The Control Techniques

Drives and Controls

Handbook

Bill Drury

The Institution of Electrical Engineers

Published by: The Institution of Electrical Engineers, London,
United Kingdom

2001: The Institution of Electrical Engineers

This publication is copyright under the Berne Convention and the

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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Control Techniques drives and controls handbook.

(lEE power series; no. 35)
1. Electric motors 2. Electric controllers 3. Electric driving
I. Drury, W. I1. Control Techniques Drives PIc
621.4' 6

ISBN 0 85296 793 4

Typeset by Newgen Imaging Systems, India

Printed in England by Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
 Preface

Variable-speed drives remain a key component of the boom

in all aspects of automation and energy saving which is
becoming of ever greater importance throughout the world.
The words of Harry Ward Leonard first uttered on
18 November 1896 in his paper entitled 'Volts versus
o h m s - s p e e d regulation of electric motors' still hold true:
'The operation by means of electric motors of elevators,
locomotives, printing presses, travelling cranes, turrets on
men-of-war, pumps, ventilating fans, air compressors,
horseless vehicles and many other electric motor applica-
tions too numerous to mention in detail, all involve the des-
irability of operating an electric motor under perfect and
economical control at any desired speed from rest to full
speed'.
It can, and should, be argued that electrical variable-speed
drives have facilitated the automation revolution. They have,
like so many enabling technologies, developed rapidly, fuel-
led by their success, stretched by demands never dreamed
possible a generation earlier. The development cycle of
drives products is now such that product ranges have
expected lifetimes of only three to five years - a problem in Figure P. 1 Michael Faraday (1791-1867)
itself to many OEM customers whose own products have a
much longer design life.
The world of variable-speed drives is an exciting and rapidly
moving one. To predict the future and the pace of devel-
1824 Arago discovered that if a copper disc is rotated
opment is difficult. A historical perspective is helpful and,
rapidly beneath a suspended magnet, then the magnet
for those who need any convincing, shows how quickly
also rotates in the same direction as the disc.
things are moving:
1825 Babbage and Herschel demonstrated the inversion of
Arago's experiment by rotating a magnet beneath a
1820 Oersted was the first to note that a compass needle is pivoted disc causing the disc to rotate. This was truly
deflected when an electric current is applied to a wire induced rotation and just a simple step away from the
close to the compass - the fundamental principle of first induction motor, a step which was not taken for
an electric motor. half a century.
1821 Faraday built two devices to produce what he called 1831 Using an induction ring, Faraday made one of his
electromagnetic rotation: that is a continuous circular greatest discoveries - electromagnetic induction: the
motion from the circular magnetic force around a induction of electricity i n a wire by means of the
wire. This was the initial stage of his pioneering work. electromagnetic effect of a current in another wire.
xiv Preface
The induction ring was the first electric transformer.
In a second series of experiments in the same year he
discovered magneto-electric induction: the produc-
tion of a steady electric current. To do this, Faraday
attached two wires through a sliding contact to a
copper disc, the first commutator, an approach sug-
gested to him by Amp+re. By rotating the disc
between the poles of a horseshoe magnet he obtained
a continuous direct current. This was the first gen-
erator. Faraday's scientific work laid the foundations
of all subsequent electro-technology. From his
experiments came devices which led directly to the
modem electric motor, generator and transformer.
1832 Pixii produced the first magneto-electric machine.
1838 Lenz discovered that a D.C. generator could be used
equally well as a motor. Jacobi used a battery-fed
D.C. motor to propel a boat on the River Neva.
Interestingly, Jacobi himself pointed out that bat-
teries were inadequate for propulsion- a problem
which is still being worked on today.
1845 Wheatstone and Cooke patented the use of electro-
magnets instead of permanent magnets for the field
system of the dynamo. Over twenty years were to
elapse before the principle of self excitation was to
be established by Wilde, Wheatstone, Varley and the
Siemens brothers.
1870 Gramme introduced a ring armature somewhat more
advanced than that proposed by Pacinotte in 1860,
which led to the multibar commutator and the
modem D.C. machine.
1873 Gramme demonstrated, at the Vienna Exhibition, the
use of one machine as a generator supplying power
over a distance of 1 km to drive a similar machine as
a motor. This simple experiment did a great deal to
establish the credibility of the D.C. motor.
1879 Bailey developed a motor in which he replaced the
rotating magnet of Babbage and Herschel by a
rotating magnetic field, produced by switching of
direct current at appropriately staggered intervals to
four pole pieces. With its rotation induced by a
rotating magnetic field it was thus the first commu-
tatorless induction motor.
1885 Ferraris produced a motor in which a rotating mag-
netic field was established by passing single-phase
alternating current through windings in space quad-
rature. This was the first alternating-current com-
mutatorless induction motor, a single-phase machine
which Dobrowolsky later acknowledged as the
inspiration for his polyphase machine.
1886 Tesla developed the first polyphase induction motor.
He deliberately generated four-phase polyphase
currents and supplied them to a machine which had a
four-phase stator. He used several types of rotor,
including one with a soft-iron salient-pole construc-
tion - a reluctance m o t o r - and one with two
short-circuited windings in space quadrature - the
polyphase induction motor.
1889 Dobrowolsky, working independently from Tesla,
introduced the three-phase squirrel-cage induction
motor.
1890 Dobrowolsky introduced a three-phase induction
motor with a polyphase slip-ring rotor into which
resistors could be connected for starting and control.
The speed of these motors depends fundamentally
upon pole number and supply frequency. Rotor
resistance control for the slip-ring motor was intro-
duced immediately, but this is equivalent to armature
resistance control of a D.C. machine and is inher-
ently inefficient.
By 1890 there was a well established D.C. motor, D.C.
central generating stations, three-phase A.C. generation and
a simple three-phase motor with enormous potential but
which was inherently a single-speed machine. There was as
yet no way of efficiently controlling the speed of a motor
over the full range, from zero to top speed.
V O L T S VS. OttMS.
SPEED ]{EOULA'rION OF ]~r.ECTRIC ~fOTC,R~,
BY ~I. WARD LEO.N'ARD.
L
i
t C
Figure P.2 1l Oth meeting of the American Institute of
Electrical Engineers, New York, 18 November
1896
1896 The work of Ward Leonard clearly marks the birth of
efficient, wide-range, electrical variable-speed
drives. The system he proposed was of course based
upon the inherently variable-speed D.C. machine
(which had hitherto been controlled by variable
armature resistors). His work was not universally
accepted at the time and attracted much criticism,
understandably, as it required three machines of
similar rating to do the job of one. Today, however,
all D.C. drives are based upon his control philoso-
phy, with only the implementation changing from
multimotor schemes through the era of grid-con-
trolled mercury-arc rectifiers to thyristors and, more
re-cently, in demanding dynamic applications, to bi-
polar transistors, field-effect transistors (FETs),
insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs)...
1904 Kramer made the first significant move with respect
to frequency changing in 1904 by introducing a
D.C. link between the slip rings and the A.C. supply.
This involved the use of two A.C. ~ D.C. motor
sets. The D.C. link was later to become a familiar
sight in many A.C. drive technologies. Subsequent
advances in A.C. motor speed control were based
upon purely electrical means of frequency and vol-
tage conversion. Progress has followed the advances
in the field of semiconductors (power and signal/
control).

E inverter was used to feed large numbers of induction
8
2ti-
A A$~rnehronnlotor, l~,i~enerrofulbG~
B Otoichs~,rom motor. H B'aliptstromerrefd n~.
C F.in,;lkerumform~r,
Ahb. !1. Abb. 12.
Neue Methoden zur Regelung yon Asynchron-
motoren und ihre Anwendung ffir verschie-
dene Zwecke. ~)
Vou Ch. Krilmer.
Figure P.3 Elektrotechnische Zeitschrift, volume 31, 30
July 1908
1911 Schrage introduced a system based upon an induc-
tion motor with a commutator on the rotor. This
machine proved to be very popular, requiring no
auxiliary machines, and was very reliable. It found
large markets particularly in the textile industry and
some other niche applications, and is still sold today
although in rapidly reducing numbers.
1923 The introduction of the ignitron made controlled
rectification possible. The thyratron and grid-con-
trolled mercury rectifiers made life easier in 1928.
This made possible the direct control of voltage
applied to the armature of a D.C. machine so as to
apply the philosophy of Ward Leonard control
without additional machines.
1930 The ideas of inversion (D.C. to variable frequency/
voltage A.C. which is the basis for the present day
inverter) had been established, the use of forced
commutation by means of switched capacitors was
introduced.
1931 Direct A.C. to A.C. conversion by means of cyclo-
converters was introduced for the railway service.
1932 Nyquist stability criterion developed.
1938 Bode stability criterion developed.
1950 The introduction of silicon into power switches
replacing the bulky and relatively inefficient mer-
cury-arc rectifiers (MAR). By 1960 thyristors
(SCRs) had become available and the key enabling
technology for drives had arrived. D.C. drives and
cycloconverters quickly embraced the new silicon
technology, at first using techniques with origins in
the MAR forerunners. The faster switching perfor-
mance of the new silicon, however, opened many
new doors notably in the field of forced commu-
tation-the way was clear for commercial variable-
frequency inverters.
1957 Back to back reversing D.C. drive introduced.
1960s Power semiconductor voltage and current ratings
grow and performance characteristics improve.
Inverters became commercially viable, notably in
Preface xv
industries such as textiles where a single (bulk)
motors (or reluctance motors, despite their low
power factor, where synchronisation was required).
1963 Gain-bandwidth relationships of power converters
investigated.
1970 The 1970s saw a new and very significant revolution
hit the variable-speed drives market - packaging. Up
until this time the static variable-speed drive design
process had essentially concentrated on perfor-
mance/functionality. Both A.C. and D.C. drives of
even low rating were broadly speaking custom built/
hand crafted. This approach resulted in bulky, high-
cost drives the very uniqueness of which often
compromised reliability and meant service support
was difficult. The drives industry was not fulfilling
its potential.
1970s A.C. motor drives had made great advances in terms of
performance but still lacked the dynamic performance
to really challenge the D.C. drive in demanding pro-
cess applications. Since the early 1970s considerable
interest was being generated in the field-oriented
control of A.C. machines. This technique pioneered
by Blaschke and further developed by Leonhard
opened up the opportunity for A.C. drives not only to
match the performance of a D.C. drive but to improve
upon it. The processing requirements were such that
in its early days commercial exploitation was restric-
ted to large drives such as mill motor drives, boiler-
feed pump drives. Siemens was very much in the fore-
front of commercialising field orientation and was
also rationalising the numerous alternative drive topo-
logies which had proliferated and, although stimu-
lating to the academic, were confusing to drive users:
D.C. drives
single converter
double converter
- circulating current free
circulating current
-
A.C. drives
voltage (phase) control
voltage-fed inverters
quasi square V/f
-
- quasi square V/f with D.C. link chopper
- pulse-width modulated (PWM)
current-source inverters
- induction motor
- synchronous machine
static Kramer drive
cycloconverter
1972 Siemens launched the SIMOPAC integrated motor
with ratings up to 70 kW. This was a D.C. motor with
integrated converter including line reactors!
1973 A new approach to drives in terms of packaging.
Utilising 19-inch rack principles, a cubicle mounting
standard well used in the process industry, compact,
high-specification ranges of D.C. drives in modular
form became available off the shelf. Companies
such as AEG, Thorn Automation, Mawdsley's and
Control Techniques pioneered this work. A new era
of drive design had started.
xvi Preface
Figure P.4 D.C. drive module (Control Techniques)
1979 Further advances in packaging design were made
possible by the introduction of isolated thyristor
packages.
1983 In 1983 plastic mouldings made their first significant
impact in drives. Bipolar transistor technology also
arrived, which eliminated bulky auxiliary commu-
tation circuits.
1985 Takahashi and Noguchi published a paper on direct
torque control (DTC) in the IEEE. (This date is
included not because of its technical significance
rather as a point of interest as DTC has received
much attention recently.)
Figure P.5 Plastic mouldings introduced into drives
(Control Techniques)
Figure P.6 Digital D.C. drive with microprocessor and ASIC
(Control Techniques)
1986 Great advances were being made at this time in the
field of microprocessors making possible cost-
effective digital drives at low powers. Further drives
were introduced containing application-specific
integrated circuits (ASIC), which up to that time had
only been used in exceptionally large volume/
domestic applications. Further, new plastic materials
were introduced which gave structural strength,
weight, size, assembly and cost advantage.
1988 IGBT technology was introduced to the drives
market. IGBTs heralded the era of relatively quiet
variable-speed drives (and introduced a few pro-
blems, some of which have led to substantial aca-
demic activity and a very few of which have required
more pragmatic treatment).
1989 The first implementation of the field-orientation or
flux-vector drive was introduced to the high-volume,
lower power market. It found immediate application
in machine tool spindle drives and has grown rapidly
in application (and rating) since. It should be said
that the name vector has been prostituted by some in
the drives industry with voltage vector and other
such names/techniques, causing confusion and frus-
tration to customers.
1990 The trend to smaller drive products which were also
simpler to design was given a significant boost by
Mitsubishi which introduced intelligent power
modules, integrating into the semiconductor package
necessary gate drive and protection functions.
1992 A new packaging trend e m e r g e d - the book-
form shape which had previously been applied to
servo drives was now being applied to the broader
 Preface xvii

i! i i !i !~i!~i~'i!!i!i!i~i !!ii ~i ~i~!i ~'

iii~?'.....

i~i~ ~i~!~!~ ~?~iii!i~!~i

~ !iI. . . . . ! i,~I ~ . . . . ~ ~.... ~

ii i i ~ ~i i ~ !!~i,~i~' ~iill iii~~:i~ii!~ i!~!!: ~ i~ ~ I~~I~ ~ i~~I~I~I

Figure P.7 I G B T p o w e r stage in an A.C. drive (Control

Techniques) F i g u r e P.9 B o o k f o r m shape of drive (Control Techniques)

industrial A.C. drives market. The trend continues

i~,~ii i~,~,+~i>~,~
F i g u r e P.8 V e c t o r d r i v e ( C o n t r o l
today but there is not a consensus that this is the most
suitable shape for all market segments.
1993 Another innovation in packaging - at the low-power
end of the spectrum when a DIN rail mounting
0.4 kW inverter package, similar to that used widely
in equipment such as contactors and control relays,
was launched. The first drive with a built-in supply
side filter fully compliant with, the then impending,
EU regulations on conducted EMC was introduced.
1996 The first truly universal drive was launched which
met the diverse requirements of a general purpose
open-loop vector drive, a closed-loop flux-vector
drive, a servo drive and a sinusoidal supply converter
with the selection purely by parameter selection.
1998 The integrated D.C. motor launched in 1972 was not
a great commercial success - much has been learned
since those days. In 1998 integrated A.C. motor
drives were introduced onto the market. These pro-
ducts are, for the most part, open-loop inverter-
driven induction motors and were initially targeted
on replacing mechanical variable-speed drives.
2000 A radical servo drive was introduced with the posi-
tion and speed loop embedded in the encoder hous-
ing on the motor itself. This brought with it the
advantage of processing the position information
close to the source thereby avoiding problems
of noise etc., and allowed dramatic improvements
ii~iiii~ii~i~!ii '~' ~ in control resolution, stiffness of the drive and
reduced the number of wires between the drive and
Techniques) the motor.
xviii Preface

Figure P. 12 Integrated A.C. motor (courtesy Leroy Somer)

A review of the time lines presented above illustrates that

Figure P. 10 DIN rail mounting drive with built-in EMC development within the drives industry continues at an ever
filter (Control Techniques) increasing pace. Fundamental changes in the product, from a
customer perspective, are still emerging, accessing ever
more applications driven by automation and quality.

