2017614 IndianPolityQuickGuide

IndianPolityQuickGuide
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IndianPolityIntroduction
Theconstitutionofacountryisadocumentthatcomprisesasetofwrittenrulesacceptedbyeveryonelivingtogetherinthatcountry.

TheConstitutionofacountryisthesupremelawofthelandanditdeterminestherelationshipamongpeoplelivinginthatcountryandalsoregulatesthe
governmentanditspoliciestowardsitscitizens.

RoleofConstitution
Aconstitutionservesalotofpurposeitsmajorrolesareasfollows

Itdescribesrulesandregulationsthatgenerateadegreeoftrustandcoordinationamongthepeopleofdifferentstrataofasocietywholivetogether

Itprovidesaframeworkwithinwhichthegovernmentandotherinstitutionsworkinthecountry

Itlaysdowntheprocedureastohowthegovernmentwillbeconstitutedandthemannerinwhichdecisionsaretaken

Itdefinesthepowers,duties,andlimitsoftherespectivegovernment.

Italsotellstherightsofthecitizensanddefinestheruleoflawandaproceduretoprotectthem.

Allthedemocraticcountrieshavetheirownconstitutions.Buthavingafullfledgedconstitutioninacountryisnotaguaranteeforittobetrulydemocratic.

TheAmericansgavethemselvesaconstitutionaftertheWarofIndependenceagainsttheGreatBritainin1787.

Similarly,theFrenchpeopleapprovedademocraticconstitutionaftertheRevolution,i.e.,firstin1791andrecentlyin1958.Sincethen,ithasbecomea
practiceinalldemocraciestohaveawrittenconstitution.

Acompilationofbasicrulesiscalledaconstitution,andtheserulesarecomprehensivethatdefine

thepowersoftheelectedgovernmentstodothings

thelimitationsfornottodocertainthings

fundamentrightsofthecitizenand

howtherulersaretobechoseninfuture.

IndianPolityConstitutionFormation
HistoricalBackground
In1928,MotilalNehruandeightotherCongressleadersdraftedaconstitutionforIndia.

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In1931,IndianNationalCongressinitssessionatKarachipassedaresolutiononhowtheconstitutionofindependentIndiashouldlooklike.

Boththesetwodocumentshaveincludedtherightofuniversaladultfranchise,righttofreedomandequality,andtoprotectingtherightsofminorities.

Later,theprovisionsofthesedocumentsprovidedabackgroundofthecertainbasicvalues,whichwereacceptedbyallleadersandincludedinthe
constitutionofindependentIndia.

BritishrulehadintroducedweaklegislaturesinIndiabythegivenvotingrightstoafewelitepersonsonly.

Electionswereheldin1937toProvincialLegislaturesalloverBritishIndia,whichwerenotfullydemocraticgovernments.However,theworkingwith
theselegislativeinstitutionsprovidedusefulexperiencetoIndians,whichhelpedinsettingupnativeinstitutionsinindependentIndia.

LikeSouthAfrica,IndiasConstitutionwasalsodrawnupunderverydifficultcircumstances.

ThemakersoftheIndianConstitutionhaveadopteditsfundamentalstructurefromtheGovernmentofIndiaAct1935.

TheConstituentAssembly
TheConstituentAssemblywasthebodyofelectedrepresentativesofthepeopleofIndia.

ElectionsfortheConstituentAssemblywereheldinJuly1946anditsfirstmeetingwasconvenedinDecember1946.

OnPartition,theConstituentAssemblywasalsodividedintotwopartscalledastheConstituentAssemblyofIndiaandtheConstituentAssemblyof
Pakistan.

TheConstituentAssemblyofIndiathatdraftedtheIndianConstitutionhad299members.

TheConstituentAssemblyofIndiahadadoptedtheConstitutionon26November1949,butitcameintoeffecton26January1950.

FactorsofConstitutionFormation
ThefactorsthatcontributedtothemakingofIndianConstitutionwere

FrenchRevolution

ParliamentarydemocracyinBritain

BillofRightsintheUSand

SocialistrevolutioninRussia.

IndianPolityConstitutionalFeatures
KeyFeaturesofIndianConstitution
FollowingaretheimportantfeaturesoftheIndianConstitution

IndianConstitutionisawrittenconstitution.

IndianConstitutionisflexibleitcanbeamended ,butitisalsorigid(assomepart,i.e.,itsbasicstructurecannotbeamended).

asC enterhasmorepower aspowerisdividedbetweentheC enterandtheS tate

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IndianConstitutionisUnitaryasC enterhasmorepower,butitisalsoFederalaspowerisdividedbetweentheC enterandtheS tate .

OtherFactsofConstitution
TheIndianNationalCongressmadeademandforaConstituentAssemblyin1934,whichcameintoexistencefordraftingtheconstitutionofIndiaon9
December1946.

TheConstituentAssemblydraftedtheConstitutionforindependentIndiabetween9December1946and26November1949.

We,thepeopleofIndia,haveadoptedandenactedtheIndianConstitutionon26November1949however,itwasmadefullyfunctionalon26January
1950.

Constitutionisafundamentalsetofrulesandprinciplesonthebasisofwhichthepeopleofthiscountryobligedtobegovernedby.

ThefundamentalrulesofConstitutiondefinethetypeofgovernmentanditsconstituentspartsaswellasthenatureofthepoliciestobeadoptedbythe
country.

So,theConstitutionservesasapivotinstrikingabalancebetweenthedifferencesandprovidessafeguardstotheinterestsofeachofitscitizen.

Likewise,theConstitutionofIndiamakesIndiaademocraticcountryanddetermines

theproceduresofgovernmentformation

themethodsandprocessofgovernmentsfunctionalityand

theprocessofinteractionsamongthedifferentpartsofthegovernmentinthespecificareaoftheirwork.

Inaddition,theConstitutionalsodefinesalistofFundamentalRightsthatareanimportantpartoftheConstitutiontoprotecttheinterestofeverycitizen
againstthetyrannyofthestateaswellasfromthedominanceofaparticularcommunityW hoareinmajorityandinpower.

TheConstitutionisthesupremelawofthelandandthesourceofallthepowersandauthorityofthegovernmentanditsorgans.Likewise,thegovernment
notonlyderivesitsoriginsfromtheConstitution,butdischargesitsfunctionsandresponsibilitieswithintheframeworkoftheConstitution.

GuidingValuesoftheConstitution
Introduction
IndiaisaRepublicNationandthePresidentofIndiaistheheadofthenation.He/sheiselectedeveryfiveyears.

TheprovisionsarewrittenintheConstitutiontoguaranteeJusticeforall.Noonecanbediscriminatedonthegroundsofcaste,religion,andgender.
Socialinequalitiesonanygroundsofcaste,religion,andgenderarestrictlyprohibited.

WelfareforallcitizensistheprimeobjectiveoftheGovernmentbesides,thegovernmentalsoneedstogivespecialattention,particularlytothe
underprivilegedsectionsofthesociety.

GuidingValuesoftheConstitution
TheimportantvaluesofIndianconstitutionsaredepictedinthefollowingillustration

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Liberty
TheConstitutionprovideseverycitizenanumberoflibertiesandfreedomsunderArticle19to21,21A,and22.Itisestablishedthatnounreasonable
restrictionscanbeimposeduponcitizenstoregulatetheirfreedom.

RighttoFreedomunderArticle19includes

Therighttofreedomofspeechandexpression

Therighttoformassociation

Therighttomovefreely

Resideinanypartofthecountryand

Therighttopracticeanyprofession,occupation,orbusiness.

Equality

TheConstitutionstatesthatallcitizensareequalbeforethelawandthegovernmentshouldensurethatthetraditionalpracticeofsocialinequalities
onthegroundsofcaste,religion,andgenderhastobeended.

RighttoEqualityisenshrinedunderArticles14to18oftheIndianConstitutionofIndia,whichguaranteestherighttoequalitytoallpersonsand
prohibitsanykindofdiscriminationagainstanycitizenonanyofthegroundsofreligion,race,caste,gender,andplaceofbirth.

Article14providesthatallpersonsareequalbeforethelaw.Thismeansthatallpersonsshallbeequallyprotectedbythelawsofthecountry.

Article15statesthatnocitizencanbediscriminatedagainstonthebasisofhis/herreligion,race,caste,sex,orplaceofbirth.

Article16statesthattheStatecannotdiscriminateagainstanyoneinmattersofemployment.

Article17abolishesthepracticeofuntouchabilityfromIndia.Itprovidesthateverypersonhasaccesstoallpublicplacesincludingplaygrounds,
hotels,shops,etc.

RightagainstExploitationisenshrinedunderArticle23to24oftheConstitutionofIndia.Itprovidesfundamentalrightagainstexploitationtoevery
citizenofIndia.

Article23oftheConstitutionprovidesforprohibitionofanykindofforcedlaborandanyviolationofthisprovisionshallbeanoffencepunishable
inaccordancewiththelaw.

Article24protectsthechildrenbystatingthatnochildbelowtheageof14shallbeemployedtoworkinanyfactoryorminesoranyotherhazardous
employment.

Fraternity
AlltheIndiansaremembersofafamily,nooneisinferiororsuperior,allareequalandhavesamerightsandduties.

Sovereignty

ThegovernmentofIndiaisfreetotakeanydecisiononinternalaswellasexternalmattersandnoexternalpowercandictateit.

Socialist

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Inasocialistcountry,citizenshavetherighttopropertybutthegovernmentshouldregulateitbylaw,thesocioeconomicactivitiestoreduce
inequalitiesinthesocietyandhence,everycitizenhasequalrighttosharetheresourcesofthecountry.

Theconceptofsocialjusticewasadoptedbythe42ndamendmentofConstitutionthatenablescourtstoupholdprovisionstoremoveeconomic
inequalitiesinoursociety.

Secular
Indiaisasecularcountry.Thereisnoofficialreligionofthegovernmentandthegovernmenttreatsallthereligionsequally.

Articles25to28provideRighttofreedomofReligionforeverycitizen.ThisisaFundamentalRightthatallowseveryindividualafreedomtolive
bytheirreligiousbeliefsandpracticesastheyinterpretthesebeliefs.

CulturalandEducationalRightsArticle29to30statethatallminorities,religiousorlinguistic,havingadistinctlanguage,scriptorcultureofits
own,theycansetuptheirowneducationalinstitutionsinordertopreserveanddeveloptheirlanguage,script,orculture.

Democratic

Thedemocraticsystemofgovernmentrunsaccordingtosomebasicprinciples,whicharecollectivelycalledasRuleofLaw.

Inademocraticformofthegovernment,thepeopleofthecountryenjoyequalpoliticalrights,choosetoelectandchangetheirrepresentatives,and
holdthemaccountable.

Preamble

TheIndiandemocracyisfoundedonthosevaluesthathadinspiredandguidedthefreedomstruggle.

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TheIndianConstitutionembeddedthevaluesinitsPreamble.ThereforethePreambleemanateslightsthatglitterallthearticlesoftheIndian
Constitution.

ThePreambleprovidesashortintroductorystatementofthebasicvaluesoftheconstitutiontostartwith.Inotherwords,itistheSoulofthe
Constitution.

Itisthepreamblethatprovidesastandardtoexamineandevaluateanylawandactionofthegovernmenttojudgeitsvalidityandsanctity.

IndianPolitySourcesofConstitution
Introduction
TheIndianConstitutionhasbeenformedafterransackingallthemajorconstitutionsoftheworldhowever,atthesametime,theframershavealso
consideredthefollowingfactors

HistoricalperspectiveofIndia

GeographicaldiversityofIndiaand

CulturalandtraditionalcharacteristicsofIndia.

MajorSources
ThefollowingtableillustratesthemajorsourcesofIndianConstitution

Provisions Sources
PresidentN ominalH ead
CabinetSystemofMinisters
ParliamentarytypeofGovernment
PostofPrimeMinister
BicameralParliament
CouncilofMinisters TheUnitedKingdom
ProvisionofSpeakerinLokSabha
Legislation
Citizenship
Writs
RuleofLaw
Preamble
FundamentalRights
IndependentJudiciary
JudicialReview TheUnitedStates
ImpeachmentofPresident
RemovalofJudges ofSupremeCourt&HighCourts
FunctionsofVicePresident
FederalSystemwithstrongC enter
ResiduarypowersintheCenter
Canada
AppointmentofGovernorsinstatesbytheCenter
AdvisoryJurisdictionofSupremeCourt
Principleofcooperativefederalism
FreedomofInterStatetrade
TradeandCommerce Australia
ConcurrentList
JointsitingofthetwoHousesofParliament
DirectivePrinciplesofStatePolicy
PresidentialElection Ireland
NominatingthemembersofRajyaSabha
Republic
France
Liberty,Equality,andFraternityinthePreamble
FundamentalDuties
Russia
IdeaofSocial,Economic,andPoliticalJusticeinPreamble
Procedureforamendment
SouthAfrica
ElectionofRajyaSabhamembers
EmergencypowerstobeenjoyedbytheUnion
Germany
SuspensionofFundamentalRightsduringemergency
ProcedureEstablishedbyLaw Japan
Thefederalscheme Govt.ofIndiaAct1935
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Roleoffederaljudiciary
OfficeoftheGovernor
Emergencyprovisions
PublicServiceCommissions
Administrativedetails

IndianPolityHowtheConstitutionworks
Introduction
Aconstitutionisasetoffundamentalprinciplesaccordingtowhichastateisconstitutedorgoverned.

TheConstitutionspecifiesthebasicallocationofpowerinaStateanddecideswhogetstodecidewhatthelawswillbe.

TheConstitutionfirstdefineshowaParliamentwillbeorganizedandempowerstheParliamenttodecidethelawsandpolicies.

