Preface
Sweden and other Nordic countries have ambitious renewable energy source
(RES) integration target. This will represent a significant share of wind power
in the future generation mix of Nordic countries.
From a power system point of view, total understanding of technical impacts
of this new generation source on the existing power system is vital to ensure
a secure and reliable operation of the power system. In a higher wind power
penetration scenario, wind power plants will need to contribute to system
voltage and frequency control support, which is quite obvious and logical.
In order to identify the possible impact of large scale wind power integration
and to recommend on possible approaches to manage the impact the project
described in this report was carried out with the research program Vindforsk
III as project V-369 PosStaWind.
The project consists of three parts focusing on different aspects of impact of
wind power on the angular, frequency and voltage stability of a power
system.
This report consist the report for part 2 of the project. A summary report for
all three parts of the project is available as in Elforsk report 13:04.
The project is financed by Vindforsk III with substantial initial funding from
the power system operators in Finland, Norway and Sweden, Fingrid, Statnett
and Swedish National Grid.
Vindforsk-III is funded by ABB, Arise windpower, AQ System, E.ON Elnt,
E.ON Vind Sverige, Energi Norge, Falkenberg Energi, Fortum, Fred. Olsen
Renewables, Gothia Vind, Gteborg Energi, HS Kraft, Jmtkraft, Karlstads
Energi, Lule Energi, Mlarenergi, o2 Vindkompaniet, Rabbalshede Kraft,
Skellefte Kraft, Statkraft, Sena Renewable, Svenska kraftnt, Tekniska
Verken i Linkping, Triventus, Wallenstam, Varberg Energi, Vattenfall
Vindkraft, Vestas Northern Europe, resundskraft and the Swedish Energy
Agency.
The work has been carried out by STRI with Nayeem Ullah and later with
Seon Gu Kim as a project leader. Several people at STRI have contributed to
the work.
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Comments on the work and the final report have been given by a reference
group with the following members:
Tuomas Rauhala, Fingrid
Nikkil Antti-Juhani Fingrid
Terje Gjengedal, Statnett
Katherine Elkington, Svenska Kraftnt (National Swedish Grid)
Johan G. Persson, E.ON
Staffan Mared, Vattenfall
Kjell Gustafsson, Statkraft
Anders Bjrck
Programme manager Vindforsk-III
Electricity and heat production, Elforsk AB
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Sammanfattning
Med kande mngd av ansluten vindkraft i kraftsystemet, kommer mngden
av konventionellt anslutna enheter (i Sverige frmst vatten- och krnkraft) att
minska under perioder av hg vindkraftsproduktion. Genom att koppla bort
dessa konventionella enheter frlorar systemet ocks deras bidrag till
stabiliteten i systemet. Studien har analyserat vilken effekt vindkrafts-
produktion har p frekvensstabiliteten i kraftsystemet, srskilt genom sitt
bidrag eller brist p bidrag till trghetsmomentet i systemet.
Denna rapport visar att vindkraftsparker med DFIG-motorer (enligt GE-
modellen i PSSE) eller med fulleffektomvandlare, inte bidrar till det totala
trghetsmomentet i systemet. Resultatet av att erstta konventionella
produktionsenheter med vindkraftsparker r med andra ord en reduktion av
kraftsystemets totala trghetsmoment och detta frsmrar drmed
mjligheten fr systemet att upprtthlla ntfrekvensen.
Att installera vindkraftverk med syntetisk trghet r ett stt att frhindra
denna frsmring. Ett antal studiefall har genomfrts fr att analysera hur
syntetisk trghet pverkar frekvensen i systemet efter frlusten av en stor
produktionsenhet. Simuleringar har utfrts i en modell av det nordiska
kraftsystemet (utkat Nordic-32).
Effekterna av den syntetiska trgheten som funktion av frlust av produktion
(i procent av den totala produktionen) sammanfattas i tabellen nedan.
Summary
With increasing amounts of wind power connected to the power system, the
amount of conventional units connected will reduce during periods of high
wind-power production. By removing conventional units (in Sweden especially
hydro and nuclear) the system also loses their contribution to the stability of
the system. In this study we consider the impact of wind power on frequency
stability, especially through their contribution or lack of contribution to the
moment of inertia of the system.