This book covers the present state of development, or rather

commercial exploitation, of industrial A.C. and D.C. vari-
able-speed drives and associated systems. It is intended
primarily for the use of professional engineers who specify
or design systems which incorporate variable-speed drives.
The theory of both the driven motor and the drive is
explained in practical terms, with reference to fundamental
theory being made only where necessary. Information on
how to apply drive systems is included, as are examples of
what is available within commercially offered drives and
indications of what can be achieved using them. Emphasis
is placed on industrial drives in the range 0.37 kW to 1 MW.
The practical emphasis of the book has led to two unfor-
tunate but I fear unavoidable consequences. First, some of
the theory behind the technology contained in the book has
had to be omitted or abridged in the interests of simplicity
and volume. Second, in such a practical book it has proved
difficult to avoid reference to proprietary equipment. In
such circumstances a tendency towards referencing the
products of Control Techniques is inevitable. It should be
clear to readers that these products are described for illu-
mination and explanation of the technology. The
lEE, publisher of this book, does not endorse these products
or their use in any way.

This edition of the Control Techniques Drives and Con-

trols Handbook has been created with contributions from
engineers both within Control Techniques itself as well as
Figure P. 11 Universal A.C. drive modules (Control Tech- sister companies within the family that is Emerson. I would
niques) in particular like to thank Dr Pete Barrass, Ray Brister,
 Preface xix

Figure P. 13 Speed loop motor (Control Techniques)

Dr Mike Cade, Vikas Desai, Dr Colin Hargis, Jim Lynch,

John Orrells, Bleddyn Powell, Alex Rothwell, Michael
Turner and Peter Worland.

Prof Bill Drury

 Contents

Preface xiii-xix Relationships between torque and back e.m.f.

constant 19
Stationary torque characteristics 19
I Industrial motors
Construction of brushless servomotors 20
1 D.C. motors 1 Stator structure 20
General 1 Rotor structure 20
Fundamental equations and performance 2 5 Reluctance motors 21
Wound-field motors 2 6 A.C. commutator motors 22
Permanent-magnet motors 3 7 Mechanical and environmental 22
Operating principles 4 Mounting of the motor 22
Commutation 4 General 22
Rotation 5 IEC 60034-7 standard enclosures 22
Compensation 5 NEMA standard enclosures ~ 22
D.C. PM commutation 6 Degree of protection 24
Construction of the D.C. motor 6 General 24
D.C. motor frame 6 IEC 60034-5 24
D.C. motor armature 6 US practice 25
Brush gear 7 Cooling 26
Mountings 7 General 26
D.C. PM design 7 Air filters 27
Rotor inertia 8 Duty cycles 27
Permanent-magnet materials 8 Continuous duty - S 1 28
2 A.C. induction motors 8 Short-time duty- $2 28
General 8 Intermittent d u t y - $3 28
Fundamental equations and performance 9 Intermittent duty with starting- $4 29
Electrical characteristics of induction motors 9 Intermittent duty with starting and electric
Torque characteristics 10 braking- $5 29
Voltage-frequency relationship 11 Continuous operation periodic d u t y - $6 29
Increased voltage 12 Continuous operation periodic duty with
Reduced frequency 12 electric braking- $7 29
Slip-ring induction motor 13 Continuous operation periodic duty with
Speed-changing motors 13 related load speed changes- $8 30
A.C. induction motor construction 14 Duty with nonperiodic load and speed
3 A.C. synchronous motors 15 variations- $9 30
General 15 Duty with discrete constant loads - S 10 30
A.C. synchronous motor construction 17 Terminal markings and direction of rotation 30
4 Brushless servomotors 17 General 30
General 17 IEC 60034-8 30
Principles of operation of brushless servomotors 18 NEMA 32
Introduction 18 Ambient conditions 33
Torque constant 18 Introduction 33
vi Contents

Temperature 33 MOS-controlled thyristor 66

Altitude 34 MOS tum-off thyristor 66
Power supply system 34 Silicon carbide 67
Noise and vibration 34 Power device packaging 67
General 34 Pressure contact packages 67
Vibration 34 Large wire-bonded packages for power modules 67
Noise 35 Small wire-bonded packages for discrete devices 69
Motors for special applications 37 Applications 70
Geared motors 37 2 Drive converter circuits 72
Brake motors 37 A.C. to D.C. power conversion 72
Torque motors 37 General 72
Motors for hazardous locations 37 Converters for connection to a single-phase
General 37 supply 73
CENELEC 37 Converters for connection to a three-phase
North American standards 39 supply 74
Testing authorities 39 Voltage tipple characteristics 76
8 Effects of semiconductor power converters 40 Practical effects 76
General 40 D.C. motor drive systems 76
Drive converter effects upon D.C. machines 40 D.C. to D.C. power conversion 79
Drive converter effects upon A.C. machines 40 General 79
Introduction 40 Step-down D.C.-D.C. converters 79
Machine rating - thermal effects 40 Step-up D.C.-D.C. converters 81
Machine insulation 40 A.C. to A.C. power converters with intermediate
Beating currents 46 D.C. link 81
Overspeed 48 General 81
Motors for hazardous locations 48 Voltage source inverters 81
Current source inverters 83
2 Power electronics 51 Direct A.C. to A.C. power converters 85
General 85
1 Power semiconductor devices 51 Soft starter/voltage regulator 85
General 51 Cycloconverter 86
Diode rectifier 51 Static Scherbius drive 86
Thyristor 52 Matrix converter 87
Thyristor gating requirements 54
Power losses and current ratings 54
Surge current ratings
3 Speed and position feedback devices 89
55
High-frequency current operation 56 1 D.C. tachometer generator 90
Gate turn-off thyristor 56 General 90
Switching characteristics and gate drive 57 Output voltage ripple 90
Snubber design 57 Temperature effects 91
Voltage and current ratings 57 Linearity and load effects 91
Bipolar Transistor 57 Stability of the output 91
Voltage ratings 58 Maximum terminal voltage 91
Current ratings 58 Maximum operating speed 91
Switching characteristic and base drive 59 Mechanical construction 92
Safe operating areas 60 2 A.C. tachometer generator 92
Short-circuit performance 61 3 Resolver 92
MOSFET 61 Design principles 93
Voltage and current ratings 62 Synchros 93
Switching performance 62 Torque synchros 93
Safe operating area 62 Control synchro 94
Parasitic diode 62 Resolver 94
Insulated-gate bipolar transistor 63 General 94
Operation 63 Computing resolvers 94
Voltage and current ratings 63 Phase shifting 95
Switching behaviour and gate drive 63 Brushless resolvers 95
Safe operating area 64 Multipole resolvers 95
Short-circuit performance 64 A.C. rotary pickoffs 95
Series and parallel operation 64 Resolver-to-digital conversion 96
Integrated-gate commutated thyristor 65 4 Encoder 97
Voltage and current ratings 65 Incremental encoder 97
Switching behaviour and gate drive 65 Absolute encoder 98
Other power devices and materials 66 Sin/cos encoder 99
 Contents vii

5 Selection of a feedback device for a Polyphase switched-reluctance machines 127

drive system 99 Losses in the switched-reluctance motor 127
6 Mechanical considerations 100 Excitation frequency 128
7 Glossary of terms 101 Power electronics for the switched-
reluctance motor 128
Power supply and front-end bridge 128
4 Drive control 103
Power switching stage 128
1 General 103 Single-switch-per-phase circuits 128
The ideal control system 103 Multiple-phase operation 129
Open-loop control 103 Single-switch circuit using bifilar winding 129
Closed-loop control 104 Two-switch asymmetrical bridge 130
Criteria for assessing the performance of a Advantages of the switched-reluctance system 131
closed-loop control system 104 Rotor construction 131
2 A.C. motor drive control 105 Stator construction 131
General-purpose open-loop A.C. drive 106 Electronics and system-level benefits 131
Space-vector modulator and inverter 106 Disadvantages of the switched-reluctance system 132
Reference-frame translation 107 Torque tipple 133
Reference-frame generation 107 Acoustic noise 133
Current limit 108 3 Stepper-motor drives 134
Performance and applications 108 Stepping-motor principles 134
Permanent-magnet servodrive 109 The permanent-magnet motor 135
Reference-frame generation 109 The VR motor 135
Current control 109 The hybrid motor 135
Speed control 110 Stepping-motor drive circuits (logic modes) 136
Performance and applications 110 Unipolar switching 137
Closed-loop induction motor drive 110 Bipolar switching 137
Flux calculator and reference-frame generation 111 High-speed stepping- L/R drives 139
Flux control 111 Chopper drives 139
Performance and applications 111 Bilevel drives 139
Operation without position feedback 111 Application notes 139
Four-quadrant operation 112 Effect of inertia 139
Reference-frame generation 112 Resonance 139
Performance and applications 112 Special products 140
Direct torque control 113 Stepper/encoders 140
3 D.C. motor drive control 114 Space-rated steppers 140
Flux controller 114 Fuel-control actuators 140
Torque controller 115
Performance and applications 116
6 Practical drives 141
4 Analysis of and set up of a speed controller 116
Ideal speed controller 116 1 General 141
Calculating the required gains 117 Digital input 143
Nonideal effects in a real speed controller 119 Programmability 143
Typical specification 143
5 Switched-reluctance and stepper-motor Digital output 143
drives 121 Programmability 143
Typical specification 143
1 General 121 Analogue input 143
2 Switched-reluctance motors and controllers 122 Programmability 143
Basic principle of the switched-reluctance motor 122 Typical specification 144
Operation as a motor 123 Analogue output 144
Operation as a brake or generator 123 Programmability 144
To summarise so far 123 Typical specification 144
Relationship between torque polarity and 2 D.C. drives 145
motoring/generating 124 The technology 145
Control of the machine in practice 124 Drive selection 145
Low-speed operation 124 Technical specifications and ratings 148
What happens as speed is increased? 124 Drive set up and commissioning 148
Medium-speed operation 124 Autotune 148
How is performance maintained as speed PC-based commissioning tools- MentorSoft 148
increases? 125 Performance 148
High-speed operation 125 Speed and current-loop response 148
Summary of typical/practical control 126 Typical applications 149
Control of speed and position 126 Low-power analogue D.C. drives 149
viii Contents

The 4Q2 D.C. drive 149 Summary 191

Cheetah-Puma-Lynx 149 2 Network basics 191
3 A.C. drives 151 Physical layer 192
Features common to all A.C. drives 151 Network cables and connectors 192
Power terminal layout 151 Interface circuits 192
Control terminal layout 151 Data encoding 192
Wiring precautions to prevent electromagnetic Network topology 193
compatibility (EMC) issues 153 Data-link layer 194
Open-loop inverters 153 Framing 194
Specifications and ratings 153 Data model 194
Features and options 153 Media access control 194
Methods of control 156 Error handling 195
Performance of the Commander SE open-loop Conclusions 195
drive 156 Application layer 195
Typical applications 157 Device profile 195
The universal A.C. drive 157 3 Simple fieldbus systems 196
The concept of a universal drive 157 Modbus 196
Unidrive option modules 158 Control Techniques' protocol 196
Open-loop operation 159 4 Fieldbus systems 197
Closed-loop operation 159 Requirements for drive applications 197
Servo operation 160 Physical layer 197
Regeneration mode 162 Error detection 197
High-performance servodrives 163 Dynamic performance 197
Performance 166 General message services 197
Summary of practical advantages of SLM Centralised v e r s u s distributed intelligence 197
technology 168 Profibus DP 197
Applications 169 Interbus-S 198
4 Soft-start A.C. motor control 169 CAN 198
Conventional starting 169 DeviceNet 198
Direct-on-line starting (DOL) 169 CANopen 198
Star-delta starting 169 CTNet 198
Auto-transformer starting 170
Disadvantages of conventional starting 170 9 Supply harmonics due to drives 199
Electronic soft start 171
1 Overview 199
Typical applications 171
2 Regulations 200
5 Application boards and software 172
Regulations for installations 200
Applications module 172
Regulations and standards for equipment 200
Software commissioning tools 173
3 Harmonic generation within variable-speed drives 201
Communications modes 173
A.C. drives 201
Drive set-up wizard 173
D.C. drives 203
Commissioning screen 174
Effect of loading 203
Monitoring screen 174
4 The effects of harmonics 203
Parameter list 174
5 Calculation of harmonics 204
Individual drives- D.C. 204
7 Position and motion-control systems 175
Individual drives - A.C. 205
1 General 175 Systems 205
2 Basics of motion control 177 Isolated generators 206
3 Typical motion functions 180 6 Remedial techniques 206
Position lock- electronic gearbox 180 Connect the equipment to a point with a high
Direct positional lock 180 fault level (low impedance) 207
Ramped nonrigid lock 180 Use three-phase drives where possible 207
Ramped rigid lock 180 Use additional inductance 207
Simple single-axis positioning 182 Additional A.C. supply-line inductance 207
CAM functions 182 Additional D.C. inductance 207
Multiaxis positioning 183 Use a higher pulse number (12 pulse or higher) 207
4 Programmability 187 Use a drive with an active input stage 211
5 Summary 188 Use a harmonic filter 211