TheConstitutionsetssomelimitationsontheGovernmentastowhatextentaGovernmentcanimposerulesandpoliciesonitscitizen.Theselimits
arefundamentalinthesensethattheGovernmentmaynevertrespassthem.

TheConstitutionenablestheGovernmenttofulfiltheaspirationsofasocietyandcreateconditionsforajustsociety.

DistributionofPower
TheIndianConstitutionhorizontallydistributespoweracrossthethreefollowinginstitutions,asdepictedinthefollowingillustration

TheParliament

AlltheelectedrepresentativescollectivelyformabodycalledasParliament.

TheParliamentconsistsoftwohousesnamelyRajyaSabhaU pperH ouseandLokSabhaLowerH ouse .

ThemajoritygroupelectedthroughtheelectionintheParliamentiscalledupontomakethegovernment.

Thegovernmentisresponsibleformakingpoliciesandothernationaldecisions,whicharegenerallytakenupafterintensivedebateandmeaningful
discussionsintheparliament.

ThePrimeMinisteristheheadofthegovernment.Theprimeministerpresidedoverthemeetingsofthecabinetinwhichthebigdecisionsaretaken.

TheExecutive

ThePresidentofIndiaistheheadoftheStatehowever,he/sheexercisesonlynominalpowers.

ThePresidentsfunctionsaremainlyceremonialinnaturesimilartotheQueenof Britain .
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ThefollowingdiagramillustratesthehierarchyoftheIndianGovernment

TheJudiciary
ThejudicialsysteminIndiacontainsahierarchyofcourts,wheretheSupremeCourtistheapexcourtofIndia.

Besides,someconstitutionalandotherindependentstatutorybodies,forexample,theElectionCommissionhasalsobeengivenindependentpower.

ThedistributionofpoweramongdifferentbodiesinsuchawayensuresthatevenifoneinstitutionwantstosubverttheConstitution,otherscan
checkitstransgressionsandmaintainharmony.

IndianPolityUnion&itsTerritory
Articles1to4underPartIoftheConstitutiondescribetheUnionanditsTerritory.

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Article11statesthatIndia,thatisBharat,shallbeaUnionofStates.

Article12statesthattheStatesandtheterritoriesthereofshallbeasspecifiedintheFirstSchedule.

Article13statesthattheterritoryofIndiashallcomprise

TheterritoriesoftheStates

TheUnionterritoriesspecifiedintheFirstScheduleand

Suchotherterritoriesasmaybeacquired.

Thereareatotalof29States,6UnionTerritories,and1NationalCapitalTerritoryasshowninthemapgivenabove .

Article2statesthattheParliamentmaybylawadmitintotheUnion,orestablishnewStatesonsuchtermsandconditionsasitthinksfit.

Article3statesthattheParliamentmaybylawformanewStatebyseparationofaterritoryfromanyStateorbyunitingtwoormoreStatesor
partsofStatesorbyunitinganyterritorytoapartofanyState.

Article4statesthatanylawreferredtoinArticle2orArticle3shallcontainsuchprovisionsfortheamendmentoftheFirstScheduleandthe
FourthScheduleasmaybenecessarytogiveeffecttotheprovisionsofthelawandmayalsocontainsuchsupplemental,incidental,and
consequentialprovisions
includingprovisionsastorepresentationinP arliamentandintheLegislatureorLegislaturesof theS tateorS tatesaf f ectedbysuchlaw

astheParliamentmaydeemnecessary.

IndianPolityCitizenship
Articles5to11underPartIIoftheConstitutiondescribethecitizenship.

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Article5statesthatatthecommencementofthisConstitution,everypersonwhohashisdomicileintheterritoryofIndiaand

whowasbornintheterritoryofIndiaor

eitherofwhoseparentswasbornintheterritoryofIndiaor

whohasbeenordinarilyresidentintheterritoryofIndiafornotlessthanfiveyearsimmediatelyprecedingsuchcommencement,

shallbeacitizenofIndia.

Article6statesthatnotwithstandinganythinginArticle5,apersonwhohasmigratedtotheterritoryofIndiafromtheterritorynowincluded
inPakistanshallbedeemedtobeacitizenofIndiaatthecommencementofthisConstitution.

Article7statesthatnotwithstandinganythinginArticles5and6,apersonwhohasafterthefirstdayofMarch,1947,migratedfromthe
territoryofIndiatotheterritorynowincludedinPakistanshallnotbedeemedtobeacitizenofIndia.

Article8statesthatnotwithstandinganythinginArticle5,anypersonwhooreitherofwhoseparentsoranyofwhosegrandparentswasborn
inIndiaasdefinedintheGovernmentofIndiaAct,1935,andwhoisordinarilyresidinginanycountryoutsideIndiaassodefinedshallbe
deemedtobeacitizenofIndiaifhehasbeenregisteredasacitizenofIndiabythediplomaticorconsularrepresentativeofIndiainthe
countrywhereheisforthetimebeingresidingonanapplicationmadebyhimtherefortosuchdiplomaticorconsularrepresentative,whether
beforeorafterthecommencementofthisConstitution,intheformandmannerprescribedbytheGovernmentoftheDominionofIndiaorthe
GovernmentofIndia.

Article9statesthatnopersonshallbeacitizenofIndiabyvirtueofArticle5,orbedeemedtobeacitizenofIndiabyvirtueofArticle6or
Article8,ifhehasvoluntarilyacquiredthecitizenshipofanyforeignState.

Article10statesthateverypersonwhoisorisdeemedtobeacitizenofIndiaunderanyoftheforegoingprovisionsofthisPartshall,subject
totheprovisionsofanylawthatmaybemadebytheParliament,continuetobesuchcitizen.

Article11statesthatnothingintheforegoingprovisionsofthisPartshallderogatefromthepowerofParliamenttomakeanyprovisionwith
respecttotheacquisitionandterminationofcitizenshipandallothermattersrelatingtocitizenship.

IndianPolityFundamentalRights
Introduction
TheConstitutionofIndialistedtherightstothecitizensofIndiathatwouldbespeciallyprotectedandknownastheFundamentalRights.

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FundamentalmeanstheConstitutionhasseparatelylistedandmadespecialprovisionsfortheprotectionofFundamentalRights.

FundamentalRightsaredifferentfromotherrightsi. e. ordinarylegalrightsavailabletothecitizensofIndia.

OrdinarylegalrightsareprotectedandenforcedbyordinarylawbutFundamentalRightsareprotectedandguaranteedbytheConstitutionof
India.

OrdinaryRightsmaybechangedoramendedbythelegislaturebyordinarylawmakingprocess,butaFundamentalRightmayonlybe
changedbyamendingtheConstitutionitself.

JudiciaryhasthepowersandresponsibilityassignedbytheC onstitutiontoprotecttheFundamentalRightsincaseanygovernmentsaction
violatesit.

Judiciary,iffoundanyactofthegovernmenteitherbyExecutiveorbyLegislature equivalenttoviolationoftheFundamentalRights,canbe
declaredthatactillegalorrestrictthemtodofurtherso.

However,FundamentalRightshavesomereasonablerestrictionsandhence,theyarenotabsoluteinnature.

Furthermore,thepreambletoourConstitutionspeaksofensuringallitscitizensequality,liberty,andjustice.FundamentalRightsputthis
promiseintoeffect.

FundamentalRightsareveryessentialtoeveryoneslife.TheyarethebasicfeatureoftheConstitution.

TheConstitutionofIndiaprovidessixFundamentalRights,whicharementionedinArticles12to35inPartIIIof C onstitution .

RighttoEquality
TheRuleoflawisthefoundationofIndiandemocracythatstatesthatthelawsapplyinthesamemannertoall,irrespectiveofapersons
status.ItmeansthatthePrimeMinisterofthecountryorapoorfarmerinaremotevillageissubjecttothesamelawandequaltreatment.

Article14statesthatthegovernmentshallnotdenytoanyperson,equalitybeforethelawortheequalprotectionofthelaws,whichmeans

Lawsapplyinthesamemannertoall

Nopersonisabovethelaw

Everycitizenissubjectedtothesamelawsandsametreatment

Nopersoncanlegallyclaimanyspecialtreatmentorprivilegeonanyofthegroundand

Lawmakesnodistinctionbetweenapoliticalleader,agovernmentofficial,andanordinarycitizen.

Article15statesthatnocitizencanbediscriminatedagainstonthebasisofhis/herreligion,race,caste,sex,orplaceofbirth.

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Article15furtherenhancedtheRighttoEqualitybyprovidingthateverycitizenshallhaveequalaccesstopublicplaceslikeshops,
restaurants,hotels,andcinemahalls.Similarly,thereshallbenorestrictionwithregardtotheuseofwells,tanks,bathingghats,roads,
playgrounds,andplacesofpublicresortsmaintainedbythegovernment.

Article16statesthattheStatecannotdiscriminateagainstanyoneinthemattersofemployment.

Article17abolishesthepracticeofuntouchabilityinanyform,whichstatesthateverypersonhasaccesstoallpublicplacesincluding
playgrounds,hotels,shops,etc.

RighttoFreedom
Freedommeansnoninterferenceandabsenceofrestrictionsinonesaffairsbyothers,whetheritbetheindividualsortheGovernment.

TheConstitutionofIndiaprovidesallcitizensfreedomunderArticle19todoanyofthesefollowingacts

RighttoFreedomofspeechandexpression

Righttoformassemblyinapeacefulmanner

Righttoformassociationsandunions

Righttomovefreelythroughoutthecountry

Righttoresideinanypartofthecountryand

RighttoPracticeanyprofession,ortocarryonanyoccupation,trade,orbusiness.

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However,therearecertainreasonablerestrictionsthatcanbeimposeduponthecitizensbytheGovernmentinthelargerinterestsofthe
society.

Likewise,thougheverycitizenhastherighttoallthesefreedoms,butitissubjecttoreasonablerestrictionssuchas

Theexpressionoffreedomsshouldnotcausepublicnuisanceordisorder.

Thisfreedomofoneshouldnotviolateothersrighttofreedom.

Freedomisnotunlimitedrighttodowhatonewants.

Accordingly,thegovernmentcanimposecertainreasonablerestrictionsonf reedomsof citizensinthelargerinterestsofthesociety.

TheHonorableSupremeCourtofIndiahasexplainedthefreedomunderArticle21as

Nocitizencanbekilledunlessthecourthasorderedadeathsentence.

Nopersoncanbearrestedordetainedbythepoliceofficerunlesshehasproperlegaljustification.

AspertheguidelinessettledbytheHonbleSupremeCourtofIndia,apoliceofficerwhilearrestingapersonhastofollowsomeprocedures

Thepoliceofficerisdutyboundtoinformthepersonincaseof hisarrest,thereason/sofhisarrestanddetentionandthepersonso
arrestedhastherighttoknowthereasonforhisarrest.

Itshallbethedutyofthepoliceofficertoproducethearrestedpersonbeforethenearestmagistratewithinaperiodof24hoursofarrest.

Thearrestedpersonhastherighttoconsultalawyerofhischoiceforhisdefense.

RightagainstExploitation
TheConstitutionofIndiaprovidesdistinctandclearprovisionstopreventexploitationoftheweakersectionsofthesociety.

TheConstitutionprohibitsthefollowingpracticesasevilanddeclaresthemillegal

Traffickingofhumanbeings,i.e.,thesellingandbuyingofhumanbeings,
generally, womenandchildrenarethevictimsof traf f icking .

Forcedlabororbeggarinanyformisillegalandisprohibited
beggarisworkorservicewithoutremuneration, whichiscalledasbondedlaborif thispracticerunsthroughlif eof theworker .

Childlaborisalsoprohibited.Thechildrenbelow14yearsofage,cannotbeemployedtoworkinanyfactoryormineorinanyother
hazardouswork,suchasrailwaysandports.

TheParliamentofIndiahasenactedlawstoimplementconstitutionalrightthatprohibitschildrenbelow14yearsofagefromworkingin
hazardousindustriessuchasbeedimaking,firecrackersandmatches,printing,anddyeing.

RighttoFreedomofReligion
Indiaisasecularstate,whichmeanstheStatehasnoofficialreligionandIndiadoesnotpromote/protectanyonereligionovertheother
religion.

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TheFundamentalRightsunderArticles25to28facilitateindividualsthefreedomtolivebytheirreligiousbeliefsandpracticesasthey
interpretthesebeliefs.

EverycitizeninIndiahaslibertytoprofess,practice,andpropagatethereligionthatheorshebelievesin.

Everysectorareligiousgroupisfreetomanageitsreligiousaffairs,butitissubjecttoreasonablerestrictionsdebarring,anyperson,or
organizationtocompelanotherpersontoconvertintohisreligionbymeansofforce,fraud,inducement,orallurement.

Thisrightisintheformofrestrictionsuponthegovernmentnottocompelanypersontopayanytaxesforthepromotionormaintenanceof
anyparticularreligionorreligiousinstitution.

Intheeducationalinstitutionsrunoraddedbythegovernment,neitheranyreligiousinstructioncanbeimpartednorcananypersonbe
compelledtotakepartinanyreligiousinstructionortoattendanyreligiousworship.

CulturalandEducationalRights
Thedemocracyisbaseduponthewishesofthemajority.Inthissystem,therightandinterestoftheminoritiesneedtobeprotectedby
developingamechanismthatcannotbechangedprejudiciallybythemajority.

Thereforeinademocraticcountry,SpecialProtectionisprovidedintheconstitutiontopreserveanddevelopthelanguage,culture,andreligion
ofminorities.

Anysectionofcitizenswithadistinctlanguageorculturehastherighttoconserveitslanguage,culture,andreligiouspractices.

Articles29and30provideCulturalandEducationalRights,whichstatesthatallminorities,religiousorlinguisticgroups,havingadistinct
language,scriptorcultureofitsowncansetuptheirowneducationalinstitutionsinordertopreserveanddeveloptheirlanguage,script,or
culture.

