin P 2 and then a fourth pin Q 2 in line with P2 and images of
P1 and Q1. In this situation, tips of P2 and Q2 would cover the images of the tips of P1 and Q1.
8. Now remove the prism and draw a line joining the pin pricks of P2 and Q2 in such a manner that it
meets the side AC at G.
9. Draw a normal on line AC at point G as N2GN3. Normal NFN1 and N2GN3 when produced meet at point
I and EF and GH when produced meet at J. Measure the angle of deviation as angle HJK.
10. Repeat the experiment for different angles of incidence viz., 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, and 60 and
measure the corresponding angles of deviation.
11. Plot a graph between i and .
12. Empty the prism, clean it thoroughly and dry up. Fill it up with another liquid and repeat all the above
steps. Remember the experiments should be performed with at least 45 liquids.

OBSERVATION:

Least count of the protractor = ___________

S. Angle of incidence (i) Angle of deviation () for
No. Liquid-1 Liquid-2 Liquid-3 Liquid-4
1. 30

2. 35

3. 40

4. 45

5. 50

6. 55

7. 60

Now, choose a suitable scale and plot angle of incidence (i) on x-axis and angle of deviation () on y-axis,
separately for each liquid.

Physics Lab Manual - XII 17

CONCLUSION:
1. The shapes of graphs for different liquids are as given in figure 6.2 and are attached here with.
2. Beyond 30, as the value of angle of incidence is gradually increased, the angle of deviation
decreases and attains a minimum value, then starts increasing again.
3. For angles 025, no light emerges out of face AC as value of r2 is greater than critical angle.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. A sharp pencil should be used to draw the boundary of the prism and rays of light.
2. Draw proper arrows to indicate the incident, the refracted and the emergent ray.
3. Angle of incidence should lie between 30 and 60.
4. Before use clean the surface of prism.
5. i graph should be a best fit smooth free hand curve.
6. Always adjust the feet and not the heads of pins to lie along the same straight line.
7. Fill liquid in the prism taking care that no air bubbles are formed in it.
8. Use clear and pure liquid.
9. The pins should have sharp tips and fixed vertically.

Project - 7
AIM:
To estimate the charge induced on each of the two identical styrofoam (or pitch) balls suspended in a
vertical plane by making use of Coulombs law.

THEORY:
Let two point stationary charges q1 and q2 are separated by a distance r in vacuum. The magnitude of the
force (F) between them is given by
F = k q1q2 ...(1)
2
The weight of ball is r
W = mg
The restoring force on each ball
= mg sing
from OBC, x
x
sin = 2 =
Let the charge on each ball is l 2l

q1 = q2 = q
then, at equilibrium kq q
mg sin =
2
x
2
mg x kq Figure 7.1
= ...(2)
2l 2
x

18 Physics Lab Manual - XII

 3 1/ 2
mgx

then, q= 2lk ...(3)

9 2 2
where k = 9 10 Nm c for air
2
g = 9.8 m/s
By substituting the value of mass (m) separation between ball (x) and length of the thread used to suspend
a ball.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Physical balance or electronic balance, small size identical balls (pitch or soft plastic),cotton thread, stand,
glass rod (plastic rod), halfmeter scale, silk cloth (wool cloth).

METHOD:
1. First of all weight the mass of each identical pitch balls by balance and note down it.
2. Tie the balls with two silk or cotton threads and suspend at a point on a stand or a rigid support. By
using half meter scale measure the length of threads. The length of threads should be equal. Note
down the length.
3. With a silk cloth rub the glass rod and touch with both balls together so that the balls acquired equal
charge.
4. Suspend the balls freely and the balls stay away a certain distance apart. Measure the distance
between the balls when they become stationary. Note down the distance.
5. Touch any one suspended ball with other uncharged third ball and takes the third ball away and
repeat the step 4.
6. Touch other suspended ball with other uncharged fourth ball and takes the fourth ball away and
repeat the step 4.

