Indian Geography

India : General Introduction

Sindhu (Persian) becomes Hindu
Bharata Varsha (Legendry King Bharata, or Bharata tribe )
European =India

Location :
Latitude : Northern Hemisphere, from 604 to 37o6, N latitude
Longitude : Eastern Hemisphere ,from 68 o 7 E to 97 o 225 E.

Northern most point : Indira col (J&K)

Southern most point : Indira Point (Pygmalion point), Kanya Kumari (8o4TN)

Shape Size :
N-S distance : 3214 Km
E-W distance : 2933 Km

Land frontier : 15,200 Km

Coastline : 7516 Km, Excluding Islands (6100km)

Gujarat Longest line

Andhra Pradesh line.(Second longest)
UNCLOSS: United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea,1982

Territorial Sea : 12 Nautical miles from the coastline.

Continguous Zone : 24 Nautical miles from the coastline.
Exclusive Economic Zone : 200 Nautical Miles .
Tropic of cancer passes from the middle of India through 8 States :

Gujarat,Rajasthan,Madhra Pradesh,Chattisgarh,Jharkhand,West Bengal

,Tripura and Mizoram.

Standard Meridian : 82o30 E (IST=+ 5:30 Hrs of GMT ),Mirzapur.

Administrative Composition : 29 states , 7 union territories

AreaWise : Rajasthan>MadhyaPradesh>Maharashtra>UttarPradesh
Goa is the smallest state.
Important facts :
Punducherry situated in TN, Karaikal ,Yanam ,Mahe

Islands :

Andaman Nicobar Islands :

North Andaman ,Middle Andaman, South Andaman, Little Andaman

Car Nicobar ,Little Nicobar ,and great Nicobar.

Port Blair ,Capital situated in South Andaman

Indira Point ,the southernmost point of India is the southern point of Great Nicobar
Island .

Barren Island which is Indias only volcano is in the middle Andaman.

Narcondam Island is also a volcanic island.
10o Channel separates Andaman from Nicobar.
Duncan pass is between South Andaman and Little Andaman.

Coco Straight is between great Nicobar and Sumatara.

The Andaman & Nicobar islands are also known as the Emerald islands.
Lakshadweep islands : Coral islands .
Minicoy is the largest
8o Channel (80 N latitude) is between Minicoy and Maldives.
90 Chanel (9o N latitude) separates Minicoy from the main archipelago of
lakshadweep.
Palk straight is situated between TN and Srilanka .
The Adams Bridge is situated between and TN and Srilanka ,Pamban Island is part of
Adams Bridge.
Rameshwaram is situated on this island.
Palk bay is the north and Gulf of Mannar is to the south of Adams Bridge.
 Frontiers of India : 17 states have a land border with neighboring countries.

Bangladesh 4096 5 WestBengal, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram

China 3488 5 Jammu&Kashmir,HimachalPradesh,Uttarakhad,Sik

kim,ArunachalPradesh
Pakistan 3323 4 Jammu &Kashmir ,Punjab ,Rajastan ,Gujarat
Nepal 1751 5 Uttarakhand, UttarPradesh, Bihar, WestBengal,
Sikkim
Myanmar 1643 4 Arunachal Pradesh , Nagaland,Manipur,Mizoram

Bhutan 699 4 Sikkim, WestBengal, Assam, ArunachalPradesh

Radcliff Line : Border between India and Pakistan ,Bangladesh.

McMohan Line : China and India, decided in 1914.

Durand Line : India and Afghanistan , Durand in 1896.

India : Physiographical Regions .
Physiography : It studies the present relief features of the earths surface or of natural
features in their causal relationship.

India a land of great diversity.

Plains : 43%
Mountains : 11 %
Hills : 18 %
Plateaus : 28 %

The Regions in India based on Geomorphology :

The Northern Mountain region

The Deccan Plateau
The Great plains between the above two
The Coastal Plains and islands.
The Northern Mountain Region :

Spread from JK to Arunachal Pradesh .

Wider in west (500km) than east (200 km)

(due to strong compression forces in the
east,most of the high peaks are also
located the eastern region. Like
Kanchenjunga)

Himalaya fromed due to : Collision

between Angaraland and Gondwanaland.

Tethys seas : Between Angaraland and

gondwanaland .

They are new fold Mountains .

The Northern mountain region can be dived in to three parts :

The Himalayan mountain region .

The Trans-Himalayan Mountain Region .

The Eastern or Purvanchal hills.

The Himalaya Mountain region :

There are three main Mountain ranges under the Himalayan mountain region

The Great Himalayas or Inner Himalayan Range.

The Lesser Himalayas or The Himachal range.
The Outer Himalayas or The Shiwalik range.

The Great Himalayas :

It is also known as the Himadri or Main Himalayas or the snowy Himalayas .

Extension : from the Gorge of Indus to the bend of Brahmaputra.

High peaks are located in this range ; Eg : Sagar Matha.

Ganga, Yamuna and their tributaries originate from this range.

Indus, the Brahmaputra and Alaknanda rivers have made antecedent valleys by
passing through this range.
Antecedent river: a river which git its origin before the upliftment of land mass is
called an antecedent river.

Avg height is =6000mts.

Important Mountain ranges of this region are :

Mount everest (8848m)

Kanchenjunga (8598m)
Makalu (8481m)
Dhaulagiri (8172m)
Nanga parbat (8126m)
Annapurna (8076m)
Nanda Devi (7817m)
Badrinath
Kedarnath
Nandakot

Snow Line :
Lesser Himalaya :

Pir Panjal (Longest)

Dhauladhar
Nagtibba
Masoorie
Kumaon hills
Mahabharat
The lesser Himalayas : Its Extension lies in the south of Great Himalayas. It is 80 to 100 km
wide and its avg height of between 2700 and 4500 kn. There are several small ranges
under the lesser Himalayas which are as follows:

Pir Panjal Range : It extends from Jhelum to the Beas rivers in Kashmir . The two main
passes in the Pir Panjal range are Banihal and Pir panjal

Dhuladhar Range The range where Alaknanda river crosses the Great Himalayas near
badrinath , range comes out from there towards the west .

Between Lesser himalayas and Shiwalik Range.

are Known for the hills stations like Shimla, Mussoori,Chakrata,Nainital ,Ranikhet
,Darjeeling, etc

Lesser Himalayas :
Small meadows on the slopes of lesser Himalayas Gulmarg ,SoneMarg etc.
There are two open valleys between the Great Himalayas and the Lesser
Himalayas :
Kashmir valley
Kathmandu valley

The valleys of kashmir and kathmandu have been created with the
sedimentation of lakes . The dal and the Wular lakes are its evidences .

Valley of Lahul ,Spiti and kullu are between the Great and the Lesser Himalayas.
Karewas :

Flat-topped terraces of Kashmir

valley on flanks of Pir Panjal
made up of clay, sands from old
deltaic fans
Fertile land
The Outer Himalayas or the Shiwalik Range :

It is situated to the South of Lesser Himalayas .

Continuous from J&K till Arunachal Pradesh, Known by Different namesJammu Hills
in Jammu,Arunachal Abhor ,Miri,Mishmi,dafla etc
Newest part of Himalaya. Avg height (600 m to 1500 mts)
Formed after Himnalayas ,so the river was obstructed initially,hence lakes were
formed but later as the river cut through then water drained away so plain is left
,which are called Dun or duar .
Valley Between the Shiwalik range and lesser Himalayas is known as Dun
(Dehradun) In west and Duar (Haridwar) in the east .
The Trans Himalayas : They are in the North of great Himalayas .

It has the Karakoram ,Ladak, Zaskar and Kailash mountain ranges .

The Purvanchal or Eastern Himalayas :

These are extended in the north-eastern states of the India. Several of these hills
are Extended along the border of India and Myanmar .

Some of the major Hills and Rivers of the region are as Shown in The figure .
Regional Division of Himalayas : Sydney Durand
Important Passes :
That are there in The Himalayas region are as Shown.

Zojila : located in the Zaskar Range , created by the Indus river .The road route
from Srinagar to Leh is located in the region .

Banihal Pass : Created by Indus River ,In JK, the National Highway 1(from Srinagar
to Jammu) passes through it .

Shipkila : Satluj River passes through it ,

Bara lacha la : HP, It links Madi to Leh by road

Rohtan Pass : HP, It cuts through Pir Panjal Range .It links Manali and Leh by road.

Mana Pass :It is in UK, land route to Kailash and Manasarovar passes through it .

Niti Pass : UK,road to kailash and Masarovar Passes through it.

Nathula : Sikkim it gives way to Tibet from Darjeeling and Chumbi Valley.

Jalep la : Sikkim, give away to Bhutan. The Teesta river passes through it .
The Western Ghat Mountain Range or Sahayadri Range :

Second largest Mountain Chain after Himalaya ,about 1500 Km

From Tapi to Nilgiri hills.

Divided into two parts :

Northern Sahayadri
Southern Sahayadri

Northern Sahayadri-Kalsubai (Highest Peak)

Southern Sahayadri Kudremukh (Highest Peak),

Second highest Peak (Pushpagiri)

The two ranges meet at Niligiri Hills ,

The highest Peak here is Dodabetta(2623m).

Anaimudi(2695m) is the Highest Peak of Of Annamalai Mountains

Palghat btwn Nilgiri and Annamalai hills
Shenkotta gap btwn Cardamom

Hill stations :

Nilgiri Ooty
Annamalai Munnar
Palani hills - Kodaikanal
The Four main passes that have developed in the Ghats are .

Thal Ghat : it links Nasik to Mumbai. It connects Mumbai to Kolkata.

Bhor Ghat : It links Mumbai to Pune.

Palghat : this Pass is located between the Nilgiris and the Annamalai
mountain.It is in Kerala and connects Kochi and Chennai.

Senkota pass: This is located between Nagercoil and Cardamom hills links
Trivandrum with Madurai.
 The Eastern Ghat Mountain Range : less height and discontinuous.
Highest Peak-Vishakapatnam peak(1680m),Mahendragiri (1501m).

Bauxite deposits:
1) Malaygiri 1) Northern circas
2) Niyamgiri 2) Nallamalla
3) Baflai mali 3) Palkonda
4) Panchpat mali 4) Javadi
5) Shevroy
POSCO plant, Niyamgiri
The Deccan plateau :

The oldest plateau in the world,(never submerged)

The hills of Aravalli,kaimur,Rajmahal and Shillong make the northern border of

the peninsular plateau .

Eastern Ghats (broad plains),they are residual mountains ,broken.

Western Ghats (with a narrow plains) they have steep slopes, escarpment.
Indian peninsular plateau

1) N-C highlands
2) S-C highlands
3) Eastern plateau
4) North Deccan
5) South Deccan
6) Western Ghats
7) Eastern Ghats
8) Meghalaya uplands
N-C highlands

Aravalli
Mahabharat
Uplands
Madhya Bharat
Pathar
Bundelkhand
 Aravalli Mountains Bundelkhand

Source of Sabarmati, Luni and

Banas (tri. Chmbal) Drought-prone low agro-productivity
One of the oldest mt range. Jhansi, Gwalior, Hamirpur
Grushikar Highes Peak
S-C highlands

1) Vindhyan range
2) Malawa plateau
3) Narmada valley
 Vindhyan range Malawa plateau

Source of many north

flowing rivers
Chmabal, Sindh, Betwa Faulty agro-practice- high soil erosion
and Ken gully erosion- Chambal badlands
(tributaries of Yamuna) Located btwn Arvalli and Vindhyan range
Eastern plateau

1) Baghelkhand
2) Garhjat hills,
3) Rajmahal hills,
4) Mahanadi basin,
5) Dandkarnya
6) Chotanagpur plateau

Dandakaranya plateau : Located in the south

Chattisgarh and parts of Maharashtra.
Chotta Nagpur Plateau :

N. Hazaribaug Plateau
S. Ranchi plateau
Damodar and Mahanadi
Rifting coal formation
Unique coal + iron combination
The Meghalaya Plateau : An extension of the Deccan Plateau. Garo,Khai & Jaintia Hills
are located in this region. Cherapunji and Masynram are located to the South of Khasi
hills .It is Also Known as Shillong Plateau.

MaldaGap : The Gap between Rajmahal Hills and Meghalaya Plateau .

Garo (Nokrek), Khasi (Shillong)
North Deccan

Satpura range (Rajpipla, Gawilgarh,

Mahaev, Maikal, Amarkantak plt.)

Maharastra plateau
Satpura range
1) Rajpipla (GJ)
2) Gawilgarh (MH)
3) Mahadeo (MP),
4) Maikal (Chh)
Highest peak Dhupgarh (Mahadeo)

Amarkantak plateau- East of Maikal range

Source of Narmada and Son (tri. Of Ganga)
Betul plateau south of Mahado hills
source of river Tapi, Pench/ Wainganga river
(Tri. Of Godavari)
Dhuadhar Water falls on Narmada River
(Marble Rocks)
The Deccan Plateau : It is divided in to 3
parts.

The Deccan Lava Plateau.

The Telangana Plateau
The Karnataka Plateau

The Deccan Lava Plateau : formed due to

fissure eruption .at present the black soil
has developed in this region .
Regur soils : black soils
Lonar Lake at Buldana ,Maharashtra
formed due to collision of Meteorite.

In south merge with KN plateau and in east

with Telangana plateau
The Karnataka Plateau : The Baba Budan Hills
,rich in Iron Ore. The Kaveri River is the main South Deccan :
river of the Karnataka plateau.
1) KN -Dharwad plt
Dharwad plateau One of the oldest physiographical region
2) Telangana plateau
Ancient Dharwad metallic mineral rich
region
 Telangana plateau
The Telangana Plateau :In the Telangana state
.The Godavari river divides this plateau onto
two parts. North Satmala hills

South Sheshachalam hills,

Rayanseema plt

Drained by Godavari, Krishna and

Penneru
The Great Plains Of India :
 RJ Plains : The Plain of Rajasthan
:
Rajasthan Bagar : fluvial
grasslands RJ steppe
Very fertile Rohi tracts
Western most RJ- marusthali/
Thar desert sand dunes
Dhrians.
Main river is Luni which
disappears into Rann of
Kutch.
In the North
Sambhar and the Didwana
are major salt lakes of this
plain.
Sambhar is the largest salt
lake in India.
RJ Plains

SW plains: marine origin

While north movement-

Indian plates western
margin marine
transgression marine
depo. oil and gas reserve
salt lakes

Extend to Kutchh
The Desert of Rajasthan

Tropical desert
Off-shore trade winds + local
reason Aravalli parallel to SW
monsoon no orographic rain
Dividing the region area wise:

The Indus Plain :

Daob : The land between two rivers

The Plain of Punjab:

Bist:
Bari:
Rachna:
Chhaj:
Sindh sagar:
The Great Plains of India
located between the Himalayas and the
peninsular Plateau.