RighttoConstitutionalRemedies
Apersonaggrievedbytheviolationofanyofhis/herfundamentalrightcanapproacheithertotheSupremeCourtunderArticle32 orHigh
CourtunderArticle226 fortherestorationofhis/herfundamentalright/s.

Theenforceabilityofrightsisaveryimportantaspectofallfundamentalrightsandhence,itiscalledastheRighttoConstitutional
Remedies.

AccordingtoDr.Ambedkar,therighttoconstitutionalremediesistheheartandsouloftheConstitution.

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IfsomeoneviolatessomeonesFundamentalRights,thenhe/shecanapproacheitheraHighCourtordirectlytheSupremeCourttogetproper
remedy.

TheSupremeCourtortheHighCourtasthecasemaybe canissueorders(knownaswrits)andgivedirectivestotheGovernmentforthe
enforcementofFundamentalRights.

Followingarethefivewrits/ordersissuedbyeithertheSupremeCourtorHighCourts

HabeascorpusAwritofhabeascorpusmeansthatthecourtordersthatthearrestedpersonshouldbepresentedbeforethecourt.The
courtcanalsoordertosetfreeanarrestedpersonifthemannerand/orgroundsofarrestarenotlawfulorsatisfactory.

MandamusThiswritisissuedwhenacourtfindsthataparticularofficeholderisnotdoinglegaldutyandtherebyisinfringingonthe
rightofanindividual.

ProhibitionThiswritisissuedbyahighercourtH ighC ourtorS upremeC ourtwhenalowercourthasconsideredacase,whichis

goingbeyonditsjurisdiction.

QuoWarrantoIfacourtfindsthatapersonisholdingofficebutisnotentitledtoholdthatoffice,itissuesthewritofquowarranto
andrestrictsthatpersonfromactingasanofficeholder.

CertiorariUnderthiswrit,ahighercourtordersalowercourtoranotherauthoritytotransferamatterpendingbeforeittothehigher
authorityorcourt.

Apartfromthejudiciary,someotherbodiesandmechanismsthatprotectanindividualsrightare

TheNationalCommissiononMinorities,

TheNationalCommissiononWomen,

TheNationalCommissiononScheduledCastes,etc.

In1993,theGovernmentofIndiahasestablishedNationalHumanRightsCommissionN H RC ,whichconsistsof

AformerchiefjusticeoftheSupremeCourtofIndia

AformerjudgeoftheSupremeCourt

AformerchiefjusticeofaHighCourt,and

Twoothermemberswhohaveknowledgeandpracticalexperienceinthemattersrelatingtohumanrights.

However,NHRCdoesnothavethepowerofprosecution.Itcanmerelymakerecommendationstothegovernmentorrecommendtothecourts
toinitiateproceedingsbasedontheinquirythatitconducted.

ExpansionandScopeofFundamentalRights
Sinceindependence,thescopeofFundamentalRightshaveexpandedgreatlytoincludeseveralotherrightsfromtimetotime.

TheFundamentalRightsembeddedinourconstitutionarethesourceofallrights,basedonthis,theGovernmentofIndiaenactedseverallaws
e.g.

Righttoinformation,

Righttofreedomofpress,and

Righttoeducation.

TheParliamentofIndiahasamendedtheConstitutiontoincludeschooleducationasaFundamentalRightfortheIndiancitizens.
Resultantly,nowitisthedutyandresponsibilityofthegovernmentstoprovidefreeandcompulsoryeducationtoallchildrenuptotheageof
14years.

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TheParliamenthasenactedalawrighttoinformationactundertheFundamentalRighttofreedomofthoughtandexpression,which
providesarighttoseekinformationfromthegovernmentoffices.

TheSupremeCourtofIndiabyexplainingtheFundamentalRightshasfurtherexpandedthescopeandmeaningoftheFundamentalRights,as
itincludedrighttofoodintherighttolifesectioni. e. Article21.

IndianPolityDirectivePrinciples
Introduction
AlistofpolicyguidelinesisincludedintheConstitutionknownastheDirectivePrinciplesofStatePolicyDP S P .

Theseguidelinesarenonjustifiable,i.e.,partsoftheConstitutionthatcannotbeenforcedbythejudiciary.

GoalsofDPSP
FollowingarethesignificantGoalsofDPSP

WelfareofthepeopleSocial,economic,andpoliticaljustice

Raisingthestandardoflivingequitabledistributionofresources

Promotionofinternationalpeace.

PoliciesofDPSP

FollowingaretheimportantPoliciesofDPSP

Uniformcivilcode

Prohibitionofconsumptionofalcoholicliquor

Promotionofcottageindustries

Preventionofslaughterofusefulcattle

Promotionofvillagepanchayats

NonJustifiablerightsofDPSP

FollowingarethemajornonjustifiablerightsofDPSP

Adequatelivelihood

Equalpayforequalworkformenandwomen

Rightagainsteconomicexploitation

Righttoworkand

Earlychildhoodcareandeducationtochildrenbelowtheageofsixyears.

DifferencebetweenDPSP&FR
FollowingarethemajordifferencesbetweentheFundamentalRightsandtheDirectivePrinciplesofStatePolicy

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TheFundamentalRightsmainlyprotecttherightsofindividuals,whilethedirectiveprinciplesensurethewellbeingoftheentire
society.

TheFundamentalRightsarejustifiableandcanbeclaimedinthecourtoflaw,whereastheDirectivePrinciplesofStatePolicycannotbe
enforcedbythejudiciary.

TheFundamentalRightsrestrainthegovernmentfromdoingcertainthings,whiletheDirectivePrinciplesofStatePolicyinsistthe
governmenttodocertainthings.

RegardingtheRighttoProperty,theConstitutionmadeitclearthatpropertycouldbetakenawaybythegovernmentforpublicwelfare.

In1973,theSupremeCourtgaveadecisionthattheRighttoPropertywasnotapartofthebasicstructureoftheConstitutionandtherefore,
theParliamenthasthepowertoabridgethisrightbyanamendment.

In1978,the44thamendmenttotheConstitutionremovedtheRighttoPropertyfromthelistofFundamentalRightsandtransformeditintoa
simplelegalrightunderArticle300A.

IndianPolityFundamentalDuties
UnderPartIVA,Article51AoftheIndianConstitutiondescribesthefollowing"FundamentalDuties"i. e. thedutyof everycitizenof I ndia
.

ToabidebytheConstitutionandrespectitsidealsandinstitutions,theNationalFlagandtheNationalAnthem

Tocherishandfollowthenobleidealswhichinspiredournationalstruggleforfreedom

Toupholdandprotectthesovereignty,unityandintegrityofIndia

Todefendthecountryandrendernationalservicewhencalledupontodoso

TopromoteharmonyandthespiritofcommonbrotherhoodamongstallthepeopleofIndiatranscendingreligious,linguisticand
regionalorsectionaldiversitiestorenouncepracticesderogatorytothedignityofwomen

Tovalueandpreservetherichheritageofourcompositeculture

Toprotectandimprovethenaturalenvironmentincludingforests,lakes,riversandwildlife,andtohavecompassionforliving
creatures

Todevelopthescientifictemper,humanismandthespiritofinquiryandreform

Tosafeguardpublicpropertyandtoabjureviolence

Tostrivetowardsexcellenceinallspheresofindividualandcollectiveactivitysothatthenationconstantlyrisestohigherlevelsof
achievementand

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Whoisaparentorguardiantoprovideopportunitiesforeducationtohischildor,asthecasemaybe,wardbetweentheageofsixand
fourteenyears.

IndianPolityUnionExecutive
Introduction
TheorganofagovernmentthatprimarilylooksafterthefunctionofimplementationandadministrationisknowntheExecutive.

TheExecutiveisthebranchofGovernmentaccountablefortheimplementationoflawsandpolicieslegislatedbythelegislature.

IntheParliamentaryformofexecutive,thePrimeMinisteristheheadofthegovernmentandtheheadoftheStatemaybeMonarch
C onstitutionalM onarchy, e. g. U K orPresidentP arliamentaryRepublic, e. g. I ndia.

InaSemiPresidentialSystem,thePresidentistheheadoftheStateandthePrimeMinisteristheheadofthegovernment,e.g.France.

InaPresidentialSystem,thePresidentistheheadoftheStateaswellastheheadofgovernment,e.g.theUS.

IndianSystem
Article741oftheIndianConstitutionstatesthatthereshallbeaCouncilofMinisterswiththePrimeMinisterattheheadtoaidand
advisethePresidentwhoshallintheexerciseofhisfunctions,actinaccordancewithsuchadvice.

ThePresidenthasawiderangeofpowerincludingexecutive,legislative,judicial,andemergencypowers.However,inaparliamentary
systeme. g. I ndia,thesepowersareinrealityusedbythePresidentonlyontheadviceoftheCouncilofMinisters.

ThePrimeMinisterandtheCouncilofMinistershavesupportofthemajorityintheLokSabhaandtheyaretherealexecutive.

ThePresidentistheformalheadofthegovernment.

ThePrimeMinisterisobligedtofurnishalltheinformationthatthePresidentmaycallfor.

TheCouncilofMinistersisheadedbythePrimeMinister.

Intheparliamentaryformofexecutive,itisessentialthatthePrimeMinisterhasthesupportofthemajorityintheLokSabha.Andthe
momentthePrimeMinisterlosesthissupportofthemajorityheorshelosestheoffice.

Incasenopartyisinmajority,afewpartiescanformgovernmentincoalition.

APrimeMinisterhastobeaMemberofParliamentM P however,ifsomeonebecomesthePrimeMinisterwithoutbeinganMPin
suchascase,heorshehastogetelectedtotheParliamentwithinsixmonthsofperiod.

TheCouncilofMinistersconstitutesnotmorethan15percentofatotalnumberofmembersoftheHouseofthePeople
91stAmendment .

PersonsselectedbytheUnionPublicServiceCommissionforIndianAdministrativeServiceI AS andIndianPoliceServiceI P S
constitutethebackboneofthehigherlevelbureaucracyintheStates.

ThoughIASandIPSworkunderthestategovernment,theyareappointedbythecentralgovernmenthence,onlythecentral
governmentcantakedisciplinaryactionagainstthem.However,theofficersappointedthroughtheStatePublicServiceCommission
lookafterthestateadministration.

ThePresident
ThePresidentofIndiaistheheadoftheState.Heexercisesonlynominalpowers.Hisfunctionsaremainlyceremonialinnaturelikethe
QueenofBritain.

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AllthepoliticalinstitutionsinIndia,functioninthenameofthePresidentofIndiaandthePresidentsupervisestheirfunctionstobring
harmonyintheirworkstoachievetheobjectivesoftheState.

InIndia,thePresidentiselected,notappointed,althoughnotelecteddirectlybythepeople .ThePresidentiselectedbytheMembersof
ParliamentM P sandtheMembersoftheLegislativeAssembliesM LAsofeachstate.

ParticipationofMembersofthestatesLegislativeAssembliesintheelectionofthepresidentofIndiashowsthatthePresidentofIndia
representstheentirenation.Atthesametime,theindirectelectionofthePresidentensuresthathecannotclaimpopularmandatelike
thatofthePrimeMinisterandthusremainsonlyanominalheadoftheState.

AllmajorpolicydecisionsandordersofthegovernmentareissuedinthePresidentsname.

ThePresidentappointsallthemajorheadsoftheinstitutionsofthegovernment,i.e.,

TheappointmentoftheChiefJusticeofIndia,

TheJudgesoftheSupremeCourtandtheHighCourtsofthestates,

TheGovernorsofthestates,

TheElectionCommissioners,

Ambassadorstoothercountries,etc.

ThegovernmentofIndiamakesallinternationaltreatiesandagreementsinthenameofthePresident.

ThePresidentisthesupremecommanderofthedefenseforcesofIndia.

However,allthesepowersareexercisedbythePresidentonlyontheadviceoftheCouncilofMinistersheadedbythePrimeMinister.

ThePresidentcanasktheCouncilofMinistersforreconsiderationonanyadviceaskedtohimbytheC ouncilof M inisters,butifthe

CouncilofMinistersrecommendthesameadviceagain,heisboundtoactaccordingtoit.

ABillpassedbytheParliamentbecomesalawonlyafterthePresidentgivesassenttoit.ThePresidentcanreturnaBillbacktothe
Parliamentforreconsideration,buthehastosignit,iftheParliamentpassestheBillagainwithorwithoutamendment.

DiscretionaryPower
Inthreecircumstances,thePresidentcanexercisehisorherdiscretionarypower

ThePresidentcansendbacktheadvicegivenbytheCouncilofMinistersforreconsideration.

ThePresidenthasvetopoweralsoknownaspocketveto bywhichheorshecanwithholdorrefusetogivehisorherassentto

anyBillotherthanM oneyBillpassedbytheParliament.Ithappenedonce,i.e.in1986,PresidentGyaniZailSinghwithheldthe
IndianPostOfficeamendmentBill.

ThePresidentappointsthePrimeMinister.

VicePresident
TheVicePresidentiselectedforfiveyearsandtheelectionmethodissimilartothatofthePresidenthowever,theonlydifferenceis
thatthemembersofStatelegislaturesdonotparticipateintheElectoralprocess.

TheVicePresidentactsastheexofficioChairmanoftheRajyaSabha.

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TheVicePresidenttakesovertheofficeofthePresidentwhenthereisavacancybyreasonsofdeath,resignation,removalby
impeachment,orotherwise.

TheVicePresidentmayberemovedfromhisorherofficebyaResolutionoftheRajyaSabhapassedbyamajorityandagreedtobythe
LokSabha.

