This article was downloaded by: [University of Connecticut]

On: 08 October 2014, At: 11:58

Publisher: Taylor & Francis
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered
office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Ergonomics
Publication details, including instructions for authors and
subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/terg20

A comparison of muscle strength and

flexibility between the preferred and
non-preferred leg in English soccer
players
a b a b
Nader Rahnama , Adrian Lees & Effat Bambaecichi
a
Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool
John Moores University , Henry Cotton Campus, 15-21 Webster
Street, Liverpool, L3 2ET, UK
b
Department of Physical Education , Isfahan University and SSRC ,
Iran
Published online: 20 Feb 2007.

To cite this article: Nader Rahnama , Adrian Lees & Effat Bambaecichi (2005) A comparison of
muscle strength and flexibility between the preferred and non-preferred leg in English soccer
players, Ergonomics, 48:11-14, 1568-1575, DOI: 10.1080/00140130500101585

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00140130500101585

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the
Content) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis,
our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to
the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions
and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors,
and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content
should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources
of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims,
proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or
howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising
out of the use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any
substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,
systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms &
 Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-
and-conditions
Downloaded by [University of Connecticut] at 11:58 08 October 2014
 Ergonomics,
Vol. 48, Nos. 11 14, 15 September15 November 2005, 1568 1575

A comparison of muscle strength and exibility

between the preferred and non-preferred
leg in English soccer players

NADER RAHNAMAyz*, ADRIAN LEESy and

EFFAT BAMBAECICHIz

yResearch Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University,
Downloaded by [University of Connecticut] at 11:58 08 October 2014

Henry Cotton Campus, 15-21 Webster Street, Liverpool L3 2ET, UK

zDepartment of Physical Education, Isfahan University and SSRC, Iran

Most soccer players have a favoured foot for kicking the ball, and it is believed
that this preference may lead to an asymmetry in the strength and exibility of
the lower extremities. This study was designed to determine whether
asymmetry in strength and exibility are present in the legs of soccer players.
Forty-one elite and sub-elite soccer players (age 23.4 + 3.8 years; height
1.81 + 0.06 m; body mass 81.7 + 9.9 kg) were studied (data are presented as
mean + SD). The dynamic strength of knee exors (hamstrings) and knee
extensors (quadriceps) was measured using an isokinetic dynamometer at
angular velocities of 1.05, 2.09, 5.23 rad/s (in a concentric mode) and 2.09 rad/s
(in an eccentric mode). The concentric strength ratio (hamstringsconc/
quadricepsconc) and the dynamic control ratio (hamstringsecc/quadricepsconc)
were computed. Hip joint exibility (in exion) was measured using
a goniometer.
A signicant dierence between the preferred and non-preferred leg was
found in the knee exors at 2.09 rad/s (119 + 22 versus 126 + 24 Nm; P 5
0.05) and for the dynamic control ratio (0.79 + 0.13 versus 0.84 + 0.16 Nm;
P 5 0.05). In both cases the knee exors of the preferred leg were weaker than
those of the non-preferred leg. A total of 28 of the 41 players (68%) had
signicant musculoskeletal abnormality (imbalance 410%) in one or more
specic muscle groups. No signicant dierences were found in exibility of the
hip joint between the preferred and non-preferred leg (P 4 0.05).
It is concluded that the lower strength of the knee exor muscles of the
preferred leg may be associated with the dierential use of these muscle
during the kicking action and thus constitutes a unique training eect
associated with soccer. This in turn can lead to muscular imbalance which is
generally regarded as an injury risk factor.

Keywords: Muscle strength; Flexibility; Musculoskeletal abnormality

*Corresponding author. Email: humnrahn@livjm.ac.uk

Ergonomics
ISSN 0014-0139 print/ISSN 1366-5847 online 2005 Taylor & Francis
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
DOI: 10.1080/00140130500101585
 Leg muscle strength and exibility in soccer players 1569

