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Chapter4:MaterialTesting
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Chapter4:MaterialTesting
1.1.CHAPTER4MaterialsTesting
2.2.MaterialsTestingMechanicalpropertiesareobtainedbymechanicaltesting.Mechanical
testingisusedfordevelopingdesigndata,maintainingqualitycontrol,assistinginalloy
developmentprogramsandprovidingdatainfailureanalysis.
3.3. Mechanicaltestingisusuallydestructiveandrequirestestspecimensofthematerialtobe
machinedorcuttothespecificshaperequiredbythetestmethod.cont,.
4.4. Describematerialwhenaforceisappliedtoit. Determinedthroughtesting,usually
involvingdestructionofmaterial. Extremelyimportanttoconsiderindesign.Mechanical
fordevelopingde...
Properties
5.5.a)Ductilityb)Toughnessc)Brittlenessd)Hardnesse)Plasticityf)Elasticityg)StrengthTypes
ofmechanicalproperties
6.6. Ductilityisasolidmaterial'sabilitytodeformundertensilestressthisisoftencharacterized
bythematerial'sabilitytobestretchedintoawire.Ductility
7.7.TensiletestofanAlMgSialloyThelocalneckingandthecupandconefracturesurfacesare
typicalforductilemetals.
8.8.Schematicappearanceofroundmetalbarsaftertensiletesting.a)Brittlefractureb)Ductile
fracturec)Completelyductilefracture
9.9.ToughnessToughnessistheabilityofamaterialtoabsorbenergyandplasticallydeform
withoutfracturingMaterialtoughnessisdefinedastheamountofenergypervolumethata
materialcanabsorbbeforerupturing.Itisalsodefinedastheresistancetofractureofamaterial
whenstressed.Toughnessrequiresabalanceofstrengthandductility.
10.10. Amaterialisbrittleif,whensubjectedtostress,itbreakswithoutsignificantdeformation
(strain). Brittlematerialsabsorbrelativelylittleenergypriortofracture,eventhoseofhigh
strength. Breakingisoftenaccompaniedbyasnappingsound.Brittlematerialsincludemost
ceramicsandglasses(whichdonotdeformplastically)andsomepolymers,suchasPMMAand
polystyrene. Manysteelsbecomebrittleatlowtemperatures(seeductilebrittletransition
temperature),dependingontheircompositionandprocessing.Brittleness
11.11.Brittlefractureincastirontensiletestpieces
12.12.Graphcomparingstressstraincurvesforductileandbrittlematerials.
13.13. Hardnessisthedegreeofresistancetoindentation,penetration,abrasionandwear.
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5/20/2016 Chapter4:MaterialTesting