IndianPolityUnionLegislature
Introduction
TheUnionLegislatureofIndiaisnotonlythelawmakingbody,butthecenterofalldemocraticpoliticalprocess.

TheParliamentisthecentrallegislatureandthelegislatureofthestateisknownasStateLegislature.

TheParliamentofIndiaisbicamerali. e. consistsof twohouses namelyRajyaSabhatheC ouncilof S tates andLokSabha

theH ouseof theP eople .

Indianstatesalsohavetheoptiontohaveeitherbicameralorunicameralhowever,atpresent,therearesevenstates
showninthemapgivenbelow,whichhavebicamerallegislaturenamely

Jammu&Kashmir,
UttarPradesh,
Bihar,
Maharashtra,
Karnataka,
AndhraPradesh,and
Telangana.

RajyaSabha
TheRajyaSabhaisanindirectlyelectedbodyandrepresentstheStatesofIndia.

TheelectedmembersofStateLegislativeAssemblyelectthemembersofRajyaSabha.

IntheU.S.A,everystatehasequalrepresentationintheSenateirrespectiveofsizeandpopulationofthestates,butinIndia,itisnotthe
same.

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InIndia,stateswithlargersizeofpopulationgetmorerepresentativesthanstateswithsmallerpopulation.Forexample,UttarPradesh
themostpopulatedstatesends31memberstoRajyaSabhaontheotherhand,Sikkimtheleastpopulatedstate sendsonlyone

membertoRajyaSabha.

ThenumberofmemberstobeelectedfromeachStatehasbeenfixedbythefourthscheduleoftheConstitution.

MembersoftheRajyaSabhaareelectedforatermofsixyearsandthentheycanbereelected.

MembersofRajyaSabhaareelectedinsuchamannerthattheydonotcompletetheirtenurealtogetherratheraftereverytwoyears,
onethirdmembercompletetheirtermandelectionsareheldforthoseonethirdseatsonly.

Likewise,theRajyaSabhanevergetsfullydissolvedandhence,itisknownasthepermanentHouseoftheParliament.

Apartfromtheelectedmembers,thePresidentappoints12membersfromthefieldsofliterature,science,art,andsocialservice.

LokSabha
ThemembersofLokSabhaandtheStateLegislativeAssembliesaredirectlyelectedbythepeoplefortheperiodoffiveyears.

However,beforethecompletionoftenure,iftheLokSabhaisdissolvednopartyf ormsgovernmentwithmajority ,afreshelection

willbeconductedagain.

FunctionsoftheParliament
TheParliamenthaslegislativelawmaking andfinancialfunctionsmoneybillandbudgetaryf unctionbesides,italsocontrolsthe
Executiveandensuresitsaccountability.

TheParliamentisthehighestforumofdebateinthecountryandhence,thereisnolimitationonitspowerofdiscussion.

TheParliamenthasthepowerofdiscussingandenactingchangestotheConstitutioni. e. amendmentpower.

TheParliamentalsoperformssomeelectoralfunctions,asitelectsthePresidentandtheVicePresidentofIndia.

TheParliamenthasalsojudicialfunctions,asitconsidersanddecidestheproposalsfortheremovalofPresident,VicePresident,and
JudgesoftheSupremeCourtandHighCourts.

FollowingarethesomedistinctpowersofLokSabhaandRajyaSabha

LokSabhamakesLawsonmattersincludedinUnionListandConcurrentListandcanintroduceandenactmoneyandnon
moneybills.

RajyaSabhaconsidersandapprovesnonmoneybillsandsuggestsamendmentstomoneybills.

LokSabhaapprovesproposalsfortaxation,budgets,andannualfinancialstatements.

RajyaSabhaapprovesconstitutionalamendments.

LokSabhaestablishescommitteesandcommissionsandconsiderstheirreports.

RajyaSabhacangivetheUnionparliamentpowertomakelawsonmattersincludedintheStatelist.

SpecialPowersofRajyaSabha

RajyaSabhahassomespecialpowers.IftheUnionParliamentwishestoremoveamatterfromtheStatelist
overwhichonlytheS tateLegislaturecanmakelaw toeithertheUnionListorConcurrentListintheinterestofthenation,the

approvaloftheRajyaSabhaisessential.

SpecialPowersofLokSabha

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RegardingMoneyBills,theLokSabhahastheexclusivepowerandhence,theRajyaSabhacannotinitiate,reject,oramendmoney
bills.

Amendment/smadebytheRajyaSabhatotheMoneyBillmayormaynotbeacceptedbytheLokSabha.

Bills
AbillproposedbyaministerisdescribedasGovernmentBillhowever,ifabillproposedbyanonministermember,itisknownas
privatemembersBill.

IfthereisdisagreementbetweenthetwoHousesonaproposedBill,thenitisresolvedthroughtheJointSessionofParliament.

RegardingtheMoneyBill,iftheRajyaSabhadoesnottakeanyactionwithin14days,thebillisdeemedtohavebeenpassed.

OtherFacts
ZeroHourisaspecialpartofQuestionHourwherethemembersarefreetoraiseanymatterthattheythinkisimportanthowever,the
ministersarenotboundtoreply.

Deliberationanddiscussion,ApprovalorRefusaloflaws,financialcontrol,Noconfidencemotion,aredifferentinstrumentsof
Parliamentarycontrol.

StandingCommittees,JointParliamentaryCommittees,etc.aretheimportantcommitteesoftheParliamenttheirmainfunctionsare
studyingthedemandsforgrantsmadebyvariousministries,lookingintoexpenditureincurredbyvariousdepartments,investigating
casesofcorruption,etc.

AnamendmenttotheConstitution52ndamendmentact wasmadein1985,popularlyknownasanantidefectionamendment.

Accordingtoantidefectionamendment,therewasanagreementamongthepartiesthatalegislatorwhoiselectedononepartysticket
mustberestrictedfromdefectingtoanotherparty.

ThepresidingofficeroftheHouseistheauthoritywhocantakethefinaldecisionsonallantidefectioncases.

IfamemberremainsabsentintheHousewhenaskedbythepartyleadershiptobepresentorvotesagainsttheinstructionsoftheparty
orvoluntarilyleavesthemembershipoftheparty,itistantamounttodefection.

PrimeMinisterandCouncilofMinisters
TheCouncilofMinistersisonethemostpowerfulpoliticalinstitutionsinthecountry.PrimeMinisteristheheadoftheCouncilof
Ministersaswellasthecentralgovernment .

ThereisnodirectelectiontothepostofthePrimeMinisterP M ,butthePrimeMinisterischosennormallyfromtheelectedMPs.

ThePrimeMinisterisappointedbythePresidentofIndia.ThePresidentappointsapersonasPrimeMinisterwhoistheleaderofthe
partyhavingthemajorityintheLokSabha.

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ThePrimeMinistercontinuesinpowerforfiveyeartermORsolongashecommandsthemajoritypartyorcoalition.

ThePresidentappointsotherministersontheadviceofthePrimeMinister.

ThePrimeMinisterisfreetochoosehisministersfromthemembersofParliament.

ApersonwhoisnotaMemberofParliamentcanalsobecomeaminister.ButsuchapersonhastogetelectedtooneoftheHousesof
theParliamentwithinsixmonthsofappointmentasminister.

AlltheMinisterscollectivelyinagroupareofficiallycalledasCouncilofMinistershowever,theMinistershavedifferentranksand
portfolio.

Thedifferentcategoriesoftheministersare

CabinetMinistersarethemostexperiencedandtoplevelleadersoftherulingparty.Theyusuallyholdthechargeofthemajor
ministrieslikeFinance,Defense,Home,ExternalAffairs,FoodandSupply,etc.Thedecisionsofthegovernmentaregenerally
takenupinthemeetingoftheCabinetMinistersheadedbythePrimeMinister.ThustheCabinetisthecoregroupofministers
withintheCouncilofMinisters.

MinistersofStatewithindependentchargeusuallyholdindependentchargeofsmallerMinistries.Theygenerallydonot
participateintheCabinetmeetingsbutmayparticipatewhenspeciallyinvited.

MinistersofStatearegenerallyappointedtoassistCabinetMinisters.

IndianPolityLocalGovernment
Introduction
Localgovernmentisthegovernmentofthevillageanddistrictlevel.Itisthegovernmentclosesttothecommonpeoplethatinvolvesin
daytodaylifeandattempttoresolveproblemsofordinarycitizens.

Democracyisinfactaboutmeaningfulparticipationandalsoaboutaccountability.Hence,strongandvibrantlocalgovernmentsensure
bothactiveparticipationandpurposefulaccountability.

ThehierarchyofdifferentlevelsofGovernmentsof I ndiaisshowninthefollowingimage

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EvolutionofLocalGovernment
In1882,LordRippon,thethenViceroyofIndia,tooktheinitiativetoformelectedlocalgovernmentbody.

FollowingtheGovernmentofIndiaAct1919,villagePanchayatswereestablishedinmanyprovincesandthetrendcontinuedafterthe
GovernmentofIndiaActof1935.

WhentheConstitutionwasprepared,thesubjectoflocalgovernmentwasassignedtotheStatesanditwasoneoftheprovisionsofthe
DirectivePrinciplesofStatePolicy.

Aftertheindependence,athreetierPanchayatiRajsystemoflocalgovernmentwasrecommendedfortheruralareasresultantly,some
ofthestatesincludingGujaratandMaharashtraadoptedthesystemofelectedlocalbodies1960.

After1987,athoroughreviewofthefunctioningoflocalgovernmentinstitutionswasinitiatedandin1989,theP.K.Thungon
Committeerecommendedconstitutionalrecognitiontothelocalgovernmentbodies.

Finally,in1992,the73rdand74thConstitutionalAmendmentswerepassedbytheParliament.

The73rdAmendmentisabouttherurallocalgovernments,whicharealsoknownasPanchayatiRajInstitutionsP RI s.

The74thAmendmentmadetheprovisionsrelatingtotheurbanlocalgovernmentalsoknownasN agarpalikas.

PanchayatiRaj
Followingthe73rdAmendment,allstatesnowhaveauniformthreetierPanchayatiRajstructureas

GramPanchayatAtthebottomlevel

MandalalsoknownasBlockorT alukaIntermediaryleveland

ZillaPanchayatAtthetoplevel.

AGramPanchayatcoversavillageorgroupofvillages.

TheintermediarylevelistheMandalcoversBlocki. e. agroupof grampanchayat .

TheZillaPanchayatcoverstheentireruralareaoftheDistrict.

AllthethreelevelsofPanchayatiRajInstitutionsareelecteddirectlybythepeopleforfiveyearsterm.

Onethirdofthepositionsinallpanchayatinstitutionsarereservedforthewomen.

Twentyninesubjectsof 11thS cheduleof theC onstitution,whichwereearlierintheStatelist,aretransferredtothePanchayatiRaj

Institutions.

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The73rdAmendmentwasnotmadeapplicabletotheareasinhabitedbytheAdivasipopulationsinmanystatesofIndiahowever,a
separateprovisionwaspassedin1996fortheseareas.

TheStategovernmentisrequiredtoappointaStateElectionCommissionerindependentof ElectionC ommissionof I ndia who

wouldberesponsibleforconductingelectionsinthePanchayatiRajInstitutions.

ThestategovernmentisrequiredtoappointaStateFinanceCommissiononceinfiveyears.

Nagarpalika
The74thAmendmentdealtwithurbanlocalbodiesN agarpalikasorM unicipality.

TheCensusofIndiadefinesanurbanareaas

Aminimumpopulationof5,000

Atleast75%ofmaleworkingpopulationengagedinnonagriculturaloccupations,and

Adensityofpopulationisatleast400personspersq.km.

Asperthe2011censusprovisionaldata,about31percentofIndiaspopulationlivesinurbanareas.

Manyprovisionsof74thAmendmentaresimilarto73rdAmendment.

ThefunctionsofNagarpalikahavebeenlistedintheTwelfthScheduleoftheConstitution.

TheIndianpopulationhas16.2percentScheduledCastesS C and8.2percentScheduledTribesS T andaccordingly,theseatsforboth

SCandSTarereservedinlocalgovernment.

IndianPolityJudiciary
Introduction
Judiciaryisanindependentbodythatprotectsandensurestheruleoflaw.

Anyotherorgansofthegovernmentincludingtheexecutiveandlegislaturemustnotrestrainthefunctioningofthejudiciary.

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ThejudicialsysteminIndiaisintheformofanintegratedjudiciary,whichconsistsofaSupremeCourtforthewholenation,High
Courtsineachstate,andDistrictCourtsandthecourtsatthelocallevelasshowninthediagramgivenbelow .

TheSupremeCourtcontrolsthejudicialadministrationandthejudgmentsoftheSupremeCourtarebindingonallothercourtsofthe
country.

JudgesofSupremeCourt
TheJudgesoftheSupremeCourtandtheH ighC ourtsareappointedbythePresidentof I ndiaafterconsultingtheChiefJusticeof
IndiaC J I .

Normally,theseniormostjudgeoftheSupremeCourtofIndiaisappointedastheChiefJusticeofIndiaC J I however,thisconvention
wasbrokentwotimes

In1973,A.N.RaywasappointedasCJIsupersedingthreeseniorJudgesand

In1975,JusticeM.H.BegwasappointedsupersedingJusticeH.R.Khanna.

AjudgeoftheSupremeCourtorH ighC ourtscanberemovedonlyonthegroundofprovenmisbehaviororincapacity.

AmotioncontainingthechargesagainstthejudgemustbeapprovedbyspecialmajorityinboththeHousesofParliamentonlythena
judgecanberemoved.

JurisdictionsofSupremeCourt
TheSupremeCourtofIndiaactsasthehighestcourtofappealincivilandcriminalcases.Ithearsappealsagainstthedecisionsofthe
HighCourts.However,theSupremeCourthearsanycaseifitpleasestodoso.