Created by rivers of Himalayas Ganga,

Yamuna ,Brahmaputra ,The kosi etc
Peninsular rivers like Son, Chambal etc.

The Plains are Further Divided into Four

Parts :

Bhabar: The Bhabar lies along the foothills

of the Shiwaliks with a remarkable
continuity from Indus to Teesta.

Porous and Pebbled Plain it has been

created by the deposition of granules
and pebbles brought by the rivers
descending from the Himalayans.

Alluvial fan of the Shiwaliks.

Terai :

lie to the south of Bhabar region

deposition of fine sand and mud is
found here.

The rivers that disappear in the

Bhabar region reappear .

The region is plain in nature river

water spreads here and makes it a
marshy land.

The region is covered with dense

forests.
Bangar: It is made of old alluvial .The new flood water does not reach this region.
The Bangar has two regional tribes.

Khadar : Plain made by the deposition of new alluvial soil .the flood water reaches almost
every year making it fertile.
Bihar, UP , &WB .

Reh : Barren saline areas in UP, Haryana .

Bhur : Elevated piece of land in upper ganga area formed due to blowing of winds and
accumulation of sands .
The Gangetic Plain : UP,Bihar,WB.

Upper Gangetic Plain : Western Uttar Pradesh(From Yamuna to Ghaghara plains

Rohilkhand plain(sandy area))
Middle Gangetic Plain : Eastern UP & N.B(Awadh ,Kosi area (prone to flooding))
Lower Gangetic Plain : WB.(sunderban delta)

Ox-Bow lakes are found in the middle Gangetic plain, because rivers meander in this region.
The Brahmaputra Basin : long narrow Plain (between himalayas and the Meghalaya
Plateau).
Many Islands are found in this region.

Majauli is the largest riverine island in the world located in this region .
Coastal plains

From Rann of Kutch to Sundarban

1) Western coastal plain
2) Eastern coastal plain

Western coastal plain

Narrower than Eastern coastal plain

Steeper fast flowing rivers No alluvial
deposits
Rivers form Estuaries and not deltas
Good for Port development
Western Coastal Plain : From Surat to KanyaKumari

The Gujarat plain: coastal area of Gujarat.

The Konkan plain: between Daman and Goa.

The Kannada Plain :Between Goa and Mangalore.

The Malabar plain:Mangalore and Kanyakumari.

Maximum extent -80 Km.

Malabar Coast :

Vembnad lake
Periyar river merge near Vembnad lake
Inner side Ernakulam and outward
side - Kochi

Backwaters of kerala are also known as

Kayals on the Malabar Coast.
The Eastern coastal Plains:

From the Subernarekha river to

Kanyakumari.

Godavari,Krishna,Kaveri.

Kolleru Lake-Deltaic lake

Chilka Lake and Pulicat Lake-lagoon.

Orissa Plain-Utkal Plain

Godavari and the Mahanadi-Northern

Circar.

Tamil Nadu-Coramandel Coast.

 Odisha coast:
Kolleru lake deltaic lake (Goadavari and
Wheeler Is. missile Krishna rivers)
testing Pulicut lake split bar Shriharikota Is. (ISRO
rocket launching station)
Chilka lake (biggest)

Olive ridley turtles

Ganjam coast- (nr. Mouth
of Rushikulya river)
Eastern Plain

Gulf of Mannar biosphere reserve.

Ram setu issue

The Island Groups.

Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Lakshadweep islands.

Andaman and Nicobar Islands:

Saddle peak Highest Peak.
Mt.Thuiller Second highest peak.
Barren island
Indira Point
10 o channel : separates Andaman from Nicobar

Duncan pass : South Andaman and Little Andaman.

Lakshadweep islands:
Minicoy is the largest island
Kavaratti is the Capital of the Land

Other prominent Islands

Sriharikota : part of pulicat lake.
Pamban Island : Gulf of mannar between India and SriLanka.it is a part of Adams Bridge.
New Moore Island: It is situated in the bay of bengal on the border of Bangladesh and
India. Formed due to the deposition of silt at the mouth of the ganga.
Indias Geological Structure.
Era Epoch Period Time of Beginning
of the era
Azoic Pre-Cambrian Pangea
Archean

Paleozoic Primary Cambrain 600 million years

Ordovician ago.
Silurian
Devonian
Carboniferous Breaking of Pangea.
Permian

Mesozoic Secondary Triassic 225 million yrs ago

Jurassic Gondwanaland
Cretaceous ,broken up in to
Australia,Antartica,
madagascar.
Cenozoic Tertiary Eocene 70 million
Oligocene
Miocene
Pliocene
Neozoic Quaternary Pleistocene One million years
Holocene

Azoic Era- Pangea was formed,no life in this time.

Silurian Period period of Vertebrates molluscs, corals and Sharks originated in this time.

Carboniferous Period: Breaking up of Pangea in to two parts i.e Angaraland and

Gondwanaland.
With Tethys Sea in the Middle .

Jurassic Period : Gondwanaland broken up in to the peninsular India ,Madagascar ,

Australia, Antarctica etc.
Classification of the Indian Rocks :

Rocks of the Archean System :

Oldest and Primary rocks.
Kaka,TN,MP,Orissa,Chotanagpur plateau in JH .
Dharwar system :

Aravalli the oldest Fold

Mountain range has been
made of this rock.
Dharwar and Shimoga regions
of Karnataka.
Rocks are also found in
regions like Kaveri
Valley,Bellary & Shimoga
,Sasar
Rocks are economically very
important Iron,
Gold,Manganese,Mica,Coppe
r etc.
Rocks of Cuddapah System:

Sandstone, Limestone,
Marble, Asbestos etc.
Other Mineral like
iron,manganese,copper,coba
lt,nickel,barytes etc
Rocks of Vindhyan System:

Formed after the Cuddapah rocks by

the deposition of silt of river valleys
and shallow areas.Thus these rocks
are also sedimentary rocks.

Evidence of fossils are also found in

this region.

Malwa Plateau ,Son valley

,BundelKhand etc.

Famous for House-Building rocks.

The Sanchi Stupa ,the Redfort ,Jama

Masjid etc.

Diamonds Mines of Golconda in

Karnataka and Panna in MP are
found this is Structure.
Rocks of Gondwana system :

Word Comes from the Gond region of

MP.
98% of coal is found in this region.

These rocks have been formed

between Carboniferous rocks and
Jurassic periods.

Coal was formed by the burying down

of the vegetation of that period.

This coal is now found mainly in the

river valleys of the Damodar , The Son ,
The Mahanadi ,The Godavari ,The
Wardha etc.
The Deccan trap :

Volcanic action ,Deccan trap has

been formed as a result of fissure
eruption.
Black soil.
Gujarat,MP and TN .
Rocks of the Tertiary system :

Himalayas mountain range

developed during this system.

Mineral Oil in Assam ,

Rajasthan and Gujarat is
formed in this period.
Rocks of Quarternary System:

These rocks are found in the plains

of Ganga and Indus.

Old alluvial Bangar

New alluvial khadar
India : Drainage system
Drainage: The flow of water through a definite channel is known as drainage.

Drainage system : The network of several such channels is called a drainage system.

Drainage pattern: It refers to the geometrical form of the rivers of a particular area
and spatial arrangement .eg. Trellis drainage pattern, radial drainage pattern.

On the basis of origin ,the drainge system can be divided in to two parts :

The Himalayan Drainage system

The Peninsular Drainage system

The Himalayan rivers The Peninsular Rivers

Perennial, Glaciers Seasonal ,dependence on rainwater .

Basins are large Basins of Peninsular rivers are small

They are long They are relatively small

Most of the rivers are tributaries of one or Most of the rivers flow into the ocean
the other large river because of high peninsular slope.

They form deep valleys and gorges. The rivers are often shallow
Antecedent rivers

Himalayan rivers cover long distances in The peninsular rivers are not navigable
plains and are navigable ,they are navigable only in the delta
regions.

These rivers form meanders They flow through hard rocky areas
.several rives flow through rift Valley and
have straight and Linear courses
Antecedent : Indus, Sutluj ,Brahmaputra
The Himalayan drainage system :

The Indus River system

The Ganga River system
The Brahmaputra river system

The Indus river System :

Indus(Largest River),Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutluj are its tributaries.

Source: Mansarovar lake.

Type :Antecedent river ,it cuts a deep gorge at Bunzi.

Enters the Plains at Attock ,joined here by kabul .

The Panjanad joins Indus at MithanKot.

Tributaries:
Left Bank- Jhelum,Chenab,Ravi,Beas.
Right Bank Shyok ,Gilgit,Kabul
 The Indus Water Treaty ,1960
The Jhelum: The Chenab
It is the tributary of Indus . Is made up of two streams called
Origin : Verinag Lake (J &K) Chandra and Bhaga .joint stream
Joins the Chenab river called as Chandra Bhaga.
It forms the LOC, Origin : Bara Lacha-La pass.
Aman Kaman Setu , Srinagar to Muzzafarabad Link It is the largest tributary of Indus
Wular Lake is here Hair Pin Bend at Muzzafarabad. .
Akhnoor is the Place at which it
Kishenganga Dispute : enters the Plain.
Dulhasti(Kishtwar) , Salal and
Baghlihar (Ramban Dist)
The Ravi River :
Beas :
Origin: from Beas Kund near Rohtang
Origin: from Rohtang Pass
Pass . It joins the Sutluj River near a
near Kullu Hills.
place called Harike in Punjab .
It is a tributary of Chenab.
Manali Valley is on this .
Ravi and Jhelum are almost
Shortest tributary of all the west bank
of same Length.
tributaries.(completely in India)
At the confluence of Sutlej and Beas
,Harike Barrage from where Indira
Gandhi canal has been created.
Sutluj :

Originates from Rakas Lake near Mansarovar Lake.

Antecedent river which cuts through the Himalayas
at Shipkila (pass)
Longest left bank tributary of Indus.
It enters the Plain at Ropar .
Forms a boundary between India and Pakistan
between Ferozpur and Fazilka.
Important River Valley Projects .

Bhakra Nangal Project :

Largest multipurpose river valley project .
Bhakra (Highest gravity dam in the India) and Nangal (Govind Sagar Resorvoir in HP).

Indira Gandhi Canal :

From Harike Barage ,Longest canal in the world (468km)

Pong Project : It is on the Beas river in HP.

Chamera Project : on the river Ravi ,in HP.

Naptha Jakhri Project : It is executed on the Sutluj,largest hydroelectric power project.

Tulbul Project :On the Jhelum in JK,also known as Wular Barrage.

Uri Project : Jhelum river

Kishenganga : On the Kishenganga river (tributary of Jhelum)

The Ganga river System :

Catchment are is 26 % of geographical area of the country.

National river in 2008
Alaknanda and Bhagirathi are the two head streams of Ganga.

Bhagirathi--Gangothri glacier
Alaknanda Satopanth Glacier.

Confluence at Devaprayag where onward it is known as Ganga.

At Haridwar it enters the Plain .

Length: UP>WB>Bihar.
 Ganga System

Left bank tributaries Right bank tributaries

Ramganga
Gomati
Yamuna
Ghaghar
Son
Gandak
Hugli
Kosi
Right bank Tributaries :

Yamuna: The Longest tributary of the Ganga.

Source : Yamunotri glacier

Tons River originating from Himalayas is the largest tributary of the Yamuna in
Himalayan region.

Right Bank tributaries:

Tributaries from Vindhayas.

Chambal , Sind,Betwa and Ken.

Chambal :
Originates from a place near Mhow situated on the Malwa Plateau in MP .

Flows Through Rajasthan and joins Yamuna.

Famous for badland topography .
Banas,Kalisind and Parvati are the tributaries of Chambal .

Ken : Originates from Kaimur Hills in MP.

Son : Main right Bank tributary of Ganga. Originates from the Amarkantak
in MP .
Swarna nadi .

Rihand: Ramgarh hills Govind vallabh pant sagar on Rihand

and Koel are the main tributaries.

Gomati : originates near Pilhibit Ghaggar : Originates (Gurula
. It Joins the Ganga near mandatha peak(Karnali+Kali))
Ghazipur.Lucknow and Jaunpur Ayodhya(saryu)
are the two Important towns . ,Faizabad
 Gandak originated near Nepal-Tibet
border
Kali Gandaki and Trishuli imp tributaries
Merge in Ganga near Patna
Kosi river : Originates in Nepal
after 7 streams join together .
Its main stream is the river .

Arun which originates from the

Gosaithan peak in Tibet .

Changing Course ,Flodding also

known as Sorrow of Bihar .
Mahananda : Originates near the Hills of Darjeeling. This is the last tributary
of Ganga on its left bank.
Damodar River : Flows in the
Chotanagpur plateau in Jharkhand
.The river Passes through a rift
valley .

Joins Hugli.

Dhanbad and Durgapur are

important towns.
River Valley Projects related to the Ganga River System :

Tehri Project : at the concluence of Bhilanganga and Bhagirathi.

Gandak Project : joint project of Bihar,UP,& Nepal .

Kosi Project : Joint project of Biahr and Nepal.

Rihand Project : on Rihand a tributary of Son near a Place called Pimpri .

Resorvoir Govind Vallabh path Sagar is the largest man made lake in India.

Chambal Project :
3 dams.
Gandhi Sagar,Rana Pratap Sagar, Jawahar Sagar.
Damodar Valley Project : First Multipurpose project of Independent India.
The Brahmaputra system :

Originates near Mansarovar lake in Tibet ,Know as Tsangpo

Lake Creates a Deep Gorge by Cutting Through th Himalays Near the Namcha
Barwa.
Enters India as Dihang,
Near Sadia It receives Lohit and Dibang.

It is there only in the State of Assam.

Left Bank Tributaries: Dhansari,dibang,Lohit, Surma.

Right Bank tributaries-Subanshri, Manas Teesta .

It enters Bangladesh near Dhubri .

Known as Jamuna in Bangladesh,

It joins the Padma which itself joins the Meghna.

Meghna Flows into the Bay of Bengal .

River valley Projects on Brahmaputra & NE :

Loktak Hydel Power Project : Manipur

Tipaimukh Hydel Power Project : Manipur

Dhaleshwari Hydeo Power Project : Mizoram

Rangit Hydel Power project : Sikkim

Peninsular rivers

1) West flowing rivers:

Narmada Tapi

2) East-flowing rivers:
Damodar,
Subarnarekha,
Mahanadi, Godavari,
Krishna, Kaveri etc
The Peninsular Indias Drainage system :
Godavari system :
Source: Trimbak plt
Left bank tri: Penganga, Wardha, Wainganga (combined = Pranhita),
Indravati (fall), Sabari and sileru

Right bank tri:Manjara

Krishna system : second largest system of peninsular India .