8 Communications systems 189 10 Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) 213

1 Introduction 189 1 Introduction 213
Drive set up 190 General 213
Drive control 191 Principles of EMC 214
 Contents ix

EMC regulations 214 Limits to cable length 237

2 Regulations and standards 214 Example 240
Regulations 214 Output chokes for long motor cable applications 240
Standards 215 General 240
3 EMC behaviour of variable-speed drives 215 Principles 240
Immunity 215 Calculations 240
Low-frequency emission 216 Example 241
High-frequency emission 216 Position of chokes in multiple motor
4 Installation rules 217 configurations 241
EMC risk assessment 217 Typical recommended cable size 242
Basic rules 217 7 Power supply considerations 243
Segregation 217 High or low line voltage 243
Control of return paths, minimising Supply frequency variations 243
loop areas 217 Supply impedance/fault level 243
Earthing 218 Low supply impedance 243
Simple precautions and fixes 219 High supply impedance 243
Full precautions 219 Multiple drive installations 244
5 Theoretical background 220 8 Thermal design of enclosures 244
Emission modes 220 General 244
Principles of input filters 221 Calculating the size of a sealed enclosure 244
Screened motor cables 222 Example 244
Ferrite ring suppressors 222 Calculating the air flow in a ventilated enclosure 245
Filter earth leakage current 222 Example 245
Filter magnetic saturation 222 9 Installation and maintenance of standard motors
6 Additional guidance on cable screening for and electronic equipment 246
sensitive circuits 223 Motors 246
Cable screening action 223 General 246
Cable screen connections 223 Storage 246
Recommended cable arrangements 225 Installation 246
Maintenance guide 247
Brush gear maintenance 247
11 Systems design 227
Electronic equipment 248
1 General 228 General 248
2 Design matrix 228 Siting of equipment 248
3 Dynamic/resistive braking 228 Ventilator systems and filters 249
General 228 Condensation and humidity 249
D.C. motor braking 228 Fuses 249
Example calculation of a brake resistor of a 10 Common D.C. bus configuration of A.C. drives 250
D.C. motor 231 General 250
A.C. regeneration and braking 231 A simple bulk uncontrolled rectifier 250
Example calculation of a brake resistor Using the mains supply converter in one drive to
of a PWM A.C. induction motor drive system 232 supply all drives from its D.C. link 252
4 Fusing 233 Effectively hard paralleling of all drive input
General 233 rectifiers 252
Protection of mains-drive and drive-motor cabling 233 A bulk four-quadrant controlled rectifier feeding
Protection of drive components 233 the D.C. bus 252
5 Motor overtemperature protection 234 A bulk four-quadrant PWM converter feeding
General 234 the D.C. bus 253
Overtemperature protection of a converter-fed Note on EMC filters for common D.C.
motor 235 bus systems 254
What can be used 235 11 Mechanical vibration, critical speed and
What cannot be used 235 torsional dynamics 255
6 A.C. drive motor cabling 236 General 255
General 236 Example 255
Closed loop- induction motor 236 Causes of shaft vibrations independent of
Cable resistance 236 variable-speed drives 255
Cable-charging currents 236 Subsynchronous vibrations 256
Closed l o o p - P M servomotor 237 Synchronous vibrations 256
Cable resistance 237 Super-synchronous vibrations 256
Cable-charging currents 237 Critical speeds 256
Open-loop current control-induction motor 237 Applications where torque ripple excites a
Cable resistance 237 resonance in the mechanical system 256
Cable-charging currents 237 High-performance closed-loop applications 257
x Contents

Limits to dynamic performance 257 General 284

System control-loop instability 257 Centrifugal pumps 285
Measures for reducing vibration 257 Centrifugal fans and compressors 288
3 Application principles/examples 288
Cranes and hoists 289
12 Applications 259
General 289
1 Typical load characteristics and ratings 259 Planning an installation 289
Metals industries 260 Slewing control 289
Plastics 260 Crane refurbishment for a Norwegian steel wire
Rubber 260 rope maker 290
Chemical 261 Elevators and lifts 291
Materials handling 261 Lift system description 291
Lift, hoist and crane 261 Speed profile generation 292
Concrete pipe manufacture 261 Load weighing devices 292
Fans and blowers 262 Metals and metal forming 292
Pumps 262 Winding, crimping and precise cutting 292
Paper and tissue 262 Roll feed line 295
Printing 262 Wire and cable manufacture 296
Packaging 263 Four-quadrant D.C. drives for a bar mill 296
Engineering industries 263 Wire-drawing machine 296
Wire and cable 263 Paper manufacturing 297
Hydraulics 263 General 297
Electric motors and alternators 264 Sectional drives 297
Textiles 264 Loads and load sharing 298
Foods, biscuit and confection 264 Control and instrumentation 299
2 Techniques common to many applications 264 Winder drives 300
Special D.C. loads 264 Brake generator power and energy 301
Traction motor field control 264 Unwind brake generator control 302
Battery charging 265 Coating machines 302
Electrolytic processes 265 Paper-slitting machine 303
Electric heating and temperature control 265 Paper board machine 303
Digital slaving 266 Building materials 304
General 266 Brick-handling line 304
Drive slaving techniques 266 Roofing-tile manufacturing plant 305
Principle of digital speed/position following 266 Textiles 307
The digital speed/position controller 267 Fabric-dyeing machine 307
Load sharing 268 Quilting machine 308
General 268 Plastics extrusion 308
D.C. thyristor converter-fed system 269 General 308
A.C. inverter-fed systems 271 Basic extruder components 310
High-frequency inverters 272 Overall extruder performance 310
General 272 Energy considerations 310
Frequency control of A.C. induction motors 272 Motors and controls 311
High-frequency purpose-designed motors 273 Food 312
High-frequency inverters 274 Control of hammermills in animal feed
High-frequency applications 274 production 312
Centre winders 275 HVAC 313
General 275 Air conditioning for driver and vehicle
Speed or torque control 276 licensing agency 313
Taper tension 276 Air-handling units at Oxford Brookes
Constant torque and field weakening 276 University students' union 313
Power requirements for centre- Steel 314
driven winders 277 Main mill drives 314
Inertia compensation 277 Auxiliary drives 314
Loss compensation 278 Chemical 315
Flux compensation 278 Enamel painting of fluorescent tubes 315
Drive selection-limiting parameters 278 Marine applications 316
Sectional drive systems 278 Cable laying 316
General 278 Pipe laying 318
Theory of operation 281 Control of lock gates and sluices 319
Using an IEC61131-3 programming tool to Printing 320
configure a sectional drive line 284 Real-time registration and shaftless web
Energy saving 284 tensioning control 320
 Contents xi

Offset priming presses 321 Method 346

Stage scenery-film and theatre 322 Calculate speeds and gearing ratio 346
James Bond film stunts 322 Load, force and torque 346
Controlling acoustics 323 Power ratings for the motor and drive 347
Exhibition focal point- the Control Inclined conveyor 348
Techniques' orchestra 323 Hoist 348
Rock concert 325 Data 348
Millennium Dome aerial ballet 326 Velocity ratio (VR) 348
Speed and acceleration of the hook 348
Appendix A Standards for drives 329 Lifting force and torque to accelerate from
rest to full speed 348
A1 IEC (intemational) standards 330 Lifting force and torque to maintain full speed 349
Planned future IEC61800 standards 332 Required motor power rating 349
A2 CENELEC (EC) standards 332 Drive module power rating 349
A3 British standards 334 Screw-feed loads 349
A4 IEEE (USA) standards 335
A5 UL (Underwriters' Laboratories, USA) standards 335
Appendix C Tables 351
A6 Other standards 335
Electricity Association, UK 335 C1 Mechanical conversion tables 351
EIA/TIA (previously RS) 335 Length 351
ANSI 335 Area 352
Volume 352
Appendix B Symbols and formulae 336 Mass 353
Energy 353
B 1 SI units and symbols 336 Inertia 353
SI base units 337 Torque 354
Decimal multiples and submultiples 337 Force 354
Derived units 337 Power 354
Geometrical units 337 C2 General conversion tables 354
Time-related units 337 Length 354
Mechanical units 337 Area 354
B2 Electrical formulae 338 Volume 355
Electrical quantities 338 Mass 355
A.C. three-phase (assuming balanced Force and weight 355
symmetrical waveform) 338 Pressure and stress 355
A.C. single phase 338 Velocity (linear) 355
Three-phase induction motors 338 Velocity (angular) 355
Loads (phase values) 338 Torque 355
Impedance 338 Energy 355
A.C. vector and impedance diagrams 338 Power 355
E.m.f., energy transfer 339 Moment of inertia 356
Mean and r.m.s, values, waveform 340 Temperature 356
Principles 340 Flow 356
Mean D.C. value 340 Torque 356
R.m.s. value 341 Force 356
Other waveforms 341 Moment of inertia 356
Form factor 341 Linear acceleration 356
B3 Mechanical formulae 342 C3 Power/torque/speed nomogram 357
Laws of motion 342
Linear motion 342
Appendix D World industrial electricity
Rotational or angular motion 343
Relationship between linear and supplies (< 1 kV) 358
angular motion 343
The effect of gearing 344 Appendix E Bibliography and further
Friction and losses 344 reading 363
Fluid flow 345
B4 Worked examples of typical mechanical loads 346 Index 365
Conveyor 346
Data 346
 CHAPTER 1

Industrial M o t o r s

i!~i~i!i~i 1 D.C. M OTO RS

i iiili 2 A.C. INDUCTION MOTORS 8

iiiii 3 A.C. SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS 15

iiiiiiiiii 4 BRUSHLESS SERVOMOTORS 17

iiiii 5 RELUCTANCE MOTORS 21

6 A.C. COMMUTATOR MOTORS 22

7 MECHANICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL 22

..!iii
...... 8 EFFECTSOF SEMICONDUCTOR POWER CONVERTERS 40

1 D.C. MOTORS

GENERAL electrical power into mechanical power, and v i c e v e r s a in its

generator form. Inherently straightforward operating char-
History will recognise the vital role played by D.C. motors in acteristics, flexible performance and high efficiency
the development of industrial power transmission systems. encouraged the widespread use of D.C. motors in many
The D.C. machine was the first practical device to convert types of industrial drive application.
2 D.C. MOTORS:General

The later developments of the lower-cost A.C. cage motor It

J

and, more recently, of electronic variable-frequency control

have displaced the D.C. motor to some extent, particularly in
the lower kW range. Nevertheless, the advantages associated
with the inherently stable and relatively simple to control
D.C. machine are indisputable. In its most straightforward
form, speed is approximately proportional to armature vol-
l
v~
l
E~
tage, torque to armature current and there is a one-to-one
relationship between starting torque and starting current.
Modem D.C. motors under thyristor control and with
sophisticated protection continue to provide very sound Figure 1.1 Shunt-wound D.C. motor
1
industrial variable-speed drive performance. High-perfor-
mance test rigs and the higher-kW ratings of drives for the
printing and paper industries, for high-speed passenger lifts,
field flux by:
and drives subject to high transient loading in the metal and
plastics industries; all are likely to continue employing the Ea = klndp (1.1)
D.C. motor with thyristor control for some considerable time
particularly in refurbishment programmes where a D.C. where n = speed of rotation, 0 = field flux and kl--motor
motor exists. The task facing the A.C. drive to completely constant.
oust its D.C. competitor is formidable. Also, the applied, or terminal armature voltage Va is given
D.C. machine tool and servo drives based mainly on by:
chopper technology continue to offer high performance Va = Ea -[- Ia "Ra (1.2)
at low price and at ratings up to approximately 5 kW (con-
tinuous) but here too A.C. technology is making significant where Va - applied armature voltage, Ia - armature current
inroads. and Ra = armature resistance.
The introduction and development of electronic variable- Multiplying each side of equation 1.2 by Ia gives:
speed drives continues to stimulate intensive development of
Vala : Eala + 12Ra (1.3)
motors, both D.C. and A.C. The performance capabilities of
both are being extended as a result, and the D.C. motor is
likely to find assured specialised applications for the fore- total power supplied = power output + armature losses
seeable future.
Interaction of the field flux and armature flux produces an
The majority of standard D.C. motors, both wound field and armature torque. Thus:
permanent magnet, are now designed specifically to take
torque M = k2Ifla (1.4)
advantage of rectified A.C. power supplies. Square, fully
laminated frame construction allows minimal shaft centre where k2=constant, If=main field current and Ia=
height for a given power rating, and affords reduced magnetic armature current.
losses, which in turn greatly improves commutating ability.
This confirms the straightforward and linear characteristic of
Over the last few years the use of permanent-magnet motors, the D.C. motor and consideration of these simple equations
usually in the fractional to 3 kW range, has become com- will show its controllability and inherent stability.
monplace in general-purpose drive applications. In this
design permanent magnets bonded into the motor frame The speed characteristic of a motor is generally represented
replace the conventional wound field. The magnets have by curves of speed against input current or torque and its
a curved face to offer a constant air gap to the conventional shape can be derived from equations 1.1 and 1.2:
armature.
klnq5 = Va - (IaRa)
If the flux is held constant, which is achieved by simply
FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS AND holding the field current constant in a properly compensated
PERFORMANCE motor, then:

n -- k3[Va - (IaRa)]
Wound-field Motors
The circuits of shunt-wound and series D.C. motors are
The circuit of a shunt-wound D.C. motor, Figure 1.1, shows
shown in Figures 1.1 and 1.2.
the armature, armature resistance (Ra) and field winding. The
armature supply voltage Va is supplied typically from a With the shunt motor the field flux 0 is only slightly affected
controlled thyristor system and the field supply voltage Vf by armature current, and the value of IaRa at full load rarely
from a separate bridge rectifier. exceeds 5 per cent of Va, giving a speed curve shown in
Figure 1.3, where speed remains sensibly constant over a
As the armature rotates an e.m.f. Ea is induced in the
wide range of load torque.
armature circuit and is called the back e.m.f, since it opposes
the applied voltage Va and the flow of current produced by The series motor curve, Figure 1.4, shows initial flux
Va. This back e.m.f. Ea is related to armature speed and main increase in proportion to current, falling away owing to
 Chapter 1.1 3

<

RaI < Ra <

( Va (
v~

Figure 1.2 Schematic of series D.C. motor

Figure 1.5 Compound D.C. motor

13

(3.