OBSERVATIONS:
1. Length of each thread, I = _________
2. Radius of each ball, r = _________
3. Mass of each ball, m = _________

S. No. Charge on ball Charge on ball Distance between the

A B balls x (cm)
1. 0 0
2. q q
3. q q

2
4. q q
2 2

CONCLUSION:
The charge on each ball = ________

Physics Lab Manual - XII 19

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Do not touch suspended balls by any conducting body.
2. To produce more charge rub the glass rod properly with silk cloth.
3. Weight the mass of the balls accurately.

Project - 8
AIM:
To set up a common base transistor circuit and to study its input and output characteristics and to calculate
its current gain.

THEORY:
The base is common to both the input and the output circuit. The input section is forward biased by battery
VBB and output section is reversed biased by battery VCC.
The resistance gain = Output section resistance
Input section resistance
=R0 ...(1)
RI
The current equation I = IB + I C ...(2)
E
R V
1. Input resistance = EB
I I
E VCB = cons tan t

= 1

Slope of input characteristics

2. Output resistance R = V
CB
O
IE = cons tan t
IC
= 1

Slope of output characteristics

3. Current gain a = IC

V = cons tan t
IE
CE

Figure 8.1: Common-base transistor circuit

20 Physics Lab Manual - XII

 4. Voltage gain, A = a Ro
v RI

= Current gain Resistance gain

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
A transistor (p-n-p or n-p-n), connecting wires, two high resistance rheostats, two dc power supplies to
provide voltage both for input (03 V) and output (030 V), two one way keys, two milliammeters (020
mA), one voltmeter (03 V) and one voltmeter (030 V)

METHOD:
1. First of all arrange the components on the working table. Connect the circuit as shown in the given
Figure 8.2 for a p-n-p transistor.

Figure 8.2: Circuit diagram for studying the common base characteristics of a p-n-p transistor

2. Keep the value of collector-base voltage (VCB) fixed to obtain input characteristics of the transistor,
first adjust VCB = 0 V and then vary the base-emitter voltage (VBE) in steps of 0.1 V and for each
value of VBE, note the emitter current (IE).
3. Repeat step 2 by keeping VCB fixed at four different values. You will observe that emitter current (I E)
will continue to be zero for a number of observations that is upto V BE = 0.2 V to 0.3 V for germanium
transistor and VBE = 0.6 V to 0.7 V for silicon transistor. After that, it will increase rapidly.
4. Keep the IE = 0 to obtain output characteristics of transistor. Note the value of collector current I C
keeping VCB = 0 V. Now, increase the value of V CB in small steps and note the corresponding values
of collector current (IC) keeping emitter current (IE) constant.
5. Repeat step 4 for four different values of IE you will observe that IC increases with the increase in IE.

OBSERVATION:
1. Range of the voltmeter used in the input circuit = ___________ V to ___________ V
2. Least count of the voltmeter used in the input circuit = ___________ V
3. Range of the voltmeter used in the output circuit = ___________ V
4. Least count of the voltmeter used in the output circuit = ___________ V
5. Range of the milliammeter used in the input circuit = ___________ mA to ___________ mA
6. Least count of the milliammeter used in the input circuit = ___________ mA
7. Range of the milliammeter used in the output circuit = ___________ mA to ___________ mA
8. Least count of the milliammeter used in the output circuit = ___________ mA

Physics Lab Manual - XII 21

 (a) Table for Variation in input current (IE) with input voltage (VBE) for fixed value of VCB
S. No. Input voltage Input current IE at
V = _____ V V CB = ____ V V CB = ____ V V CB = ____ V V CB = ____ V V CB = ____ V
BE

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

(b) Table for Variation in output current (IC) with output voltage (VCB) for fixed value of IE
S. No. Output voltage Output current IC at
V = _____ V I E = ____ mA I E = ____ mA I E = ____ mA I E = ____ mA I E = ____ mA
CB

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

(c) Table for Variation in output current (IC) with input current (IE) for fixed value of VCB
S. No. Input current Output current IC at

IE = ______ mA V CB = ____ V V CB = ____ V V CB = ____ V V CB = ____ V V CB = ____ V

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

For input characteristics: Plot graph between input voltage (VBE) taking along x-axis and input current (I E)
taking along y-axis for fixed value of (VCB). Discuss its nature and interpret it.