Source: Mahabaleshwar
Tributaries : Tungabhadra,Koyna,and Musi,
Left bank tri:
Musi, Sina,Bhima, Ghat prabha, Malprabha, Tungbhadra, Hagari
 Mahanadi River system :
The Mahanadi originates
near Sihanwa to the
south of Amarkantak

Left bank: Sheonath,

Hasdo and Mand
Right bank: Tel, Jonk, Ong

Chattisgarh Plains in the

upper reaches .
Kaveri:

Source: Tal kaveri at

Brahmagiri hills

Left bank tri:

Shimsa, Hemvati,
Kabani, Bhavani, Noyil,
Amaravati
Mahi : originates
from the Mehad Lake
located in the
western part of
Vindhyas.

Sabarmati :
Originates from the
Aravalli in Udaipur

Luni river
Narmada system :
Originates near
Amarkantak in Mp
,Flows through a rift
valley(Satpura and
Vindhya ,Dhuadhar fall)
.

Tapi system : Originates

near Betul district of
MP ,Purna main
tributary.
Sharavathi river : Jog Falls is on
this river
Bharathapuzha(Poonan
i): Largest river of
kerala ,Originates from
Annamalai Hills

Periyar : Second largest

river of Kerala ,joins
sea Near the
Vembanad Lakes .It is
the longest river of
Kerala.

Pamba : from
Annamalai hills and
flowing through kerala
and joins Vembanad
Lake .
River valley Projects on Southern Indian Rivers :

Narmada valley Project :

A total of 29 large dams will be built under this project. Of these the Narmada Sagar Dam
in Madhya Pradesh .

Saradar sarovar dam is in Gujarat.

Ukai Project : On the Tapi river at a place called Ukai

Kakrapara Project : Gujarat,Hydro electricity is produced by building a dam on the Tapi.

The Sharavati Hydel Project : Jog falls ,Linganmakki resorvoir.

Kalinadi Project : Executed on the kalinadi project.

Idukki Project : keralas largest hydel power project is on river Periyar.

Sabarigiri : Hydel power projetc of Kerala on river Pamba.

Small river to the east:

Subarnarekha : Originates from the Chotanagpur

Vamsadhara: originates in the southern part of Orissa.It flows

through Andhra Pradesh
Other small rivers include
Brahmani and Baitarni.
known for their
unique mass
nesting called
Arribada=
thousands of
females come
together on the
same beach to lay
eggs.

Orissa coast is the

largest mass
hatching site of
Olive ridley turtle in
the world.
 Penneru/Penner:

Source: Nandi durg peak in KN

Vaigai:

Source: Varushand Hills

Madurai located on Vaigai river
Projects on rivers flowing in to way of Bay Of Bengal :

Hirakud Project : on Mahanadi in Orissa,worlds longest river project.

Balimela Project : on the river Sileru which is a tributary of Godavari .

Nizam Sagar Project : on the river Manjra,a tributary of Godavari River

Pochampad Project : on Godavari

Tata Hydel Power Project : by Tata Group near Loanawala in MH.

Koyna Hydel Power Project : On Koyna river a tributary of Krishna

Nagarjun Sagar Dam:

Srisailam Dam :
Almati dam :

Shivasamudram Project: The Oldest Hydro electric power Project in India ,Krishna
Raja sagar dam.

Mettur dam :On Kaveri ,the reservoir is also known as Stanley reservoir.
Srinagar Jhelum
Leh Indus
Mandi Beas
Ghaziabad Hindon
Badrinath Alaknanda
Uttarakashi Bhagirathi
Tehri Bhagirathi&Bhilganga
Devaprayag Bhagirathi & Alaknanda
Rudraprayag Mandakini & Alaknanda
Karnaprayag Pindar & Alaknanda
Vishnuprayag Dhauliganga&Alaknanda
Jaunpur Gomati
Lucknow Gomati
Gorakhpur Rapti
Ayodhya Sarayu
Haridwar Ganga
Kanpur Ganga
Allahabad Ganga
Varanasi Ganga
Patna Ganga
Bhagalpur Ganga
Delhi Yamuna
Mathura Yamuna
Agra Yamuna
Kota Chambal
Rawatbhata Chambal
Ujjain Shipra
Sanchi Betwa
Kolkata Hugli
Tilaya Damodar
Maithon Damodar
Sindri Damodar
Jamshedpur Subarnarekha
Dibrugarh Brahmaputra
Majuli Brahmaputra
Guwahati Brahmaputra
Dhubri Brahmaputra
Manas Manas
Aizwal Dhaleshwari
Korba Hasdo
Sambalpur Mahanadi
Cuttack Mahadi
Gandhi Nagar Sabarmati
Ahmedabad Sabarmati
Jabalpur Narmada
Surat Tapi
Nasik Godavari
Kurnool Tungabhadra
Hyderabad Musi
Nellore Penner
Vijayawada Krishna
Karwar Kalinadi
Srirangapatnam Kaveri
Mysore Kaveri
Trichirapalli Kaveri
Tanjavur Kaveri
Madurai Vaigai
India : Climate

India has a monsoon type of climate .

Monsoon (from Mausam a Arabic word which means Seasonal reversal of winds.)
Al Masodi First to study monsoon.
Jet Streams :
Strong and Rapidly Moving Circumpolar air Circulation.

They are very narrow at a height of 7.5 km to 14 km .

Upper reaches of Troposphere or Stratosphere.

Observed between poles and 20 o Latitudes.

Rossby Waves : The wavy meandering of Jet Streams .

Monsoon : The Mechanism

Monsoons are seasonal winds that blowing over the Indian Sub-
Continent and are Characterised by reversal of direction of Winds.
Direction from S-W during summer .
North-East during winter.

Differential Heating of land and sea is responsible for Monsoon

This causes northward Shift of the ITCZ.

The S-E winds become S-W after crossing the Equator.

IMD has divided Climate if India Into four Seasons :

The Rainy Season :

June to September .
S-W Monsoon reaches A & N coast on 25 May
1June Chennai and Thiruvanthapuram.
5-10 June Kolkata and Mumbai .
S-W Monsoon:

Arabian Sea Bay Of Bengal

W ghats NE branch
C India Utkal branch
Khambat branch
Burst of monsoon first on
Malabar coast

Gradual Advance

Gradual Withdrawl
 No effective barrier in Gaps between
Western Ghats
Gujarat or Rajasthan Western Ghats, river
blocks,Rainfall in
Low rainfall in GJ-RJ valleys winds
windward side
Rainfall along Kathiawar enter interior of
South KN plateau,
upland, south Aravalli India
Rayalseema of AP
Wind reach up to
remain dry.
Himachal Pradesh-
Mahabaleshwar-650cm
Punjab
Mumbai-190cm
Pune-60cm
Eastern Ghats Purvanchal
Rainfall along Meghalaya plateau
low, discontinued chhotanagpur Funneling effect
cannot block plateau, Vindhyan high rainfall
Large gaps, large Rainfall decrease from
and Satpura range east to west
river deltas Most of the rain from
more winds can eastern branch
enter inland
 Highest rainfall: western Ghats,
India avg rainfall = 120-180 cm North-east
= wetter Then East India
But rainfall variation is across Then GJ-RJ and J&K
regions and seasons. Then south KN- Rayalseema
Break In Monsoon region
Thar and Kutchh deserts
The Autumn Season :

October to the middle of

December .It is known as
season of retreating
monsoon.
This causes rainfall in
coastal regions of
Tamil Nadu .
 Southward movement of ITCZ Increase in SST of Bay of Bengal
SW monsoon winds and NE and Arabian sea
winds co-exist Possibility of Tropical cyclone
Gradual withdrawal of SW Retreating SW monsoon branch
monsoon winds first eastern drag them towards Eastern
then western branch coast
The winter season :

From Middle Of December to February .

N-W of India(High Pressure to Low pressure) and from there , the

winds blow towards low pressure.
It is known as the winter monsoon or Northeast monsoon or
retreating monsoon.

Western Disturbance :Temperate Cyclone rising from

Mediterranean Sea enters India with the western Jetstream.

Rain of up to 5 cm in N.I,in Punjab,Haryana,W.U.P,HP and JK(Snow

Fall) ,useful for Rabi Crop.
The Summer Season :

March to the Middle of June.

Summer solstice.
LOO--Hot Violent winds blow during day time in North and Northwest India .
ITCZ begins moving towards the north and passes the 25O latitude in July .
When the Hot and dry land breeze meets the humid sea and breeze during this
season resulting in Violent Storms.
Season of Heat wave .
Western disturbances cause Tropical Cyclones in this season

Norwester : Eastern India ,(WB ,Bihar,Jh,Orissa).Useful for Tea,Jute, & Rice

Cultivation.
Kalbaisakhi : West Bengal (In local Language Norwester is called Kalbaisakhi).
Cherry blossom : Karnataka and Kerala (Useful for blooming of Flowers).
Mango Showers : South India (Useful for early ripening of mangoes).
Bardoli Chheerha : Assam
El-Nino : Abnormal warming up of surface water in the eastern
tropical pacific ocean near Peru Coast which effects global
Atmospheric Circulation and is responsible for weakening or
erratic rainfall during Monsoon .

La- Nina : A Phenomena which is characterised by below normally

sea surface temperature in the eastern Equatorial pacific ocean
and exactly opposite of El-Nino

Western Disturbance : Extra Tropical cyclonic storm which

originates from the Mediterranean sea move towards the east
and causes rainfall during winter in the N-W part of India which
helps in Rabi Crop particularly Wheat.
World Climatic Regions :
World Climatic Regions: In Detail

1. Equatorial climatic belt:

Location : 50N-50S of equator generally.

Africa - Congo Basin,Guinea coast

South America - Amazon Basin,Coastal plains of
Columbia
Asia - Indonesia and New Guinea Islands

Equatorial Belt is not continuous due to variations in

relief .

Ex: Quito (Ecuador) at high altitude

Kampala (Uganda)
Nairobi (Kenya)
Characteristics:
Not continuous due to variation in relief
Uniform temperature (high)
High humidity
Heavy rainfall through out the year.
Avg. annual range of temp. is least (30C).
Daily range of temp. in equatorial climate is the least
(due to humidity) ( Energy is stored in the
atmosphere itself).
Rain fall is above 200 cm.

Natural vegetation: Ever-green tropical rain forests

(also called selvas)
Selvas especially called in Amazon Forest is
evergreen because trees have no distinct shedding
period
Equatorial climate covers only 6% of the geographical
area. But has 50% of the biodiversity.
 Forest floor: 2% light , only
some plants grow

Understory layer : between

forest floor and canopy

Canopy layer : typically 3045

m in height,contains large
trees . epiphytes,

Emergent layer:heights of 45
55 m,(above canopy layer)
 Undergrowth is not dense as sunlight doesnt reach the
floor.
Hardwood (little use to man)
Variety of free species is high.
Layer arrangement.
Soils are less fertile. (lateritic soils)
Due to heavy rains soil erosion

Plantations : Natural Rubber, Cocoa,

Yam, coffee, chocolate, banana, mango, papaya, macadami

a, avocado, and sugarcane
The Tropical Monsoon and Tropical Marine Climate :

Winds : Characterised by seasonal change of winds.

Summer: On shore wet Monsoon winds.
Winter : Off shore wet Monsoon winds.

Vegetation : Tropical Monsoon Forests.

Deciduous trees .Eg : Teak,Sal,Acacia, and Eucalyptus (Australia)

Agriculture :

Paddy Crops : In most of the areas.

Cash Crops :
Low Land Crops : Sugar cane (India,Java,Cuba,Jamaica,)
Jute ,Cotton,Indigo .
High Land Crops : Tea ,Coffee(Originated from Ethiopia )

Lumbering : Burma,India (Teal Plantation)

Shifting Cultivation : Practised by the Tribes also known as Jhum Cultivation.

2. Tropical Desert climate:

Occurs on the western margins of the continents between 150 to 300 latitudes.

Africa - Sahara Desert

Asia - Thar- India
Gobi desert (Temperate cold deserts)
Takla makan desert (Temperate cold deserts)
Characteristics:
Rainfall <50 cm
Daily range of temp is highest
Vegetation: Xerophyte vegetation(Long roots,Succulent Stems)
e.g cactus, tress are rare except (date Plam where there is water)

Tribals of Australian deserts: Australian Aborigines or Bindibue of Australia

Kalahari desert - Bushmen (Tribes)
Arabian desert Bedouins (Tribes)
Minerals : Australia : Gold
Kalahari : Diamonds, Copper .
Chile : Copper
M-E : Saudi Arabia, etc.
Mexico : Silver .
Utah : Uranium
Nevada : Copper
 Extreme weather
Hot summer- cold winter
High annual temperature
range
Continental Desert :
3. Tropical Grasslands : ( Savanna grasslands )

Tropical grasslands climate is found b/w 5-300 latitudes towards the continental interiors.

Distinct hot and dry weather,Summer rainfall

These are transitional b/w monsoon climate and desert climate &b/w desert and rain
forest/equatorial climate.

America : Llanos (Venezuela and Columbia)

Campos (Brazil)
Vegetation: Deciduous trees (Shedding of leaves)
Parkland vegetation.
Tall grasses and short trees.
Animal Life : Herbivorous animals : Zebra,Antelope,Giraffe,Deer,Elephant.
Carnivorousanimals: Lion,Tiger,Leopard,Hyaena,panther,Jaguar,Jackal.

Tribals: Negroes of Savanna (Hunting)

Masai tribes (Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda)
Masai tribes (cattle herding)
New changes:
Brazil : Plantations like coffee,Cane sugar,Oil Plam,Groundnuts,
World Climatic Regions :
The Mediterranean Climate :

Place : 30-45o N and S.

Climate :

Warm Summer : Offshore Winds Dominate no rainfall.

Winter : On shore Winds , Characterised by Rainfall.

Local Winds :

Sirocco : Hot, Dry dusty wind from Sahara desert.

Mistral : Cold Wind from the Alps.

Vegetation :

Mediterranean Evergreen Forests : Cork oaks trees,Eucalyptus(Australia),Red Wood

(California).
Evergreen Coniferous Forests : Pines,Firs,Cedars, (Tall straight trunks,needle -shaped
leaves and evergreen)
Economic Development :

Orchard Lands : Citrus fruits like Oranges,Lemons,Limes, and grape fruit.