-0

(3.
1}

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
torque (%) , | , , , , , , ,

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Figure 1.3 Torque~speed characteristic of a shunt-wound
torque (%)
D. C motor
Figure 1.6 Torque~speed characteristic of a compound
D.C. motor

Under semiconductor converter control, with speed feed-

, , , , l .
10 20 30 40 50 60
torque (%)
Figure 1.4 Torque~speed characteristic of a series D.C.
motor
magnetic saturation. In addition, the armature circuit
includes the resistance of the field winding and the speed
becomes roughly inversely proportional to the current. If the
load falls to a low value the speed increases dramatically,
which may be hazardous: the series motor should not
normally be used where there is a possibility of load loss, but
because it produces high values of torque at low speed and
its characteristic is falling speed with load increase, it is
useful in applications such as traction and hoisting or some
mixing duties where initial stiction is dominant.
The compound-wound D.C. machine combines both
shunt and series characteristics; its circuit is shown in
Figure 1.5.
The exact shape of the torque/speed characteristic is
determined by the resistance values of the shunt and
series fields. The slightly drooping characteristic, Figure
1.6, has the advantage in many applications of reducing the
mechanical effects of shock loading.
back from a tachogenerator, the shape of the speed/load
curve is largely determined within the controller. It has
become standard to use a plain shunt D.C. motor on the basis
of reduced cost, even though the speed/load curve on open-
, . ,
loop control is often slightly rising.
70 80 90 100
Permanent-magnet Motors
Compared with standard types of wound-field D.C. motor,
the conventional D.C. permanent-magnet (D.C. PM) servo-
motor is often designed to exhibit extremely good low-speed
torque tipple characteristics. However, the high-speed
characteristics of a D.C. PM motor are not ideal for all
applications. Because of the mechanical and electrical con-
straints set by the motor commutator, increasing the motor
speed with a maintained load characteristic soon reveals the
commutation limit of the motor. In practice, each motor is
designed to work within a safe area of commutation where
the available motor torque reduces as motor speed increases,
in the manner of the shunt-wound D.C. motor, Figure 1.3.
The torque/speed curve for a conventional D.C. PM motor is
shown in Figure 1.7. The area of continuous operation
may be defined as the area where the motor can operate on
a 24-hour, 100 per cent duty basis with an acceptable
temperature rise.
The intermittent duty part of the motor characteristic defines
the area of operation available on an intermittent basis for
acceleration and deceleration periods. This aspect of rating
is discussed in the section on Duty Cycles (pp. 27-8). The
 D.C. MOTORS: F u n d a m e n t a l Equations and Performance

commutation
'~" limit
intermittent zone

{3.

continuous

b ----..~I- . . . . ~ a, I.
torque

Figure 1.7 Characteristic of D.C. PM motor
a peak torque
b stall torque at 40C

commutation limit is most obviously exceeded if brush

sparking becomes excessive. Severe overloading in this

range will cause a complete ring of heavy sparking to run
around the commutator circumference. This phenomenon is
known as brush fire or flashover and must be avoided since it
damages both the commutator and brush gear, reducing the
life expectancy of the motor considerably. Fortunately, the
electronic controller supplying the motor may be easily
specified to prevent overloading.
Good commutation - the ability to give good armature
current reversal without undue sparking at the brushes - is of
particular importance. It should be noted that although the
presence of sparking does give a very good indication of
poor commutation, optimisation of commutation is a very
skilled activity. Indifferent commutating performance places rotation
D.C. motors at some disadvantage when compared with
A.C. cage induction motors, particularly in respect of main-
tenance requirements and costs. The increasing emphasis Figure 1.8 Interaction of stator and rotor fields producing
being placed upon reduced production down time and torque
improved drive system dependability, combined with a a stator field
reduced number of hours available for regular maintenance, b rotor field
are factors tending to favour A.C. c resultant field distortion

OPERATING PRINCIPLES
With separately-excited shunt-wound D.C. motors, a steady
D.C. voltage is applied to the field winding and the resulting
current produces a magnetic flux in the motor yoke (main
frame), the main field poles, the armature and the air gaps,
Figure 1.8a. Field strength is determined by the field-winding
current. The armature winding occupies the rotor peripheral
slots and opposite coils are connected to each other and to a
commutator segment. The brushes provide the means of
connecting current flow to the rotating armature. This current
flow generates an armature flux, Figure 1.8b, with a magnetic
axis mechanically fixed at 90 to that of the field flux.
The interaction of these two magnetic fluxes generates a
flux distortion, Figure 1.8c, so that the armature rotates,
endeavouring continuously to correct this distortion and
thus providing motive power. Permanent-magnet D.C.
motors act on the same principle except that the field
strength is not variable.
Commutation
In order that the motive torque shall be smooth and con-
tinuous, the current distribution in the armature coils must
remain constant. This requires that the current in any given
coil must reverse as that coil passes from the influence of
one pole to the next in rotation. The process of current
reversal is known as commutation and must take place
during the time that the coil is short circuited by a brush
spanning the gap between adjacent commutator segments.
Failure to achieve armature current reversal during this
short-circuit time will cause sparking at the trailing edge of
the brush as the short circuit is broken. Commutator action is
shown in detail in Figures 1.9 and 1.10.
 Chapter 1.1 5

//2
rotation [iiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiii!iii!iil] Itor i ......................................... i .............................

!',, i
i
:
X~ !
' , actual i

r- : ~ :

~ 0
0

i ', i
ideal ',, i
i ', i
"i
b I c rtol ii \i
i, . . .

"
. . . . . . . . .
brush
. .

arcing
. . . .

I/2
contact/~:~ "........... ;eriodoi ........... ~" 'i l
with short circuit
i
period of i
segment c _ current reversal i

I/2 //2 Figure 1.10 Commutator current reversal

segment c makes contact with the brush (Figure 1.9). As the

I/2
Figure 1.9 Reversal o f current flow in one armature coil
There is a physical limit to the speed at which current can be
commutated. This commutation limit is often defined as the
product of the motor shaft power and the rotational speed.
The limit is widely accepted to be approximately 3 x 106
(kW. m i n - 1). Where greater ratings are required more than
one armature can be placed on a single shaft, or several
motors arranged in series (provided the shafts are rated to
transmit the total torque).
Rotation
Figure 1.9a shows that coil A is about to be short circuited
and is carrying half the armature current (/2) from left to
right, where the current I flows to the brush. Figure 1.9b
shows coil A in the middle of its short-circuit period, where
armature current from the brush does not pass through short-
circuited coil A. In Figure 1.9c, coil A is shown immediately
following the short circuit, carrying 1/2 current in the right to
left direction; the current in coil A has been reversed, or
commutated.
Any failure of the current to fall through zero and rise to the
same value in the reverse direction during this very brief
period of commutation results in sparking at the brush as the
inductive circuit of the armature coil is switched.
The current changes are shown in graphical form in Figure
1.10. The current in coil A is 1/2 from left to right until
area in contact with segment c increases, the current flowing
from the brush via segment c to coil A decreases. If the
current through segments b and c is proportional to
brush contact areas then the current through coil A decreases
linearly to zero (direction left to right) and then builds up
linearly in the opposite direction, Figure 1.10. Under these
conditions commutation would be linear and sparkless,
assisted by the changing ohmic resistance of the carbon-
brush/copper segment contact area. Because of the armature
coil inductance, a reactive current is induced in the coil
undergoing commutation, delaying the current reversal in
the short-circuited coil, as shown in Figure 1.10.
With heavier motor loading there is an increase of armature
current and armature flux, distorting further the flux gener-
ated by the field. This distortion, which is producing the
rotational torque, acts to degrade commutation and to pro-
duce brush sparking. The degree of flux distortion from
the neutral flux axis is proportional to armature current. The
effect is termed armature reaction. Referring back to
Figure 1.8, the brushes are shown on the neutral axis, i.e. at
90 to the flux path and midway between the field poles,
assuming no flux path distortion. Figure 1.8c shows that
distortion of the flux owing to armature reaction causes the
neutral axis to shift. If the brush axis were moved to position
X-Y, Figure 1.8c, the brushes would again lie on the neutral
axis, that is at 90 to the direction of the main flux path.
Compensation
To improve commutation, interpoles are introduced to shift
the main flux so that it lies on the geometric neutral axis.
These interpoles are interposed between the main field poles
and their coils carry the full armature current, generating a
flux proportional to current (torque load) and reducing the
effect of armature reaction.
It follows that interpoles are most effective in their correc-
tive action when the field flux is at its full level. The com-
monly used technique of field weakening progressively
 D.C. MOTORS:Operating Principles
reduces this self-corrective effect; hence the quality of
commutation can be affected when a motor operates under
the weak field conditions sometimes required in system
application.
An additional method of reducing this troublesome armature
reaction, is to neutralise the armature flux directly under the
main pole faces by the use of compensating or pole face
windings. These windings are placed in slots cut into the
main pole air gap faces and carry the full armature current,
being connected in series with the armature circuit, and thus
giving compensation with current loading. Compensating
windings on the pole faces present problems of both
mechanical security and electrical insulation, a satisfactory
solution often involving significant additional cost. The use
of a compensated machine is restricted therefore to duties
requiring a very wide range of field operation, such as high-
speed machine tool applications and others involving rapidly
varying loads and speeds, in which the commutating per-
formance of the compensated motor can be extremely good
when compared with that of the more normal non-
compensated machine.
D.C. PM Commutation
The commutator also plays a very important role in the
functioning of a D.C. PM motor. To reduce torque ripple at
the motor shaft it is desirable to keep the magnetic interac-
tion between the rotor and stator as evenly distributed as
possible. In this case, however, interpoles and winding
compensation are not available options.
The prime purpose of the commutator is to switch the current
to each set of windings in turn on the armature, and if
the optimum relationship between the stator flux and
the armature flux is to be maintained for the best current
conversion to torque, higher rates of commutation are
essential to ensure minimum torque ripple in the motor. This
means that the higher the number of commutation segments
Figure 1.11 High-performance D.C. motor (courtesy Leroy-somer)
incorporated into the design, the lower the resulting torque
ripple will be. However, in practice, this is limited by phy-
sical practicalities, cost and available space. Good commu-
tation in a D.C. PM motor is therefore a compromise.
CONSTRUCTION OF THE D.C. MOTOR
The principal components of the D.C. motor comprise the
rotating shaft-mounted wound armature and connected
commutator, the field system surrounding the armature
across the motor air gap, the supporting and enclosing end
frames with shaft bearings and brush gear to connect the
commutator to external terminals. These components and
others are to be seen in the sectioned assembly of a typical
machine, Figure 1.11.
D.C. Motor Frame
The main flame of a typical modern four-pole D.C. motor is
a square, laminated iron flame with a curved inner face.
Main pole lamination and coil shunt field assembly are
mounted on the inside face at 90 to each other, with inter-
pole assemblies interposed at 45 between.
Square-frame motors offer reduced centre height com-
pared with round-flame motors by virtue of the fact that
the main field poles mounted on the four flat internal
faces are of pancake design and that the four interpoles,
mounted on diagonal axes, fit into the internal corners of
the square.
D.C. Motor Armature
The armature consists of a cylindrical laminated iron core,
shaft mounted, with a series of slots to accommodate the
armature winding coils, insulated from each other and the
core. The coil ends are connected to insulated segments of
the commutator.