1. Introduction
It has been assumed by many sports medicine clinicians that the peak torque generated at
the joints for an unaected limb can be used as a goal for return of counterpart injured
extremity to a normal state following rehabilitation, i.e. the prescription of therapeutic
exercise for rehabilitation of injuries is based on bilateral equivalence.
Although most soccer players favour one particular foot for kicking the ball, it is not
known whether this preference causes an asymmetry in the strength and exibility of the
lower extremities. This information may be important when attempting to rehabilitate the
injured soccer player. In designing a rehabilitation programme for injured players,
information about bilateral dierences (notably hamstring/quadriceps ratios as well as
joint exibility) is important. After an injury, a return to specic athletic training and
subsequently to competition is only advised upon restoration of normal function,
including muscle strength and joint exibility (Smodlaka 1977, Agre and Baxter 1987).
Downloaded by [University of Connecticut] at 11:58 08 October 2014

Early studies have shown that a bilateral leg strength dierence of 10% or greater may
be a contributing factor to injury (Grace et al. 1984, Wyatt and Edwards 1981). More
recently, Chin et al. (1994) stated that there were respectively eight and 12 out of 21
subjects who had bilateral hamstrings imbalance greater than 10% when measured at
slow and fast isokinetic velocities.
Knapik et al. (1991) suggested that players with a strength imbalance of greater than
15% were 2.6 times more likely to suer injury in the weaker leg. Fowler and Reilly (1993)
reported a 20% dierence in bilateral muscle strength in professional soccer players prone
to injury. The ratio between the strength of the knee extensors and knee exors is also of
particular interest, with a low ratio being associated with a higher risk of injury (Fowler
and Reilly 1993). The hamstring/quadriceps strength ratio varies from 50% to 62% in
healthy people (Knapik and Ramos 1980) whereas ratios for soccer players vary from 41%
and 81% depending upon the angular velocity of movement. The agonist antagonist
relationship for knee extension and exion may be better described by the more functional
ratio of eccentric hamstring to concentric quadriceps, known as the dynamic control ratio
(Aagaard et al. 1998). Muscular tightness which restricts the range of motion is also
believed to predispose the muscle to injury and to impair performance in sports where
exibility is important (Rahnama et al. 2003). Around 17% of injuries in soccer have been
attributed to muscle tightness (Ekstrand and Gillquist 1983).
The causes of these imbalances are not known but could be due to the nature of the
game in which players repeatedly kick the ball with a preferred leg. This may lead to
asymmetry in lower limb strength and exibility. Therefore this study was designed to
determine whether asymmetry between the preferred and non-preferred kicking leg is
present in the lower limb strength and exibility of soccer players.

2. Methods
2.1. Participants
Forty-one elite and sub-elite soccer players were studied (age 23.4 + 3.8 years; height
1.81 + 0.06 m; body mass 81.7 + 9.9 kg). Data are presented as mean + SD. Elite players
were classed as those who were signed for a professional club and played international
soccer (full-time professional players with an English Premier League club). Sub-elite
players were classed as those who were not signed for a professional club but were playing
regularly for local and university teams. Participants recruited were not injured or
 1570 N. Rahnama and A. Lees

rehabilitating from injury at the time of testing. Informed consent was obtained from all
subjects before data collection, and ethical approval for the study was obtained from the
Universitys Human Ethics Committee. Measurements for each participant were in two
categories: muscle strength proling of the knee exors and knee extensors, and exibility
in hip exion. The procedures in each category are described in turn. Participants were
asked to declare their preferred limb for kicking.

2.2. Strength measurements

Strength of knee exors (hamstrings) and knee extensors (quadriceps) in both the
preferred and non-preferred legs was measured using an isokinetic dynamometer (Lido
Active, Loredan, Davis, CA). Each participant visited the laboratory and was tested with
the same protocol on two separate occasions. The rst visit entailed familiarization with
the dynamometer and the experimental procedure, and in the second session the
Downloaded by [University of Connecticut] at 11:58 08 October 2014

following procedure was administered.