Olive Tree: Olive Oil .
Crops: Wheat ,Barley
Wine : Grapes (Viticulture, 85 % of grapes go to producing Wine.)
4. Temperate Grasslands/steppe:

Found in continental interiors of temperate regions.

Prairies - USA-Canada
Pampas - Argentina-Uruguay
Velds - S. Africa
Downs - Australia
Steppes - Ukraine, Russia and Kazakhstan
Pustaz - Hungary
Manchurian Plains - China

Vegetation : Grasses but no trees unlike (Tropical grasslands)

People : Asia :Kirghiz(The Tartars),Khazaks,

America : Red Indians
Crops:
Temperate grasslands are called granaries of the world (suitable for wheat cultivation)
Wheat triangle is in steppes
Wheat crescent is in Pampas.
Other crops include Maize ,Corn.

Pastoral Farming :Cattle,Sheep,Pigs, and Horses.

China Type or Gulf Type Or Natal Type :

China Type :

Climate :
Summer : Heavy rain
Winter : No rain

Tropical cyclones : called Typhoons occur in this region .(July to September ) .

Gulf Type : In USA ,

Rainfall is there through out the year ,with occurrence of Hurricanes and Tornadoes .

Natal type :
Rainfall is uniform through out the year.

Violent Local storms here are :

Sourtherly Burster : In Australia.

Pampero : Argentina and Urugguay.
Berg Wind : In South Africa.
Summer : Hurricane Winter : Temperate
Economic Development :

China : Rice ( Subsistence and High Cropping Intensity ).

Terraced farming also practised.

Sericulture also done.

Agriculture in Gulf States :

Corn : related to the Animal husbandry in the region.

Cotton: long stapled form is very famous.

Tobbaco : Virginia tobacco.

Other crops : Maize, Corn,

South America : Less rainfall ,so grass lands and cattle and sheep are grown here .
Dairying Industry much developed in Argentina and Australia.
Others include Wheat and Flax.
British Type Climate :

Climate :
The climate is ideal for maximum comfort and mental
altertness.
Summers are not too hard and winters are not too Cold.

Rainfall : Rainfall from westerlies

Adequate rainfall through out the year.
Seasons :
Winter : Light Snows fall. Temperate cyclones
rainfall in winters

Spring : driest everything become green.

Summer : Sunny .

Autumn : Falling of leaves.

Economic Development :
Netherlands : Is famous for Floricultural Industry.
Mixed Farming : Crops + Animals
Crops : Wheat , Barley ,Oats
Animals : Cattle dairy (England ,New Zealand Sheep rearing).
Sheep Rearing : British and Newzealand region
Dual use : Wool and meat & milk products.
Britain : Once a leader in Wollen textiles.
New Zealand : Canterbury Plain in New Zealand very famous .
Natural Vegetation :

Deciduous : Oak, elm, birch,

Chestnut, Maple etc.

Deciduous Trees occur in Pure

Stands .

Eg: Tasmania is famous for

Eucalypts.
 Market Gardening : It is practised to meet the demand of
cities.Small farms ,high fertility and perishable goods.

Tasmania (Aus.) apple farming

Other Agricultural Products :

Potatoes : Food but also used in Alcohol.

Beet sugar : The main source of sugar in these areas.

The Cool Temperate Eastern Margin (Laurentian type):

North America region :

The Asiatic region :

Economic Development :
Lumbering
Agriculture : Potatoes, Oats ,Barley,Soyabeans.
 Rainfall throughout the year
Summer - Westerlies bring rain
due to moisture content of
Great lakes
 Coniferous forest lumbering Oak, birch, beech, maple

Agriculture: Potatoes, oats, barley, soya beans

Nova scotia (Canada) apple farming
Fishing :
Grand Banks of Newfoundland : the largest fishing grounds
Plankton , Continental Shelves
Eg :Cod, mackerel, tuna, salmon
Economically profitable
Mechanised sophisticated fishing
St.Johns port in Newfoundland grand banks
The Temperate Continental Climate :

Lies in between the Steppe in the south and Tundra in the North .
Absent in the Southern hemisphere as there is no land .

Climate :
Cold winter of long duration and brief small warm summer .
Annual range of temperature is the highest in the region.
Coldest places on earth are in this region :
Verkhoyansk : The coldest place on earth .
Snowny region rivers are frozen in most seasons.
Coniferous forests :

Trees not as luxuriant as the Equatorial region. The Density decreases slowly
Pole ward.
They are Conical in shape .
Leaves are thick ,leathery, and needle shaped .
Important Trees : Pine, Fir ,Spruce ,Larch

Economic Development : Lumbering no/little agriculture.

These Coniferous forests are the richest source of Softwood .
Norway,Finland ,Canada,USA,Russia.

Used in Industries like : Furniture,Matches,Paper and Pulp ,rayon and other

branches of the chemical industry .

Canada : NewsPrint
USA : Wood Pulp.
Siberia : Temperate Soft Wood .
The Arctic or Polar Climate :

Climate :
completely covered with snow except for 4 months .

Six months sun light and six moths darkness.

Vegetation :

e.g : Reindeer Moss,

Carnivorous Animals : Reindeer , Foxes, musk-ox ,Arctic Hare etc .

Human Activities :

Semi Nomadic People (Eskimos ),Igloos .

Change in life style : Furbearing animals are raised on a commercial scale,
Commerical boats (They are replacing Kayaks).

Other recent Developments :

Discovery of Minerals :
Alaska : Gold,Coal,Petroleum
Canada : Iron ore,
Sweden : Iron Ore (Kiruna Mine)
Fur bearing animals warm blooded muskrat, mink, silver fox
Soils : The Upper most layer of Earth.

Soil is the mixture of minerals , organic matter , gases, liquids and a

myriad of micro - and macro- organisms that can support plant life.

It is the topmost layer of the earth or Lithosphere.

It is the place where Lithosphere,Hydrosphere,Atmosphere and

Biosphere.

Major Soil Components :

Inorganic Materials :
Soil Water
Soil Air
Organic matter
Soil Profile :

Horizon A : Top most Zone ,where organic material have have got
incorporated with mineral matter ,nutrients and water ,which is necessary for
the growth of plant.

Horizon B : Transition zone between A & C .

Horizon C : Loose Parent Material .

Soil Characteristics :
Color : Soils color is generally related to its physical and Chemical Properties.
Texture : refers to the particle size that is present .

Clayey <0.002mm

Silt 0.002-0.05 mm

Sandy 0.05 mm-2.0 mm

Pebbles. 2.0 mm
Structure : Refers to arrangement the words used are Porosity ;Permeability.

Terms used : Fine , medium, Coarse .

Factors affecting Soil Development :

Parental material
Climate Temperature& moisture.
Organic activity .
Topography
Time
Indian Soils :

The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has classified the soils of India
into eight groups:

Alluvial Soils
Black Soils
Red and Yellow Soils
Laterite Soils
Mountain Soils
Desert or Arid Soils
Saline Soils
Peaty or Organic Soils
 Zonal Soil : It is that soil which has the mineral properties similar to that of
the parent rocks. It is clear that this coil is of the same region where it has got
weathered. For example red soils, black soils, laterite soils, desert soils etc.
Azonal Soil : It is that soil which has been developed by the process of
deposition by the agents of erosion. It means that it has been made by the
fine rocky particles transported from far-off regions. For example- alluvial
and loess soils.
Intra-Zonal Soils : It the rock of a region is affected by chemical
weathering and mainly dissolution like process occurs, there develops the
intra-zonal soil. For example, limestone soil, rendzena, terrarosa etc.
Alluvial Soils:

These soils cover about 45.6% parts of the total geographical area of India. There are two
main areas of these soils :
(a) the great plains of the North, and
(b) the coastal plain, Besides, these soils are also found in the valleys and the deltas of
rivers.

These soils have been formed by deposition of the sediments brought by rivers. Thus,
they are azonal soils.

These soils lack in nitrogen phosphorus and humus however, they contain enough
potash and lime.
Black Soils:

These are also known as the black cotton soils or Regur soils. These soils ae
famous for the cultivation of cotton.

The expansion of these soils is mainly in Maharashtra, southeastern Gujarat,

western Madhya Pradesh, north-western Tamil Nadu and south-eastern Rajasthan.

These soils have been formed by the disintegration of lava. The reason of their
being black is the presence of titaniferrous magnetite compounds of iron and
aluminium etc.

These soils are very fertile and have more water storage capacity. The moisture
remains in their lower layer even after the upper layer of these soils gets dried up.
When they contain moisture, they become sticky. When they get dried up they
shrink and so, long and deep cracks develop in them.

These soils contain high quantities of iron, aluminium, magnesium and lime.
However, they are poor in nitrogen, phosphorus and organic matter.

These soils are zonal.

Red and Yellow Soils:

These soils have been formed by the decomposition of granite (igneous rock)
and gneiss (metamorphic rock).

They are zonal soils

.
These soils are rather sandy and of red-yellow colour. They are red because of
the presence of iron oxide in them. But they look yellow in hydrated from. Often
their upper layer is red and the lower layer is yellow.

These soils lack in nitrogen, phosphorous and humus.

These soils are found mainly in the peninsular India. They cover almost whole of
Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa.

They are also found in Santhal Paragana and the Chotanagpur plateau to
Jharkhand.

Mainly coarse grains, pulses and oilseeds are cultivated in these soils.
Laterite Soils:

These soils are formed due to the coming of wet and dry seasons alternately.
They are generally found in the areas of more than 200 cm rainfall.

More rainfall causes leaching away of laterite rocks because of which parts of
silica and lime go down and the compounds of iron and aluminum are left in the
form of soil.
These soils are found mainly on the Eastern and the Western Ghats, hilly areas of
Rajmahal, Kerala, Karnataka, and plateaus of Orissa, Chotanagpur and
Meghalaya. Their largest expansion is in Kerala.

These soils lack in lime, nitrogen, potash and humus. The paucity of lime makes
these soils acidic and so, they are suitable for tea plantation.

These are zonal soils

Mountain or Forest Soils;

These soils contain thin layers because of their development on the mountain slopes.

These soils are rich in fossils but they are undecomposed So, humic acid is formed and
the soils became acidic.

These soils are poor in potash, phosphorus and lime. They are less fertile.

Plantations are done in these soils because of their being on the mountain slopes.

These soils are affected by the problem of erosion.

Desert or Arid Soils:

These are really sand soils in which iron and phosphorous are enough but there is a
deficiency of nitrogen and humus.

These are infertile soils which are alkaline in nature.

Coarse cereals such as lower, bajra, ragi etc and oilseeds are produced in these
soils.
Saline and Alkaline Soils:

The development of these soils has happened in those areas where dry climate is found
and there is a lack of proper drainage.

In this situation salts of sodium, calcium and magnesium are deposited on the upper
layer of the soil by the capillary action. Therefore, the quantity of salt (salinity) in these
soils increases too much.

These soils are also formed when saline water spreads on the land at the time of high tide
in coastal areas.

These soils are deficient in nitrogen and lime.

These are intra-zonal soils.

These soils are found in southern Punjab, Sountern Haryana, Western Rajasthan, the
coast of Kerala, the Sunderbans etc.

In coastal areas the coconut trees are found in plenty in these soils.
Peaty or Organic Soils:

These soils are formed by deposition of too much organic matter in marshy areas
These soils are dark, heavy and too much acidic.

These soils are found mainly in Alleppey (Alappuzha) district of Kerala, Almora in
Uttarakhand, the Sunderbans delta and other lower deltaic regions.

Soil Degradation :

Soil Erosion :

Soil Conservation :
Natural Vegetation

Tropical evergreen vegetation:

This vegetation is found in those areas where the

annual rainfall is more than 200 cm and the
temperature is high all the year.

Distribution (i) north-eastern India (ii) the

western slopes of the Western Ghats (iii) the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Characteristics Trees are very close and

evergreen because of heavy rainfall. They are 30-
60 m in height and their wood is very hard.

The wood of these trees is not important

economically because of being hard. So it is
mostly used in the form of firewood.

Main trees Rubber, Mahogany, Ebony iron

wood, Palms, Bamboos, Canes, cinchona,
Rosewood etc.
Tropical Moist Deciduous Vegetation :

This kind of vegetation has developed in those

areas where the annual rainfall is between 100
and 200 cm, it is also known as tropical moist
monsoon vegetation.

Distribution The eastern slopes of the Western

Ghats, the Terai regions of the Himalayas, Bihar,
Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal, Maharashtra,
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh etc.

Characteristics During dry summer season,

trees shed their leaves because of decrease in
humidity so that they can maintain their
humidity.

Here, the average height of the trees is 20-40 m.

The deciduous forests are very important
economically.

Main trees teak, sal, sandalwood, mulberry,

mahua, amla, shisham etc.
Tropical Dry Deciduous Vegetation :

This vegetation is found in those areas

where the annual rainfall is between 50
and 100 cm.

Distribution Eastern Rajasthan,

northern Gujarat, western Madhya
Pradesh, south-west Uttar Pradesh,
southern Punjab, Haryana and the rain-
shadow area of the Western Ghats.

Characteristics Here, the trees are

generally 6-9 m in height.

The tree roots go deep so that they

could get water from depth. The trees
of this region have thick bark. Leaves
are also thick and thorny so that the rate
of transpiration could be lessened.
Desert or Semi-Arid Vegetation:

This kind of vegetation is found in the

areas having less than 50 cm rainfall.
Here the trees are in the forms of
small shrubs.

Generally their maximum height is

up to 6 m. The trees have deep
roots, and thick and thorny leaves.

Distribution Western Rajasthan,

northern Gujarat, and the rain
shadow region of the Western Ghats.

Main trees palm, cactus, babul etc.

Mangrove Vegetation :

This kind of vegetation is found in the sea-coast and the lower deltaic regions. In
these areas, the saline water spreads because of high tide.

Here, the soil is marshy.

Distribution The Ganga-Brahmaputra delta, deltaic regions of the rivers Mahanadi,

Krishna, Godavari, Kaveri etc, some parts of and the eastern and the western coast.