The commutator, a cylindrical copper segmented construc-
tion, is mounted at one end of the armature core, with
wedge-section segment bars clamped between commutator
end tings, insulated from each other and the metal of the
armature. These segments are machined on the outer axial
face to provide a smooth concentric surface on which the
brushes can bear with a tensioned contact. An armature
assembly is shown in Figure 1.12.
The armature winding slots are skewed by about one slot
pitch to reduce torque ripple (cogging effect) at low speed
and slot noise generation at high speed. Such a cogging
effect superimposed on the otherwise steady rotation of the
motor shaft would be unacceptable in many applications.
For example, a machine tool axis drive with such a char-
acteristic could well leave undesirable surface patterning on
the workpiece.
The precise method of skewing presents the motor manu-
facturer with two problems. The first is in determining the
amount of skew for a particular design of motor. The second
is that it is much more difficult to wind the armature on an
automatic winding machine when the laminations are
skewed in this fashion. Computer-aided design plays a large
part in solving the first of these difficulties, and most
motor manufacturers have developed standard programmes
to speed magnetic calculations. Modem wire insertion
machines make relatively easy work of shooting windings
into the skewed armature slots.
Armature winding coil ends are banded with glass-fibre and
epoxy bonding for high speed operation (> 6000 m i n - ~ for
many machine tool applications) to prevent armature coil
deflection under centrifugal stress. Two balancing discs, one
behind each beating, permit dynamic balancing to R or the
more stringent S standard over the working speed range of
the machine.
Figure 1.12 D.C. motor armature assembly
Chapter 1.1 7
Brush Gear
The number of brushes is based upon the full-load current of
the armature circuit and the working velocity of the com-
mutator track and the working conditions generally govern
the grade of carbon used. Brush pressure is usually fixed and
unvarying over the permitted wear length, and is controlled
by tensator constant-tension springs. It is very important to
use the correct grade of brush!
Mountings
The typical D.C. motor shown in Figure 1.11 is a drip-proof
(IP23) enclosed foot-mounted D.C. motor with side-moun-
ted terminal box and with a feedback tachogenerator coupled
to the nondrive end. Access to the brush gear is through the
four inspection covers around the commutator end shield,
although in practice only three can be used. Any of these
three inspection apertures can be used for mounting a force
ventilation fan, to allow wide (typically 100: 1) speed range
operation at constant load torque.
Basic adaptability of the square-frame machine also allows
the terminal box to be mounted on any of the three available
faces of the machine, and for the machine itself to be
mounted by end or foot flange; and since both end shields
have the mounting feet attached, they can readily be rotated
through 90 to allow side foot mounting.
D.C. PM Design
Industrial D.C. permanent-magnet (D.C. PM) motors tend to
offer a smaller frame size for a given kW rating than their
wound-field counterparts, although frame lengths can be
greater.
A D.C. PM servomotor is conventional in most aspects of
construction, but usually incorporates technical refinements
8 D.C. MOTORS:Construction of the D.C. Motor
to give performance characteristics of a higher order than
those of the general purpose D.C. PM motor. Areas where
the motor designer achieves the required sophistication
include rotor inertia and choice of magnetic materials.
Rotor Inertia
One of the key elements of a D.C. PM motor is the rotor or
armature design. It is a normal requirement of a servo system
to be able to accelerate and decelerate the motor (and load)
very rapidly. To facilitate rapid changes in speed, and in
order to reduce the input power required to achieve these
changes, the inertia of the rotor is kept to a minimum.
Since inertia increases by the square of the diameter, D.C.
PM servomotor rotors tend to be long in relation to their
diameter. Care should be taken not to apply very-low-inertia
servomotors to high-inertia loads as the inertia mismatch can
lead to very troublesome resonances.
A prime reason for choosing a servo system as opposed to a
conventional variable-speed D.C. system is the ability to
operate the motor at or very near to zero speed, while still
offering full-rated torque.
Permanent-magnet Materials
Choice of magnetic material for the D.C. PM motor is a
major deciding factor in the operational characteristic.
Conventional D.C. PM motors use a low-cost ferrite mag-
netic material which, although more than adequate for
the majority of applications, does have some inherent dis-
advantages.
Mechanically, ferrite magnets are fragile, and so are usually
bonded to the motor body, which is very secure. However,
because ferrite magnets are also brittle, they are susceptible
to mechanical shock and can be fractured unless the motor is
handled with great care.
One of the more important disadvantages of low-cost mag-
nets, however, is the ease with which they can become
demagnetised. Ferrite magnets have a relatively low
demagnetising level. Under normal circumstances, and with
a correctly-determined servo system, demagnetisation of the
motor is not possible. However, if the system is not correctly
2 A.C. INDUCTION MOTORS
GENERAL
The A.C. squirrel-cage induction motor is the basic, universal
work horse of industry, converting some 70 to 80 per cent
determined it is possible to partially demagnetise the motor
through overcurrent in the armature or with temperatures in
excess of the Curie point of the material, with the result of
reduced torque and usually a higher-than-rated motor speed
on light load, for a given input voltage.
Alternative types of magnetic material overcome these
problems with very high demagnetisation levels and oper-
ating temperature ranges. Such a material is samarium
cobalt, which is grouped with the rare-earth category of
magnetic materials. There is much development activity
in this area and new, improved, materials are appearing
continually.
Currently, magnets made from rare-earth materials are
expensive and their use can double the cost of a motor, but
for many applications the choice of such magnetic materials
is unarguably justified; the resulting magnetic flux is much
denser per unit volume of magnet, and therefore the rotor
inertia can be significantly reduced for a given rated output
torque. This allows an improved acceleration/deceleration
performance per unit armature current.
A magnetic material with the cost advantages of an ordinary
ferrite magnet and the performance advantages of the rare-
earth types has been sought. This has now been achieved
with the advent of synthetic magnetic materials, principally
neodymium iron boron, which is fully acceptable to
numerous industries, including the automotive industry, and
provides extremely good performance characteristics with-
out the large price premium of the rare-earth materials.
The magnet itself is formed from powders drawn from an
ever growing range of magnetic materials and is moulded
into the required size, shape and profile using a high-tem-
perature specialised sintering process.
Delivered to the motor manufacturer in an unmagnetised
state, the magnet is first bonded into the motor frame using
a two-part adhesive with a suitably high melting point.
The assembly is then magnetised by inserting a close-
fitting metal conductor through the motor frame and intro-
ducing a high-current shock pulse through the assembly
by discharging a capacitor bank through the conductor.
The current pulse polarises the elements of the sintered
magnets and saturates them to one end of their magnetisation
characteristic.
of all electrical power into mechanical energy. This type
of motor nonetheless exhibits some quite unattractive per-
formance characteristics in spite of intensive develop-
ment, notably instability and a nonlinear load-current

characteristic. It is invariably designed for fixed-speed
operation, larger ratings having such features as deep rotor
bars to limit direct-on-line (DOL) starting currents. Elec-
tronic variable-speed converter technology is able to provide
the necessary variable-voltage/current, variable-frequency
supply which the three-phase A.C. machine requires for
efficient, dynamic and stable variable-speed control.
Modern electronic control technology is able not only to
render the A.C. induction motor satisfactory for many
modern drive applications but also to greatly extend its
application and enable advantage to be taken of its low
capital and maintenance costs.
More striking still, microelectronic developments have
made possible the highly dynamic operation of induction
motors by the application of flux-vector control. The prac-
tical effect is that it is now possible to drive an A.C.
induction motor in such a way as to obtain a dynamic
performance in all respects better than could be obtained
with a phase-controlled D.C. drive combination. The various
forms of A.C. induction motor control are fully described in
Chapter 4.
FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS AND
PERFORMANCE
Electrical Characteristics of
Induction Motors
Consider the stator winding of a simple three-phase two-pole
A.C. cage induction motor, each phase winding having only
one slot per pole per phase as shown in Figure 1.13. End
+ ,.30~,30~,
- a b c
a S
b c
Figure 1.13 Three-phase rotating field
Chapter 1.2 9
connections for the winding coils are not shown, but R and
R1 represent the start and finish of the red phase winding,
and similarly for the Y and B phase conductors. The R, Y
and B phase windings are displaced 120 in space relative to
one another.
Assuming that when stator current is positive it is flowing
inwards in conductors R, Y and B, and therefore outwards in
R1, Y1 and B1, that the current in phase R in Figure 1.13a is
at its maximum positive value and that in phase windings Y
and B the currents at the same instant are negative and
each equal to half maximum value, then these currents
produce the magnetic fluxes represented by the arrowed
lines in Figure 1.13a and the flux axis is horizontal.
Thirty degrees later in the supply cycle, the currents in
phases R and B are 0.866 (x/~/2) of their maximum, and zero
in the Y phase. The pattern of the flux due to this current is
shown in Figure 1.13b. It will be noted that the axis of this
field is now in line with coil Y-Y1 and therefore has turned
clockwise through 30 from that of Figure 1.13a.
After a further 30 in the supply cycle the current in
phase winding B has reached maximum negative value, and
the currents in R and Y are both positive, at half their
maximum value. These currents produce the magnetic flux
shown in Figure 1.13c, the flux axis being displaced clock-
wise by a further 30 compared with that of Figure 1.13b.
Thus, for every time interval corresponding to 30 in the
supply cycle, the axis of the flux in a two-pole A.C. stator
rotates 30 in space. With a two-pole stator (one pair of
poles) the flux rotates through one revolution in space in one
cycle of the power supply. The magnetic flux is said to rotate
I~
10 A.C. INDUCTION MOTORS: Fundamental Equations and Performance
at synchronous speed, and the rotational speed of the flux is:
f/p revolutions in one second
where f = supply frequency in Hz, and p = number of pole
pairs. Note: a two-pole motor has one pole pair!
It is more usual to express speed in revolutions per minute:
60f/p revolutions per minute (min -1)
The e.m.f, generated in a rotor conductor by transformer
action is at a maximum in the region of maximum flux
density. With the flux rotation assumed to be clockwise, the
direction of the e.m.f.s generated in stationary rotor con-
ductors (determined by Fleming's fight-hand rule) are
indicated by conventional crosses and dots in Figure 1.14a.
The e.m.f, generated in the single rotor conductor shown in
Figure 1.14b produces a current, the effect of which is to
reinforce the flux density on the left-hand side of the con-
ductor and to weaken it on the right-hand side. In con-
sequence, a force is exerted on the rotor tending to move it in
the direction of the flux rotation. The higher the speed of the
rotor, the lower the speed of the rotating stator flux field
relative to the rotor winding, and therefore the smaller the
e.m.f, generated in the rotor winding.
If the speed of the rotor became the same as that of
the rotating field, i.e. synchronous speed, the rotor con-
ductors would be stationary in relation to the rotating flux.
This would produce no e.m.f, and no rotor current and
therefore no torque on the rotor. Because of friction and
N centage slip with load.
b with a 50 Hz supply is therefore:
Figure 1.14 Torque on the rotor
a currents induced in rotor bars producing
field
b distortion of field
windage, the rotor could not continue to rotate at synchro-
nous speed. The rotor speed must therefore fall below
the synchronous speed, and as it does so rotor e.m.f, and
current, and therefore torque, will increase until the speed
matches that required by the losses and by any load on the
motor shaft.
The difference in rotor speed relative to that of the rotating
stator flux is known as the slip. In Figure 1.15, for a given
torque OA, rotor speed is AC and the slip is AD, and:
AD = A B - AC = CB
It is usual to express slip as a percentage of the synchronous
speed, i.e. AD/AB x 100. Slip is closely proportional to
torque from zero to full load.
Slip at full load varies from about 7 per cent for small motors
to about 2 per cent for large, and is a good indication of the
efficiency of a machine; the lower the slip the higher the
efficiency. The fact that the A.C. squirrel-cage induction
motor is neither a true constant-speed machine nor inher-
ently capable of providing variable-speed operation con-
stitutes a major limitation.
Analysis shows that the rotor flux ampere turns travel at the
same speed as those of the resultant of the stator flux ampere
turns and that both are stationary relative to each other. The
three-phase induction motor can be regarded as a transfor-
mer having an air gap between the magnetic circuits of the
primary (stator) and secondary (rotor) windings. This air
gap, although designed to be as small as practicable, has an
important effect on the characteristics of A.C. squirrel-cage
motors.
The air gap requires larger magnetisation and gives larger
magnetic leakage than a transformer of the same kVA
rating. However, stator and rotor ampere turns have to bal-
ance, as well as supplying magnetisation and no-load
losses, just as in transformer design. So an increase in per-
centage slip due to load is accompanied by an increase in
rotor current (secondary current) and therefore by a corre-
sponding increase in stator current (primary current) above
the no-load current. This no-load current for a typical
squirrel-cage motor lies between 25 and 40 per cent of the
full-load current and is largely due to the magnetic excitation
current required by the air gap. Thus the cage induction
machine over its working load range is self regulating for
input power, this regulation being controlled by the per-
The most popular squirrel-cage induction motor in sizes up
to about 5 kW is of four-pole design. Its synchronous speed
60f/p = 60.50/2 = 1500 min -1
Slip accounts for about 5 per cent, and a typical nameplate
speed is 1425 min -1.
Torque Characteristics
A disadvantage of the squirrel-cage machine is its fixed rotor
characteristic. The starting torque is directly related to the
rotor circuit impedance, as is the percentage slip when
running at load and speed.
 C h a p t e r 1.2 11

, synchronous speed B

rotor speed
C' i

i
i

i i
i

full-load torque .~'

Figure 1.16 Typical rotor bar profiles

D rotor slip
i
600
o A
torque
ent a
500
Figure 1.15 Speed curve of an induction motor

~400 . current b \
C

o 300
Ideally, a relatively high rotor impedance is required for
good starting performance (torque against current) and low
rotor impedance for low full-load speed slip (and high 200
efficiency).
100
This problem can be overcome to a useful extent, for direct-
on-line (DOL) application, by designing the rotor bars with
special cross sections, Figure 1.16, rather than round or ' ~o ' 166
square, so that eddy-current losses, which these special speed, %
sections cause, increase the impedance at starting when the
rotor flux (slip) frequency is high, and reduce it at normal Figure 1.17 Typical torque~speed and current~speed curves
running speed when the flux frequency is low. a standard m o t o r
b h i g h - t o r q u e m o t o r (6 per cent slip)
Altematively, for special high-starting-torque motors,
two or even three concentric sets of rotor bars are used.
Relatively costly in construction but capable of a substantial
improvement in starting performance, this form of design
produces an increase in full-load slip. Since machine losses the voltage impressed upon the winding by the supply. This
are closely proportional to working speed slip, increased is because the resistance of the winding results in only a
losses may require such a high starting torque machine to small voltage drop, even at full-load current, and therefore in
be derated. the steady state the supply voltage must be balanced by the
e.m.f, induced by the rotating field. This e.m.f, depends on
The curves in Figure 1.17 show indicative squirrel-cage the product of three factors:
motor characteristics. In the general case, the higher the
starting torque the greater the full-load slip. This is one of the
1 The total flux per pole (which is usually determined
important parameters of squirrel-cage design as it is tied to
by the machine designer).
working efficiency and therefore working losses.
2 The total number of turns per phase of the stator winding.
3 The rate of field rotation or frequency.