Participants performed a standardized warm-up on a Monark cycle ergometer for
5 min with no resistance at 60 rev/min prior to all strength assessments. This exercise was
followed by 10 min of static stretching of the hamstrings and quadriceps. The participant
was then seated on the dynamometer in an adjustable chair; the upper body was
stabilized with straps secured diagonally across the chest and the hips. A resistance pad
was also positioned on the thigh, proximal to the knee joint, to localize the quadriceps
and hamstring muscle groups. The axis of rotation of the dynamometer shaft was aligned
with the axis of rotation of the knee joint, midway between the lateral condyle of the tibia
and the lateral condyle of the femur. The cu of the dynamometers lever arm was
attached to the ankle, proximal to the medial malleoli. These positions were recorded for
each participant and standardized for subsequent trials. Range of motion was preset to
0 908. The gravity compensation procedure required the subject to relax while the leg
was passively extended and exed over the entire range of motion.
The participant was instructed to grasp the handles adjacent to the chair during the tests
and to perform two submaximal knee extension and exion movements. Testing consisted
of three maximal voluntary movements at angular velocities of 1.05, 2.09 and 5.23 rad/s
(in concentric mode) and 2.09 rad/s (in eccentric mode), rst for the preferred and then for
the non-preferred leg. This order of testing for the dierent angular velocities was
standardized from the slowest to the highest as recommended by Wilhite et al. (1992).
Each trial was separated by 1 min of passive recovery. Verbal instructions were also
standardized and visual feedback on performance was provided. Gravity-corrected peak
torque was selected from the strength indices as a measure of muscular performance. The
reliability and validity of the Lido Active isokinetic system were established by Patterson
and Spivey (1992) who reported a mean correlation coecient between observed and
expected torques of 0.98. Coldwells et al. (1994) also reported signicant test retest
correlations for leg strength (P 5 0.001, r = 0.80) and back strength (P 5 0.001, r = 0.91)
when using a computer-controlled dynamometer (Lido Active, Davis, CA). The test
protocol is highlighted in table 1. Dynamic control ratio (DCR) was expressed as eccentric
hamstrings relative to concentric quadriceps strength at 2.09(ecc) rad/s.

2.3. Flexibility
The exibility of the participants hip joint (in exion) was measured using a goniometer
(MIE Goniometer, Medical Research Ltd, Leeds). The subject lay supine on the oor
 Leg muscle strength and exibility in soccer players 1571

Table 1. Test protocol used in isokinetic dynamometry (n = 41).

Test Muscle strength Mode Angular velocity (rad/s)

1 Hamstrings and quadriceps Concentric 1.05

2 Hamstrings and quadriceps Concentric 5.23
3 Quadriceps Concentric/eccentric 2.09
4 Hamstrings Concentric/eccentric 2.09

with the legs extended and the head on the oor. The quadriceps muscle on the right leg
was palpated and the goniometer was placed halfway down the limb (from the hip to the
knee). The goniometer was then altered so that the liquid inside was set at a level of 08.
The subject then slowly lifted the right leg, keeping the left leg on the oor. With the
assistance of another person, the point when maximum hip exion had been reached was
Downloaded by [University of Connecticut] at 11:58 08 October 2014

determined. This point was decided by observing the tenseness in the muscle and the
players subjective response. The reading on the goniometer was then recorded. This
procedure was completed three times. This protocol was repeated on the opposite limb to
assess the exibility of both the preferred and the non-preferred leg.

2.4. Musculoskeletal abnormality

Musculoskeletal abnormality was dened as a contralateral strength imbalance greater
than 10% (Wyatt and Edwards 1981, Grace et al. 1984).

2.5. Statistical analysis

In order to determine whether or not a signicant dierence exists between the preferred
and non-preferred legs in the measurements obtained in this study, the group mean values
were determined and compared using a matched pairs Student t-test. In all analyses,
statistical signicance was established at the 0.05 level.

3. Results
3.1. Muscle strength
No signicant dierences were found in knee extensor muscle strength between the
preferred and the non-preferred leg at any of the angular velocities tested (gure 1).
For the knee exors, a signicant dierence was found between the preferred and
non-preferred leg at 2.09 rad/s during concentric muscle actions (119 + 22 versus
126 + 24 Nm, t40 = 2.73, P 5 0.05) with the preferred leg being weaker than the non-
preferred leg. No signicant dierences were found for other angular velocities (gure 2).

3.2. Hamstring/quadriceps ratio

No signicant dierences (P 4 0.05) between the preferred and the non-preferred leg
were found in the hamstring/quadriceps ratio at angular velocities of 1.05, 2.09 and
5.23 rad/s in the concentric mode. A signicant dierence was found between the
preferred and the non-preferred leg for the DCR (0.79 + 0.13 versus 0.84 + 0.16,
t40 = 2.34, P 5 0.05) (gure 3).
 1572 N. Rahnama and A. Lees
Downloaded by [University of Connecticut] at 11:58 08 October 2014

Figure 1. Knee extensor muscle strength (peak torque): comparison between preferred
and non-preferred leg. Con, concentric mode; Ecc, eccentric mode.