TheSupremeCourthasgotjurisdictiontotakeupanydisputesuchas

Betweencitizensofthecountry

Betweencitizensandgovernment

Betweentwoormorestategovernmentsand

Betweengovernmentsattheunionandstatelevel.

TheSupremeCourtandtheHighCourtsarethecustodianofourconstitution.TheyhavethepowertointerprettheConstitutionofthe
country.

TheSupremeCourtcandeclareanylawofthelegislatureortheactionsoftheexecutiveunconstitutionalifsuchalaworactionis
againsttheprovisionsoftheConstitution.

TheSupremeCourthasOriginalJurisdiction.ItmeanssomecasescanbedirectlyconsideredbytheSupremeCourtwithoutgoing
tothelowercourts.

TheSupremeCourthasWritJurisdiction.Itmeansanyindividual,whosefundamentalrighthasbeenviolated,candirectlygoto
theSupremeCourtforappropriateremedy.

TheSupremeCourtisthehighestcourtofappeal(AppellateJurisdiction).ItmeansapersoncanappealtotheSupremeCourtagainst
thedecisionsoftheHighCourt.

TheSupremeCourthasAdvisoryJurisdiction.ItmeansthePresidentofIndiacanreferanymatterthatisofpublicimportanceor
involvesinterpretationofConstitutiontoSupremeCourtforadvice.

Articleof137oftheConstitutionstatesthattheSupremeCourtshallhavethepowertoreviewanyjudgmentpronouncedorordermade
byit.

Article144oftheConstitutionstatesthatallauthorities,civilandjudicial,intheterritoryofIndiashallactinaidoftheSupremeCourt.

ThechiefinstrumentthroughwhichjudicialactivismhascomeintoexistenceinIndiaisPublicInterestLitigationP I LorSocial
ActionLitigationS AL.

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Whenacaseisfilednotbyaggrievedpeople,butratherontheirbehalf,someoneelse,asitinvolvesaconsiderationofanissueofpublic
interest,hence,itisknownasPublicInterestLitigationP I LorSocialActionLitigationS AL.

RightsoftheSupremeCourt
ThetwomostimportantrightsofJudiciaryare

ItcanrestorefundamentalrightsbyissuingwritsofHabeasCorpusmandamusetc.underArticle32oftheConstitutionandthe
sameactioncanbetakenbytheHighCourtsaswellundertheArticle226ofConstitution.

UnderArticle13oftheConstitutiontheSupremeCourtcandeclaretheconcernedlawasunconstitutionalandthereforenon
operational.

TheJudicialReviewJ R isoneofthemostimportantpowersoftheSupremeCourt.

JudicialReviewmeansthepoweroftheSupremeCourttoexaminetheconstitutionalityofanylawso,iftheCourtarrivesatthe
conclusionthattheaforesaidlawisinconsistentwiththeprovisionsoftheConstitution,suchalawisdeclaredasunconstitutionaland
inapplicable.

TheSupremeCourtandtheH ighC ourtshasthepowertochecktheConstitutionalvalidityofanylegislationoractionoftheexecutive,

whenitischallengedbeforethem.Thispoweriscalledjudicialreview.

TheSupremeCourtofIndiaalsoguardstheConstitutionagainstanychangeinitsbasicprinciplesbytheParliament.

TheindependenceandpowersexercisedbytheIndianjudiciaryinIndiamaketheSupremeCourttoactastheguardianofthe
FundamentalRights.

TheIndianConstitutionisbasedonasubtleprincipleoflimitedseparationofpowersandchecksandbalances,whichmeanseach
organofthegovernmenthasaclearareaoffunctioning.Forexample,

TheParliamentissupremeinmakinglawsandamendingtheConstitution

TheExecutiveissupremeinimplementingthelawsand

Thejudiciaryissupremeinsettlingdisputesanddecidingwhetherthelawsthathavebeenmadeareinaccordancewiththe
provisionsoftheConstitution.

InalandmarkjudgmentofKesavanandaBharaticase1973,theSupremeCourtruledthatthereisaBasicStructureofthe
ConstitutionandnobodynoteventheParliamentthroughamendment canviolatethebasicstructure.

InKesavanandaBharaticase,theSupremeCourtdidtwothings

Itsaidthatrighttopropertywasnotpartofthebasicstructureandthereforecouldbesuitablyamended.

TheCourtreservedtoitselftherighttodecidewhethervariousmattersarepartofthebasicstructureoftheConstitution.

IndianPolityFederalSystem
Introduction
Federalismisaninstitutionalmechanismtoaccommodatetwosetsofpolities,i.e.,firstisthecenterornationallevelandsecondisatthe
provincialorregionallevel.Boththesetsofpolitiesareautonomousinitsownsphere.

Eachlevelofthepolityhasdistinctpowersandresponsibilitiesandhasaseparatesystemofgovernment.

Thedetailsofthisfederalismordualsystemofgovernmentaregenerallyfoundinawrittenconstitution.

WrittenConstitutionisconsideredtobesupremeandalsothesourceofthepowerofbothsetsofgovernment.

Certainsubjects,whicharetheconcernofanationasawhole,forexample,defenseorcurrency,aretheresponsibilityoftheunionor
centralgovernment.

Ontheotherhand,regionalorlocalmattersaretheresponsibilityoftheregionalorstategovernment.

Incaseofaconflictbetweenthecenterandthestateonanyissue,thejudiciaryhasthepowerstoresolvethedisputes.

ThoughtheIndianConstitutiondoesnotusethewordfederalismanywherehowever,thestructureofIndiangovernmentisdivided
intotwosetsofgovernmentsi.e.

FortheentirenationknownastheUnionGovernmentorcentralgovernment and

ForeachunitorstateknownastheStateGovernment.

ThefollowingdiagramillustratesthebasicstructureofFederalSystem

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SubjectsofFederalSystem
TheConstitutionclearlydemarcatessubjects,whichareundertheexclusivedomainoftheUnionandthoseundertheexclusiveof
States.

Likewise,theConstitutiondescribesthreelists

UnionListsubjectsdealtbyonlyC entralGovernment

StateListsubjectsdealtnormallybyS tatesonly and

ConcurrentListbothU nionandS tatehavethepowertolegislatethesesubjects .

UnionList
SubjectsofUnionListare
Defense
AtomicEnergy
ForeignAffairs
WarandPeace
Banking
Railways
PostandTelegraph
Airways
Ports
ForeignTrade
Currency&Coinage

StateList

SubjectsofStateListsare
Agriculture
Police
Prison
LocalGovernment
PublicHeath
Land
Liquor
TradeandCommerce
LivestockandAnimalHusbandry
StatePublicServices

ConcurrentList

SubjectsofConcurrentListsare
Education
TransferofPropertyotherthanAgriculturalland
Forests
TradeUnions
Adulteration

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AdoptionandSuccession

OtherFacts
Article257oftheConstitutionisreadas:TheexecutivepowerofeveryStateshallbesoexercisedasnottoimpedeorprejudicethe
exerciseoftheexecutivepoweroftheUnion,andtheexecutivepoweroftheUnionshallextendtothegivingofsuchdirectionstoa
StateasmayappeartotheGovernmentofIndiatobenecessaryforthatpurpose.

TheSarkariaCommissionwasappointedbythecentralgovernmentin1983toexaminetheissuesrelatingtocenterStaterelationsthe
Commissionsubmitteditsreportin1988andrecommendedthatappointmentsofGovernorsshouldbestrictlynonpartisan.

In1953,theStatesReorganizationCommissionwassetupanditrecommendedthecreationoflinguisticStates,atleastforthemajor
linguisticgroups.

Resultantly,GujaratandMaharashtrawerecreatedin1960andtheprocessisstillgoingon.

TheConstitutionofIndiaunderArticle371 hasgivensomespecialprovisionsforsomeStatesafterconsideringtheirpeculiarsocial
andhistoricalcircumstances.However,mostofthespecialprovisionsarerelatedtothenortheasternStates
i. e. Assam, N agaland, ArunachalP radesh, M izoram, etc. largelyduetoasizeableindigenoustribalpopulationwithadistinct

historyandculture.

UnderArticle370oftheConstitution,thenorthernmoststateJammuandKashmirhasalsospecialprovisions.

OneofthemajordifferencesbetweentheotherStatesandtheStateofJ&Karethatnoemergencyduetointernaldisturbancescanbe
declaredinJ&KwithouttheconcurrenceoftheState.

TheUnionGovernmentcannotimposeafinancialemergencyinJ&KandtheDirectivePrinciplesalsodonotapplyinJ&K.

AnamendmenttotheIndianConstitutionunderArt. 368canonlyapplyinconcurrencewiththegovernmentofJ&K.

IndianPolityCenterStateRelation
Introduction
Articles245to263ofPartXIandArticles268to293ofPartXIIdescribethreetypesofCenterStaterelationsi.e.Legislative,
Administrative,andFinancial.

LegislativeRelations
Articles245to255describeLegislativerelations.

Article2451statesthatSubjecttotheprovisionsofthisConstitution,Parliamentmaymakelawsforthewholeoranypartofthe
territoryofIndia,andtheLegislatureofaStatemaymakelawsforthewholeoranypartoftheState.

Article2452statesthatnolawmadebyParliamentshallbedeemedtobeinvalidonthegroundthatitwouldhaveextraterritorial
operation.

Article246statesthattheParliamenthasexclusivepowertomakelawswithrespecttoanyofthemattersenumeratedinListI
i. e. U nionListandListIIIi. e. C oncurrentList oftheSeventhSchedule.

Article248statesthattheParliamenthasexclusivepowertomakeanylawwithrespecttoanymatternotenumeratedintheConcurrent
ListorStateList.

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Further,Article250statesthatnotwithstandinganythinginthisChapter,Parliamentshall,whileaProclamationofEmergencyisin
operation,havepowertomakelawsforthewholeoranypartoftheterritoryofIndiawithrespecttoanyofthemattersenumeratedin
theStateList.

AdministrativeRelations
Articles255to263describeLegislativerelations.

Article256statesthattheexecutivepowerofeveryStateshallbesoexercisedastoensurecompliancewiththelawsmadeby
ParliamentandanyexistinglawswhichapplyinthatState,andtheexecutivepoweroftheUnionshallextendtothegivingofsuch
directionstoaStateasmayappeartotheGovernmentofIndiatobenecessaryforthatpurpose.

Article2571statesthattheexecutivepowerofeveryStateshallbesoexercisedasnottoimpedeorprejudicetheexerciseofthe
executivepoweroftheUnion,andtheexecutivepoweroftheUnionshallextendtothegivingofsuchdirectionstoaStateasmay
appeartotheGovernmentofIndiatobenecessaryforthatpurpose.

Article2582statesthatalawmadebyParliamentwhichappliesinanyStatemay,notwithstandingthatitrelatestoamatterwithrespect
towhichtheLegislatureoftheStatehasnopowertomakelaws,conferpowersandimposeduties,orauthorizetheconferringofpowers
andtheimpositionofduties,upontheStateorofficersandauthoritiesthereof.

Article2613statesthatfinaljudgmentsorordersdeliveredorpassedbycivilcourtsinanypartoftheterritoryofIndiashallbecapable
ofexecutionanywherewithinthatterritoryaccordingtolaw.

Article2621statesthatParliamentmaybylawprovidefortheadjudicationofanydisputeorcomplaintwithrespecttotheuse,
distributionorcontrolofthewatersof,orin,anyinterStateriverorrivervalley.

Article2622statesthatnotwithstandinganythinginthisConstitution,ParliamentmaybelawprovidethatneithertheSupremeCourt
noranyothercourtshallexercisejurisdictioninrespectofanysuchdisputeorcomplaintasisreferredtoinclause1.

FinancialRelations
Articles268to293describeFinancialrelations.

Article268describestheDutiesleviedbytheUnionbutcollectedandappropriatedbytheStates.

Article269describestheTaxesleviedandcollectedbytheUnionbutassignedtotheStates.

Article270describestheTaxesleviedanddistributedbetweentheUnionandtheStates.

IndianPolityEmergencyProvision
Introduction
PARTXVIIIandArticles352to360describetheemergencyprovisionsofIndia.

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UndertheIndianConstitution,therearethreetypesofemergencyprovisions

NationalEmergency

Failureofconstitutionalmachineryinstate/sorPresidentsRuleand

FinancialEmergency.

NationalEmergency
Article352statesthatifthePresidentissatisfiedthatagraveemergencyexistswherebythesecurityofIndiaorofanypartofthe
territorythereofisthreatened,whetherbywarorexternalaggressionorarmedrebellion,hemay,byProclamation,makeadeclarationto
thateffectinrespectofthewholeofIndiaorofsuchpartoftheterritorythereofasmaybespecifiedintheProclamation.

However,Article3524statesthateveryProclamationissuedunderthisarticleshallbelaidbeforeeachHouseofParliamentandshall,
exceptwhereitisaProclamationrevokingapreviousProclamation,ceasetooperateattheexpirationofonemonthunlessbeforethe
expirationofthatperiodithasbeenapprovedbyresolutionsofbothHousesofParliament.

Further,Article3525statesthataProclamationsoapprovedshall,unlessrevoked,ceasetooperateontheexpirationofaperiodofsix
monthsfromthedateofthepassingofthesecondoftheresolutionsapprovingtheProclamationunderclause4.

Article353statesthatwhileaProclamationofEmergencyisinoperation,thentheexecutivepoweroftheUnionshallextendtothe
givingofdirectionstoanyStateastothemannerinwhichtheexecutivepowerthereofistobeexercised.

Failureofconstitutionalmachineryinstate/sorPresidentsRule
Article356statesthatifthePresident,onreceiptofareportfromtheGovernorofaStateorotherwise,issatisfiedthatasituationhas
ariseninwhichtheGovernmentoftheStatecannotbecarriedoninaccordancewiththeprovisionsofthisConstitution,thenhe
theP residentmayissuestateemergency.