22 Physics Lab Manual - XII

For output characteristics: Plot graph between output voltage (VCB) taking along x-axis and output
current (IC) along y-axis for fixed value of IE. Discuss its nature and interpret it.
For transfer characteristics: Plot graph between input current (IE) along x-axis and output current (IC)
along y-axis for fixed value of VCB. Discuss its nature and interpret it.
CONCLUSION:
For the given p-n-p transistor in common base configuration:
1. the input, output and transfer characteristics are shown in the graph drawn.
2. input resistance, Ri = ______________
3. output resistance, RO = ______________
4. voltage gain, AV = ______________
5. current gain, = ______________
6. power gain, AP = ______________

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Remember all the connections should be tight.
2. Graphs should be plotted, choosing suitable scales along the axes (x-axis and y-axis).
3. Biasing of the transistor should be done correctly.
4. Key should be removed from the plug as the observation is taken in order to avoid heating of the
transistor.
5. The current passed in the transistor circuit should not exceed the ratings for the current provided in
the manual for the transistor used.
6. To take large number of observations, currents/voltages should be varied gradually in small steps.

Project - 9
AIM:
To study the factor on which the self-inductance of a coil depends by observing the effect of this coil, when
put in series with a resistor/(bulb) in a circuit fed up by an A.C. source of adjustable frequency.

THEORY:
Self-inductance is a very important property of a coil which oppose the change in current through it. The
self-inductance of a coil (long solenoid) is
L = 0rN2 A ...(1)
l

where r = Relative magnetic permeability of magnetic material, r = 0
N = Total number of turns in solenoid
A = Area of cross-section of solenoid
l = Length of solenoid
Hence, the self-inductance depends upon the following factors:
1. No. of turns (N), L a N2

Physics Lab Manual - XII 23

 2. Geometry of coil, L A, L 1l
3. Nature of core material, L
When an inductor is connected in series with a resistor (bulb) with a variable source of frequency, then current flowing
in the bulb is
= Erms
I
rms ...(2)
Z
where Z = 2 2 2 = Impedance of the a.c. circuit
R + L
Here R = Resistance of bulb
L = Self inductance of coil
w = 2f = Angular frequency of a.c. source.
The brightness of bulb i.e., Heat generated in bulb is
I 2
H= rms Zt
H =I 2Z
P= t rms

I2 R 2 + w 2L 2 Figure 9.1
P = rms

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
A coil of large turns, (6V) a.c. ammeter of suitable range, rheostat, a soft iron rod, a.c. source of adjustable
frequency, an electric bulb, one-way key, connecting wires etc.

METHOD:
1. First of all make all connections as shown in circuit diagram.
2. Switch on the a.c. supply and by using the variable resistor (Rh) adjust the constant current in the
circuit (let freq. of source is 60 Hz and voltage is 6 V).
3. Record the current in a.c. ammeter. See the brightness of bulb.
4. Now, put the soft iron rod inside the inductor core and record the current in a.c. ammeter and again
check the brightness of bulb. The current and brightness both decreases.
5. Now, switch off the supply and decrease the frequency of a.c. source (say 50 Hz).
6. Again switch on the supply. By using the rheostat adjust the current in circuit at same constant voltage 6
V. Note the current in ammeter and brightness of bulb. The current and brightness both will increase.
7. Again insert the iron rod in the core of coil and note the current and brightness. You will observe that
the current and brightness both decreases.
8. Repeat the steps 5, 6 and 7 for different frequency of a.c. source (say 40 Hz, 30 Hz and 20 Hz).

OBSERVATION:
1. Least count of ammeter = _________ A
2. Zero error of ammeter = _________ A.
3. Range of ammeter = _________ A.

24 Physics Lab Manual - XII

 S. No. Frequency of applied voltage Current in ammeter without Current in ammeter with
(Hz) iron road in coil (A) iron rod in coil (A)
1. 60
2. 50
3. 40
4. 30
5. 20

CONCLUSION:
1. As you decrease the frequency of applied voltage the current in the circuit increases vice versa.
Therefore, the brightness of bulb increases.
2. The current in the circuit decrease on inserting the iron rod in the core of coil at constant frequency
of applied voltage and brightness of bulb decreases and vice-versa.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The coil should have large number of turns.
2. To avoid the heating effect current should be passed for a small time.
3. There should not be parallax in taking the reading of ammeter.