Indentationhardnessmeasurestheresistanceofasampletopermanentplasticdeformationduetoa
constantcompressionloadfromasharpobjecttheyareprimarilyusedinengineeringand
metallurgyfields.Thetestsworkonthebasicpremiseofmeasuringthecriticaldimensionsofan
indentationleftbyaspecificallydimensionedandloadedindenter. Commonindentation
hardnessscalesareRockwell,Vickers,Shore,andBrinell.Hardness
14.14. Plasticityisthepropensityofamaterialtoundergopermanentdeformationunderload.
Plasticity
15.15. Elasticity(orstretchiness)isthephysicalpropertyofamaterialthatreturnstoitsoriginal
shapeafterthestress(e.g.externalforces)thatmadeitdeformordistortisremoved.Therelative
amountofdeformationiscalledthestrain.Elasticity
16.16. Strengthistheabilityofamaterialtowithstandvariousloadstowhichitissubjectedduring
atestorservice.Strength
17.17. 2typesofmaterialstesting:a)Destructivetestresultsinthepartbeingdestroyedduringthe
qualitycontroltestingprogram.b)Nondestructivetestisdoneinsuchamannerthatthe
usefulnessoftheproductorpartisnotdamagedordestroyed.MaterialsTesting
18.18. Nondestructiveinspectiontechniquesenableinspectorstocheckpropertiescriticaltothe
Mechanicaltestingisusuallydestructiveandrequirestestspecimensofthematerialtobemachinedor
safeperformanceofmetalpartswithoutcausingdamagetothepartsthemselves. Thistestis
concernedwithtestingforcracksandflawsNonDestructiveTest
19.19.a)Dyepenentranttestb)Radiographictestc)Magneticparticletestd)UltrasonictestTypesof
nondestructivetest
20.20. Itiseasytouseandeconomical.1)Thespecimeniscoatedwitharedliquiddyewhich
soaksintothesurfacecrackorflaw.2)Theliquidisthenwashedoffandthepartdried.3)A
developerisdustedorsprayedonthepart.4)Flawsandcracksshowupredagainstthewhite
backgroundofthedeveloper.DyePenentrantTest
21.21.Cracksinaweld
22.22. Thistestinvolvespassinggammarays(Xrays)throughapartandontosensitivefilmto
detectflawsinthemetal. Thedevelopedfilmhasanimageoftheinternalstructureofthepart.
Adefectwillshowuponthefilmasadarkarea. Xraysareverysensitiveandarecapableof
inspectionanythicknessofalmostanykindofmaterials.Radiographictest
23.23. Thistestisusedtodetectflawsonornearthesurfaceofironbasedmetals.1)Thepartis
firstmagnetized.2)Itistheneitherdustedwithfineironpowderorcoatedwithasolutioninwhich
ironparticlesaresuspended.3)Flawsintheworkpiececausethelinesofmagneticforcetobecome
distortedandbreakthroughthesurface.4)Theretheyattractconcentrationsoftheironparticles,
whichrevealdefectsinthemetal.Magneticparticletest
24.24. Thelimitationsofthistechniqueareapparentwhentheflawisparalleltothelinesof
magneticforce. Theflawwillnotinterrupttheforceandnoindicationofitwillappearwhen
magneticparticlesareapplied.Cont.
25.25.Concentrationoftheironparticleshowsdefectinthemetal
26.26. Thistestuseultasonicsoundwavestodetectcracksandflawsinalmostanymaterialthat
canconductsound. Soundwavescanalsobeusedtomeasurethethicknessfromonesideofthe
material.Ultrasonictest
27.27. Thehumanearcanhearsoundwaveswithfrequenciesrangingfrom20to20,000Hertz.
cuttothespeci...
Soundwavesthatvibratewithafrequencygreaterthan20,000Hzareinaudibleandarecalled
ultrasonic.Cont.
28.28. Thesehighfrequencysoundwavesareproducedbyapiezoelectrictransducer. The
transduceriselectricallypulsedandthenvibratesatitsownnaturalfrequency.1)Inorderto
operate,thetransducermustbejoinedtothepiecebeingtestedbyaliquidcouplingsuchasafilm
ofoil,glycerinorwater.Cont.
29.29.2)Thehighfrequencysoundwavesaretransmittedthroughthematerial.3)Theflawsreflect
thesoundwavesandaredetectedonanoscilloscope.Thereisnosizelimitationonworkthatcan