It is shown in this report that wind farms with DFIG machines, according to
the GE model in PSSE, do not contribute to the total moment of inertia in the
system. Also it is known that turbines with full-power converter do not
contribute to the system inertia. As a result of this, replacing conventional
production units with wind farms results in a reduction of the total moment of
inertia and thus in a deterioration of the frequency quality.
Installing wind turbines with synthetic inertia is a way of preventing this
deterioration. A number of studies have been performed to study the way in
which synthetic inertia impacts the frequency excursion after the loss of a
large production unit. Simulations have been performed of an augmented
Nordic-32 model of the Nordic power system.
The impact of synthetic inertia, as a function of the loss of production (in
percent of the total production) is shown in the table below. Synthetic inertia
(WI) can support the frequency in the first few seconds after a loss of
production.
Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background ...................................................................................... 1
1.2 Frequency regulation ......................................................................... 1
1.3 Outline of the report .......................................................................... 2
3 Literature search 8
5 Test network 18
5.1 Nordic-32 power system .................................................................. 18
5.2 Description of Case 1 ....................................................................... 26
5.3 Description of Case 2 ....................................................................... 30
6 Simulation results 32
6.1 Presumptions ................................................................................. 32
6.2 Contribution of wind turbines to moment of inertia .............................. 32
6.3 Synthetic inertia ............................................................................. 34
6.3.1 Case 1 4% loss of production ............................................. 34
6.3.2 Case 1 12% loss of production ........................................... 35
6.3.3 Case 1 16% loss of production ........................................... 36
6.3.4 Comparison ........................................................................ 37
6.3.5 Speed and power production of the wind turbines .................... 37
6.3.6 Case 2 Loss of three unit ................................................... 39
6.4 Optimal tuning of parameters in Wind Inertia module .......................... 41
7 Conclusion 44
7.1 Findings ......................................................................................... 44
7.2 Future work.................................................................................... 45
8 References 46
1 Introduction
1.1 Background
Elforsk is administrating a four year wind energy research program Vindforsk
III. The program will be finished by the end of 2012. An evaluation will be
done as a part of the program [1].
The integration of large wind power plants into existing network and its
impacts on power systems stability issues is one of the main concerns for
Vindforsk III program and therefore with increasing the percentage of power
generation from wind farms the importance of analyzing some aspects such
as security and reliability of the power system cannot be ignored. The ability
of wind turbines to support power system for voltage and frequency stability
is one of the vital issues in some countries in such a way they have started to
establish some new grid codes with more demanding requirements on wind
power plants.
The aim of the study presented in this report is to find out the impact of wind
power integration on the system frequency stability. The study has focussed
on large unbalance between production and consumption, typically due to the
loss of a large production unit.
1
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inherently provided that some extra measures are considered. This report
deals with how it has been carried in a model presented by GE through the
so-called synthetic inertia support. The report also provides the optimum
control parameters data for tuning the synthetic inertia controller.
2
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= (2.1)
Where J is the total moment of inertia of all rotating mass connected to the
power system, i.e. all electrical motors and all generators. Any unbalance
between production and consumption results in a change in the kinetic energy
of the rotating mass and thus in a change in frequency.
The relation between power unbalance and change in frequency is typically
written in the following form [8]:
= (2.2)
!
3
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$%& = (2.3)
(
' *+, )
#= )
(2.4)
-./
4
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machine. Although they have large amount of kinetic energy, such wind
turbines do not contribute to the system inertia. In a system with large
amounts of wind power, during periods of high wind, the conventional
synchronous generators are replaced with these types of wind turbines and as
result the total system inertia will be reduced.
Double-fed induction generators are partly connected to the grid through a
power-electronic converter and partly directly connected. Their contribution to
the system inertia is not immediately clear. We will see later, in Section 6.2,
that the contribution from a DFIG is small and can be neglected.
The ratio between the kinetic energy of the rotating mass and the rated
power of a generator, the so-called inertia constant, symbol H, is of the same
order of magnitude for conventional production units. This is illustrated in
Figure 2.1. With some exceptions, the inertia constant is between 2 and 6 s.
Figure 2.1 Inertia constant of hydro units (stars) and steam units (circles)
over a range of rated power, from different sources [8, Figure 8.25].