VOLTAGE-FREQUENCY RELATIONSHIP
Exactly the same factors are valid for transformer design,
except that the field is pulsating instead of rotating.
Nearly all commercially-available industrial induction
motors are wound for direct connection and starting on the In a transformer it can be shown that the e.m.f, induced in a
supply voltage and frequency which prevail in the country winding is given by:
where they will be used. It is a relatively simple matter for
the motor manufacturer to select the number of tums per coil V-K~f
and the wire size to match any voltage within a wide range.
where V is the e.m.f, induced in a coil, K is a constant, ~; is
If it is desired to convert a constant-speed motor operating
the flux through the coil andfis the frequency of the supply.
direct-on-line to a variable-speed drive using an inverter it is
necessary to consider the effect of frequency on flux and This can be rearranged to give:
torque.
(v/f)/x
An induction motor on a normal supply operates with a
rotating field set up by three-phase currents in the stator For constant flux, it can be seen that the ratio V/f must be
winding. The magnitude of the field is controlled broadly by held constant.
12 A.C. INDUCTION MOTORS" Voltage-Frequency Relationship

For inverter operation the speed of field rotation for which

maximum voltage is appropriate is known as the base
speed.
100 %

Increased Voltage
If, again in the steady state, the voltage applied to the stator C~

terminals is increased without a corresponding increase in 0

>

the frequency, only the flux can vary to regain the balance 0

between applied voltage and e.m.f. If the flux is forced to 0

E
increase by applying excessive voltages, the iron core of the
machine is driven progressively into saturation. This not
only increases iron losses due to hysteresis and eddy cur-
rents, but can lead to a very marked increase in stator cur-
rent, with corresponding resistive losses. Since most
machines are designed to work with the minimum of
material, their magnetic circuits are normally very close to ideal
saturation and excessive stator voltage is a condition which
/
100 %
must be carefully avoided.

ical
Reduced Frequency x"
w-
i,_
The consequence of reducing the supply frequency can 0
0
readily be deduced from the relationship described above. E
For the same flux the induced e.m.f, in the stator winding will
be proportional to frequency, hence the voltage supplied to
the machine windings must be correspondingly reduced in
order to avoid heavy saturation of the core. This is valid for
changes in frequency over a wide range. The voltage-
frequency relationship should therefore be linear if a con-
stant flux is to be maintained within the machine, as the
designer intended. If flux is constant so is the motor torque 100 %
for a given stator current, hence the drive has a constant
torque characteristic.
Although constant voltage-frequency (V/f) control is an a;
base speed
important underlying principle, it is appropriate to point m
0
>
out departures from it which are essential if a wide speed J ,
.e'"
range is to be covered. First, operation above base speed 0
E
is easily achieved by increasing the output frequency of the
. ~t ' " " " boost
inverter above the normal mains frequency; two or three ," (exaggerated)
t
times base speed is easily obtained. The output voltage of
an inverter cannot usually be made higher than its input frequency and speed
voltage and therefore the V/f characteristic is typically as Figure 1.18 Voltage-frequency characteristics
shown in Figure 1.18a. Since V is constant above base
a linear VIf below base speed
speed, the flux will fall as the frequency is increased after the
b typical motor flux with linear V/f (showing
output voltage limit is reached. The machine flux falls fall in flux at low frequency as well as
(Figure 1.18b) in direct proportion to the actual V/f ratio. above base speed)
Although this greatly reduces the core losses, the ability c modified V/f characteristic with low-
of the machine to produce torque is impaired and less frequency boost (to compensate for stator
mechanical load is needed to draw full-load current from the resistance effects in steady state)
inverter. The drive is said to have a constant power char-
acteristic above base speed. Many applications not requiring
full torque at high speeds can make use of this extended
speed range.
the stator resistance effect. Indeed, as output frequency
The second operating condition where departure from a approaches zero, the optimum voltage becomes the voltage
constant V/fis beneficial is at very low speeds, whereby the equal to the stator IR drop. Compensation for stator resis-
voltage drop arising from the stator resistance becomes tance is normally referred to as voltage boost and almost
significantly large. This voltage drop is at the expense of all inverters offer some form of adjustment so that the
flux, as shown in Figure 1.18b. To maintain a truly constant degree of voltage boost can be matched to the actual
flux within the machine the terminal voltage must be winding resistance. It is normal for the boost to be gradually
increased above the constant V/f value to compensate for tapered to zero as the frequency progresses towards base

speed. Figure 1.18c shows a typical scheme for tapered
boost. It is important to appreciate that the level of
voltage boost should increase if a high starting torque is
required, since the IR drop will be greater by virtue of the
increased stator current. In this case automatic load-depen-
dent boost control is useful in obtaining the desired low-
speed characteristics. Such a strategy is referred to as
constant V/f (or V/Hz) control and is a feature of most
commercially available A.C. drives, although more advanced
open-loop strategies are now becoming available (refer to
Chapter 4).
So far the techniques described have been based on
achieving constant flux within the air gap of the
machine or, if that is not possible, then the maximum
flux. Constant flux is the ideal condition if the largest cap-
ability of torque is required because the load cannot
be predicted with certainty, or if the most rapid possible
acceleration time is desired. A large number of inverters
are used, however, for variable air volume applications
where control of airflow is obtained by variable-speed fans.
The torque required by a fan follows a square-law char-
acteristic, Figure 1.19, with respect to speed, and reducing
the speed of a fan by 50 per cent will reduce its torque
requirement to only 25 per cent of its rated torque. As the
load is entirely predictable there is no need for full torque
capability and hence flux to be maintained, and higher motor
efficiency can be obtained by operating at a reduced flux
level. A further benefit is that acoustic noise, a major con-
cern in air-conditioning equipment, is significantly reduced.
It is therefore common for inverters to have an alternative
square-law V/f characteristic or, ideally, a self-optimising
economy feature so that rapid acceleration to meet a new
speed demand is followed by settling to a highly efficient
operating point.
SLIP-RING INDUCTION MOTOR
The wound rotor or slip-ring A.C. machine, although intro-
ducing the negative aspect of brushes, does address some
of the disadvantages of the cage induction motor but with
the handicap of cost compared to the equivalent rated D.C.
shunt-wound machine.
100 %
0 ID
~o
s
v ings in the one machine, for example four and eight poles,
"10 0
~E
0
J base speed "'~'
frequency and speed
Figure 1.19 Typical square-law characteristic of a fan or
pump load
Chapter 1.2 13
With the correct value of (usually) resistance inserted in the
rotor circuit, a near-unity relationship between torque and
supply current at starting can be achieved, i.e. 100 per cent
full-load torque, with 100 per cent full-load current, 200 per
cent FLT with 200 per cent FLC etc., (i.e. comparable with
the starting capability of the D.C. machine). Not only the
high starting efficiency but also its smooth controlled accel-
eration historically gave the slip-ring motor great popularity
for lift, hoist and crane applications. It has had similar
popularity with fan engineers, to provide a limited range of
air volume control, either 2:1 or 3 : 1 reduction, at constant
load, by the use of speed regulating variable resistance in the
rotor circuit. Although a fan possesses a square-law torque-
speed characteristic, so that motor currents fall considerably
with speed, losses in the rotor regulator at lower motor
speeds are still relatively high, severely limiting the useful
speed range.
Rotor slip-ring systems, used with this type of motor, offer a
similar service life to that of the D.C. motor commutator
system.
Efficient variable-speed control of slip-ring motors can be
achieved by converters using the slip energy recovery
principle first proposed by Kramer in 1904. Such schemes
are based upon converting the slip frequency on the rotor
to supply frequency. (These schemes are described in
Chapter 2.2.)
It is also possible to retrofit variable-frequency inverters to
existing slip-ring motors. This can be done simply by
shorting out the slip-ring terminations (ideally on the rotor
thereby eliminating the brushes) and treating the motor as a
cage machine.
Variable voltage control of slip-ring motors has been used
extensively, notably in crane and lift applications, although
it is now largely being replaced by flux-vector drives and
will therefore not be considered further.
SPEED-CHANGING MOTORS
The cage rotor already described in outline is constructed
with copper rotor bars brazed to shorting end tings, or is
aluminium die cast in a single operation. The construction
is simple, cheap and robust. It has the further advantage
that with various stator winding pole combinations,
whereby the sequence of current reversals in the rotor bars
is altered, the rotor end tings provide a free path for the
current to flow, adapting to the differing number of stator
poles. This allows stator windings of more than one pole
combination to be wound on the same stator, and such
multispeed A.C. squirrel-cage motors can take one of two
forms.
The simplest is to combine two quite separate stator wind-
providing a 2:1 speed range with a constant torque rela-
tionship between the two speeds. This would suit many
applications in materials handling and in lift and crane
drives, but would be wasteful of torque and therefore of cost
for fan and pump drives, where the load torque requirement
for low-speed operation falls as the square of the speed
reduction.
14 A.C. INDUCTION MOTORS: Speed-Changing
,,
Alternatively, and often more commercially attractive, there
is the design of a single stator winding which allows dif-
ferent pole combinations by switching external connections.
This is termed consequence pole switching and is restricted
to 2:1 speed range combinations, i.e. 2/4 pole or 4/8 pole,
few other 2:1 combinations being practicable. Since this
uses a single winding only, a constant torque relationship
between the two speeds is available.
More than two speeds can be made available from A.C.
squirrel-cage motors by combining separately-wound and
consequence pole switching in the same machine. Pole
amplitude modulated (PAM) speed change, as this method is
known, is also available for machines of larger kW ratings
and is somewhat similar in principle to consequence pole
switching.
A.C. INDUCTION MOTOR CONSTRUCTION
The A.C. cage induction motor stator coils are wound on a
laminated iron core formed into a pack usually by seam
welding. Semiclosed slots accommodate the windings,
which are normally wound as a concentric three-phase,
typically four-pole, arrangement suitably insulated per coil
set, per phase and from earth.
A laminated cylindrical rotor core is mounted centrally in
the stator with the smallest practical radial air gap and with
semiclosed or closed rotor slots around the periphery to
accommodate the rotor winding. This winding comprises
bare or lightly-insulated aluminium or copper bars, occu-
pying the slots and connected to shorting end rings at each
end face of the rotor pack. A typical die-cast aluminium
rotor construction is shown (with stator) in Figure 1.20, for
comparison with a copper bar cage rotor, Figure 1.21. For
lower ratings, the rotor laminated core and cage construction
is replaced by a cylinder of mild steel, which works quite
well but with greatly reduced output power relative to size.
i~i!i: ~!~: i!i: !~!: .... ? ::~ ~ ::%::: ~:i:i~....
: :
i ::~i: !i(~
ili i i!i il i ii! i ! !iil i !~i
Figure 1.20 Typical squirrel-cage induction motor die-cast rotor with its laminated stator
(courtesy Leroy-somer)
Motors
A die-cast aluminium rotor cage induction motor construc-
tion is generally used up to about 50 kW and allows best
economics in manufacture. Rotor losses with aluminium
bars are bigger than those with copper and copper tends to be
substituted at 50 kW or thereabouts.
The use of aluminium in the frame construction of smaller
machines up to 37 kW rating is becoming standard practice
on account of the better thermal conductivity when com-
pared with cast iron. It offers benefits in the areas of resis-
tance to corrosion, ease of machining, reduced weight and
generally improved appearance. The better heat conduction
of aluminium and the much improved force-ventilated
cooling of the standard IP54 enclosed machine of current
design show significant benefits, although such cooling still
falls short of the effectiveness of screen-protected IP22
enclosures, which exchange the cooling air around the
stator and rotor windings directly with the surrounding
ambient air.
Above 37 kW, aluminium construction appears to lose its
advantages, particularly in terms of the mechanical strength
required for the higher torque loading involved. Cast iron
and steel construction becomes the standard as does
detailed attention to effective cooling of the IP54 enclosed
machine. At these higher kW ratings the inferior efficiency
of the A.C. cage machine compared with the equivalent rating
of D.C. motor and brushless synchronous A.C. motor gives
the larger cage machine additional kW losses to dissipate.
However, a major advantage of the A.C. cage machine is
that it is readily available in enclosures to match the
requirements of difficult and hazardous environments and
can be specified to accept much higher levels of external
vibration and shock loading than is possible for a compar-
able D.C. machine.
Standard cage induction machines are available to comply
with a wide variety of international standards.
. . . . .... ~:~~ ii~!i~i:i~
iii!~:iiii:i)/i!i:i:~iiii!i~iii~!i~:iii!~!
" : .... !i
ii:~i
~!:iiiil:i:i~i.... !
~iI:il~i I!~:'~Ii:iii~i!ii~i iiii~i~i
i:i:i
iii!