Figure 2. Knee exor muscle strength (peak torque): comparison between preferred and
non-preferred leg. Con, concentric mode; Ecc, eccentric mode. *Signicant dierence
between preferred and non-preferred leg (P 5 0.05).

3.3. Fast/slow speed ratio

No signicant dierences (P 4 0.05) were found in the fast/slow speed ratios of
the preferred and the non-preferred leg for either the knee extensors (0.59 + 0.05
versus 0.60 + 0.05, P 4 0.05) or the knee exors (0.78 + 0.1 versus 0.77 + 0.1,
P 4 0.05).

3.4. Hip joint exibility

No signicant dierences were found between the mean hip joint exibility of the
preferred and the non-preferred leg (90.48 + 11.68 versus 90.98 + 138, P 4 0.05).
 Leg muscle strength and exibility in soccer players 1573
Downloaded by [University of Connecticut] at 11:58 08 October 2014

Figure 3. Hamstrings/quadriceps (H/Q) ratio: comparison between preferred and non-

preferred leg. C, conventional H/Q ratio; DCR, dynamic ratio. *Signicant dierence
between preferred and non-preferred leg (P 5 0.05).

3.5. Musculoskeletal abnormality

In this study, 28 of 41 players (68%) were found to have at least one musculoskeletal
abnormality which consisted of a contralateral strength imbalance of greater than 10% in
one or more specic muscle groups.

4. Discussion
The purpose of this study was to assess the asymmetry in soccer players which may arise
as a result of the conditioning eect of soccer training. It was examined by comparing the
strength and exibility characteristics of the preferred and the non-preferred leg. All the
players favoured one foot in kicking and receiving the ball. This preference did not aect
lower extremity exibility but it did aect lower extremity strength. In the players studied,
a bilateral strength dierence was found with the knee exor muscles of the preferred leg
weaker than those in the non-preferred leg. This strength dierence was apparent at an
angular velocity of 2.09 rad/s in both concentric and eccentric modes. A possible
explanation for the dierence in muscle strength is that, during kicking, the knee of the
non-preferred (i.e. support) limb is bent so that its exor muscles help to stabilize
the joints, support the weight of the body and resist the reaction of the torque developed
by the opposite limb. In contrast, during kicking by the preferred leg, knee exor activity
needs to be minimized so as to allow the knee to extend rapidly as it makes contact with
the ball. This biomechanical situation may act as a dierential training stimulus to knee
exor strength of the preferred and non-preferred legs. This nding contrasts with
literature reports which imply that soccer training does not result in a lateral dominance
in strength (Agre and Baxter 1987, Capranica et al. 1992), but is in agreement with those
that have reported a lower extremity bilateral peak torque asymetry in baseball players,
non-athletes and other athletic populations (Goslin and Charteris 1979, Barnes 1981,
Charteris and Goslin 1982, Coleman 1982, Puhl et al. 1982). It appears that the demands
a player places on specic muscles in bearing the weight of the body during kicking, and
possibly other activities such as jumping vertically to head the ball, are a possible cause of
the dierence between the preferred and non-preferred leg in soccer players.
 1574 N. Rahnama and A. Lees

Wyatt and Edwards (1981) and Grace et al. (1984) indicated that a contralateral
strength dierence of 10% or more may be a contributing factor in injury. About 68% of
players in the present study were found to have a decit in one or more specic muscle
groups. The incidence is similar to that reported by Ekstrand and Gillquist (1982), who
found that 67% of the soccer players investigated had one or more abnormalities in their
musculoskeletal proles. The present ndings, also support Chin et al. (1994), who
reported that eight and 12 out of 21 subjects had contralateral hamstrings imbalance
ratios greater than 10% when measured at slow and fast isokinetic speeds, respectively.

5. Conclusions
The strength characteristics in the lower extremities of these players revealed a dierence
between the preferred and non-preferred extremities, with the knee exors of the
preferred leg weaker than the those of non-preferred leg. It appears that soccer training
Downloaded by [University of Connecticut] at 11:58 08 October 2014

produces a unique lateral dominance in these players. In addition, and possibly as a

consequence of this, two-thirds of these players had abnormalities in their musculoske-
letal proles. The assessment of muscle function can be used to reveal specic deciencies
in apparently healthy players which may predispose them to injury. This type of
information may be of value in preseason evaluations of other soccer players as well as in
the rehabilitation of injured players.