To quantify the impact of wind power on the system inertia, assume that all
conventional production units have the same inertia constant Hconv and that
the contribution from wind power to the system inertia is zero. We further
neglect the contribution from load to the system inertia. In terms of (2.2) this
translates as:
Where " 0 is the rated power of all the conventional production remaining
connected to the grid after the loss of the large production unit.
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Before the loss of the large production unit, the production is equal to the
consumption:
= = 2& + 0 + (2.6)
In the above equation, 2& is the contribution from wind power, 0 is the
contribution from conventional production units after the loss of the large
production unit, and is the loss of production. The latter is also the
unbalance between production and consumption immediately after the loss of
the large production unit.
Combining (2.5) and (2.6) with (2.2) gives the following expression for the
initial rate-of-change-of-frequency (ROCOF) after the loss of a large
production unit.
5 7
= (2.7)
! 6 6
The first factor on the right-hand side is constant; the ROCOF is thus
proportional to the ratio between the amount of production being lost and the
total installed capacity of conventional generation.
The dimensioning event for frequency stability is the loss of the largest
production unit. The worst-case situation, fastest decrease in frequency,
occurs for the smallest amount of conventional production in operation. This is
when the consumption is small, there is high amount of production from wind
power, and export is small or import is large.
The good news is that this combination has a low probability of occurring.
Wind-power production is highest during the autumn and winter months,
whereas consumption is lowest during summer. High wind-power production
in combination with low consumption will also result in low electricity price,
which normally results in export.
However, situations with low amount of conventional production will occur
more often in a system with large amounts of wind power. Measures are
therefore needed to prevent too fast decrease in frequency upon the loss of a
large production unit. Several such measures have been discussed in the
literature (see e.g. [8] for an overview). One such measure, equipping wind
turbines with synthetic inertia, is introduced in the next section and the main
subject of the remainder of this report.
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would have inertia just like conventional units; hence the term synthetic
inertia.
The use of synthetic inertia is being discussed by several transmission-system
operators. For example, the grid code in Great Britain requires wind parks to
participate in frequency support and a study by the British TSO, National Grid,
regarding synthetic inertia has come to the conclusion that a power increase
of 5 to 10% during a grid frequency deviation of 0.8 Hz in approximately 8
seconds would be enough [20, 21, 22].
The use of synthetic inertia is also being discussed as part of the ENTSO-E
requirements for the connection of generators [4].
For any rotational mass, power equals to rotational speed multiplied by
torque:
= 8. (2.8)
If the electrical torque is artificially increased the power will also be increased,
the turbine blades slow down and kinetic energy stored in the blades and
rotor is extracted. The additional torque, or power, is demanded by a
controller based on the measured frequency in the grid.
However, the normal controller of a wind turbine when detecting this
reduction in rotational speed will reduce the torque (and thus the power flow
into the grid) in order to recover rotational speed. This is exactly opposite of
what is needed.
Therefore, an artificial or synthetic extra power, depending on the frequency
deviation magnitude, is added to the set point power value. It should be only
active for certain frequency excursion values due to large active power loss
which is determined by dead-band setting. The maximum additional power
should be limited to a value of 5 to 10% in order to avoid unrealistic power
demands.
7
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3 Literature search
8
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9
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It is assumed all the wind turbines in the network are from the doubly fed
induction generator (DFIG) type. A simple layout of this type of wind turbine
is shown in Figure 4.1.
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Table 4.1 Induction Generator and unit Tr. Data for GE 3.6 MW Wind Turbine
Doubly Fed Induction Generator Rating 4.0 MVA
Pmax 3.6 MW
Pmin 0.16 MW
Qmax 2.08 MVar
Qmin -1.55 MVar
Rated voltage, 50Hz 3.3 kV
XSOURCE 0.8 p.u
Unit Transformer Rating 4.0 MVA
Unit Transformer Impedance 7.0%
Unit Transformer X/R ratio 7.5
Unit Tr. Ratio 3.3/33 kV
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Figure 4.2 Load flow result for wind farm at buses 9113 and 9052
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Figure 4.3 The GE DFIG Block diagram control Model Block Diagram
The turbine model represents the relevant controls and mechanical dynamics
of the wind turbine. The block diagram of the model is shown in Figure 4.4.