Main trees mangrove, coconut, sundari, palm, canes, bamboos, suneria, phoenix
etc.
 Montane
Forest

Subtropical Temperate
Forest (1000- Forest (1500-
2000m) 3000m)
Subtropical Forest (1000-2000m)

Subtropical Dry Evergreen

Subtropical Moist pine

Subtropical Broad leaved

Sub-tropical broad leaved forest:

Height 1000-2000m
Rainfall: 75-125 cm
Evergreen dense
Oak, Chestnut

Sub-tropical Moist Pine forest:

Height 1000-2000m
But Rainfall: about 100 cm
Eastern Himalayas
Chil/chir most abundant
Chil/Chir is used for timber, resin
and turpentine
Sub-tropical Dry
evergreen forest

Height about 1000

Rainfall: 50-100 cm
Bhabhar, Shiwaliks
western Himalayas
Stunted trees and
shrubs
 Montane Temperate
forest
1500-3000m

Wet-Temperate Moist-Temperate Dry-temperate

Rainfall decreases with height :

Dry -Temperate

Moist -Temperate

Wet -Temperate
Montane Wet Temperate forest

Height: 1800-3000 m
Rainfall 150-300 cm
Eastern Himalayas
Western Ghats above height of
1800 m
Trees: evergreen, short, leaves
dense and round
Birch, Plum
Montane Moist Temperate
forest:

Height: 1500-3300 m
Rainfall: 150-250 cm
Entire length of Himalayas
Deodar dominates
Deodar wood used for
Timber, railway sleepers
Montane Dry
Temperate forest

Rainfall: less than 100

cm
Dry part of Himalayas
Ladakh, Sikkim and
Garhwal

Coniferous forest
Oak, ash, maple
The temperate forests on the hills of Nilgiri, Annamalai and
palni are called Sholas
 Alpine forest
Height: 2900-
3800 m
Mixture of
coniferous trees,
large scrubs,
broad-leaved
trees
Then with
increase in
height - Alpine
Tundra Vegetation Altitude from 4876 m to grass a and scrub
5100 m. Fir, Silver,Juniper
Main Vegetation Small shrubs, grass, moss Berberries
and flower plants. Meadow (of soft grass)
develops in summer.
Forest type Percentage of total
area

Tropical Moist Deciduous forest (100-200 cm) 37%

Tropical Dry Deciduous forest (~100cm) 28%

Tropical Wet Evergreen (>250cm) 8%

Montane Sub-Tropical Pine (Chir) 6.6%

Tropical Semi-Evergreen 4%
Forest type Percentage of
total area

Montane Wet Temperate 3.6%

Montane Moist Temperate (Deodar) 3.4%

Sub-tropical Dry Evergreen (shiwaliks) 2.5%

Alpine 2.1%
India : Environment

State of forest report -FSI

State Total Forest Cover (in sq.km)
Madhya Pradesh 77,700
Arunachal Pradesh 67,353
Chhattisgarh 55,870
Maharashtra 50,650
Orissa 48,855

State Total Forest Cover (in sq. km.)

Haryana 1594
Punjab 1664
Goa 2151
Sikkim 3357
Bihar 6804
Tripura 8073
State/ Union Territory Forest Cover (in%) of
Geographical Area
Mizoram 91.27
Lakshadweep 82.75
Nagaland 81.21
Andaman & Nicobar 80.76
Arunachal Pradesh 80.43

State/ Union Territory Forest Cover (in %) of

Geographical Area
Punjab 3.30
Haryana 3.61
Rajasthan 4.69
Daman and Diu 5.04
Uttar Pradesh 5.95
Bihar 7.23
Gujarat 7.46
Some Important Facts about Forest Resources:
The largest area of teak forest is in Madhya Pradesh.

The expansion of sal forests is from Kangra in Himachal Pradesh to the terai areas
of Nagaon district in Assam. Besides, these forests are also found in Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, northern Tamil Nadu and Orissa. The sal wood
is hard and durable. It is used as timber.

The shisham forests are found in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Tamil Nadu, Madhya
Pradesh and West Bengal. Its wood is hard. It is used as timber and for furniture
making.

The sandalwood trees are found mostly in Karnataka followed by Tamil Nadu. The
sandalwood is hard and fragrant.

The deodar trees are found at the altitude of 1700-2500 m in the Himalayan
regions. Its wood is hard, fragrant and durable . it was mostly used for making
railway sleepers. Oil is extracted from its wood.
 The pine trees are found at greater heights in the Himalayan regions. Its wood is
light.

The mulberry forests are mostly found in Karnataka. This is why Karnataka is the
largest producer of raw silk (sericulture is done on the mulberry trees).

Jharkhand is the largest producer of lac. The lac worms are tended on the trees like
palash, kusum, babul, banyan etc.
The National Lac Research Centre is in Namkum (Ranchi).

The Tendu trees are mostly found in Madhya Pradesh. This is why Madhya Pradesh is
the largest producer of beedi (The tendu leaves are used for making beedis).;

The maximum area of sabai grass is in Madhya Pradesh.

The largest producer of bamboos is Karnataka followed by Assam.

Kerala is the largest producer of coconut. The Central Coconut Research Institute is
in Kasaragod (kerala).
Forest Research Centres :
Several institutes related to forest research in India have been established in
different ecological regions

Forest Research Institute, Dehradun (Uttarakhand)

Arid Forest Research Institute, Jodhpur (Rajasthan)

Institute of Deciduous Forest, Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh)

Institute of Rain and Moist Deciduous Forest Research, Jorhat (Assam).

Institute of Wood Science and Technology, Bengaluru (Karnataka).

Institute of Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding, Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu).

Temperate Forest Research Institute, Shimla (Himachal Pradesh).

Institute of Forest Productivity, Ranchi (Jharkhand).

Centre for Social Forestry and Eco-rehabilitation, Allahabad (Uttar Pradesh)

Centre for Forestry Research and Human Resource Development, Chhindwara

(MP).
 Indian Plywood Industries Research and Training Institute, Bengaluru (Karnataka).

Himalayan Forest Research Institute, Shimla (Himachal Pradesh).

G B Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment Development, Almora (Uttarakhand).

Indian Institute of Forest Management, Bhopal (Madhya Pradesh)

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun .

Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History, Coimbatore.

The National Environment Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) is in Nagpur and

Ecological Research Centre is in Bengaluru.

Several forestry programmes have been started by the Government of India to achieve
the target of forest cover (33%) in the country. Of these programme, the Social Forestry
Programme is the most important one.

Social Forestry,1976:

To supply Fore wood ,small timber and forest products to the rural population.

Main Kinds of Cultivation

Silviculture ----------- Cultivation of forests
Arboriculture ------------ Cultivation of trees and bushes
Horticulture ---------- Cultivation of fruits and vegetables
Sericulture ------------ Production of silk
Viticulture ---------- Cultivation of grapes
Pisciculture ------------- Commercial fish production
Apiculture -------------------- Honeybee breeding
Floriculture -------------- Cultivation of flowers.
Oliviculture ------------ Cultivation of olives.
Wildlife:
The geographical area of India is 2.4% of the total geographical area of the world, but
it is the habitat of 5% of total known living beings.

There are 15,000 species of plants and 75,000 species of animals found in India.

In India, 99 National Parks and 515 Wildlife Sanctuaries have been established for
wildlife protection.

Biosphere Reserve
The multi-purpose reserved areas which maintain genetic diversity in
representative samples of ecosystems are called biosphere reserves. Their
main purposes are :
1. Conserve diversity and totality of plants, animals and micro-organisms.
2. Encourage research in ecology and environmental matters.
3. Provide facilities for education, awareness and training.
 In 1973, the UNESCO had started a programme

on Man and Biosphere (MAB)in some countries.

Of the 18 biosphere reserves have been recognized by the

UNESCO.

seven (Nilgiri, Sunderbands, Gulf of Mannar, Nanda Devi,

Pachmarhi, Nokrek and Similipal )

Great Himalayan National Park

Name Animals State/UT
Nilgiri (first) 1986 Thar,Macaque Tamil Nadu, Kerala,Karnataka
Nanda devi 1988 Uttarakhand
Nokrek 1988 Redpanda(R.P) Meghalaya
Manas 1989 R.P,Golden lang Assam
Sunderbans 1989 R.B.Tiger West Bengal
Gulf of Mannar 1989 Dugong Tamil Nadu
Great Nicobar 1989 Crocodile Andaman and Nicobar
Similipal 1994 Elephant,guar Orissa
Dibru-Saikhowa 1997 Golden langur Assam
Dihang Dibang 1998 Arunachal Pradesh
Pachmarhi 1999 F &G squirell Madhya Pradesh
Kanchanjunga 2000 SnowLeopard Sikkim
Agasthyamalai 2001 Tahr,Chital Kerala
Achanakmar- Amarkantak 2005 Madhya Pradesh
Rann of Kachchh 2008 wildass Gujarat
Cold desert 2009 Snow leopard Himachal Pradesh
Sheshachalam 2010 Andhra Pradesh
Panna 2011 Tiger,Chital,Sa Madhya Pradesh
mbar,Slothbear
Difference between Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park

Human activities are permitted in a wildlife sanctuary whereas these are

completely restricted in a national park.

Hunting is prohibited without permission in a sanctuary : however, grazing and

movement of cattle are permitted. Hunting and grazing are totally prohibited in
a national park.

National Parks
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
North Button Island
Rani Jhansi Marine
Saddle Peak

Andhra Pradesh
Kasu brahmananda reddy

Arunachal Pradesh
Namdapha
Assam :

Kaziranga
Manas
Nameri
Orang

Bihar:
Valmiki

Chhattisgarh:
Indravati
Kangerghati
Sanjay

Madhya Pradesh:
Bandhavagarh
Kanha
Panna
Pench (Priyadarshini)
Sanjay
Satpura
Manipur:
Keibul-Lamjao

Maharashtra:
Pench
Sanjay Gandhi (Borivilli)

Nagaland:
Intanki

Orissa:
Bhitarkanika
Similipal

Gujarat:
Gir
Marine (Gulf of Kachchh)

Jammu and Kashmir

City forest (Salim Ali)
Dachigam
Hemis
Kistwar
Haryana:
Sultanpur

Karnataka :

Bandipur
Bannerghatta
Kudremukh
Nagarahole

Kerala
Eravikulam
Periya
Silent Valley

Rajasthan
Desert
Keoladeo Ghana
Ranthambore
Sariska
Sikkim:
Khangchendzonga (Kanchenjunga)

Tamil Nadu:
Guindy
Gulf of Mannar Marine
Indira Gandhi (Annamalai)

Uttarakhand:
Corbett
Gangotri
Nanda Devi
Rajaji
Valley of Flowers (phoolon ki Ghati)

Uttar Pradesh:
Dudhwa

West Bengal:
Buxa
Sunderbans
Bird sanctuaries:
Ghana Bird Sanctuary (Keoladeo) Bharatpur (Rajasthan)

Ranganthittu Bird Sanctuary Mysore (Karnataka)

Vedanthangal Bird Sanctuary Chingleput (Tamil Nadu)

Nalapati Bird Sanctuary Nellore (Andhra Pradesh )

Some Important Facts About Wildlife :
Under the agreement of Human Environment Conference 1972 (Stockholm) the Project
Tiger was launched with the help of the World Wildlife Forum (wwf) in 1973. At
present, there are 48 tiger reserves in India.The tiger population in India stood at 2,226
in 2014

The last four tiger reserves have been announced in 2011. They are Philibhit (UP),
Sahyadri (Maharashtra), Ratapani (Madhya Pradesh) and Sunbeda (Orissa).

The Sunderbans area in West Bengal is famous for Royal Bengal Tiger.

The lion is found (in a natural way) only in India, besides Africa. In India, its only one
natural habitat is in Gir forests (saurashtra) in Gujarat. In 1972, the Gir Lion Project was
launched for its protection.

Project Crocodile was launched in 1975. Programmes are being run at several places for
encouragement of its protection and safe reproduction. Among them, Tikrapara (Angul,
Orissa), Mahanadi (Orissa), Kukrail (Lucknow) etc are prominent.

The National Chambal Sanctuary (Madhya Pradesh) is important for protection of

crocodiles.
 The one-horned rhinoceros is found only in India . Project Rhinoceros was launched
in 1987 for its protection. The one-horned rhinoceros has been given protection in
kaziranga (Assam). Besides this place, it is also found in the marshy lands of Manas
(Assam) and Joldapara (West Bengal).

The elephant is an animal of equatorial sub-tropical forest. In India, it is found in the

jungles of Assam, Kerala and Karnataka where there is heavy rain and high
temperature. Project Elephant was launched in 1992 to increase the number of
elephants. As per 2009 data there are 27 elephant reserves in India. The national
parks of Manas and Kaziranga in Assam, Periyar in Kerala and Bandipur in Karnataka
are important habitats of the elephant.

The Dachigam National Park in Jammu and Kashmir is famous for Hangul (Kashmiri
Stag).

The Great Indian bustard is found in Jaisalmer (Rajasthan) and Malwa at present it is
an endangered species.
 The flamingo lays eggs by making a nest in the Rann of Kachchh.

The Rann of Kachchh is the natural habitat of the wild ass.

Ostriches are found in the Desert National Park, Jaisalmer.

Snow-leopards and pandas are found in the high regions of the Himalayas.

The wild sheep, sakin (long-horned wild goat ), tapir, hill goat etc are the main animals of
the Himalayan region.

The Keoladeo (Ghana) Bird sanctuary is famous as the winter migratory place for Siberian
crane. It is Indias largest Bird Sanctuary .

The Nandan Kanan Zoological Park (Bhubaneshwar, Orissa ) is famous for white tiger.

Indias largest zoo is in Alipore, Kolkata.

The Gangetic dolphins live in the Ganga. They are blind by birth.
Wetlands:
Wetlands are those areas which are covered with water permanently or temporarily for
some months in a year. Under these are included marshy lands, fresh, semi-brackish and
brackish watered areas. Those areas filled with sea water are also included in wetlands
in which the depth of water is not more than 6 m at the time of ebb.

Ramsar Convention ,1971.

Keoladeo NationalPark, Bharatpur

Sambhar Lake in Rajasthan;
Chilka lake, Orissa;
Loktak Lake, Manipur ;
Wular Lake , Jammu and Kashmir ;
Harike Barrage, Punjab.
Major Movements Related to Environment:
Chipko movement:

Gopeshwar in Chamoli district, Uttarakhand in 1973.

Sunder Lal Bahuguna and Chandi Prasad Bhatt were the leaders of this movement.

Appiko movement:
Pandurang Hegde launched the Appiko Movement in Karnataka

Silent Valley Movement:

The silent valley is an area of tropical evergreen forests in Kerala. It is very rich in bio-
diversity.

Narmada Bachao Movement:

. Medha Patkar has been the leader of this movement. It has also got support from famous
celebrities like Arundhati Roy, Baba Amte and Aamir Khan.
CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
It is the greatest wildlife agreement of the world which has been
implemented in 1976. It keeps an eye on the trade of animals and their organs etc in
the world.

Red Data Book(IUCN) The rare and endangered species are enlisted in the
Red Data Book.