Figure 1.21 Typical squirrel-cage induction motor rotor with inserted copper rotor bars
(courtesy Leroy-Somer)
3 A.C. SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
GENERAL
Considering a rotor of the solid pattern it is possible to
visualise a series of flats machined around the rotor block
periphery, the number of flats corresponding to the number
of poles with which the three-phase stator winding is
wound, and as shown in Figure 1.22 for a four-pole
(1500 m i n - 1 50 Hz) design.
A motor fitted with such a rotor would run at synchronous
speed with no load on the shaft and, for a typical low kW
design, would pull out of, or lose, synchronism at a torque
loading in excess of about 10 per cent of that of the
equivalent frame size asynchronous design. Having pulled
out of the synchronous condition the percentage slip would
be high, the motor essentially reduced to a crawl if the load is
not removed, causing significant losses and excessive tem-
perature rise.
The performance of such a simple synchronous cage machine
would be poor but could be greatly improved by designing
Chapter 1.3 15
permanent magnets into the rotor system, Figure 1.23, or by
borrowing A.C. alternator technology and making the rotor
of wound multipole design, either with a separate D.C.
supply for excitation or of brushless alternator design with
shaft-mounted exciter.
A.C. synchronous motor application engineering needs
particular care to ensure that the machine will accelerate its
load to synchronous speed and be capable of holding syn-
chronous speed under transient load conditions. Such a
motor can prove commercially attractive, particularly where
precise speed holding or speed matching between drives is
essential and where, by borrowing alternator technology,
advantage can be taken of volume manufacture and the
availability of an IP23 protection enclosure, which allows
improved cooling.
Small salient-pole synchronous motors possess limitations
for general and for variable-speed drive use. For this reason,
further comment refers to the larger salient-pole and to
cylindrical-rotor synchronous motors, which are likely to
16 A.C. SYNCHRONOUSMOTORS: General
Figure 1.22 Synchronous motor rotor with flats machined
on a solid core
permanent magnets
Figure 1.23 Synchronous motor rotor with permanent
magnets
have wide application in A.C. variable-speed drives above
about 40kW. Permanent-magnet motors are considered
here, but only their more common application in the spe-
cialised field of servomotors. Switched reluctance motors
are considered entirely separately in Chapter 5.2.
A.C. asynchronous induction motors produce shaft torque,
which is proportional to percentage slip, implying that with
zero slip the machine produces zero torque. Synchronous
torque can be produced at speed:
=f/p
where ns =synchronous rotational speed in min-1, f =
frequency in Hz and p = number of field pole pairs.
This is achieved by a field winding, for convenience of
design generally wound on the rotor and D.C. excited so that
it produces a rotor flux which is stationary relative to the
rotor. Torque is produced when the rotating three-phase field
and the rotor field are stationary relative to each other, hence
there must be physical rotation of the rotor at speed ns in
order that its field travels in step with the stator field axis. At
any other speed a rotor pole flux would approach alternately
a stator north-pole flux, then a south-pole flux, changing the
resulting torque from a positive to a negative value at a
frequency related to the flux speed difference, the mean
torque being zero. Such conditions can occur due to load
transients and during starting.
Wound-rotor synchronous motors have a stator design
similar to that of a standard A.C. cage induction motor with a
three-phase balanced winding of either two or four-pole
configuration. It is the rotor design, which can take alter-
native forms, that affects the performance of a given size of
synchronous machine.
Cylindrical-rotor synchronous motors have not only a uni-
form air gap but also a rotor flux distributed sinusoidally in
space. This combines with the three-phase stator flux, which
in the air gap produces a sinusoidal pattern of mutual flux,
resulting in a sinusoidal torque pattern.
Such a rotor has a suitably-distributed three-phase winding
excited by D.C., usually one rotor phase carrying the full
D.C. current value, the other two phases each carrying half
current, in a series/parallel connection. An advantage of the
synchronous motor is that it does not require reactive current
to magnetise the air gap so there is little restriction on the
radial air gap when compared with the induction cage
machine, where air gap is of great importance.
A common alternative to the cylindrical rotor is the salient-
pole machine. Generally, a three-phase four-pole winding is
employed, except on some small machines where a two-pole
winding is more convenient. Salient-pole rotors provide a
large space for the windings but generally give a flux wave
pattern rich in lower-order harmonics, although these can be
somewhat reduced by correct design of the pole tips. The
general symmetry per pole, with differing reluctances
between stator and rotor, results in a tendency for stator and
rotor poles to align. This reluctance torque allows the rotor
to accelerate and run synchronously without rotor excitation
at small to moderate loads.
Normal excitation supplements the torque produced by
reluctance and allows the machine to hold synchronism with
transient load changes. To improve starting, rotor bars are
often built into the salient-pole faces with similar design
considerations as to the profiles of the slots and bars as in
a standard cage machine. With the salient-pole machine
running at synchronous speed, for reasons already con-
sidered, little current will circulate in the rotor bars. That
which does tends to reduce harmonic currents.
In the same way as the design and arrangement in modern
A.C. generators provide rotor excitation without the use of
either slip rings or commutators, such self-excited designs
have now become general for A.C. synchronous motors in
view of the poor maintenance record of slip-ring systems.
Self excitation is additionally attractive, since rotor D.C.
excitation involves relatively little power, perhaps only up to
about 2 per cent of the machine rating, derived from a
common shaft-mounted A.C. exciter with rectifiers. The
excitation is capable of being regulated externally to the
machine. This is necessary where advantage is to be taken
of the power factor control capability of this type of
machine, and where inverter-based variable-speed control is
required.
The so-called V curves for a typical synchronous motor
are shown in Figure 1.24. The operating power factor is
 Chapter 1.4 17

increases the excitation field voltage proportionately, to

\ ,,"" full load
compensate for the effects of flux neutralisation.
t-
eD
The A.C. synchronous motor appears to have some attractive
L_
~ / o full load features for inverter variable-speed drive applications, par-
0
C~ ticularly at ratings of 40 kW and above. Not least is overall
-

cost when compared with an A.C. cage motor plus inverter,

c-
.m no load
or D.C. shunt-wound motor and converter alternatives. In
c"
applications requiring a synchronous speed relationship
E between multiple drives or precise speed control of single
large drives the A.C. synchronous motor plus inverter con-
trol system appears attractive: freedom from brush gear
lag .~ power"
-,-factor ,~ lead
! maintenance, good working efficiency and power factor are
I

field excitation current the main considerations.

Figure 1.24 V curves of a typical synchronous motor

A.C. SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
CONSTRUCTION
determined by the relationship between load current and
excitation current. The dotted line indicates the minimum
With the wound-rotor A.C. synchronous motor the stator
stator current at the various loads, that is with excitation
remains generally the same as for the A.C. cage motor, with
adjusted to give unity power factor. For steady-state operation,
the rotor slots now accommodating a fully insulated wire or
adjustment of the excitation current will change the working
bar-wound rotor winding of the same pole number as the
power factor. With variable loading, and where variable-speed
associated stator with connections brought out to external
inverter control is involved and operating power factor is
terminals via slip rings and brushes.
important, conventional power-factor correction techniques
are employed. Motor excitation level is set to give optimum Synchronous A.C. motors above the low kW rating sizes are
power factor for the working conditions. similar in construction to A.C. alternators. Again, the stator
winding is similar to that of the A.C. cage motor, the rotor
In common with D.C. motors, increased line current partially
carrying the field excitation winding, typically of brushless
neutralises the excitation field m.m.f. Since shaft torque is
design, wound either upon a cylindrical rotor (similar to the
approximately related to the product of line and field current
wound rotor arrangement mentioned above) or upon salient
fluxes, increased line current can give a reducing torque
poles.
increase. A typical inverter for variable-speed control auto-
matically regulates the main stator voltage to be in proportion It is interesting to note that slip-ring induction motors can
to motor frequency. It is possible to arrange an excitation also be made to operate synchronously by supplying the
control loop, which monitors the main stator voltage and rotor with D.C. current through the slip rings.

4 BRUSHLESS SERVOMOTORS

GENERAL The synchronous motor stays in synchronism with the

In Chapter 1.2 we saw that a three-phase stator winding of an
induction motor produces a sinusoidal rotating magnetic
field in the air gap. The speed of rotation of the magnetic
field is directly proportional to the supply frequency. In
Chapter 1.3 we saw that the same is true for a synchronous
motor. In this case the rotor has a D.C. excited winding or
permanent magnets designed to lock on or synchronise with
the rotating magnetic field. The synchronous machine with
permanent magnets on the rotor is the heart of the modem
brushless servomotor.
supply, although there is a limit to the maximum torque
which can be developed before the rotor is forced out of
synchronism. Pull-out torque will be typically between one
and a half and four times the continuously-rated torque. The
torque speed curve is therefore simply a vertical line, which
indicates that if we try to force the machine above the syn-
chronous speed it will become a generator.
The industrial application of brushless servomotors has
grown significantly for several reasons: reduction of price
of power conversion products; establishment of advanced
18 BRUSHLESS
SERVOMOTORS"General

motoring

o"
i-
o ns speed

generating
b S W-

Figure 1.25 Steady-state torque speed curve for a

synchronous motor supplied at constant
frequency

control of PWM inverters; development of new, more

powerful and easier to use permanent-magnet materials; C
e
development of highly accurate position controllers; the ! i

manufacture of all these components in a very compact

form. They are, in principle, easy to control because the
torque is generated in proportion to the current. In addition,
they have high efficiency and high dynamic responses can
be achieved.
Brushless servomotors are often called brushless D.C. ser- |

vomotors because their structure is different from that of A B

ordinary D.C. servomotors. Brushless servomotors switch
current by means of transistor switching within the asso-
ciated drive/amplifier, instead of a commutator as used in
D.C. servomotors. In order to confuse, brushless servomo-
tors are also called A.C. servomotors because brushless
servomotors of synchronous type with a permanent magnet
rotor detect the position of the rotational magnetic field to
control the three-phase current of the armature. It is now
widely recognised that brushless A.C. refers to a motor with
a sinusoidal stator winding distribution which is designed for
use on a sinusoidal or PWM inverter supply voltage.
Brushless D.C. refers to a motor with a trapezoidal stator
winding distribution, which is designed for use on a square-
wave or block commutation inverter supply voltage.
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION OF
BRUSHLESS SERVOMOTORS
Introduction
Figure 1.26 Principle of a rotating field
at point A, and phases V and W are both negative. Therefore,
the direction of the current of each coil is as shown in
Figure 1.26a and the composite vector of the magnetic flux
induced by the current is generated in the direction from N
towards S. If there is a rotor field intersecting the magnetic
flux at right angles at that time, torque is generated to rotate
the rotor clockwise owing to the repulsive and attractive
forces between the magnets. At point B, magnetic flux is
generated 60 degrees further clockwise.
It follows from the above that a continuously rotating field
can be obtained by making three-phase currents flow in the
stator coil. If the sine wave phase and rotational position can
be made to be always at right angles, it becomes possible to
make a highly efficient motor producing smooth torque
without using brushes.

The brushless servomotor lacks the commutator of the D.C.

motor, and has a device (the drive sometimes referred to as
the amplifier) for making the current flow according to the
rotor position. In the D.C. motor, torque variation is reduced
by increasing the number of commutator segments. In the
brushless motor, torque variation is reduced by making
the coil three phase and, in the steady state, by controlling
the current of each phase into a sine wave.
Figures 1.26a and b are cross-sectional views of a three-
phase synchronous motor, with U +, U - , V +, V - , W + and
W - indicating the beginning or the end of the coil of each
phase. When a motor is energised by three-phase alternating
currents as shown in Figure 1.26c, only phase U is positive
Torque Constant
In the armature of the motor of Figure 1.27, the current
distribution is as illustrated. If the current flowing in the
conductors to the right of the symmetrical axis OO t is in
the direction of (away from the reader), then current in the
conductors to the left flows in the opposite direction of
(towards the reader). Assume that all the conductors in the
fight-hand half are under the north pole and all the con-
ductors in the left-hand half are under the south pole of the
permanent magnet and the magnetic flux density has an
average value of B to simplify the discussion. Then the
torque RBIL should work on every conductor and the whole

!
O force (back e.m.f.), and the direction of this force is opposite
S I~ I !~1 N
R v = f~R
Figure 1.27 Field flux and current distribution in a rotor
torque T around the axis will be:
T = ZRBLI
= (ZRBLIa) / 2
where Z is the total number of conductors, R is the radius of
the rotor, B is the flux density linking the stator windings, L
is the inductance of the winding and Ia is the current from the
motor terminal, which is equal to 2L
In this model, the magnetic flux is equal to:
-- 7rRLB
Therefore, by substitution, we get:
T = (Z/Tr)~Ia/2
Now let us consider this equation. The number of conductors
Z never changes in a finished motor. Because the magnetic
flux ~I, is determined by the motor dimensions and state
of magnetisation, (Z/Tr)~b is a constant. Therefore, we can
conclude that the torque T is proportional to the armature
current Ia.
We can therefore define the torque constant Kt as"
Kt- (Z/27r)~
Therefore, we obtain
T = Ktla
The torque constant is usually expressed in units of NmA-
(where the current is the r.m.s, current).
It should be noted that the above torque equation is identical
to that of a D.C. motor with constant field (equation 1.4).
Relationships between Torque and
Back E.M.F. Constant
As each conductor passes through the north and south
magnetic poles, the electromotive force changes succes-
sively. The total electromotive force on each coil merges to
the motor terminals. This voltage is the back electromotive
Chapter 1.4 19
to the terminal voltage applied. This value is directly pro,
portional to the rotational speed 9t (in radians per second)
and is given by the following equation:
E=Ke~
The proportional constant Ke in this equation is the back
e.m.f, constant.
Note: the back e.m.f, constant is usually expressed in units
of V/kr.p.m. (where the voltage is the r.m.s, voltage and
kmin-1 is in thousands of revolutions per minute).
The back e.m.f, constant Ke can be expressed in terms of
other parameters. If the rotor is revolving at a speed of f~
radians per second, the speed of the conductor v is:
Therefore, the back electromotive force e generated in a
conductor is:
e = ~ RBL
If the total number of conductors is Z, then the number of
conductors in series connection is Z/2 and the total back
e.m.f. E at the motor terminals is:
E = ~ RBLZ/2
By substitution we can express E in terms of the flux q) as:
E = (q,Z/ZTr)f~
We can therefore obtain for the back e.m.f, constant Ke:
Ke = (Z/ZTr)ff
It should be noted that Kt and Ke are only equal when a self-
consistent unit system is used. The international system of
units (SI) is one such system. For example, if Kt is equal to
0.05NmA -1, then Ke is equal to 0.05 Vsrad -1. As stated
earlier, although it is normal to express the torque constant in
terms of NmA-1 it is more usual to express the back e.m.f.
constant in terms of V/kmin-1 (volts per thousand revolu-
tions per minute).
Stationary Torque Characteristics
A motor which uses permanent magnets to supply the field
flux is represented by the simple equivalent circuit of
Figure 1.28. This is a series circuit of the armature resist-
ance, Ra, and back e.m.f., E.
If we ignore the voltage drop across the transistors, the
equation for the voltage is"
V -- gala + ge[~
The armature current Ia is:
Ia-- (V-ge~)/Ra
Therefore, from above, the torque T is:
T - Kda
-- ( K t / R a ) ( V - Ke[~)
Figure 1.29 shows the relationship between T (torque) and f~
(rotational speed) at two different voltages. The torque
decreases linearly as the speed increases. The slope of this
function is a constant KtKe/Ra and is independent of the
20 BRUSHLESSSERVOMOTORS:Principles of Operation of Brushless Servomotors

terminal voltage and the speed. Such characteristics make
the speed or position control of a D.C. motor relatively easy.
The starting torque and the no-load speed (assuming no
beating friction and windage loss) are given by:
the stator of a D.C. motor. In other words, the magnetic
field for generating torque is stationary in D.C. motors, but
rotates in brushless servomotors; conversely, the armature
revolves in D.C. motors and is stationary as a stator in
brushless servomotors.