Article3563statesthateveryProclamationunderthisarticleshallbelaidbeforeeachHouseofParliamentandshall,exceptwhereitis
aProclamationrevokingapreviousProclamation,ceasetooperateattheexpirationoftwomonthsunlessbeforetheexpirationofthat
periodithasbeenapprovedbyresolutionsofbothHousesofParliament.

Further,Article3564statesthataProclamationsoapprovedshall,unlessrevoked,ceasetooperateontheexpirationofaperiodofsix
monthsfromthedateofissueoftheProclamation.

Article357statesthatwherebyaProclamationissuedunderclause1ofArticle356,ithasbeendeclaredthatthepowersofthe
LegislatureoftheStateshallbeexercisablebyorundertheauthorityofParliament.

Article359statesthatwhereaProclamationofEmergencyisinoperation,thePresidentmaybyorderdeclarethattherighttomoveany
courtfortheenforcementofsuchoftherightsconferredbyPartIIIexceptarticles20and21asmaybementionedintheorderandall
proceedingspendinginanycourtfortheenforcementoftherightssomentionedshallremainsuspendedfortheperiodduringwhichthe
Proclamationisinforceorforsuchshorterperiodasmaybespecifiedintheorder.

FinancialEmergency
Article360statesthatifthePresidentissatisfiedthatasituationhasarisenwherebythefinancialstabilityorcreditofIndiaorofany
partoftheterritorythereofisthreatened,hemaybyaProclamationmakeadeclarationtothateffect.

Article3604bstatesthatitshallbecompetentforthePresidentduringtheperiodanyProclamationissuedunderthisarticleisin
operationtoissuedirectionsforthereductionofsalariesandallowancesofalloranyclassofpersonsservinginconnectionwiththe
affairsoftheUnionincludingtheJudgesoftheSupremeCourtandtheHighCourts.

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IndianPolityElectionsSystem
Introduction
InIndia,therearethreelevelsofgovernment,i.e.,

Centerlevel,
Statelevel,and
Locallevel.

Atcenterlevel,electionsareconductedtoelectMemberofParliament,whichisknownasLokSabhaelections.

ForLokSabhaelection,thewholecountryisdividedinto543constituenciesandeachconstituencyelectsonerepresentativeasa
MemberofParliamentM P .

AttheStatelevel,anelectioniscalledassemblyelectionhowever,unlikecenter,eachstateisdividedintoadifferentspecificnumberof
Assemblyconstituencies.

TheelectedrepresentativeintheassemblyelectioniscalledastheMemberofLegislativeAssemblyM LA.

Similarly,atthelocallevel,electionsareheldfortheelectionofPradhaninPanchayatruralareasandcounselorinMunicipalurban
areas.

Eachvillageortownisdividedintoseveralwardssimilartoconstituenciesandeachwardelectsonememberofthevillageorthe
urbanlocalbodyrespectively.

ReservedConstituencies
EverycitizenofIndiahastherighttovotetoelectarepresentativeaswellastobeelectedasarepresentative.

Toprovideafairopportunitytoacandidatebelongingtoweakersectionsinanopenelectoralcompetition
againstthosewhoareinf luentialandresourcef ul,asystemofreservedconstituencyisadopted.

Thereservedsystemensuresequalopportunitytoallandprovidesarealchoiceofelectiontothevotersfromweakersections.

SomeconstituenciesarereservedforthepeoplebelongingtotheScheduledCastesS C andScheduledTribesS T inaproportionof

theirpopulationintherespectiveregions.

Inareservedconstituency,onlythepersonsbelongingtothereservedcategoryareeligibletocontestanelection.

Ason1September2012,84seatswerereservedforSCCategoryand47seatswerereservedforSTCategoryinLokSabha.

Similarly,33%oftheseatsarereservedinruralandurbanlocalbodiesforwomencandidates.

VotingSystem
Theprincipleofauniversaladultfranchiseisthefoundationofthedemocracythatgiveseverycitizenarighttohaveonevoteandeach
voteshouldhaveequalvalue.

Everycitizenof18yearsormorehastherighttovote,irrespectiveofhiscaste,religion,gender,educationalqualification,financial
status,etc.

Toensurethatnotevenasinglepersonisdeniedofthisbasicrightforanyreasonwhatsoever,alistofallvoterseligibletovoteis
prepared.ThislistisofficiallycalledastheElectoralRollortheVotersList.

Thevoterslistisprovidedtothevotersofeachconstituencymuchbeforetheelectionforthepurposeofinspectionandcorrection.

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Onthedayofelection,thepeoplecasttheirvotesaspertheirnamesmentionedinthevoterlist.

Thismethodensuresthatnotasinglepersonisdeniedhis/herrighttovoteandthuseveryoneshouldgetanequalopportunitytochoose
theirrepresentatives.

Thegovernmentisresponsibletoupdatethevoterslistbeforetheelectionnewnamesofalltheeligiblevotersareaddedtothevoters
listandnamesofthosewhomoveoutfromtheirresidentialplaceorthosewhohavebeendiedaredeleted.

Acompleterevisionofthevoterslisttakesplaceeveryfiveyears.

NominationofCandidates
Inademocraticcountry,asystemoffreeandfairelectionprovidesthepeopleofeverysectionarealchoicetovoteandafairchanceto
contest.Therearenorestrictionsonanyonetocontestanelectionexceptinreservedconstituencies.

Tocontestanelection,acandidateshouldbeof25yearsormoreofagewithsoundmindandnocriminalbackground.

Politicalpartiesintroducetheircandidatesandgivethemthepartyticket.

Acandidatewhowishestocontestanelectionhastofillanominationformanddepositsomemoneyassecurityfees.

Besides,theSupremeCourthasalsogivendirectionsthateverycontestingcandidatehastodisclosehis/herpersonalinformationtothe
voters.Sothatthevotercanchoosearightcandidateonthebasisofgiveninformation.

FollowingthedirectionsoftheSupremeCourt,theElectionCommissionofIndiaputinplaceasystemofadeclarationonanaffidavit.

Theproposedcandidatehastomakealegaldeclaration,givingfulldetailsofhis

Criminalcasespendingagainstthecandidate

Detailsoftheassetsandliabilitiesofthecandidateandhisorherfamily

Educationqualificationsofthecandidate.

EducationalQualificationsforCandidates
IntheIndianpoliticalsystem,educationalqualificationisnotrequired,eitherforthevotersorforthecontestingcandidates.

PoliticsinIndiadoesnotrequireeducationalqualificationsofapersonforselectiontobealeader.Itisjustlikethecriteriaforselection
inacricketteam,theabilityoftheplayertoplaycricketandnothiseducationalqualification.

TheessentialqualificationforanMLAoranMPinpoliticsistheirabilitytounderstandpeoplesconcerns,problems,andtorepresent
theirinterests.

Itisleftuponthevoterstodecidewhethertheirrepresentativeisqualifiedtounderstandtheirproblemsandabletosolvethem.

ElectionCampaign
Themainpurposeofanelectionistogivethepeopleachancetochoosetheirrepresentativesandmakeagovernmentoftheirchoice
whoframespoliciestoaddresstheirconcerns.

Duringelectioncampaigns,votersgettheopportunitytohaveafreeandopendiscussionaboutwhoisabettercandidate,whichparty
cangiveabettergovernment,orwhataretheirpolicies.

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InIndia,electioncampaignstakeplacefortwoweeksperiodbetweentheannouncementofthefinallistofcandidatesandthedateof
polling.

Duringcampaigns,thepoliticalleadersaddresselectionralliesandpoliticalpartiesmobilizetheirsupporters.

Thecontestingcandidatescontacttheirvotersthroughvariousmethodssuchas

Theyadvertiseinnewspapers,radio,television,etc.

Theypublishpamphletsanddistributethemintheirrespectiveconstituencies

Theyarrangeralliesandgivespeechesateverypublicplaceoftheirconstituencies

Theytelltheirvotersabouttheirplanandpoliciesandalsoaskabouttheirvoters problems.

Theytrytoconvincetheirvotersintheirfavorandappealthemtovoteandelecttherightcandidate.

CodeofConduct
TheIndianelectionsystemisbasedonthelaw,whichprovidesacodeofconductforeverypersoncontestinganelection.

Ifanypoliticalpartyorcandidateviolatesthiscodeofconduct,his/herelectioncanberejectedbythecourtevenaftertheyhavebeen
declaredelected.

Thiscodeofconductstatesthatnopartyorcandidatecan

Bribeorthreatenvoters

Appeal/mesmerizethemvoters inthenameofcasteorreligion

Usegovernmentresourcesforelectioncampaign

SpendmorethanRs.25lakhinaconstituencyforaLokSabhaelection

SpendmorethanRs.10lakhinaconstituencyforanAssemblyelection.

Inadditiontothelaws,allthepoliticalpartiesinIndiahaveagreedtoaModelCodeofConductforelectioncampaigns.Accordingto
this,nopartyorcandidatecan

Useanyplaceofworshipforelectionpropaganda

Usegovernmentvehicles,aircraft,andofficialsforelections

Onceelectionsareannounced,Ministersshallnotlayfoundationstonesofanyprojects

Takeanybigpolicydecisionsormakeanypromisesofprovidingpublicfacilities.

AnyviolationofanyruleneedstobereportedtotheElectionCommission,whichhassufficientpowerandauthoritytotakeappropriate
actionagainsttheviolators.

PollingandCountingofVotes
TheElectionCommissionofIndiapreparesatimetableforelection.Aparticulardayisfixedforpollinginaparticularconstituency.
Thisiscalledelectionday,usually,itisdeclaredasaholiday.

Voterswhosenameisonthevoterslistgotoanearbypollingboothandcasttheirvoteonebyone.

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Insidethepollingbooth,theelectionofficialsidentifythevoteraspertheirnameinthevoterlistandalsochecktheirI dentityC ard.

Afteridentifyingtherightvoter,theelectionofficialsputamarkonthelefthandindexfinger,andthenallowtocastavote.

Pollingofficerskeeptherecordsofthosewhohavecasttheirvotesandmaintainaproperregister.

Aballotpaperisasheetofpapercomprisingalistofnamesofallthecontestingcandidatesalongwithpartynameandsymbols.

Earlier,thevotersusedtomarktheirchoicebyputtingastampontheballotpaperagainstthenameandmarkofthecandidateoftheir
choice.

Nowadays,electronicvotingmachinesEV M areusedtocastthevotesthemachineshowsthenamesofthecandidateandtheparty
symbolsasshowninthegivenimage.

Avoterneedstopressthebuttonagainstthenameofthecandidatewhohe/shewantstoelect.

Oncethepollingisover,alltheEVMsaresealedandtakentoacentralizedplacewherealltheEVMsarekeptandlateron,voteswere
counted.

IndependentElectionCommission
ElectionsinourcountryareconductedthroughapowerfulandindependentinstitutioncalledtheElectionCommissionofIndia.

TheElectionCommissionofIndiaisaconstitutionalbodywhichisanautonomousbodyindependentofthegovernment.Itenjoysthe
samekindofindependencelikethejudgesoftheSupremeCourtofIndia.

TheChiefElectionCommissionofIndiaC EC isappointedbythePresidentofIndia,butafterhisappointment,theChiefElection
CommissionerisnotanswerabletothePresidentorthegovernment.

Inamatterofelection,ithasbeengivenwidepowerstoconductfreeandfairelection.Theyactivelyusethesepowerstoformfair
government.

Thegovernmentortherulingpartyhasnooccasiontoinfluenceorpressurizetheelectioncommission.

RoleofElectionCommission
TheElectionCommissiontakesdecisionsoneveryaspectrelatedtotheelectionfromtheannouncementofelectionstothedeclaration
ofresults.

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TheElectionCommissionsupervisesandcontrolstheadministrationofelections.Itchecksandcorrectanyfaultimmediately.

TheElectionCommissionimplementstheCodeofConductandpunishesanycandidateorpartywhoisfoundguiltyofanyviolation.

Duringtheelectionperiod,theElectionCommissionacquirespowerstoorderthegovernmenttofollowsettledguidelinestopreventuse
andmisuseofgovernmentalpowertoenhanceitschancestowinelections,ortotransfersomegovernmentofficials.

AlltheofficersandstaffofthegovernmentthatisputonelectiondutyworksunderthecontroloftheElectionCommissionandnot
underthegovernment.

AcceptanceofElectionOutcome
TheelectoraloutcomesinIndiaareusuallyacceptedaspeoplesverdictbythedefeatedcandidatesorparty.

ThetestofthefreeandfairelectioninIndiamanifestedintheoutcomeoftheelectionresult.

InIndia,theresultofelectionfrequentlychangestherulinggovernment,whichclearlyillustratesthattheelectionsinIndiaarefreeand
fair.

TherulingpartiesroutinelyloseelectionsinIndia,bothatthenationalandstatelevel.Infact,ineverytwooutofthethreeelections
heldinthelastfifteenyears,therulingpartylost.

IndianPolityPoliticalParties
Introduction
Indiangovernancesystemhasmultipartysystemandthepoliticalpartiesarecategorizedas

NationalPoliticalParty
StateorRegionallevelPoliticalParty.

TherecognitionandstatusofpoliticalpartiesarereviewedandauthorizedbytheElectionCommissionofIndia.

EligibilityofNationalPoliticalParty
However,tobeeligibleforaNationalPoliticalPartyofIndia,theElectionCommissionhassetthefollowingcriteria

Itsecuresatleastsixpercentofthevalidvotespolledinanyfourormorestates,atageneralelectiontotheHouseofthePeople
or,totheStateLegislativeAssemblyand

Inaddition,itwinsatleastfourseatsintheHouseofthePeoplefromanyStateorStates.