References
AAGAARD, P., SIMONSEN, E.B., MAGNUSSON, S.P., LARSSON, B. and DYHRE-POULSEN, P., 1998, A new concept
for isokinetic hamstring: quadriceps muscle strength ratio. American Journal of Sports Medicine, 26,
231 237.
AGRE, J.C. and BAXTER, T.L., 1987, Musculoskeletal prole of male collegiate soccer players. Archives of Physical
Medicine and Rehabilitation, 68, 147 150.
BARNES, W., 1981, Selected physiological characteristics of elite male sprint athletes. Journal of Sports Medicine
and Physical Fitness, 21, 49 54.
CAPRANICA, L., CAMA, G., FANTON, F., TESSITORE, A. and FIGURA, F., 1992, Force and power of preferred
and non-preferred leg in young soccer players. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 32,
358 363.
CHARTERIS, J. and GOSLIN, B., 1982, The eects of position and movement velocity on isokinetic force output at
the knee. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 22, 154 160.
CHIN, M.K., SO, R.C.H., YUAN, Y.W. Y., LI, R.C.T. and WONG, A.S.K., 1994, Cardiorespiratory tness and
isokinetic muscle strength of elite Asian junior soccer players. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness,
34, 250 257.
COLDWELLS, A., ATKINSON, G. and REILLY, T., 1994, Sources of variation in back and leg dynamometry.
Ergonomics, 37, 79 86.
COLEMAN, A.E., 1982, Physiological characteristics of major league baseball players. Physician and Sports-
medicine, 10, 51 57.
EKSTRAND, J. and GILLQUIST, J., 1982, Frequency of muscle tightness and injuries in soccer players. American
Journal of Sports Medicine, 10, 75 78.
EKSTRAND, J. and GILLQUIST, J., 1983, Soccer injuries and their mechanisms. Medicine and Science in Sports and
Exercise, 15, 267 270.
FOWLER, N.E. and REILLY, T., 1993, Assessment of muscle strength asymmetry in soccer players. In
Contemporary Ergonomics, E.J. Lovesey (Ed.), 327 332. (London: Taylor and Francis).
GOSLIN, B.R. and CHARTERIS, J., 1979, Isokinetic dynamometry: normative data for clinical use in lower extremity
(knee) cases. Scandinavian Journal of Rehabilitation and Medicine, 11, 105 109.
GRACE, T.G., SWEETSER, E.R. and NELSON, M.A., 1984, Isokinetic muscle imbalance and knee joint injuries.
Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 66, 734 739.
KNAPIK, J. and RAMOS, M., 1980, Isokinetic and isometric torque relationship in the human body. Archives of
Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 61, 64 67.
 Leg muscle strength and exibility in soccer players 1575

KNAPIK, J.J., BAUMANN, C.L., JONES, B.H., HARRIS, J.M. and VAUGHAN, L. 1991, Pre-season strength and
exibility imbalances associated with athletic injuries in female collegiate athletes. American Journal of Sports
Medicine, 19, 76 81.
PATTERSON, LA. and SPIVEY, W.E., 1992, Validity and reliability of the Lido Active isokinetic system. Journal of
Orthopedic and Sports Physical Therapy, 15, 32 36.
PUHL, J., CASE, S., FLECK, S. and VAN HANDLE, P., 1982, Physical and physiological characteristics of elite
volleyball players. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 53, 275 262.
RAHNAMA, N., REILLY, T., LEES, A. and GRAHAM-SMITH, P., 2003, A comparison of musculoskeletal function
in elite and sub-elite English soccer players. In Kinanthropometry VIII, T. Reilly and M. Marfell-Jones (Eds),
151 64 (London, Routledge).
SMODLAKA, V., 1977, Rehabilitating the injured athlete. Physician and Sportsmedicine, 5, 43 52.
WILHITE, M.R., COHEN, E.R. and WILHITE, S.C., 1992, Reliability of concentric and eccentric measurements of
quadriceps performance using the KIN COM dynamometer: the eect of testing order for three dierent
speeds. Journal of Orthopaedic and Sports Physical Therapy, 15, 175 182.
EDWARDS, A.M., 1981, Comparison of quadriceps and hamstring torque values during isokinetic exercise. Journal
of Orthopaedic and Sports Physical Therapy, 3, 48 56.
Downloaded by [University of Connecticut] at 11:58 08 October 2014