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betestedbyultrasonictest.Cont.
30.30.UltrasonicTest
31.31.DESTRUCTIVETEST
32.32.Destructivetestingisacostlyandtimeconsumingtechnique.Aspecimenisselectedat
randomfromalargenumberofpieces.Twotypesofdestructivetest:a)Hardnesstestb)Impact
testDestructiveTesting
33.33.2typesofimpacttest:a)Charpyimpacttestb)IzodimpacttestImpactTest
34.34.TheCharpyspecimenhasasquarecrosssection(10mmx10mm)andcontainsa45 CV
notch,2mmdeepwitha0.25mmrootradius.CharpyImpactTest
35.35.Thespecimenissupportedasabeaminahorizontalpositionandloadedbehindthenotchby
theimpactofaheavyswingingpendulum.Thespecimenisforcedtobendandfractureatahigh
strainrateoftheorder103s1.
36.36.MethodofloadinginCharpyandIzodtests.
37.37. ImpactTestingEquipment IzodandCharpyarethemostcommontests. Bothemploya
swingingpendulumandconductedonsmallnotchedspecimens.Thenotchconcentratedtheloadat
apointcausingfailure.Otherwisewithoutthenotchthespecimenwillplasticallydeform
throughout. Theyaredifferentinthedesignofthetestspecimenandthevelocityatwhichthe
pendulumstrikesthespecimen. Charpy:thespecimenissupportedasasinglebeamandheld
horizontally.Impactedatthebackfaceofthespecimen. Izod:thespecimenissupportedasa
cantileverandhelpvertically.Impactedatfrontfaceofthespecimen.Equipment
38.38. Theenergyabsorbedinfracturingthespecimen. Afterbreakingthetestbar,thependulum
reboundstoaheightwhichdecreasesastheenergyabsorbedinfractureincreases. Theenergy
absorbedinfracture,usuallyexpressedinjoules,isrendingdirectlyfromacalibrateddialonthe
impacttester.Theprincipalmeasurement
39.39.Indentationhardnessmeasurestheresistanceofasampletopermanentplasticdeformation
duetoaconstantcompressionloadfromasharpobject.4typesofhardnesstest:a)Rockwellb)
Brinellc)Vickersd)ShoreHardnessTest
40.40. TheRockwellhardnesstesterfunctionsaccordingtothedepthofpenetrationmadeinmetal
byaspecifickindofpenetratorpointforcedbyagivenload.RockwellHardnessTest
41.41.VariousRockwellScales
42.42. ThedeterminationoftheRockwellhardnessofamaterialinvolvestheapplicationofaminor
Describematerialwhenaforceisappliedtoit. Determinedthroughtesting,usuallyinvolving
loadfollowedbyamajorload,andthennotingthedepthofpenetration. Thehardnessvalue
directlytakenfromadial,inwhichahardermaterialgivesahighernumber.Operation
43.43.RockwellHardnessTester
44.44. TheRockwellhardnesstestusestwoloadsthatareappliedsequentially. Aminorloadof
10kgisappliedthathelpsseattheindenterandremovetheeffectofsurfaceirregularities. A
majorloadwhichvariesfrom60kgto150kgisthenapplied. Thedifferenceindepthof
indentationbetweenthemajorandminorloadsprovidestheRockwellhardnessnumber. This
numberistakendirectlyfromthedialonthemachine.Cont.
45.45. Togetareliablereadingthethicknessofthetestpieceshouldbeatleast10timesthedepth
oftheindentation. ThesuperficialRockwellscalesuselowerloadsandshallowerimpressions
onbrittleandverythinmaterials.Cont.
46.46. 1)itsabilitytodisplayhardnessvaluesdirectly,thusobviatingtediouscalculationsinvolved
inotherhardnessmeasurementtechniques. 2)typicallyusedinengineeringandmetallurgy
becauseofitsspeed,reliability,robustness,resolutionandsmallareaofindentation.Advantages
47.47. Brinellhardnesstestuseamachinetopressa10mmdiameter,hardenedsteelballintothe
surfaceofthetestspecimen. Thismachineappliesaloadforaspecificperiodoftimeandcauses
anindentationthatisusedtocalculatehardness.BrinellHardnessTester
48.48.Cont.
49.49. Theloadappliedtothesteelballdependsonthetypeofmetalundertest. Theloadis

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5/20/2016 Chapter4:MaterialTesting

usuallyappliedfor10to15seconds. Thediameteroftheindentationismeasuredto0.5mm
usingalowmagnificationportablemicroscope.Cont.
50.50.TheBrinellhardnessnumberisfoundbymeasuringthediameteroftheindentationandthen
findingthehardnessnumberonacalibratedchart.
51.51. TheVickershardnesstestissimilarinprincipletotheBrinellhardnesstest. Themajor
differenceisthattheindenterintheVickershardnesstestisa136 squarebasediamondcone.
destructionofmaterial...
Theloadvariesfrom1kgto120kg.VickersHardnessTester
52.52. Thespecimenisplacedonananvilandraisedbyascrewuntilitisclosetothepointofthe
indenter. Thestartingleveristripped,allowingtheloadtobeslowlyappliedtotheindenter.
Theloadisreleased,theanvilloweredandafilarmicroscopeisswungovertomeasurethe
diagonalsofthesquareindentationto0.001mm. Diagonalmeasurementsareaveragedandthe
VickershardnessnumberisfollowedbythelettersHV.Procedure
53.53. Extremelyaccuratereadingscanbetaken. onetypeofindentercoversalltypesofmetals
andsurfacetreatment.Advantages
54.54. Aninstrumentthatusesatestspecimenthatisfreelysupportedhorizontallyandaglasstube
thatcontainsadiamondtippedhammerpositionedverticallyoverthespecimen. Thehammeris
allowedtofallfromasetheightandtheheightofreboundismeasured. Thetestshowsthatthe
highertherebound,theharderthespecimen.ShoreScleroscopeHardnessTester
55.55.ShoreScleroscope

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Schematicappearanceofroundmetalbarsaftertensiletesting.a)Brittlefractureb)Ductilefracturec)

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5/20/2016 Chapter4:MaterialTesting

Completelyduct...

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ToughnessToughnessistheabilityofamaterialtoabsorbenergyandplasticallydeformwithout

fracturingMaterialto...

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Amaterialisbrittleif,whensubjectedtostress,itbreakswithoutsignificantdeformation(strain).

Brittlemateri...

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5/20/2016 Chapter4:MaterialTesting

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Brittlefractureincastirontensiletestpieces

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Graphcomparingstressstraincurvesforductileandbrittlematerials.