OR

ItwinsatleasttwopercentseatsintheHouseofthePeoplei. e. , 11seatsintheexistingH ousehaving543members ,andthese

membersareelectedfromatleastthreedifferentStates.

EligibilityofStatePoliticalParty
TobeeligibleforaStatePoliticalParty,theElectionCommissionhassetthefollowingcriteria

ItsecuresatleastsixpercentofthevalidvotespolledintheStateatageneralelection,eithertotheHouseofthePeopleortothe
LegislativeAssemblyoftheStateconcernedand

Inaddition,itwinsatleasttwoseatsintheLegislativeAssemblyoftheStateconcerned.

OR

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Itwinsatleastthreepercent3ofthetotalnumberofseatsintheLegislativeAssemblyoftheState,oratleastthreeseatsinthe
Assembly,whicheverismore.

ThefollowingtableillustratesthemajorNationalPoliticalPartiesofIndia

PoliticalPartyName Abbreviation Foundedin CurrentLeader

IndianNationalCongress INC 1885 SoniaGandhi
CommunistPartyofIndia CPI 1925 SuravaramSudhakarReddy
CommunistPartyofIndiaM arxist CPIM 1964 SitaramYechury
BharatiyaJanataParty BJP 1980 AmitShah
BahujanSamajParty BSP 1985 Mayavati

IndianPolityConstitutionalAmendments
UnderArticle368specif icprovisionoftheConstitution,theParliamentistherepositoryoftheconstituentpoweroftheUnionand
hence,itcanamendtheConstitutionalprovisionaspertherequirement/swithinthecircumscribedlimit .

Article3681statesthatnotwithstandinganythinginthisConstitution,theParliamentmayexerciseitsconstituentpoweramendbyway
ofaddition,variationorrepealanyprovisionofthisConstitutioninaccordancewiththeprocedurelaiddowninthisarticle.

Article3682statesthatanamendmentofthisConstitutionmaybeinitiatedonlybytheintroductionofaBillforthepurposeineither
HouseofParliament,andwhentheBillispassedineachHousebyamajorityofthetotalmembershipofthatHouseandbyamajority
ofnotlessthantwothirdsofthemembersofthatHousepresentandvoting,itshallbepresentedtothePresidentwhoshallgivehis
assenttotheBillandthereupontheConstitutionshallstandamendedinaccordancewiththetermsoftheBill.

Article3684statesthatnoamendmentofthisConstitutionincludingtheprovisionsof P artI I I madeorpurportingtohavebeen

madeunderthisarticlewhetherbeforeorafterthecommencementofsection55oftheConstitutionF orty secondAmendmentAct,
1976shallbecalledinquestioninanycourtonanyground.

Article3685statesthatfortheremovalofdoubts,itisherebydeclaredthatthereshallbenolimitationwhateverontheconstituent
powerofParliamenttoamendbywayofaddition,variationorrepealtheprovisionsofthisConstitutionunderthisarticle.

IndianPolityConstitutionalSchedules
Primarily,therewereonlyeightScheduleshowever,fourscheduleswereaddedaftersubsequentamendments.

Summaryofalltwelveschedulesisillustratedinthefollowingtable

Schedules Parts Lists

PartI ListoftheStates.
ScheduleI
PartII ListoftheUnion.
PartA ProvisionsastothePresidentandtheGovernorsofStates.
PartB Repealed
ProvisionsastotheSpeakerandtheDeputySpeakeroftheHouseofthePeopleand
theChairmanandtheDeputyChairmanoftheCouncilofStatesandtheSpeaker
ScheduleII PartC
andtheDeputySpeakeroftheLegislativeAssemblyandtheChairmanandthe
DeputyChairmanoftheLegislativeCouncilofaState.
PartD ProvisionsastotheJudgesoftheSupremeCourtandoftheHighCourts.
PartE ProvisionsastotheComptrollerandAuditorGeneralofIndia.
ScheduleIII FormsofOathsorAffirmations.
ScheduleIV AllocationofseatsintheCouncilofStates.
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ScheduleV ProvisionsastotheAdministrationandControlofScheduledAreasandScheduled
Tribes.
ProvisionsastotheAdministrationofTribalAreasintheStatesofAssam,
ScheduleVI
Meghalaya,Tripura,andMizoram.
ListI UnionList
ScheduleVII ListII StateList
ListIII ConcurrentList

Listof22Languages

1.Assamese 2.Bengali 3.Gujarati

4.Hindi 5.Kannada 6.Kashmiri
7.Malayalam 8.Marathi 9.Oriya
10.Punjabi 11.Sanskrit 12.Tamil
13.Telugu 14.Urdu 15.Sindhi
ScheduleVIII
16.Konkani 17.Manipuri 18.Nepali
19.Santhali 20.Bodo 21.Maithili
22.Dogri

Initially,therewereonly14languages,butafter21stAmendment1967Sindhiwas
addedafter71stAmendment1992,Konkani,Manipuri,andNepaliaddedandafter
92ndAmendment2003,Santhali,Bodo,Maithili,andDogriadded.

ScheduleIX Addedby1stAmendment Containsacts&ordersrelatedtolandtenure,landtax,railways,industries

in1951 Rightof propertynotaf undamentalright .

ScheduleX Addedby52ndAmendment Provisionsastodisqualificationongroundofdefection.

in1985

ScheduleXI Addedby73rdAmendment Powers,authorityandresponsibilitiesofPanchayats.

in1992

ScheduleXII Addedby74thAmendment Powers,authorityandresponsibilitiesofMunicipalities,etc.

in1992

IndianPolitySeparationofPowers
TheprincipleofseparationofpowershasnotbeenplacedclearlyinIndianConstitutionhowever,theseparatefunctionsofthethree
specifiedOrgansi. e. Executive, P arliament, andJ udiciaryarespecified.

AmongallthethreeOrgans,nooneissuperiortotheother,andonecannotcontroltheother,inanymanner,butratherallthreeOrgans
needtoworkinharmony.

Article50oftheConstitutionseparatestheExecutivefromtheJudiciary.

Article531statesthattheexecutivepoweroftheUnionshallbevestedinthePresidentandshallbeexercisedbyhimeitherdirectlyor
throughofficerssubordinatetohiminaccordancewiththisConstitution.

Further,thePresident,beingtheexecutiveheadofthecountry,isalsoempoweredtoexerciselegislativepowersincertaincondition
Article123 .

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Article73a statesthattheParliamenthaspowertomakelawsandbtotheexerciseofsuchrights,authority,andjurisdictionasare
exercisablebytheGovernmentofIndiabyvirtueofanytreatyoragreement.

ThefunctionoftheJudiciaryistoReviewtheactionofthelegislatureandtheExecutive.

Further,Article121statesthatnodiscussionshalltakeplaceinParliamentwithrespecttotheconductofanyJudgeoftheSupreme
CourtorofaHighCourtinthedischargeofhisdutiesexceptuponamotionforpresentinganaddresstothePresidentprayingforthe
removaloftheJudgeashereinafterprovided.

Article1221statesthatthevalidityofanyproceedingsintheParliamentshallnotbecalledinquestiononthegroundofanyalleged
irregularityofprocedure.

However,therearesomecheckandbalancefabricatedintheConstitutiontobalancethepoweramongthesethreeOrgans.

IndianPolityPartsofConstitution
ThegiventabledescribesthedetailsofPartsoftheConstitutionofIndia

PartI TheUnionanditsTerritory Article1to4

PartII Citizenship Article5to11
PartIII FundamentalRights Article12to35
PartIV DirectivePrinciplesofStatePolicy Article36to51
PartIVA FundamentalDuties Article51A
PartV TheUnion Article52to151
PartVI TheStates Article152to237
PartVII TheStatesinPartBofTheFirstSchedule Article238
PartVIII TheUnionTerritories Article239to243
PartIX Panchayats Article243to243O
PartIXA Municipalities Article243P to243Z G
PartX TheScheduleandTribalAreas Article244to244A
PartXI RelationsbetweentheUnionandtheStates Article245to263
PartXII Finance,Property,Contracts,andSuits Article264to300A
PartXIII Trade,Commerce,andIntercoursewithintheTerritoryofIndia Article301to307
PartXIV ServiceundertheUnionandtheStates Article308to323
PartXIVA Tribunals Article323Ato323B
PartXV Elections Article324to329A
PartXVI SpecialProvisionsRelatingtoCertainClasses Article330to342
PartXVII OfficialLanguage Article343to351
PartXVIII EmergencyProvisions Article352to360
PartXIX Miscellaneous Article361to367
PartXX Amendment Article368
PartXXI Temporary,Transitional,andSpecialProvisions Article369to392
PartXXII ShortTitle,Commencement,AuthoritativeTextinHindiandRepeals Article393to395

IndianPolityInternationalOrganizations
Introduction
TheUnitedNationsOrganizationorsimplyUNO/UNisregardedasthemostimportantinternationalorganizationintodaysworld.

Internationalorganizationshelpwithmattersofwarandpeaceaswellashelpcountriescreatebetterlivingconditionsforusall.

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Aninternationalorganizationcanhelptoproduceinformationandideasabouthowtocooperateeachotherexperienceoverallgrowth.

Aninternationalorganizationcanalsoprovidemechanisms,rules,andabureaucracy,tohelpmembershavemoreconfidencethatthe
costswillbesharedproperlyandtobenefitgovernments.

In1945,theUNwasfoundedasasuccessortotheLeagueofNations.

TheUNsperspectiveistobringcountriestogethertoimprovetheprospectsofsocialandeconomicdevelopmentallovertheworld.

StructureoftheUNO
TherearefiveimportantbodiesofUNO,asshowninthefollowingdiagram

IntheUNSecurityCouncil,therearefivepermanentmembersandtennonpermanentmembers.

Thefivepermanentmembersare

TheUnitedStates,
Russia,
TheUnitedKingdom,
France,and
China.

Allthesefivemembershavethevetopower.

Thenonpermanentmembersserveforonlytwoyearsatatimeandgivewaytonewlyelectedmembers.

Thenonpermanentmembersareelectedinamannersothattheyrepresentallcontinentsoftheworld.

IntheUNGeneralAssembly,allmembershaveonevoteeach.

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TheSecretaryGeneralistheheadoftheUN.

FunctionsofUN
ThemajorfunctionsoftheUNare

CreationofaPeacebuildingCommission.

Acceptanceoftheresponsibilitytotheinternationalcommunityincaseoffailuresofnationalgovernmentstoprotecttheirown
citizensfromatrocities.

EstablishmentofaHumanRightsCounciloperationalsince19J une2006.

Condemnationofterrorisminallitsformsandmanifestations,etc.

AgenciesofUN
TheUNconsistsofmanydifferentstructuresandagencies(collectivelyknownasUNFamilyshowninthemapgivenbelow)and
theyhavespecializedroletoplay.Forexample

WorldHealthOrganizationW H O ,

UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgrammeU N DP ,

UnitedNationsHumanRightsCommissionU N H RC ,

UnitedNationsHighCommissionforRefugeesU N H C R,

UnitedNationsChildrensFundU N I C EF ,

UnitedNationsEducational,Scientific,andCulturalOrganizationU N ES C O,etc.

IndianPolityEnvironment&Politics
Introduction
Inthepresentworld,cultivableareaisbarelyexpandinganymore,andasubstantialportionofexistingagriculturallandislosing
fertilitytransf ormingintobarrenlandordesert.

Grasslandshavebeenovergrazedfisheriesoverharvestedwaterbodieshavesufferedextensivedepletionandpollution,severely
restrictingfoodproduction.

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AccordingtotheHumanDevelopmentReport2006oftheUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgram

About1.2billionpeopleindevelopingcountrieshavenoaccesstosafewaterand

About2.6billionhavenoaccesstosanitation.

Theseproblemscollectivelycausingthedeathofmorethanthreemillionchildreneveryyear.

Naturalforestsareasaresteadilydecreasingacrosstheworld.

Depletionofozonelayerandglobalwarmingareothermajorthreatstotheecosystems.

Inthepresentcontext,theissuesofenvironmentandnaturalresourcesarepoliticalindeepersenseandpartof theworldpolitics .

InternationalPrograms
In1972,theClubofRome,aglobalthinktank,publishedabooktitledasLimitstoGrowth,dramatizingthepotentialdepletionof
theEarthsresourcesagainstthebackdropofswiftlygrowingworldpopulation.

UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramU N EP andotherinternationalandregionalorganizationsbeganholdinginternational
conferencesandpromotingdetailedstudiestogetamorecoordinatedandeffectiveresponsetoenvironmentalproblems,asitalready
becameasignificantissueofglobalpolitics.

TheUnitedNationsConferenceonEnvironmentandDevelopmentheldinRiodeJaneiro,Brazil,inJune1992(alsoknownasthe
EarthSummit)wasthebeginningofinternationaleffortonglobalscale.

TheRioSummitproducedconventionsdealingwithclimatechange,biodiversity,forestry,andrecommendedalistofdevelopment
practicescalledAgenda21.

FirstWorld,generallyrefertotheglobalNorthwerepursuingadifferentenvironmentalagendathanthepooranddeveloping
countriesoftheThirdWorld,calledtheglobalSouth.

Further,theNorthernstatesarelargelyconcernedwithozonedepletionandglobalwarming,theSouthernstatesareanxioustoaddress
therelationshipbetweeneconomicdevelopmentandenvironmentalmanagement.

SomecriticshoweverhavepointedoutthattheAgenda21wasbiasedinfavorofeconomicgrowthratherthanensuringecological
conservation.

Commonsinaglobalpoliticalsensearethoseresources,whicharenotownedbyanyone,butrathersharedbyacommunity.