In the block diagram the following sub-modules can be recognized:
1. The turbine control model including torque control, pitch control and
pitch compensation models
2. Rotor mechanical model
3. The wind power model
4. Active power control emulator (APC)
5. WindINERTIA model
Among the sub control models the two controller blocks of APC and
WindINERTIA are optional and can be either activated or disabled through
setting certain flag/parameters to zero or a non-zero value. The central part
of the WT model including pitch control and pitch compensation modules is
the model of the turbine controls. When the wind speed is lower than rated,
the pitch control module adjusts the blade angle in order to maximize the
extracted mechanical power. When the wind speed is higher than rated value,
and for the purpose of protecting equipment, the blades are pitched to limit
the mechanical power delivered to the shaft.
13
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The Active Power Control (APC) is optional however with increasing the
penetration of wind farms to the network it become required by some grid
codes. The model of the APC is shown in Figure 4.5. The main objectives of
the APC are to:
Apply a maximum wind plant output
Provide a specific margin by generating less power than is available
from wind
Enforce a plant power ramp rate limit
Respond to abnormal system frequency excursions
14
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By default, the APC is disabled. When the APC is activated, the actual power
provided by a wind power plant is less than the maximum available power
from wind and there is a margin. This margin is in the range of 5% so the
actual power generated is 95% of the available power. When there is a
frequency drop and by activating the APC module more power will be
requested.
In the model dbwi is a block to specify the threshold or dead band value and
determine for how much deviation in frequency the controller should start to
respond. Tlpwi is the time constant for filter, Kwi is the gain value and Twowi is
the time constant for wash-out filter component.
A washout filter (also sometimes called a washout circuit) is a high pass filter
that washes out (rejects) steady state inputs, while passing transient inputs.
The main benefit of using washout filters is that all the equilibrium points of
15
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the open-loop system are preserved (i.e., their location isnt changed). In
addition, washout filters facilitate automatic following of a targeted operating
point, which results in vanishing control energy once stabilization is achieved
and steady state is reached.
The output from WI module, Pwi, is the additional active power which is
extracted from turbine following a decline in the frequency. The dynamic
characteristic of the network has impact on the following issues when there is
a decline in frequency resulting from power generation loss:
16
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The regulation and general advice for the manual and automatic load
shedding in case of a frequency decline for Swedish power system is specified
by the Swedish power network (SvK) and it was finalized in December, 11th,
2001. The SvK prescribes the regulation (1994:1806) for the power
generating plants with an electric power at least 5 MW. The automatic load
shedding requirement is as follows [19]:
The power network that is directly connected to the transmission lines located
south of 61 latitude must be equipped with automatic load shedding (AFK).
Equipment for AFK should be installed in such a degree that disconnection can
be done at least 30 percent of the total current transmission each time
excluding electricity to the electrical installations. The automatic reconnecting
should be avoided.
The reconnection must be done only after receiving approval from Svenska
Kraftnt. The equipment shall be designed such that disconnection takes place
into five equal steps when the frequency is less than the following values:
17
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5 Test network
The objective of this chapter is to set-up test network and to prepare it for
performing simulations.
18
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19
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Hydro units
4021 BUS4021 400.00 1
10 4031 BUS4031 400.00 1 325 -40 175 -40 350
11 4041 BUS4041 400.00 1 0 228 300 -200 300
12 5100 300 1 423 173 9999 -9999 600
13 5300 300 1 651 -9 9999 -9999 916
14 5400 300 1 454 0 9999 -9999 633
15 5500 300 1 237 37 9999 -9999 333
16 5600 300 1 680 219 9999 -9999 950
17 6000 300 1 383 -11 9999 -9999 466
18 6100 300 1 671 343 9999 -9999 966
19 7100 BUS4071 400.00 1 225 50 9999 -9999 333
20 7101 400 1 140 125 9999 -9999 333
21 4042 BUS4042 400.00 1 660 48 350 0 700
22 4047 BUS4047 400.00 1 566 127 300 0 600
23 4047 BUS4047 400.00 2 566 127 300 0 600
24 4051 BUS4051 400.00 1 629 100 350 0 700
25 4051 BUS4051 400.00 2 419 67 350 0 700
26 4062 BUS4062 400.00 1 555 0 300 0 600
Thermal units
20
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21
1
383. 1
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62
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4045
199. 0 196. 4 51. 2
2. 9 637. 2645. 6 540. 3 80. 1 200. 0
1
4051
4043
4011
700. 0
- 54. 8
401. 2
43
900. 0 900. 0
1
51. 7 38. 8 0. 8 80. 0
43
660. 2
1044
1. 0000
1. 0000
97. 7R
145. 4
900. 0
1
0. 0
1
238. 8
65.5
12.4
- 57. 5
129. 7
42
4021
42
4021
1044
400. 0
- 53. 1
126. 7
149. 4 125. 7
1
1045
1. 0000
1. 0000
125. 7
93.2
37. 2 20. 0
- 49. 4
397. 6
- 43. 8
400. 0
458. 5
- 51. 0
130. 0
6. 2 1. 9
20. 0 565. 9
2
- 46. 8
127. 7
129. 6R
65. 6
377. 3 300.