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5/20/2016 Chapter4:MaterialTesting

Hardnessisthedegreeofresistancetoindentation,penetration,abrasionandwear. Indentation

hardnessmeasuresthe...

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5/20/2016 Chapter4:MaterialTesting

Plasticityisthepropensityofamaterialtoundergopermanentdeformationunderload.Plasticity

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Elasticity(orstretchiness)isthephysicalpropertyofamaterialthatreturnstoitsoriginalshapeafter

thestress...

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Strengthistheabilityofamaterialtowithstandvariousloadstowhichitissubjectedduringatestor

service.Stre...

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2typesofmaterialstesting:a)Destructivetestresultsinthepartbeingdestroyedduringthequality

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controltestin...

Nondestructiveinspectiontechniquesenableinspectorstocheckpropertiescriticaltothesafe

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performanceofmetalpa...

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a)Dyepenentranttestb)Radiographictestc)Magneticparticletestd)UltrasonictestTypesofnon

destructivetest

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Itiseasytouseandeconomical.1)Thespecimeniscoatedwitharedliquiddyewhichsoaksintothe

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5/20/2016 Chapter4:MaterialTesting

surfacecrackor...

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5/20/2016 Chapter4:MaterialTesting

Cracksinaweld

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5/20/2016 Chapter4:MaterialTesting

Thistestinvolvespassinggammarays(Xrays)throughapartandontosensitivefilmtodetectflaws

inthemetal. Th...

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Thistestisusedtodetectflawsonornearthesurfaceofironbasedmetals.1)Thepartisfirst

magnetized.2)Itis...

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Thelimitationsofthistechniqueareapparentwhentheflawisparalleltothelinesofmagneticforce.

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Theflawwill...

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Concentrationoftheironparticleshowsdefectinthemetal

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Thistestuseultasonicsoundwavestodetectcracksandflawsinalmostanymaterialthatcanconduct

sound. Soundwa...

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Thehumanearcanhearsoundwaveswithfrequenciesrangingfrom20to20,000Hertz. Sound

wavesthatvibratewithaf...

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Thesehighfrequencysoundwavesareproducedbyapiezoelectrictransducer. Thetransduceris

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electricallypulsedand...

2)Thehighfrequencysoundwavesaretransmittedthroughthematerial.3)Theflawsreflectthesound

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wavesandaredetec...

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UltrasonicTest

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DESTRUCTIVETEST

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Destructivetestingisacostlyandtimeconsumingtechnique.Aspecimenisselectedatrandomfroma

largenumberofpi...

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2typesofimpacttest:a)Charpyimpacttestb)IzodimpacttestImpactTest

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TheCharpyspecimenhasasquarecrosssection(10mmx10mm)andcontainsa45 CVnotch,2mm

deepwitha0.25mmrootra...

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Thespecimenissupportedasabeaminahorizontalpositionandloadedbehindthenotchbytheimpact

ofaheavyswingin...

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5/20/2016 Chapter4:MaterialTesting

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MethodofloadinginCharpyandIzodtests.

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ImpactTestingEquipment IzodandCharpyarethemostcommontests. Bothemployaswinging

pendulumandconductedon...

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Theenergyabsorbedinfracturingthespecimen. Afterbreakingthetestbar,thependulumrebounds

toaheightwhichd...

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Indentationhardnessmeasurestheresistanceofasampletopermanentplasticdeformationduetoa

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constantcompression...

TheRockwellhardnesstesterfunctionsaccordingtothedepthofpenetrationmadeinmetalbya

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specifickindofpenetra...

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VariousRockwellScales

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ThedeterminationoftheRockwellhardnessofamaterialinvolvestheapplicationofaminorload

followedbyamajorlo...

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RockwellHardnessTester

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TheRockwellhardnesstestusestwoloadsthatareappliedsequentially. Aminorloadof10kgis

appliedthathelpss...

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Togetareliablereadingthethicknessofthetestpieceshouldbeatleast10timesthedepthofthe

indentation. Th...

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1)itsabilitytodisplayhardnessvaluesdirectly,thusobviatingtediouscalculationsinvolvedinother

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hardnessmeasu...

Brinellhardnesstestuseamachinetopressa10mmdiameter,hardenedsteelballintothesurfaceof

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thetestspecimen...

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Cont.

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Theloadappliedtothesteelballdependsonthetypeofmetalundertest. Theloadisusually

appliedfor10to15s...

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TheBrinellhardnessnumberisfoundbymeasuringthediameteroftheindentationandthenfindingthe

hardnessnumberon...

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