Project - 10
AIM:
To construct a switch using a transistor and to draw the graph between the input and output voltages and
mark the cut-off, saturation and active regions.

THEORY:
A transistor is used as an amplifier. The transistor can also be used as a switch in computer circuits. In
computers, fast switches are required for which n-p-n transistors are preferred this is because the charge
carriers are electrons which have a much greater speed for a given voltage than holes. Transistor will conduct
current when the base of the transistor is connected to positive voltage and LED will illuminate and vice versa.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
n-p-n transistor (BC 108, BC 182 or BC 548), two standard 5 mm light emitting diodes (LEDs), a resistor of
10 k, a resistor of 470 , two dc power supplies to provide voltage both for input and output, two one way
keys, connecting wires, two high resistance rheostats, two voltmeters, one milliammeter, one
microammeter and a digital multimeter.

METHOD:
1. First of all take a low power n-p-n transistor (BC 108, BC 182 or BC 548). Identify its three terminals
viz., emitter, base and collector.
2. Take a cardboard and draw the circuit diagram.
3. Now connect the components according to the circuit arrangement shown in figure.

Physics Lab Manual - XII 25

 4. Check the circuit connections properly before its operation.

Figure 10.1: Circuit arrangement for studying the behaviour of a common emitter transistor as a switch

In this circuit resistor RB provides the base current. Resistor R L limits the current and serves as a load for
the collector terminal of the transistor. LED serves as an indicator. Battery is used as power supply.
Transistor is used as a switch. Small base current controls the larger collector current.
When the switch is closed, a small current flows into the base of the transistor which is just enough to make LED
L1 glow dimly. Transistor amplifies this small current and allows a larger current to flow through from its collector
(C) to its emitter (E) which is large enough to make LED L 2 glow brightly. When the switch is opened, no base
current flows so the transistor switches off the collector current hence L1 and L2 are OFF.
When we are using a transistor as a switch, it must be either fully ON or OFF. In the fully ON state, the
voltage across the transistor VCE is almost zero and the transistor is said to be saturated because it cannot
pass any collector current (IC).
Treat VBB as input voltage
i.e., V = VBB = IBRB + VBE
i

I = Vi 0.7V
B
RB
V
I CC
C
sat = RC
dc output voltage, V = VCE = VCC ICRL
o

In the case of Si transistor as long as Vi is less than 0.7 V, the transistor will be in cut off state and current
IC =0
=V =V
Therefore,Vo CE CC

When Vi > 0.7 V, then transistor is in active state with some current I C and the output Vo decreases as the
term ICRL increases, with increase of Vi, IC increases almost linearly and so output voltage V o decreases
linearly till its value becomes less than about 1.0 V. Beyond this the change becomes non-linear and
transistor goes into saturation state. With further increase in input voltage V i, the output voltage Vo is found
to decrease further towards zero, though it may never become zero.

26 Physics Lab Manual - XII

 Figure 10.2: Various operating points within the limits Figure 10.3: Transfer characteristics of a
of operation of a transistor base biased transistor
OBSERVATION:

Specification of the transistor used __________

In the input circuit
1. Range of the voltmeter used = __________ V to __________ V
2. Least count of the voltmeter used = __________ V
3. Range of the microammeter used = __________ A to __________ A
4. Least count of the microammeter used = __________ A
In the output circuit
1. Range of the voltmeter used = __________ V to __________ V
2. Least count of the voltmeter used = __________ V
3. Range of the milliammeter used = __________ mA to __________ mA
4. Least count of the milliammeter used = __________ mA

Table: For Variation in output current IC with output voltage VCE for fixed value of IB
S. No. Output voltage Output current IC(mA) at
V = ___V IB = ___ A IB = ___ A IB = ___ A IB = ___ A IB = ___ A IB = ___ A
CE

1.
2.
3.
4.
Take VCE along x-axis and IC along y-axis and using the reading from the table plot the graph between output
voltage (Vo) and output current (IC) for fixed value of (IB), you can also plot graph between V i and Vo by taking
input voltage along x-axis and output voltage along y-axis and mark the cut off, active and saturation regions.