1. 90
4047
1
1
462. 8
565. 9
400kV
70. 0R 80. 0
1
16. 8
4046
129. 6R 75. 7 0. 0
4046
1042
98. 9
- 46. 5
130. 2
200. 0
5
- 44. 3
408. 0
100. 0
1042
1
0. 0
45. 2 700. 0 700. 0
- 53. 2
126. 3
193. 7 249. 6
Fenno- Skan
400kV
47
1. 0000
1. 0000
0. 0
0. 0
47
1
- 49. 0
397. 7
46
8001
46
- 43. 0
400. 0
193. 7
700. 0
8001
7203
0. 7
1
404. 0
200. 0 17. 4
7203
5
7101
7201
7201
22. 9 2. 0
7204
4. 3
7101
153. 6 154. 8
109. 3 108. 7 93. 2 92. 2
7102
222. 1 341. 0
1
15. 6 15. 2
1
50. 0
7102
140. 0 41. 2R 9. 4 7. 2
12. 3
404.33.
15. 4
75. 2
404. 0
0 0
407. 5
6. 4
1
407. 6
154. 2R 4. 6 4. 6 222. 1
1
130kV
74. 9
38. 8 38. 9 2. 4 3. 3 7. 7R
7205
7205
1. 4 9. 2
10. 1
300. 0
24. 7 408. 2
1
0. 6
70. 0
404. 0
- 43. 0
400. 0
1 24. 3 18. 5
12. 1
404. 0
7100 7100
7200
7200
Figure 5.2 Modified Nordic-32 grid including the augmented Norwegian and
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The following dynamic models for thermal and hydro generators, exciters and
stabilizers are used [13].
GENSAL
It represents a salient pole generator and is used for all hydro power
generating units. The block diagram of the generator is shown in
Figure 5.3.
GENROU
It is a cylindrical round rotor type and represents the synchronous
thermal power units. The block diagram is as the same of GENSAL.
SEXS
It represents the excitation dynamic model and is used for all types of
synchronous generators. The control diagram is shown in Figure 5.4.
Figure 5.4 The control diagram for SEXS excitation dynamic model
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SATB2A
It is name for stabilizer which is an ASEA power sensitive stabilizer
model and damps the oscillation in electrical output power.
The dynamic control model for this type of stabilizer is illustrated in
Figure 5.5.
LDFRAL
This model represents the load frequency model and how loads change with
frequency deviation:
= @( )A B = B@( )
@ @
where Po and Qo are the active and reactive powers at the nominal
frequency.
1. Updating the Norwegian part of the grid (7 Generators)
2. Updating the Finnish part of the grid ( 6 Generators)
3. Addition of 3WFs in Finland (960 MW)
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Table 5.3 The wind farms added to the Nordic-32 grid in each Nordic country
Bus Number Pgen[MW] Qgen[MVar] Mbase Total
3012 160 27 184
3022 160 8 184
Norway
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The output powers from the nuclear and hydro generating plants are shown in
Tables 5.4 and 5.5, respectively.
The hydro power plant located at bus 4011 is considered as swing bus and all
thermal power plants and wind farm operate at their rated capacities. In order
to adopt the low hydro operating condition the following units are removed
and a load flow calculation is performed.
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The total active power decreasing from hydro power unites is 1059 MW. The
resulting power generation for the conventional production units is depicted in
Tables 5.6, 5.7 and 5.8.