Vulnerable
Critically vulnerable
Endangered
Critically Endangered
Extinct
Rare

In India, red panda, wild boar, bear, flyng squirrel, one-horned rhinoceros, wild ass,
Kashmiri stag etc are included in it.
Irrigation:

Three major means of irrigation are in vogue:

Canals (surface water resources )

Wells and Tubewells (underground water resources)
Tanks (Ponds) ( Surface water resources

Their % in Total Irrigated Area

Means of irrigation 1950-51 2005-06
Canals 39.9 25.71
Wells and Tubewells 29.7 58.76
Ponds / tanks 17 3.38
Statewise : Then 91.96% of irrigated area in Jammu and Kashmir, 70.19% in Chhattisgarh,
45.30% in Haryana and 35.79% in Andhra Pradesh is irrigated by canals.

Some Major Canals:

Sarhind Canal : it has been taken out from the Satluj. It irrigates the areas of Punjab and
Haryana.

Indira Gandhi Canal : it is the logest canal in the world. It has been taken out from the
Harike Barrage which is at the confluence of the Satluj and the Beas. This canal irrigates
the districts of Ganganagar, Bikaner, Jodhpur and Jaisalmer in Rajasthan.

Anicut Canal : this canal has been taken out from theKaveri is the lodest canal of India.

Problems caused by canal irrigation :

Materials like salt and sand which are mixed with canal water make irrigated areas
infertile.
Excessive canal water increases the level of underground water which affects the
growth of crops inversely. For example, the Terai region of Uttar Pradesh.
Crops get more than enough water which is wastage of water.
Water is not supplied timely according to the demand of the farmers and need of the
crops due to the lack of proper management.
Problems of waterlogging and epidemic (malaria, dengue etc.).
Well and Tube well Irrigation :

Ganga satluj plain from Punjab to West Bengal in North India.

The black soil area of Maharashtra is also suitable for well irrigation.
The deltaic areas of the South are also irrigated by wells.
The irrigated areas by wells in Tamil Nadu are spread in a triangular shape between
Chennai, Coimbatore and Tirunelveli.

78.4% of net irrigated area in Gujarat, 70.5% in Uttar Pradesh, 69.6% in Goa, 67.9% in
Rajasthan, 61.3% in Punjab, 61.2% in Maharashtra and 54.2% in Madhya Pradesh are
irrigated by wells and tubewells.

Problems of Well and Tubewell Irrigation :

This means of irrigation is not suitable for dry regions.
Irrigation by pumps sets is hindered because of the failing of electricity.
In several areas the groundwater level has gone down because of too much
exploitation of water.
TANK IRRIGATION :

Tank irrigation has a special significance in the stony peninsular India.

There is no permeation of water in the ground. If the contribution of tank irrigation in

the total irrigated area of a state is estimated.

Tamil Nadu -19.17% of the total irrigated land.

Orissa (14.60%),
Andhra Pradesh (13.40%),
Kerala (13.26%),
Karnataka (9.47%),
West Bengal (7.37%),
Chhattisgarh (4.78%) and Bihar (3.24%)

Tamil Nadu has the largest number of tanks. The district of Tiruchinapally in Tamil
Nadu has largest number of tanks.
 Percentage (According to 2001-02) of irrigated land in total cultivated land

State Percentage

Punjab 94.74
Haryana 83.32
Uttar Pradesh 70.41
Tamil Nadu 52.82

The Planning Commission has divided the irrigation planning in India into three
kinds :
Major Irrigation Project :in cultivable command areas of 10,000 hectare or more .

Medium Irrigation Project :cultivable command areas of 2000 hectare or more but
less than 10,000 hectare.

Minor Irrigation Project :cultivable command areas of less than 2000 hectare.
In Indian, three major crops are cultivated in a year :

Rabi crop : It is sown generally in October and harvested in April. The major crops
coming under it are wheat, barley, gram, peas, mustard etc.

Kharif crop : it is a crop of rainy season which is sown in July and harvested in October.
The major crops coming under it are rice, jowar, bajra, maize, jute, groundnut, cotton,
hemp, tobacco etc.

Zaid crop : this crop is produced between kharif and rabi i.e., sown in March and
harvested till June. Vegetables, water melon, musk melon, cucumber etc which are
grown with the help of irrigation come under it.
AGRICULTURE
About 51% of the total area of India is used for agriculture whereas only 5% area of
Canada, 11% of China, 13% of Japan and 20% of the USA is used for that purpose.

Share in GDP : 14 %

Land Use :
Of Indias total land,
46.6% is net sown area,
23.84% is covered with forest,
5% is barren land 7.6% is fallow land
4% is covered with permanent meadows and gardens.

Arable Land : both net sown area (net cropped area ) and fallow lands are included
under it.

Fallow Land : it is that land in which no crop has been grown for one to five years.

Barren Land : that land which is unsuitable for cultivation because of some reasons.
Many times an arable land becomes barren because of unscientific cultivation.
Cropping Intensity :
Cropping intensity means number (frequency ) of crops raised in the same field during
one agriculture year.

Indias cropping intensity index is about 135%.

Land Reforms
Following efforts were done in the direction of land reforms in India after
Independence
Termination of Intermediaries :the zamindari system was abolished after Independence in
which tenants got land ownership. 2,60,000 zamindars and intermediaries were
terminated during 1950-60. 20 million peasants got tenancy rights and 10 million
peasants got land ownership. 60 lakh hectare land was distributed among poor and
landless peasants.
Tenancy Reforms :
Revenue Regulations before Independence, the prevailing rate of rent was about 50% of
the total produce. After Independence, the rate of rent was fixed from 20 to 25 per cent
in all states except Punjab(33%), Haryana (33%), Tamil Nadu (33.5-40%) and Andhra
Pradesh (20-30%).
 Land holding (1990-91)
Types of land holding Size of land holding Per cent
Marginal land holding Less than one hectare 59
Small land holding 1-4 hectare 32.2
Medium land holding 4-10 hectare 7.2
Large land holding More than 10 hectare 1.6

Wet and Dry Land Farming:

Wet land farming >75 cm rainfall.
Dryland farming< 75 cm rainfall.

Coarse cereals, jowar, bajra, pulses, oilseeds, cotton etc are included
under rainfed crops.

The International Crop Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT)

has been established at Patancheru (Hyderabad).
The Central Arid Zone Crop Research Institute (CAZRI) has been established
in Jodpur (Rajasthan).
Major Crops of India:

Rice :
Rice is a crop of tropical humid climate. It needs above 250c temperature and above
100 cm rainfall.

It is the most important Crop in India.

25% part of the arable land is used for the cultivation of rice.

Rice has 42% share in total food grain production.

India is the second largest producer of rice in the world after China. Indian
produces 22% rice for the world.

West Bengal is the largest producer of rice in India. It is followed by Andhra Pradesh
and Uttar Pradesh.

Major varieties of rice Ratna, IR-8, Jamuna, Krishna, Padma, Jaya etc.
Wheat:

It is a crop of temperate climate. Generally 100 150 C temperature and an annual

rainfall of 50-75 cm are needed for it. If there is a rainfall of 12.5 cm in winter, it is
very useful for this crop.

Wheat is the second major crop of India after rice. India produces 12% wheat of the
world.

Wheat is cultivated on 14% of the total arable land of the country.

In north India, wheat is sown in October-November and harvested in March April.

In south India, it is sown in September October and harvested in December

January. Wheat takes lesser time in ripening in south India than that in north India
because of hot climate.

Major wheat producing states (in descending order) are Uttar

Pradesh>Punjab>Haryana>Madhya Pradesh > Rajasthan > Bihar.

On the basis of productivity (per hectare production), Punjab and Haryana are leading
states. Here, wheat productivity (yield level) is more than 4000 kg/hectare.
Maize :
It is grown on 3.6% of the total sown area in India. 50-100 cm rainfall is
suitable for its cultivation.

Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Rajasthan and Bihar are prominent maize

producing states.

Pulses :
India is a chief pulse producing country. About 20% pulses of the world
are produced here.
It is grown on about 11% of the total sown area in India.
In India, pulses are the major sources of protein. Pulses are leguminous
plants. They fix atmospheric nitrogen in the soil. By doing it they increase
the fertility of the soil.
In India the largest producer of pulses is Madhya Pradesh followed by
Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan.
Gram, arhar, moong lentil (masur), peas, black gram (urad), khesari etc
come under pulses in India
Oilseeds :
About 20% of the worlds total oilseed producing area is in India.

Oilseeds rank next to food grains among agricultural products in India.

Oilseed crops are sown on about 14% of our countrys total arable land.

Major oilseed producing areas are the plateau of Malwa, Marathwara,

Gujarat, dry areas of Rajasthan, Telangana and rayalaseema regions of
Andhra Pradesh.

Groundnut, toria, mustard, soybean, sesame, (til), castor and sunflower are
major oilseed crops in India.

Madhya Pradesh ranks first in total oilseeds production. It is followed by

Rajasthan and Gujarat.
Groundnut:

India is the largest producer of groundnut in the world. It produces 17%

groundnut of the world.
Groundnut is a rain fed kharif crop of dry regions but in south India it is a
rabi crop. It is grown on 3.6% of total arable land of the country. About 50%
of edible oil of the country is obtained from groundnut.
Major groundnut producing states are Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil
Nadu.

Rapeseed and Mustard:

Rajasthan produces one-third part of it. It is followed by Uttar Pradesh,
Haryana and Madhya Pradesh.

Soyabean
soyabean is mainly a rabi crop. About 88% of total area of soyabean is in
Madhya Pradesh.
The maximum production of soyabean is in Madhya Pradesh followed by
Maharshtra. 90% soyabean, in India is produced by both the states together.
Rajasthan ranks third in soyabean production.
Sunflower :
Karnataka is the largest producer of sunflower followed by Andhra Pradesh
and Maharashtra.

Jowar:
An average temperature of 20-300C and average annual rainfall of 60 cm are
needed for its cultivation.
India is the largest producer of jowar in the world.
Among Indian states, Maharashtra alone produces more than half of jowar
produced in the country. Karnataka , Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh
are other major jowar producing states.

Bajra :
30-50 cm annual rainfall and 250 350C temperature are needed for
cultivation of bajra. It is produced in drier climate than the climate for Jowar.

Bajra is primarily an African crop. It is a staple food of the poor.

Rajasthan is the largest producer of bajra followed by Uttar Pradesh,

Maharashtra and Haryana.
Sugarcane :
Sugarcane is an indigenous plant of India. It is grown in tropical
climate with generally 200C-270C temperature and 75-120 cm rain
fall

India has the maximum sugarcane cultivation area in the world. At

present, India is the largest producer of both sugarcane and sugar.
More water is used in the cultivation of sugarcane in comparison
to other crops in India.
Uttar Pradesh is the largest producer of sugarcane followed by
Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. Nasik and Ahmednagar districts of
Maharashtra as well as Madurai and Coimbatore districts of Tamil
Nadu are especially notable for sugarcane production.

Sugarcane Research Institute is situated in Coimbatore.

Indian Institute of Sugar Technology is in Kanpur. Here , training is

imparted for cultivation of sugarcane and sugar industry.
Tea :

Tea is a crop produced in tropical humid and subtropical humid climate.

150 cm summer rain and 210C-270C daily temperature are needed for
its cultivation.

Tea is cultivated often on the hill slopes so that there is no water logging
in its roots.

It is a plantation crop. Its leaves are to be plucked several times in year,

so availability of cheap labour is essential for its cultivation.

India is the largest producer and consumer of tea in the world. Here,
28% tea of the world is produced.
Tea producing regions in India :
North-East India -75%
South India -20%
Western Himalayan Area .

Of India states, Assam ranks first in the tea cultivation area and its
production, followed by West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
Coffee :

Coffee is a tropical plantation crop. 160-280C temperature, 150-250 cm

rainfall and well-drained slopes are essential for it.

It grows on the hilly slopes of 900-1800 m Low temperature, frost, dry

weather for a long time and harsh sunshine are harmful for its plants.

Coffee plants grow better in laterite soils of Karnataka in India .

There are three varieties of coffee Arabica, Robusta and Liberica. India
produces the superior quality coffee Arabica which has a great demand
in the international market.

At present, more than 2/3rd of the total coffee production in India is

produced by Karnataka alone. Kerala and Tamil Nadu are other major
coffee producing states. 98.89% of the total coffee production of the
country is produced by these three states together.
Fibrous crops :

Cotton :

Cotton plant is indigenous to India. It is a tropical crop which is sown as

kharif in semi-arid region of the country.
The cultivation of cotton in India is limited to those areas having average
annual rainfall of 60-85 cm In the areas of low rainfall, e.g. Punjab, it is
an irrigated crop.

Traditionally, cotton is cultivated on the lava plateau of Deccan. This is

why the soil found here is also called black cotton soil .

High temperature light rainfall or irrigation, frost free weather and

shiny sunshine are favorable conditions for the cultivation of cotton. It
requires clear sky during flowering.

India ranks fourth in the world in the production of cotton. China USA
and Pakistan grow more cotton than India.
There are three major cotton producing areas:

Punjab, Haryana and northern Rajasthan in North-West India.

Gujarat and Maharashtra in western India.
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu in south India.

Gujarat is the largest producer of cotton in India followed by

Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh
Jute :

Jute is Indias major cash crop.

High temperature (240-350C) heavy rain (125-200 cm) and low plain land
are favorable conditions for cultivation of jute

India is the largest producer of jute (60%) in the world.

Before Independence, India had monopoly on jute and jute items, but
after partition, 80% jute producing areas remained in the eastern
Pakistan( now Bangladesh).
It caused the shortage of raw materials for the Indian Jute mills.. later on
cultivation of jute was encouraged in India which increased its
production.

West Bengal is the largest producer (81%) of jute in India followed by

Bihar and Assam. It is cultivated also in the deltai regions of the
Mahanadi in Orissa.

Mesta is a variety of Jute.

Other crops:

Tobacco :
Tobacco was brought to India by the Portuguese. Its leaves are used in cigarette, cigar,
beedi etc.
Its stem is used as potash fertilizer and its powder as insecticide.
150c 380C temperature and 50 cm annual rainfall are ideal conditions for the cultivation
of tobacco.
More than 100 cm annual rainfall and frost are harmful for it.
More than 1/3rd tobacco of the country is produced by Andhra Pradesh alone. Here ,
Virginia and Dale crest varieties of tobacco are grown which are used for making
cigarettes.
The districts of Prakasam and Guntur in Andhra Pradesh (deltaic region of the Krishna
river) are famous for tobacco production.