CONCLUSION:
Transistor works as a switch.

Physics Lab Manual - XII 27

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Check the circuit and various components connected to it carefully.
2. To avoid dry solder joints solder the components used in the circuit carefully.

Project - 11
AIM:
To study the earths magnetic field using a tangent galvanometer.

THEORY:
A tangent galvanometer works on the basis of the tangent law. When a magnet is suspended freely in two
mutually perpendicular uniform magnetic field F and H, the magnet comes to rest making an angle 9 with
the direction H in such a manner that
F = H tan ... (1)

Let current I be passed through the coil of radius R, having turns N. In that case, the magnetic field
produced at the centre of coil is
F = 0 2 IN ... (2)
4 R
Let be is the horizontal component of earths magnetic field and the magnetic needle comes to rest at angle
with the direction of H, then according Eq. (1) is
H tan = 0 2 IN
4 R
7 2 IN 0 7
H tan = 10 = 10
R 4
7
H = 2 10 IN
R tan

By substituting the value of current I, from eq. (3)

28 Physics Lab Manual - XII

 Figure 11.2: Tangent galvanometer

Figure 11.3: Circuit diagram

tan 2 N
= 0

I 4 RH
radius of coil of galvanometer R, deflection and N, the value of H can be calculated.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
A battery or battery eliminator (0 to 6 V), a tangent galvanometer, metre scale, reversing key, an ordinary
key, an ammeter (0-3 A) range, connecting wires, a rheostat (20 2 or 50 ) spirit level.

METHOD:
1. Connect all the components of the circuit according to the circuit diagram.
2. Using the spirit level, level the base and the compass needle in compass box of tangent
galvanometer by adjusting the levelling screw.
3. Rotate the coil of the galvanometer about its vertical axis, till the magnetic needle, its image in the

Physics Lab Manual - XII 29

 plane mirror fixed at the base of the compass box and the coil, lie in the same vertical plane. In this
setting, the ends of the aluminium pointer should read zero-zero. If this is not so, rotate the box without
disturbing the position of the coil till at least one of the ends of the pointer stands at the zero marks.
4. Close the key K to stop the current flow in the galvanometer. Read the both ends of pointer. Now
reverse the direction of current by using the reversing key. When the mean values of deflections
shown by pointer in the two cases (i.e. before and after reversing the current) differ by more than 1,
then turn slightly the vertical coil untill the two values agree. This will set the plane of the coil exactly
in the magnetic meridian.
5. Adjust the rheostat to bring the deflection in galvanometer around 45. The deflection should not be
outside the range (30-60).
6. Note the reading of the ammeter and the deflection of the compass needle in the box shown by two
ends of pointer on the scale.
7. Now reverse the current in the coil of galvanometer and again measure the current and deflection of
needle.
8. To change the value of current to take four more sets of readings and plot the graph between I and
tan . The graph will be a straight line.
9. Find the inner and outer diameter of the coil with a half metre scale at least three times.

OBSERVATION:
1. Range of ammeter = __________
2. Least count of ammeter = __________
3. Zero error in ammeter = __________
4. Number of turns used (N) = __________
Table: For variation of with I.
Value of deflection, (degree) Ammeter reading (A)
S. No. For direct current For reverse current Mean tan

1 2 3 4 Obs Corrected
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Table: For radius of tangent galvanometer

S. No. Inner diameter d1 (cm) Outer diameter d2 Mean diameter d Mean radius
(cm)
1.
2.
3.

Mean radius of coil R = ______ cm.

From the graph,

30 Physics Lab Manual - XII

Slope of straight line = BC
AC
m = tan
I

Now substitute the m in Eq. (4)

m = tan = 0 2 N
I 4 RH
Then, H = _______ Gauss.

CONCLUSION:
The value of earth magnetic field by using a tangent galvanometer
is H = ________ G = ________ T

PRECAUTIONS :
1. There should be no parallax in noting down the readings of ammeter and deflection.
2. Adjust the readings between 30 and 60.
3. Use freshly charged battery.
4. The magnetic needle should swing freely in the horizontal plane.
5. The plane of coil must be set in magnetic meridian.

Physics Lab Manual - XII 31