Table 5.6 Active and reactive power from thermal units in case 1
Thermal Power Plants
Bus Bus Name PGen (MW) QGen (Mvar)
4042 BUS4042 400.00 660 85
4047 BUS4047 400.00 1132 256
4051 BUS4051 400.00 1048 169
4062 BUS4062 400.00 1111 0
4063 BUS4063 400.00 100 30
7201 400 324 21
7203 400 689 62
7204 400 368 163
7205 400 368 44
8002 LIT2 400.00 0 0
8500 400 333 392
1042 BUS1042 130.00 377 71
1043 BUS1043 130.00 189 100
Total from Thermal 6699 1391
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Table 5.7 Active and reactive power from hydro units in case 1
Bus Bus Name PGen (MW) QGen (Mvar)
Hydro Power Plants
1012 BUS1012 130.00 264 96
1013 BUS1013 130.00 198 45
1014 BUS1014 130.00 363 98
1021 BUS1021 130.00 0 0
1022 BUS1022 130.00 132 84
2032 BUS2032 220.00 0 0
4011 BUS4011 400.00 45 225
4012 BUS4012 400.00 530 58
4021 BUS4021 400.00 165 -30
4031 BUS4031 400.00 325 -40
4041 BUS4041 400.00 0 269
5100 300 423 173
5300 300 651 -9
5400 300 454 0
5500 300 237 37
5600 300 680 219
6000 300 383 -11
6100 300 671 343
7100 BUS4071 400.00 225 76
7101 400 0 0
Total from Hydro 5746 1634
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Table 5.8 Active and reactive power from wind farms in case 1
Wind Farms
Bus Bus Name PGen (MW) QGen (Mvar)
3012 FW_2 3.3000 160 27
3022 FW_2 3.3000 160 74
3032 FW_2 3.3000 160 10
3042 FW_2 3.3000 160 10
3052 FW_2 3.3000 160 10
7003 FW_3 3.3000 320 116
7013 FW_3 3.3000 320 87
7023 FW_3 3.3000 320 81
9012 FW_2 3.3000 160 12
9022 FW_2 3.3000 160 6
9032 FW_2 3.3000 160 9
9042 FW_2 3.3000 160 10
9052 FW_2 3.3000 160 8
9062 FW_2 3.3000 160 -4
9073 FW_3 3.3000 160 27
9083 FW_3 3.3000 160 33
9093 FW_3 3.3000 160 67
9103 FW_3 3.3000 160 58
9113 FW_3 3.3000 160 37
9123 FW_3 3.3000 160 59
Total from Wind Farms 3680 736
The amount of wind power as a percentage of the total active power for this
second case is:
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of service. All other units are the same as in case 1. The active power
contribution by wind farms in percentage to the total active power for this
case is:
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6 Simulation results
6.1 Presumptions
A number of presumptions were made during the system studies:
All the wind turbines are DFIG GE 3.6 MW type.
One aggregated wind turbine is used to represent all wind turbines
inside a wind farm.
The wind speed remains constant during simulation.
Wind Inertia module is activated or deactivated for all the wind
turbines simultaneously.
The APC module for wind turbines is not activated and therefore,
the wind farms do not contribute to the frequency support after the
new steady-state is reached.
When replacing production from conventional units by wind power,
the conventional units remain connected to the grid in the model. In
this way the comparison shows the actual impact of the wind
turbines and not the impact of the reduction in total moment or
inertia (and kinetic energy of the rotating mass) due to the
disconnection of the conventional units.
The amount of primary reserve (spinning reserve) is assumed to be
unlimited. This better allows us to study the impact of the synthetic
inertia only.
Tripping of load by the under frequency load shedding and of
distributed generation by the under frequency part of the anti-
islanding detection has not been included in the model. The reason
for this is again to allow the study of the impact of the synthetic
inertia only.
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To illustrate how the introduction of wind power based on DFIGs impacts the
total moment of inertia, the frequency response after the loss of a large
production unit is calculated. A comparison is thereby made for the cases with
and without wind power. The wind turbines are presented as loads with
negative signs for the case without wind farms. This ensures that there are no
other differences in the system, like changes in inertia due to disconnecting of
conventional units or changes in load flow. The contingency triggering the
frequency response is the tripping of the synchronous thermal unit at bus
7203. The frequency excursion is plotted for both cases at bus 4062 and it is
presented in Figures 6.1 and 6.2.