Andhra Pradesh is followed by Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat (mainly Kheda district) in
tobacco production
Central Tobacco research Institute Rajahmundry (AP)
Cigarette Tobacco Research Station Guntur (AP)
Rubber :

Rubber is a wild tree of Amazon basin (Brazil). Rubber is obtained by collecting

the latex(milky liquid) of the tree.

The rubber plantations were started for the first time in India in Travancore and
Malabar areas.

Tropical hot and wet climate is suitable for the rubber tree. 250-350C temperature
and 300 cm annual rainfall are ideal climatic conditions for it.

India is the fourth largest producer of natural rubber in the world.

Kerala is the largest rubber producing state in India. About 90% rubber of the
country is produced in this state.

Other major producers of rubber are Tamil Nadu (about 3%), Karnataka (about
2%), Tripura, Meghalaya, Assam, Goa and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

The cultivation of rubber has been encouraged in tribal areas under co-cultivation
of rubber has been encouraged in tribal areas under co-operatives in Tripura
Coconut :

Coconut is a tropical crop 200- 250C temperature, more than 150 cm annual rainfall,
frost and humid coastal climate is suitable for it.

India ranks first in production, consumption and export of coconut in the world. In
terms of productivity (yield per hectare)Mexico ranks first whereas India fourth.

Kerala is the largest producer of coconut (about 44%) in India.

Other major coconut producing states are Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
Spices :

India is the largest producer, consumer and exporter of spices in the world.

From tropical black pepper (kali mirch) to tepmperate saffron (kesar) are cultivated
here.

Spices are grown in India mainly on the Malabar coast of Kerala and Karnataka.

Kerala is the largest producer of black pepper (93%).

Andhra Pradesh is the largest producer of red chilli (about 62%).

Andhra Pradesh is the largest producer of turmeric (about 50%)

Meghalaya, Mizoram and Kerala are major ginger producing states.

For cardamom plants. 140 320C temperature and 150 cm 600 cm rainfall are
suitable.
The Indian Cardamom Research Institute (ICRI) is in Myladumpara, Idukki, Kerala.

Major cardamom producing states are Karnataka (57%), Kerala (about 32%) and Tamil
Nadu (about 11%).
 Clove is cultivated in Kerala (districts of Kottayam and Kollam) and Tamil Nadu (districts
of Nilgiri and Kanyakumari).

India is the largest producer of arecanut or betelnut (supari) in the world. Karnataka is
the largest producer of arecanut in India followed by Kerala and Assam
Horticulture crops (Fruits and Vegetables):

India produces 10% of the total fruit production in the world. India is the second
largest producer of fruits in the world.

India is the largest producer of mango, banana, cashew , cheekoo and lemon in the
world.

The original home of cashew is Brazil. It was brought to India by the Portuguese.

India produces 45% of total cashew production in the world. India is the largest
producer and exporter of cashew.

Cashew is produced abundantly in Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Kerala in

India.

The Alphonso mango of Maharashtra is world famous. Most of it is exported.

Nagpur is famous for the production of oranges.

 Grapes are grown in India in Andhra Pradesh (Hyderabad, Anantpur and Nizamabad
districts), Maharashtra (districts of Nasik, Pune and Aurangabad), Jammu and Kshmir
(Srinagar), Tamil Nadu (Salem ) and Himachal Pradesh (Kinnaur).

Guava is a tropical plants its original home is central America. Uttar Pradesh, Bihar
and Madhya Pradesh are famous for its cultivation. Allahabadi guavas are famous in
India.

Muzaffarpur (Bihar) is famous for production of litchi.

Apple is grown in temperate regions in India, it is cultivated mainly in Jammu and

Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttara hkand etc. kashmiri apples are famous for their
quality.

India is the second largest producer of vegetables in the world.

Potato is a crop of South America origin. Uttar Pradesh is the largest producer of
potato in India. West Bengal, Punjab, Gujarat and Bihar are other major potato
producing states.
 India is the second largest producer of onion in the world after China.

In India, Maharashtra is the largest producer of onion followed by Karnataka and Gujarat

The district of Nasik in Maharashtra is famous for the production of onions.

Mixed farming:
Under this farming , crop production and animal husbandry are done together
on farm.

Plantation Agriculture:

It is a commercial type of agriculture done according to scientific technique in

which only one type of crop is cultivated. This agriculture was started in the colonial
period by European landlords. It is based on industrial rules and regulations in it ,
workers get monthly salary and facilities as the industrial workers get.

Major plantation crops tea, coffee, rubber, coco, banana, spices, sugarcane,
coconut etc.

Cash Crops:
Under cash crops, those commercial crops are included which are produced by
farmers mainly to earn money. The cash crop is often not consumed or consumed
very little by the farmer himself.
For example sugarcane, tobacco, cotton jute, oilseeds etc.
Green Revolution :

Effects of the Green Revolution :

Economic effect :

Negative Effect
Inter-regional and intra-regional economic disparity increased.
Only big farmers got benefit from the Green Revolution.
Capitalistic agriculture got encouraged in which heavy investment is needed.

Social Effect:

Negative Effect :
Big farmers became richer. They evolved like capitalists in the villages.
Labourers were exploited. This created the situation of class-struggle.

Because of the use of new machines in agriculture, the problem of

unemployment rose before the makers of traditional agricultural implements,
viz. carpenters, blacksmiths etc. they were compelled to migrate to towns
which affected the self-dependent rural economy
Ecological Effect :

Negative effect
Many varieties of traditional crops which were environment friendly and had
disease resistance capacity became extinct.

More irrigation increased the alkalinity and salinity of the soil and decreased the
underground water-level.

More use of chemical fertilizers made the soil barren and poisonous. T
he land absorbs only 40% of the fertilizer used; in rest increases the pollution of
water and air.

Only 1% of the pesticides is used in insect-control; the rest makes the environment
and our food-chain poisonous.

The Waning Effects of the Green Revolution have made people anxious. So , the
bio-fertilizers, (rhizobium, blue green algae, Azotobacter etc.) should be
encouraged to overcome it.

The use of parasites, insectivores and neem-made insecticides should be

encouraged.
Livestock Resources :

India stands first as far as the number of livestock is concerned (the USA stands
second) .

14% cows and oxen, and 57% buffaloes of the world are found in India.

Animal husbandry and pisciculture together share 29.7% of the total agricultural
production in India.

Animal husbandry and pisciculture together shared 4.07% of Gross Domestic

Production (GDP) during 2008-09.

Besides in the number of livestock, India also stands first in the number of milk
animals i.e. buffalo, goat etc
Importance of Livestock Resources in the Indian Economy:

As additional employment and alternative economy especially inhilly tribal, semi-

urban and drought-prone areas.

Helpful in availability of protein (milk, meat, egg). In India, availability of protein per
capita per day is 11.3 gram (29 gram in the world).

Important from the point of view of availability of milk. In India, availability of milk
per capita per day was 231 gram in 2003-04 (124 gram in 1950-51).

Among Indian states, Haryana ranks first in per capita availability of milk followed by
Punjab.

India is the largest leather producing country in the world.

India is the 5th largest egg producing country in the world.

In India, Mumbai is the largest center in terms of production and export of meant.
The Butcher Island in Mumbai is famous for meat production.
Order of egg production (statewise):
Andhra Pradesh
Tamil Nadu
Maharashtra
West Bengal

Uttar Pradesh has the maximum number (25%) of buffaloes in India.

Uttar Pradesh has the maximum number (25%) of buffaloes in India.

The Central Sheep Breeding FarmHissar (Haryana)

The Animal Disease Research and Remedial Center --- Izzat nagar (Bareilly, Uttar
Pradesh)
The White Revolution (Milk Revolution):
Kheda cooperative,Anand experiment.

The National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) in 1965 under the

chairmanship of Dr Varghese Kurien.

The Blue Revolution:

The rapid increase in the production of fish is known as the blue

revolution. It was launched in India during the Seventh Five Year
Plan (1985-90).

Fish production :

Brackish water/marine fish production

Major fishes -- mackerel, sardine, Salmon, perch, catfish etc.

Fresh water fish production(river, pond, lake)

major fishes - rohu, catla, tengra, hilsa, prawn etc
Different Research Institutes :

For freshwater fish Barrackpore (Kolkata).

For marine fish Mandapam (Tamil Nadu) and Mumbai

The Central Fish Research Center Mumbai

The Central Institute of Fisheries and Nautical Engineering Training Kochi

Achievements :

At present, India is the third largest fish producing country in the world.

India is the second largest freshwater fish producer in the world after China.

Asias largest shrimp fish farming area is situated in the marine area of the district
Nellore in Andhra Pradesh.

The catfish farming has been launched in the marine area of the district Tanjore
in Tamil Nadu.
Statewise fish production (in descending order) (as per year 2006-07):

West Bengal (largest)

Gujarat
Kerala
Andhra Pradesh

Statewise marine fish production (in descending order) [as per year 2006-07]
Gujarat (largest)
Kerala
Maharashtra
Tamil Nadu

Statewise freshwater fish production (in descending order) [as per year 2006-07]
West Bengal (largest)
Gujarat
Kerala
Andhra Pradehs
 Major Agricultural Revolutions
Name of Revolution Objective of Revolution
Green Revolution To encourage agricultural development

White Revolution To encourage milk production and dairy

development
Blue Revolution To encourage fish production.

Yellow Revolution To encourage Oilseeds production .

Pink Revolution To encourage shrimp/meat production.

Brown Revolution To encourage wool production

Gray Revolution To increase the production and export of

spices.

Rainbow Revolution Emphasis on all the above revolutions.

Marine Resources:
India is rich in marine resources. The marine resources in India can be divided into
two parts abiotic and biotic resources.
 Marine
Resource

Abiotic Biotic
Resources Resources

Energy
Mineral
Resources
Resources

Non-conventional
Conventional Energy
Manganese Sulphide nodules
Energy (petroleum - Tidal energy
nodules and Natural gas) - Wave energy
(sulphide, iron ,
(manganese, zinc) -OTEC Energy
cobalt, copper,
nickel)
Mineral Resources:

Polymetallic nodules are found on the ocean bed from 3.5 km to 6 km depth.
These are found in large quantities in the Indian Ocean.

Salt obtained from sea-water is an important abiotic resource. India is the fifth
largest sea-salt producing country in the world.
Energy Resources:

Petroleum and natural gas are obtained mainly from continental shelf.

Petroleum and natural gas are being exploited in Bombay High, Bassein region. The
gulf of Khambhat (islands of Aliabet and Khaliabet). All are in the Arabian Sea.

The Gulf of Kachchh, the Gulf of Khambhat and the Sunderbans are suitable for tidal
energy. A small tidal energy center has been established in Durgaduani creek in west
Bengal .

The first plant of the country producing electricity from the sea waves has been
established at the Vizingam coast of Thiruvananthapuram (Kerala). New plants are
being established in Thangassari inKerala and Mus Point in Nicobar Island.

For the first time in the world, an OTEC energy unit for 100 MW is being established in
Tamil Nadu. There is a prospect of its development in Kulasekharapatnam near
Tuticorin.
Biotic resources :

Major biotic resource obtained from the Indian Ocean are plants, marine animals,
fish, pearl etc.

Among plants (vegetation), the major one is phytoplankton which is used in

medicine.
From the point of view of Oyster, the Gulf of Mannar, the Gulf of Kachchh and sea-
shore of Saurashtra are important from where pearl is obtained. Pearl culture is
being developed in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Conch shell (shankh ) are found in the coastal areas of Tamil Nadu and Saurashtra.

Catfish Farming is being done in Tanjore (Tamil Nadu).

Asias largest sea prawn and shrimp farming has been started on Nellore coast in
Andhra Pradesh .

Corals are important marine resources. Efforts for their protection are being done in
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Gulf of Mannar and the Rann of Kachchh.

Marine fossils (sea-shell and shale) are obtained from the sea area. They are used in
the cement industry because of more lime content in them. The cement industry in
Dwarika is based on them.
MINERAL RESOURCES
Metallic minerals
Iron ore, manganese, tungsten, copper, lead, zinc, bauxite, gold,l silver,
tin, Limonite etc come under it.

Metallic minerals are divided into two parts - ferrous minerals, and non-
ferrous minerals, Iron ore, manganese, chromium, nickel, tungsten,
cobalt, etc are ferrous metal because some part of iron is found in them.

Copper, aluminium, tin, lead, gold, silver, platinum, zine etc are non-
ferrous metals.

Non-metallic minerals
Mica, asbestos, pyrite, slat, sulphur, diamond,marble, lime-stone gypsum,
nitrate, granite etc come under it.
Major Minerals
IRON ORE :
India has the largest reserve of iron ore in Asia.
Four kinds of iron ores are found here magnetite, haematite, limonite and siderite.
Of them haematite and magnetite are major ores.

1. Magnetite
It is the best kind of iron ore which contains up to 72% metal in it. It is black in
colour. It contains 60-70% metal.
Much of the Indian iron ore (two-third) is of this category. It is found mainly in
Singhbhum (Jharkhand), Mayurbhanj, Kendujhar, Sundergarh (Orissa), Karnataka,
Goa etc.

2. Limonite -
It is often yellow in color. It contains 10-40% metal. This type of iron ore is found in
Raniganj are of West Bengal.