Theareasorregionsoftheworld,whicharelocatedoutsidethesovereignjurisdictionofanyonestate,and,thereforerequirecommon
governancebytheinternationalcommunity.

Examplesofglobalcommonsaretheearthsatmosphere,Antarctica,theoceanfloor
andthehighseasi. e. beyondthe200nauticalmilesf romtherespectivecoast ,andouterspace.

Fortheglobalconsensus,therehavebeenmanypathbreakingagreementssuchasthe1959AntarcticTreaty,the1987Montreal
Protocol,andthe1991AntarcticEnvironmentalProtocol.

However,amajorproblemunderlyingallecologicalissuesrelatestothedifficultyofachievingconsensusoncommonenvironment.
UNF CCC
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The1992UnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChangeU N F C C C alsodiscussedthatthepartiesshouldacttoprotect
theclimatesystemonthebasisofequityandinaccordancewiththeircommon,butdifferentiatedresponsibilitiesandrespective
capabilities.

TheKyotoProtocol1997, K yoto, J apanisaninternationalagreementthatsetstargetsforindustrializedcountriestocuttheir

greenhousegasemissions.However,India,China,andotherdevelopingcountriesareexempted.

Indiasignedandratifiedthe1997KyotoProtocolinAugust2002.

Theglobaleconomyreliedonoilformuchofthe20thcenturyasaportableandindispensablefuel.

TheWorldCouncilofIndigenousPeoplewasformedin1975.

IndianPolityGlobalization
Introduction
Itwouldbeincorrecttoassumethatglobalizationhaspurelyeconomicdimensionsitisamultidimensionalconcept,whichincludes
political,economic,cultural,andideologicalmanifestations.

Theimpactofglobalizationisgreatlyuneven,asitaffectssomesocietiesmorethanothersandsomepartsofsomesocietiesmorethan
others.

Globalizationhasastronghistoricalbasis,anditisimportanttoviewcontemporaryflowsagainstthisbackdrop.

Thetechnologicaladvancementisoneofthemostmajorcausesofglobalization.

WTOandIMFthougharethemajorplayers,butEconomicglobalizationinvolvesmanyotherfactorsaswell.

Whatisoftencalledeconomicglobalizationusuallyinvolvesgreatereconomicflowsamongdifferentcountriesoftheworld.

Manyeconomistsandotherexpertsareworriedthatglobalizationislikelytobenefitonlyasmallsectionofthepopulationwhile
impoverishingthosewhoweredependentonthegovernmentforjobsandwelfareeducation, health, sanitation, etc..

Ithasbeenemphasizedthatthepolicywouldensureinstitutionalsafeguardsorcreatesocialsafetynetstominimizethenegative
effectsofglobalizationonthosewhoareeconomicallyweak.

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Manyexpertsbelievethatthesocialsafetynetisnotsufficienttosafeguardtheneedsofeconomicallyweakclass.Thisisthereasonthat
someeconomistsandotherscholarsdescribetheglobalizationasrecolonization.However,supportersarguethatgreatertradeamong
countriesallowseacheconomytodowhatitdoesbestandbenefitseveryclassofeconomy.

Aspertheculturalperspective,globalizationleadstotheriseofauniformcultureorwhatiscalledasculturalhomogenization.For
example,McDonaldization.

Culturalhomogenizationisdangerousnotonlyforthepoorcountries,butalsoforthewholeofhumanityitleadstotheshrinkingofthe
richculturalheritageoftheentireglobe.

CriticsofGlobalization
Thecriticsofglobalizationmakeavarietyofargumentssuchas

Theleftistpeoplearguethatcontemporaryglobalizationrepresentsaparticularphaseofglobalcapitalismthatmakestherich
richerandf ewerandthepoorpoorer.

Butitisinterestingtonoteherethatantiglobalizationmovementstoparticipateinglobalnetworks,allyingwiththosewhofeel
liketheminothercountries.

Further,manyantiglobalizationmovementsarenotopposedtotheideaofglobalizationperseasmuchastheyareopposedtoa
specificprogramofglobalization,whichtheyseeasaformofimperialism.

Forexample,in1999,attheWorldTradeOrganizationW T O MinisterialMeeting,itisarguedthattheinterestsofthedeveloping
worldwerenotgivensufficientimportanceintheevolvingglobaleconomicsystemandpolicy.

WorldSocialForum
TheWorldSocialForumW S F isanotherglobalplatform,whichbringstogetherawidecoalitioncomposedofhumanrightsactivists,
environmentalists,labor,youth,andwomenactivistsinordertoopposetheneoliberalglobalization.

ThefirstWSFmeetingwasorganizedinPortoAlegre,Brazilin2001andthefourthWSFmeetingwasheldinMumbaiin2004andso
on.

InIndia,therehavebeenleftwingproteststoeconomicliberalization.

TheseleftistpeoplevoicedthroughpoliticalpartiesaswellasthroughforumsliketheIndianSocialForum.

Tradeunionsofindustrialworkforceaswellasthoserepresentingfarmersinteresthaveorganizedprotestsagainsttheentryof
multinationals.

IndianPolityPopularMovements
Introduction
Duringthe1970s,insomepartsofUttarakhand,villagersprotestedagainstthepracticesofcommercialloggingthatthegovernmenthad
permitted.

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Toprotectthetrees,thevillagersusedanoveltactic.Theyusedtohugthetreestopreventthemfrombeingcutdownthismethod
becamepopularasChipkoMovementasshownintheimagegivenbelow.

Themovementtookupeconomicissuesoflandlessforestworkersandaskedforguaranteesofaminimumwage.

ThemovementachievedavictorywhenthegovernmentissuedabanoncuttingoftreesintheHimalayanregionsforfifteenyears,until
thegreencoverwasfullyrestored.

Inspiteoftheimpressivegrowthinmanysectorsoftheeconomyinthefirsttwentyyearsofindependence,povertyandinequalitiesstill
remainagreatproblemprobably,becausebenefitsofeconomicgrowthdidnotreachevenlytoallsectionsofthesociety.

EvolutionofVoluntaryOrganizations
Manyofthepoliticallyactivegroupslosttheirfaithinexistingdemocraticinstitutionsandelectoralpoliticsandsomegroupstherefore
chosetostepoutsideofpartypoliticsandgotengageinmassmobilizationforregisteringtheirprotests.

Themiddleclassyoungactivistslaunchedserviceorganizationsandconstructiveprogramsamongruralpoor.

Astheseworkswerevoluntaryinnaturesocialwork ,manyoftheseorganizationscametoknownasvoluntaryorganizationsor
voluntarysectororganizations.

Sincethesevoluntaryorganizationsdecidedtoremainoutsideofthepoliticsanddonotcontestelectionhence,theybecamepopularas
nonpartypoliticalformation.

DalitPanthers,amilitantorganizationoftheDalityouth,wasformedinMaharashtrain1972.

Inthepostindependenceperiod,Dalitgroupsweremainlyfightingagainsttheperpetualcastebasedinequalitiesandmaterialinjustices
thattheyfacedinspiteofconstitutionalguaranteesofequalityandjustice

Inthe1980s,farmersdissensionwasalsorising,whichgavebirthtofarmersagitationagainstthegovernmentsdecision
especiallyincreasingtheelectricityrate.

exclusivelyinvolvedf orthef armer movement
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TheBharatiyaKisanUnionBK U wasoneoftheleadingorganizationsexclusivelyinvolvedf orthef armers movementduringthe

periodofeighties.

ActivitiesconductedbytheBKUtopressurizethestatethroughrallies,demonstrations,sitins,andjailbharocourtingimprisonment
agitationstogettheirdemandsaccepted.

DissentedFishworkers,especiallyfromKerala,tookthemainresponsibilityofmobilizingfellowworkers,includingwomenworkers
fromotherStates.

Whenthegovernmentsdeepseafishingpolicy1991thatopenedupIndiaswaterstolargecommercialvesselsincludingthoseofthe
multinationalfishingcompaniescameintoexistence,workoftheNationalFishWorkersForumN F F consolidateditsfirstlegalbattle
withtheUniongovernmentsuccessfully.

Anothermovementinitiatedbywomenwasthemovementagainstthesaleofliquor/alcohol.WomeninNellorecametogetherin
spontaneouslocalinitiativestoprotestagainstarrackandforcedclosureofthewineshop.

Inthe198889,NarmadaBachaoAandolanN BA,amovementtosavetheNarmada,opposedtheconstructionofthesedamsand
questionedthenatureofongoingdevelopmentalprojectsinthecountry.

NBAcontinuedasustainedagitationformorethantwentyyearsandusedeveryavailabledemocraticstrategytoputforwardits
demands.

ThemovementforRighttoInformationRT I iscommencedin1990,whenamassbasedorganizationcalledtheMazdoorKisanShakti
SangathanM K S S inRajasthantooktheinitiativeindemandingrecordsoffaminereliefworkandaccountsoflaborers.

Thesemovementssuggestthattheroutinefunctioningofdemocracydidnothaveenoughspaceforthevoicesofthesesocialgroups
therefore,thereallifeimpactofthesemovementsonthenatureofpublicpoliciesseemstobeverylimited.

IndianPolityForeignPolicy
Introduction
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DuringtheperiodimmediatelyafterthesecondworldWar,theworlddividedintotwoclearpolesonewasundertheinfluenceofthe
UnitedStatesanditswesternalliesandtheotherwasundertheinfluenceofthethenSovietUnion.

ThepolarizationofpowerwasthebeginningofColdWarErabetweenthetwoblocsledbythesuperpowersnamelytheUSandthe
USSR.

Theforeignpolicyofanationreflectstheinterplayofdomesticandexternalfactors.

NehruPolicy
PanditJawaharlalNehru,thefirstPrimeMinisterofIndia,wasalsotheforeignministerandplayedacrucialroleinshapingIndias
foreignpolicybetween1946and1964.

ThethreemajorobjectivesofNehrusforeignpolicywere

Topreservethehardearnedsovereignty,

Toprotectterritorialintegrity,and

Topromoterapideconomicdevelopment.

Toachievethesethreeobjectives,PanditNehruadoptedthestrategyofnonalignment.

Becauseofitsnonalignmentpolicy,in1956,whenBritainattackedEgyptovertheSuezCanalissue,Indialedtheworldprotestagainst
thisneocolonialinvasion.

However,whileIndiawastryingtoconvincetheotherdevelopingcountriesaboutthepolicyofnonalignment,PakistanjoinedtheUS
ledmilitaryalliances.

Secondly,throughoutthe1940sand1950s,NehruhadbeenremainedanardentadvocateofAsianunity.

TheAfroAsianconferencethatheldintheIndonesiancityofBandungin1955,commonlyknownastheBandungConference,
recognizedasthezenithofIndiasengagementwiththenewlyindependentAsianandAfricannations.

Later,theBandungConferenceledtotheestablishmentoftheNonAlignedMovementN AM andPanditNehruwasthecofounder
oftheNAM.

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TheFirstSummitoftheNAMwasheldinBelgradeinSeptember1961.

BilateralAgreements
Panchsheelwasthejointeffortunderwhich,theFivePrinciplesofPeacefulCoexistence,bytheIndianPrimeMinisterNehruandthe
ChinesePremierZhouEnlaiwassignedon29April1954inthedirectionofstrongerrelationshipbetweenthetwocountries.

InspiteofthePanchsheelAgreement,betweentheperiodof1957and1959,theChineseoccupiedtheAksaichinareaandbuilta
strategicroadthere.

Finally,ChinalaunchedaswiftandmassiveinvasioninOctober1962onboththedisputedregionsi.e.ArunachalPradeshandAksai
ChinareainJammuandKashmir.

AlongtermdisputebetweenIndiaandPakistanaboutthesharingofriverwaterwasresolvedthroughmediationbytheWorldBank.
Resultantly,theIndiaPakistanIndusWatersTreatywassignedbyNehruandGeneralAyubKhanin1960.

AnarmedconflictbetweenIndiaandPakistanbeganin1965atthattime,LalBahadurShastriwasthePrimeMinisterofIndia.The
hostilitiescametoanendwiththeUNintervention.

Later,thethenIndianPrimeMinisterLalBahadurShastriandPakistansGeneralAyubKhansignedtheTashkentAgreementin
January1966,anditwasmediatedbytheSovietUnion.

In1971,theUSandChinasupportedPakistan.

Indiasigneda20yearTreatyofPeaceandFriendshipwiththeSovietUnioninAugust1971tocountertheUSPakistanChinaaxis.

PakistansattackonIndiainDecember1971,wasthemajorlossforboththecountriessecondly,becauseofthiswar,EastPakistan
becameanIndependentcountryasBangladesh.

ThedisputewasresolvedthroughthesigningoftheShimlaAgreementbetweenIndiraGandhiandZulfikarAliBhuttoonJuly3,1972.

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NuclearDevelopment
AnotherimportantdevelopmentofthisperiodwasthefirstnuclearexplosionundertakenbyIndiainMay1974.

WhenCommunistChinaconductednucleartestsinOctober1964,thefivenuclearweaponpowersi.e.theUS,theUSSR,theUK,
France,andChinathef iveP ermanentM embersof theU N S ecurityC ounciltriedtoimposetheNuclearNonproliferationTreaty
N P T of1968ontherestoftheworld.However,IndiaalwaysconsideredtheNPTasdiscriminatoryandhadrefusedtosignit.

IndiaconductedaseriesofnucleartestsinMay1998,demonstratingitscapacitytousenuclearenergyformilitarypurposes.

Beforetheperiodof1990,RussiawastheimportantpoliticalfriendofIndia,butaftertheperiodof1990,Russia,thoughitcontinuesto
beanimportantfriendofIndia,haslostitsglobalpreeminenceandIndiasproUSpolicystarteddeveloping.

Indiasforeignpolicyisalwaysdictatedbyideasofnationalinterest.

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