The difference between the two cases is small. Despite the presence of more
production units connected to the system, the frequency excursion only shows
minor difference. The initial rate-of-change of frequency is not observable
different. The nadir of the frequency (the minimum) is only slightly lower for
the system when some wind farms are added to the system.
The conclusion is that wind farms of the kind modelled here (with DFIG
machines) do not contribute to the moment of inertia of the system. When
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replacing conventional units with wind power, the total moment of inertia of
the system will become less and the frequency stability will deteriorate.
5 7
= (6.1)
! 6 6
The initial ROCOF depends on the ratio between the size of the unit that is
lost ( ) and the rated power of all remaining conventional production
connected to the system (" 0 ).
In reality, the size of the largest production unit (the loss of which is the
dimensioning failure for the Nordic grid) will normally not vary. However the
amount of conventional production connected to the grid with show strong
variations through the year. In the existing situation, this is highest during
winter and lowest during summer. In a system with a high percentage of wind
power, low conventional production can occur any time of the year during
periods of high wind-power production.
In the simulations we did not chance the amount of conventional production
connected to the grid. In this case we ensured as much as possible that only
the impact of the synthetic inertia on the frequency response is studied and
not any other differences for instance due to changes in load flow or stability
issues.
The second factor in (6.1) is instead increased by increasing , while keeping
" 0 constant. We will start with a contingency where one unit is tripped,
followed by cases with the loss of three or four units.
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Figure 6.3 Frequency response at bus 4062 with and without synthetic inertia
(WI), case 1, 4% loss of production
The figure shows that the initial decay in frequency is the same in both cases.
When the synthetic inertia becomes active a few seconds after the loss of the
production unit, the drop in frequency is stopped. The minimum frequency is
about 150 mHz higher in the case with synthetic inertia. The presence of
synthetic inertia does however delay the frequency recovery. The new steady-
state frequency of 49.8 Hz is reached about 24 s after the loss of the
production unit in the conventional case and about 16 s later when synthetic
inertia is present.
The total active-power loss is 1980 MW (12% of total) and the resulting
frequency response with and without synthetic inertia is shown in Figure 6.4.
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Figure 6.4 Frequency excursion at bus 4062 for with and without synthetic
inertia (WI), case 1, 12% loss of production
The frequency response is very similar to the one in the first case, with the
exception that the range in frequency variation is larger. Also in this case
does the presence of synthetic inertia raise the minimum frequency but delay
the recovery. The time to recovery is only slightly more than for the loss of
one production unit.
The minimum frequency is raised from 48.45 to 48.75 Hz. As the under-
frequency load shedding starts at 48.8 Hz, it would be activated in both
cases. For this specific contingency the presence of synthetic inertia cannot
prevent the activation of the under-frequency load shedding. There are
however cases possible where the minimum frequency is below 49 Hz.
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Figure 6.5 Frequency excursion at bus 4062 for with and without synthetic
inertia (WI), case 1, 16% loss of production
6.3.4 Comparison
A comparison between the three contingencies studied is made in Table 6.6.
The minimum frequency has been obtained from the data; the time to
recovery has been estimated from the instant at which the frequency versus
time curve becomes flat again.
Table 6.6. Minimum frequency and time to recovery after loss of production,
with and without synthetic inertia (WI)
Loss of production Without WI With WI
Minimum Time to Minimum Time to
frequency recover frequency recover
4.3% 49.30 Hz 23 s 49.45 Hz 38 s
12% 48.45 Hz 26 s 48.75 Hz 42 s
16% 48.25 Hz 26 s 48.55 Hz 43 s
From the results shown in the table it is concluded that the synthetic inertia
can support the frequency in the first few seconds after a loss of production,
but that its support is limited in case of a large loss of production. The results
also show that synthetic inertia delays the recovery in all three cases. The
time to recovery is only lightly dependent on the amount of production lost.
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Figure 6.6 Electric power output from wind farm at bus 7003, case 1, 16%
loss of production
Figure 6.7 Speed of Wind turbine at bus 7003, case 1, 16% loss of production
The synthetic inertia becomes active as soon as the frequency drops below
the threshold value, which is defined in the dead-band block of the controller.
The kinetic energy in the rotating parts of the turbine are extracted and
injected into the system: the power flow into the network is more than 1 p.u
(the pre-event value) as long as the speed decreases. The rotor speed
recovers about 30 s after the loss of production and even shows a small
overshoot. The speed overshoot further slows down the voltage recovery.