3. Siderite
There are more impurities in it. It contains metal up to 48%. It is brown in colour. It
has the mixture of iron and carbon. Limonite and siderite are low grade iron ores.
Distribution of Iron Ores in India
Chhattisgarh
Major mining centers
Dalli-Rajhara (Durg district)
Bailadilla (Dantewada district) Iron ore from here is exported to Japan.
Goa
Sahqualim, Sanguem, Quepem, Satari, Ponda, Bicholim are the major iron ore
mining centers.
Karnataka
Major mining centers
Baba Budan hills and Kuderemukh regoion (Chikmaglur)
Bellary, Hospet and Sandur (Bellary district)
Shimoga and Chitradurg districts.
Jharkhand
Major mining centers
Noamundi, Gua , Jamda, Kiriburu (Western
Singhbhum district)
Orissa
Major mining centers
Gurumahisani, Suleipat, Badam hills (Mayurbhanj district)
Kendujhar
Bonai (Sundergarh)
 Maharashtra
Major mining centers
Chandrapur , Ratnagiri and Bhandara districts.
Andhra Pradesh
Major mining centers
Karimnagar , Warangal, Kurnool, Kadapa, and Ananthapur.
Tamil Nadu
Major mining centers
Tirhamalai hillls (Salem district)
Yadpalli, Killimalai (Nilgiri)
Statewise Iron Ore Reserve (in descending order)
Karnataka (largest)
Orissa
Jharkhand
Chattisgarh

Statewise Iron ore Production (in descending order)

Orissa (largest)
Karnataka
Chhattisgarh
Goa

95% haematite resource of India is distributed mainly in Orissa, Jharkhand,

Karnataka and Goa.
Magnetite resource is 10,619 million ton of which 59 million ton is reserve
which is located mainly in Goa, Rajasthan and Jharkhand. The rest 10,560 million
ton (99%) magnetite resource is in Remaining Resources category which is found
mainly in Karnataka (74%) and Andhra Pradesh (14%)
MANGANESE
In India, it is used mainly as an abrasive and in making stainless steel, Ferro
alloys of iron and manganese, dry cells, paint and in glass industry. 90% manganese of
India is found in gondite and kodurite series of the Dharwar rocks. About 50%
manganese is produced by Maharshtra andMadhya Pradesh together. The most
important manganese belt is found on the border of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtr. Its
expansion is from Balaghat Chhindwara in Madhya Pradesh to the district of Nagpur and
Bhandara in Maharashtra.
Major areas :
Orissa Kendujhar, Sundergarh, Bonai, Kalahandi and Koraput.
Madhya Pradesh Balaghat and chhindwara
Maharashtra Nagpur , Bhandara and Ratnagiri districts.
Karnataka bellary, Shimoga and North Kanara.
Andhra Pradesh Vijayanagarama and Adilabad
Jharkhand Western Singhbhum
Rajasthan Banswara, Udaipur
Gujarat Vadodara and Panch Mahal areas.
Statewise Manganese Reserve (in descending order)
1. Orissa (largest ) 2. Karnataka 3. Madhya Pradesh 4. Maharashtra
Statewise Manganese Production (in descending order)
1. Orissa (largest) 2. Maharashtra 3. Madhya Pradesh 4. Karnataka
LEAD
The main ore of lead is galena. It is found in the sedimentary rocks of
limestone and sandstone.
The Zawar area (Udaipur district) of Rajasthan. Is famous for the production
of lead. 80% of lead is produced in Rajasthan.
ZINC
It is used in galvenisation, tyre and dry cell (battery) industries. Mochia
Magra area (Udaipur), Rajsamand and Chittor are major zince producing
areas in Rajasthan. Almost total production of zinc in the country is done in
Rajasthan.

Lead-Zinc resources are in Rajasthan , Bihar, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh ,

Andhra Pradesh , Gujarat , Uttarakhand, West Bengal , Orissa , Sikkim , Tamil
Nadu and Meghalaya.
BAUXITE :
The bauxite ore is used in making aluminium, colouring leather and
refining petrol and salt. In India, it is found in the structures of the Cretaceous
period. Its origin is related to the laterization of the rocks of the cretaceous period.

Major Areas :
Orissa -- Kalahandi, Sambalpur and Koraput districts.
Two large reserves of hig quality bauzite have been found in Bolangir and
Sambalpur.
Panchpatamalli and Gandhmardan areas of Orissa are famous for bauxite
production.
Andhra Pradesh North-eastern area.
Madhya Pradesh (a) katni-Jabalpur-Bargawan hilly areas (b) Amarkantak-
Shahdol area and Mandla district.
Jharkhand palamau and Lohardaga districts.
In these areas Bagrupahar, Parki, Seredang, Khamar,Banjari are major mining
centers.
Chattisgarh Bastar, Bilaspur and Sargula districts.
Gujarat Jamnagar, Kachchh and Junagarh.
Statewise Order of Bauxite Reserve (in descending order)
Orissa (more than half of the total reserve of the country)
Andhra Pradesh (1/5 of the total reserve of the country)
Madhya Pradesh
Jharkhand

Statewise order of Bauxite Production (in descending order)

Orissa
Jharkhand
Maharashtra
Madhya pradesh
COPPER
Copper is used in making electric wires, machine, radio, telephone, alloy etc. In
India, copper is found in ancient crystalline cuddapah and Aravali structures.

Major Copper producing areas:

Jharkhand Mosabani, Rakha, Sonmakhi, Ghatshila, Pathargodda and Surda
(Eastern Singhbum district).
Rajasthan Mandhan-Kundan area of Khetri (Jhunjhunu district) and Kho-
Dhariba area (Alwar district).
Andhra Pradesh Agnigundala area (Guntur district)
Madhya Pradesh Malanjkhand area (Balaghat district).
Sikkim -- Rangpo, Dickchu areas.
In Ghatshila Khetri and Malanjkhand , there is copper refinery also ,
besides mining.
Statewise Copper Reserve (in descending order)
Rajasthan (largest)
Madhya Pradesh
Jharkhand

Statewise Copper Production (in descending order)

Rajasthan (largest)
Madhya Pradesh
Jharkhand
There is lack of copper in India. It is imported from the USA, Canada, Zambia etc.
MICA
India produces about 60% mica of the world. Mika is found as sheets in igneous
and metamorphic rocks.
Three kinds of Mica -
1. Ruby MikaWhite mica 2. Muscovite Mica light pink mica
3. Biotite Mica black or dark colored mica

Major Mica producing areas

1. Jharkhand Kodarma, Giridih and Hazaribag. Ruby Mica is found in Kodarma.
2. Bihar - Nawada-Gaya area which is adjacent to Kodarma.
3. Andhra Pradesh -- Nellore, Vishakhapatnam and Krishna districts.
4. Rajasthan - Jipur, Udaipur, and Bhilwara districts.

Statewise Mica Reserve (in descending order)

Rajasthan (largest)
Andhra Pradesh
Maharashtra
Bihar Jharkhand

Statewise Mica Production (in descending order)

Andhra Pradesh (largest)
Rajasthan
Jharkhand
GOLD
Most of gold in India is found in the quartz veins of schist rocks of the Dharwar
structure. It is known as metal line reserve. Some gold in the country is found
in the sand of rivers. It is known as Placer deposit.

Major areas of gold production :

Karnataka (a) Champion and Ooregaum reefs (Kolar district) (b) Oakley reef
(Hutti area, Raichur District)
About 70% gold in the country is obtained from the mines of Karnataka.
Andhra Pradesh Ramgiri gold area (ananthapur district)
25% gold in the country is obtained from Andhra Pradesh .
Gold is also obtained from the sand of the rivers Subarnarekha (Jharkhand ),
Son, Indus (near Ladakh) etc.

The estimated deposit of placer type mineral resources in kerala is 26.12

million ton of which 5086 ton is gold metal.
The largest resource of gold forest (primary ) is in Bihar followed by
Karnataka, Rajasthan , West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
In the matter of gold extraction, Karnataka ranks first followed by
Rajasthan, West Bengal, Bihar and Andhra Pradesh .
SILVER
Silver is generally found in a mixed form with ores like zinc, lead and copper zawar
area of Rajasthan , Kolar and Chitradurg areas of Karnataka and districts of kadapa,
Guntur and Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh are famous for production of silver.
Rajasthan is producing 84% silver of the country.

DIAMOND
Major Diamond Producing Areas:
Madhaya Pradesh Panna district.
Andhra Pradesh (a) Munimadugu-banganapalle conglomerate (Kurnool)
(b) Wajrakarur Kimberlite pipe (Ananthapur)
(c) gravels of the Krishna river basin.
CHROMITE:
About 96% chromite reserve of India is in Cuttack district of Orissa. The Sukinda
area of this district is famous for high quality chromite. It is also found in limited
quantity in Kendujhar and Dhenkanal area.
Orissa shares about 98% of the production of chromite. Rest of the production is
done from the district of Hassan in Karnataka .
ASBESTOS:
The major asbestos producing areas are Ajmer, Bhilwara, Alwar and Udaipur in
rajasthan, kadapa, anantapur and mahaboobnagar in Andhra Pradesh and
Singhbum in Jharkhand .
LIMESTONE:
Lime-stone is often found in kadapa and vindhya rocks. It is used mainly in cement
industry. The major lime-stone producing areas are satna, Jabalpur and katni in
Madhya Pradesh ; Raipur, mahasamand, durg and bilaspur in Chhattisgarh; kadapa ,
adilabad, karimnagar and Guntur in Andhra Pradesh ; chitter, ajmer, sirohi and
Udaipur in Rajasthan and Junagarh and Jamnagar in Gujarat.
As per statistical data (2009-10) issued by the ministry of mines, Andhra Pradesh
(22%), madhya Pradesh (12%) and Gujarat (9%).
DOLOMITE:
It is mixture of lime-stone and magnesium.
Major areas;
Orissa Sundergarh
Madhya Pradesh Jhabua, Balaghat and Jabalpur
Chhattisgarh Bilaspur and Durg
Andhra Pradesh is the largest producer (30%) of dolomite followed by
Chattisgarh (23%) and Orissa (18%).
GYPSUM:
It is used mainly in the production of cement, plaster of paris and
fertilizers. Rajasthan ranks first in the production of gypsum (99% of
the total production) followed by Jammu and Kashmir. Other gypsum
producing states are Gujarat and Tamil Nadu. 80% of gypsum is
available in Rajasthan for mining.
Major gypsum producing centers
Rajasthan nagore, Bikaner, jaisalmer , barmer and ganganagar districts.
Jammu and Kashmir uri, baramula and doda districts.
Tamil Nadu Tiruchirapalli and Coimbatore districts.
MARBLE :
It is a metamorphic rock. It is used mainly in building construction.
The Makrana area of Nagore district in Rajasthan is famous for its production.
Other major marble producing areas are Rajsamand, Jaisalmer and Ajmer.
Madhya Pradesh is the second largest producer of marble. Here, Jabalpur
and Baitul are its major producing areas. There is marble reserve also in
Vishakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh ).

GRANITE :
Granite is found mainly in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh
and Rajasthan.

STATE-STONE : it is found mainly in Madhya Pradesh , Andhra Pradesh and

Haryana.

SAND STONE : It is found in Rajasthan .

TUNGSTEN : The Degana mining area (Nagore district) in Rajasthan is famous for
tungsten production. All Tungsten resources in India are placed under Remaining
Resources category.

TIN : Chhattisgarh is the foremost producer of tin.

BARITES : Managampet (kadapa) in Andhra Pradesh has the largest barites reserve
in the world. Andhra Pradesh alone produces 94% barites of the country.

PYRITE : Rohtas district in Bihar is famous for its production. Other states where
Pyrite is found are Jharkhand, Rajasthan, Karnataka, Himachal Pradesh and Andhra
Pradesh .

ROCK SALT : It is produced in the Mandi area of Himachal Pradesh.

PHOSPHATE MINERAL : It is used as a fertilizer. Rajasthan is the largest producer of

phosphate mineral followed by Uttarakhand , Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.
Udaipur in Rajasthan , Dehradun in Uttarakhand, Jhabua in Madhya Pradesh and
Lalitpur in Uttar Pradesh are famous for its production
APATITE : Purulia district in West Bengal and Vishakhapatnam district in Andhra
Pradesh ae major apatite producers. 61& of apatite reserve is found in West Bengal .

KYANITE : Kyanite reserves are found mainly in Maharashtra, Karnataka , Jharkhand,

Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh.

KAOLIN (CHINA CLAY) : It is a white coloured mineral. It is used in porcelain and bore
china. During 2009-10, 50% Kaolin of the country was produced in Gujarat followed
by Kerala (28%) and Rajasthan (13%).

FIRE CLAY : It is used mainly in making fireproof bricks. It is found in Gondwana

structure. Jharia (Jharkhand), coal reserves of Raniganj (West Bengal ), Korba
(Chhattisgarh) and Neyveli lignite region (Tamin Nadu ) are the places were fire clay is
found.

FELDSPAR : The Major reserves of feldspar are found in Gujarat, Rajasthan ,

Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra.
 CORUNDUM : It is produced mostly in Maharashtra.
GRAPHITE : Orissa is the major graphite producing state.
NICKEL : about 92% (174.48 million ton ) nickel of India is found in Orissa and the
rest (8%) in Nagaland and Karnataka .

Major Ores of Aluminium

Bauxite
Corundum
Feldspar
Cryolite
Alunite
Kaolin
National Highway Route Distance
NH-1 Jalandhar Uri 663
New Delhi-Ambala-
NH-1A 456
Jalandhar-Amritsar
Delhi-Mathura-Agra-
NH-2 Kanpur-Allahabad- 1465
Varanasi-Kolkata
Agra-Gwalior-Nasik-
NH-3 1161
Mumbai
Thane and Chennai via
NH-4 1235
Pune and Belgaun
NH-5 Kolkata - Chennai 1533
NH-6 Kolkata Dhule 1949
NH-7 Varanasi Kanyakumari 2369
Delhi-Mumbai-(vai Jaipur,
NH-8 1428
Baroda and Ahmedabad)
NH-9 Mumbai-Vijaywada 841
NH-15 Pathankot-Samakhiali 1526
 Name of the Route length
Sl. No Abbr. Headquarters
Railway zone (in Km)

1. Central Railway CR 3905 Mumbai

East Central
2. ECR 3628 Hajipur
Railway
East Coast
3. ECoR 2572 Bhubaneswar
Railway

4. Eastern Railway ER 2414 Kolkata

North Central
5. NCR 3151 Allahabad
Railway
North Eastern
6. NER 3667 Gorakhpur
Railway

North Western
7. NWR 5459 Jaipur
Railway

Northeast
8. NFR 3907 Guwahati
Frontier Railway
 Northern
9. NR 6968 Delhi
Railway
South Central
10. SCR 5803 Secunderabad
Railway
South East
11. SECR 2447 Bilaspur
Central Railway
South Eastern
12. SER 2631 Kolkata
Railway
South Western
13. SWR 3177 Hubli
Railway
Southern
14. SR 5098 Chennai
Railway
West Central
15. WCR 2965 Jabalpur
Railway

Western
16. WR 6182 Mumbai
Railway

Kokan
17. KR 26 Roha
Railway
National Waterway 1:

Length = 1620 km

AllahabadHaldia
stretch of the
GangesBhagirathi
Hooghly river system.
National Waterway 2:

Length = 891 km

Sadiya Dhubri stretch

of Brahmaputra river.
National Waterway 3:

Length = 205 km

Kottapuram-Kollam
 Stretch Length in km
Kakinada canal 50
Eluru canal 139
Krishna river section 157
Godavari river section 171
Commamur canal 113

North Buckingham canal 316

South Buckingham canal 110

Marakkanam-
22
Pondicherry section
Total 1095
National Waterway 5:

Length = 623 km

TalcherDhamra stretch of
the Brahmani River, the

Geonkhali - Charbatia stretch

of the East Coast Canal,

the CharbatiaDhamra stretch

of Matai river and the

Mangalgadi - Paradip stretch

of the Mahanadi River Delta.
National Waterway 6:

Length = 121 km

Lakhipur to Bhanga of river Barak.