The electric power production takes much longer to recover to its pre-event
value.
The electrical output power, rotational speed and power system frequency are
shown in Figure 6.8. From this figure, the different stages in the response can
be recognized. During the first stage the active output power increases and
the rotor slows down. The extracted power is limited to the maximum value of
10-15%. The rate of decrease of the rotor speed becomes less so that less
additional power is injected into the grid. About 15 seconds after the loss of
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production, the rotor reaches its lowest speed. The subsequent recovery
requires additional energy which results in the earlier observed delay of the
frequency recovery.
The frequency recovery period is longer when WI module is activated and this
is due to active power demand by wind turbine to restore its speed to the
initial magnitude.
Figure 6.8 Wind farm electrical output power, rotational speed and grid
frequency, case 1, 16% loss of production
The total power loss is 1980 MW (12% of total production). The frequency
deviation at bus 4062 for both cases when synthetic inertia of wind turbines is
active or disabled is shown in Figure 6.9.
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Figure 6.9 Frequency response at bus 4062 with and without synthetic inertia
(WI), case 2, 12% loss of production
The impact of the synthetic inertia is very similar to case 1 (compare with
Figure 6.4). The two cases are compared in Table 6.7. The frequency drop is
less in case 2 because there is more hydro power (equipped with frequency
control) present. The recovery time is very similar; the differences are likely
due to the inaccuracy of estimating the time of recover from the plots.
Table 6.7. Minimum frequency and time to recovery after 12% loss of
production, with and without synthetic inertia (WI); two operational states.
Operational state Without WI With WI
Minimum Time to Minimum Time to
frequency recover frequency recover
Case 1 48.45 Hz 26 s 48.75 Hz 42 s
Case 2 48.70 Hz 27 s 48.90 Hz 40 s
The power flow from one of the WFs to the grid is presented in Figure 6.10.
The pattern is very similar to the one in Figure 6.6: an initial extra power
injection followed by a long period of reduced injection of power.
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Figure 6.10 Electric power from wind farm at bus 7003, case 2, 12% loss of
production.
The electric output power for one typical hydro power unit is shown in Figure
6.11 for both cases when wind turbine is equipped with and without WI. The
peak value in the electric power output for a hydro power unit is higher when
wind turbines have WI capability. This means that the demand of primary
reserve (spinning reserve) is higher when synthetic inertia is present. The
recovery peak to reaccelerate the wind turbines has to be provided by the
conventional generators equipped with frequency control.
Figure 6.11 Electric power for hydro power generator at bus 5600, case 2,
12% loss of production.
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that the adjustable parameters are: dead band, gain and wash-out filter time
constant. In order to get the best value for each of the parameters,
simulations with different values of one parameter have been performed while
other parameters were kept constant.
The criterion for selecting the most optimized value for a parameter is to
obtain best frequency support from both rate of change and deep value point
of view. The result of the simulation is depicted in Figure 6.12 and 6.13.
Figure 6.12 Frequency deviation with different Gain value (the default value
Kwi=10)
Figure 6.13 Frequency deviation with different wash-out time constant (The
default value Twowi=5.5sec)
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The outcome of simulation with different values for Gain and Wash-out time
constant shows that the best results will be obtained from default
recommended values by GE for WI control parameters. Higher values for gain
result in longer frequency recovery.
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7 Conclusion
7.1 Findings
It is shown in this project that wind farms with DFIG machines, according to
the GE model in PSSE, do not contribute to the total moment of inertia in the
system. It was known earlier that also turbines with full-power converter do
not contribute to the system inertia. As a result of this, replacing conventional
production units with wind farms results in a reduction of the total moment of
inertia and thus in a deterioration of the frequency quality.
Installing wind turbines with synthetic inertia is a way of preventing this
deterioration. A number of studies have been performed to study the way in
which synthetic inertia, again according to the GE model in PSSE, impacts the
frequency excursion after the loss of a large production unit. Simulations have
been performed of an augmented Nordic-32 model of the Nordic power
system.
The impact of synthetic inertia, as a function of the loss of production (in
percent of the total production) is shown in the table below. It is clear from
the table that synthetic inertia (WI) can support the frequency in the first few
seconds after a loss of production.
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8 References
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47
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48
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49
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50
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51
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52
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53