r, = K, z/1o Servomotors require rapid acceleration and deceleration,

~o = V/Ke
CONSTRUCTION OF BRUSHLESS
SERVOMOTORS
Figure 1.30 shows the structure of a typical brushless ser-
vomotor. The windings are in the static armature, which
is part of the stator, and therefore the rotor of a brushless
servomotor can be considered to be the equivalent of
R~
and the maximum torque therefore has to be several times
larger than the rated torque. As brushless servomotors,
unlike D.C. motors, do not have a commutation limit, they
can be operated up to the boundary of high-speed rotation
without decreasing the maximum torque. Further, in a
brushless servomotor, the primary area of heat dissipation
occurs not on the rotating part but on the armature in the
stator, since the permanent magnets are mounted on the axis
of rotation. The heat dissipated in the stator diffuses into the
air through the flame. It is therefore relatively easy to cool
brushless servomotors. Moreover, brushless servomotors
provide more precise overload protection, because the
temperature of the hottest part can be detected directly.

0 |i [ Stator Structure
A typical stator consists of an armature core and armature

TE= KeD windings. The armature core is made of laminating punched

silicon steel sheet of 0.35 to 0.5 mm thickness (laminated
core). In many cases, the armature core is slotted and skewed
to reduce torque tipple, which results in speed tipple. The
0
armature windings are similar to that in an A.C. motor and
Figure 1.28 Simplified equivalent circuit are usually of the distributed three-phase type. The windings
are usually designed according to the drive specification,
which requires either a sinusoidal or trapezoidal back e.m.f.
waveform. The factors governing the design are stator slot
number, pole shape, windings coil pitch, rotor pole number
slope= Kt Ke and magnet shape.
e~

IID vl Rotor Structure

E
0
B
The structure of a typical rotor is characterised by perma-
nent magnets fixed on the axis of rotation. The shapes of
the permanent magnets vary according to design and
can be classified into two principal types: cylindrical and
salient pole.
Fixing of the permanent magnets to the rotor is critical in
speed
the design of brushless servomotors. Various techniques
Figure 1.29 Torque speed characteristic have been applied to the adhesion of magnets in order to

Figure 1.30 Structure of a brushless servomotor


prevent the destruction of motors from centrifugal force
in high-speed rotation or that caused by repetitive rapid
acceleration and deceleration. Common methods used to
prevent separation of permanent magnet from the rotor
surface are: binding the outer surface of the permanent
magnet with glass-fibre tape or yarn; using a thin stainless-
steel cylinder as a sleeve to cover the outer surface of
the permanent magnet. Adhesives are used in combination
with either of these methods and are chosen with a linear
expansion coefficient which is comparatively close to that
of the permanent magnet and that of the axis of rotation. At
5 RELUCTANCE MOTORS
The reluctance motor is arguably the simplest synchronous
motor of all, the rotor consisting of a set of iron laminations
shaped so that it tends to align itself with the field produced
by the stator.
The stator winding is identical to that of a three-phase
induction motor. However, the rotor is different in that it
contains saliency (a preferred path for the flux); this is the
feature which tends to align the rotor with the rotating
magnetic field, making it a synchronous machine. The
practical need to start the motor means that a form of
starting cage also needs to be incorporated into the rotor
design, and the motor is started as an induction motor,
the reluctance torque then pulling in the rotor to run
saturable bridge
Q-axis teeth
fhJX
barri~
....
filled
with
aluminium
structurally reinforced
for mechanical strength
Figure 1.31 Rotor punching for a four-pole reluctance motor
C h a p t e r 1.5 21
the same time they need to be stable against any thermal
change.
Recent development in rare-earth magnets has also con-
tributed greatly to improve brushless servomotor perfor-
mance. Rare-earth magnets have nearly the same residual
magnetic flux density as that of an Alnico magnet and two to
three times higher coercive force than that of a ferrite
magnet. These features greatly help in making modem
permanent magnet brushless servomotors of light weight and
high performance.
synchronously in much the same way as for a permanent
magnet rotor.
Reluctance motors may be used on both fixed-frequency
(mains) supplies and inverter supplies. These motors tend to
be one frame size larger than a similarly rated induction motor
and have low power factor (perhaps as low as 0.4) and poor
pull in performance. As a result of these limitations their
industrial use has not been widespread except for some spe-
cial applications such as textile machines where large num-
bers of reluctance motors may be connected to a single bulk
inverter and maintain synchronism. Even in this application,
as the cost of inverters has reduced, bulk inverters are infre-
quently used and the reluctance motor is now rarely seen.
Q-axis
22 A.C. COMMUTATORMOTORS
6 A.C. C O M M U T A T O R MOTORS
Single-phase A.C. commutator motors of small kW ratings
are manufactured in large quantities, particularly for
domestic applications and power tools. Development gen-
erally has been in the direction of improved commutation
and reduced cost. The series A.C. machine is basically
similar to the series D.C. motor and remains the more
important. Although not capable of commutation to the
standards required for industrial drives, the type can provide
approximate speed control simply by crude voltage regula-
tion often facilitated by a single semiconductor switch.
An alternative design of some interest is the single-phase
A.C. commutator repulsion motor in which the armature
brushes are shorted together, with the A.C. supply taken to
the field windings only. Limited additional speed control can
be achieved by angular brush shift - an inconvenient
method, particularly in machines of low rating and small
size. Starting torque is high for the repulsion motor and its
design survives nowadays in the form of the repulsion-start,
induction-run single-phase machine, where a centrifugal
device shorts out the commutator segments when the motor
is up to speed.
More important is the A.C. three-phase commutator motor,
which over past years has provided outstanding service
where variable speed is required.
7 MECHANICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL
MOUNTING OF THE MOTOR
General
Internationally agreed coding applies to a range of standard
mountings for electric motors, D.C. and A.C. which covers
all the commonly required commercial arrangements.
Incorrect mounting of a motor can cause premature failure
and loss of production. All motor manufacturers will provide
advice on the suitability of a particular build for a specific
application.
Within IEC 60034-7 (EN 60034-7) there are examples of all
practical methods of mounting motors. NEMA publishes
alternative standards within NEMA standards publication
no. MG 1 - Motors and generators.
Again, although many ingenious designs have been produced
in the search for improved variable-speed performance, the
most successful for ratings between 5 kW and 150 kW has
been the Schrage or rotor-fed machine, followed by the
stator-fed or induction regulator motor, which has been
manufactured in ratings in excess of 2000 kW.
Both designs combine commutator frequency changing and
variable-speed motor in the same frame, generating the
required slip frequency voltage in a primary winding, for
injection into a secondary winding.
The kW rating of the Schrage motor is restricted by the slip
rings, carrying as they do the total power of the motor.
The stator-fed or induction regulator motor is a some-
what similar arrangement which converts the mains fre-
quency injected voltage to slip frequency voltage for the
rotor coils. A step-down variable ratio transformer is gen-
erally connected between the line supply and the commu-
tator connection to give voltage/phase control. The parallel
transformer connection gives shunt characteristics and
the series transformer connection, series characteristics.
The stator power feed of this design allows, as has been
mentioned, ratings over 2000 kW to be designed success-
fully although commutators now appear to be an increasing
disadvantage.
IEC 60034-7 standard enclosures
Electrical machines have been categorised within this stan-
dard by the prefix IM (international mounting), a letter and
one or two subsequent digits. It is unusual for the prefix IM
to be used and it is more usual to see only a letter followed
by one or two digits e.g. B 3 - foot mounting.
The most usual types of construction for small and medium-
sized motors are shown in Table 1.1.
NEMA standard enclosures
Motor mounting and location of the terminal box location is
designated in accordance with the arrangements shown in
Table 1.2.
 Chapter 1.7 23

Table 1.1 Usual types of construction for small and medium-sized motors

foot mounted
two bearing plates

B3 B6 B7

I iI 51.
/. . I/I/. a , l

B8
11 ! V6
V5
flange mounted
M...
(with through holes | |

on the beating plate) I I ,I i a

two beating plates Ii

I
1
I
.
!
[ I
.
!
I
{ Ii "1-"
l

B5 V1 V3
attachment to front
end of casting (as B5,
,-4-, ]
V1 or V3 with beating
plate removed) only one o 1
bearing plate J
B9 V8 V9
two beating plates flange
with holes on the
machine casing

B10 VIO V14

two beating plates flange
with threaded holes on the .4-,
beating plate I I 1

[il
l ; J

B14
T t
"-t"
I !

V18 V19
two beating plates feet plus
flange with through holes
on bearing plate

t.....,--....,.2.a

B3/B5
two beating plates feet plus
flange with threaded holes
on bearing plate

B3/B14
24 MECHANICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL: M o u n t i n g o f t h e m o t o r

Table 1.2 NEMA standard enclosures

floor mountings

U.II=
F-1 F-2
wall mountings
~('~

I_Wd L.W-I
(ll
~Ut~
W-1 W-2 W-3

MU~
k 1

W-4 W-5 W-6

( '"~

k J

W-7 W-8
ceiling mountings
/ m N m

C-1 C-2

DEGREE OF PROTECTION IEC 60034-5

General It has already been stated that the designation used as defined
in IEC 60034-5 consists of the letters IP followed by two
All types of electric motor are classified in accordance with numerals signifying conformance with specific conditions.
the provisions which specify a standard coding to indicate
the degree of protection, afforded by any design, against IP 4 4
mechanical contact and against various degrees of ambient
contamination. characteristic letters
The designation used as defined in IEC 60034-5, (EN 1st characteristic numeral
60034-5) consists of the letters IP (international protection) 2nd characteristic numeral
followed by two numerals signifying conformance with
specific conditions. Additional information may be included Example of designation
by a supplementary letter following the second numeral.

Interestingly, this system is contained within NEMA MG1 The first characteristic numeral indicates the degree of
but is not widely adopted by the industry in the United protection provided by the enclosure with respect to persons
States. and also to the parts of the machine inside the enclosure.
 Chapter 1.7 25

Table 1.3 First characteristic numeral

First characteristic numeral Brief description Definition

nonprotected machine no special protection

machine protected against solid no accidental or inadvertent contact with or approach to live and
objects greater than 50 mm diameter moving parts inside the enclosure by a large surface of the
human body, such as a hand (but no protection against
deliberate access); no ingress of solid objects exceeding 50 mm
in diameter
machine protected against solid no contact by fingers or similar objects not exceeding 80 mm in
objects greater than 12 mm in diameter length with or approaching live or moving parts inside the
enclosure; no ingress of solid objects exceeding 12 mm
in diameter
machine protected against solid objects no contact with or approaching live or moving parts inside the
greater than 2.5 mm in diameter enclosure by tools or wires exceeding 2.5 mm in diameter;
no ingress of solid objects exceeding 2.5 mm in diameter
machine protected against solid objects no contact with or approaching live or moving parts inside the
greater than 1 mm in diameter enclosure by wires or strips of thickness greater than 1 mm
in diameter
dust-protected machine no contact with or approaching live or moving parts within the
machine; ingress of dust is not totally prevented but dust does
not enter in sufficient quantity to interfere with the satisfactory
operation of the machine
dust-tight machine no contact with or approach to live or moving parts inside the
enclosure; no ingress of dust

Table 1.4 Second characteristic numeral

Second characteristic numeral Brief description Definition

nonprotected machine no special protection

machine protected against
dripping water
machine protected against dripping
water when tilted up to 15 from the vertical
machine protected against spraying water
machine protected against splashing water
machine protected against water jets
machine protected against heavy seas
machine protected against the effects of
immersion in water to depths of between
0.15 m and 1 m
protected against the effects of prolonged
immersion at depth
dripping water (vertically falling drops) shall have
no harmful effects
vertically dripping water shall have no harmful
effect when the machine is tilted at any angle up to
15 from the vertical, from its normal position
water falling as a spray at an angle up to 60 from
the vertical shall have no harmful effect
water splashing against the machine from any
direction shall have no harmful effect
water projected by a nozzle against the machine
from any direction shall have no harmful effect
water from heavy seas or water projected in
powerful jets shall not enter the machine in
harmful quantities

The second characteristic numeral indicates the degree of
protection provided by the enclosure with respect to harmful
effects due to ingress o f water.
For open internally air-cooled machines suitable for use
under specific weather conditions and provided with addi-
tional protective features or processes, the letter W m a y
be used. This additional letter is placed immediately after
the IP e.g. IPW 54. Similarly, the letter R is used to indicate
duct-ventilated machines (in such cases the air discharge
must be located outside the r o o m where the motor is
installed).
The most frequently used degrees o f protection for electrical
machines are as given in Table 1.5.
Brushless servomotors are normally IP65 - this single fea-
ture is often the key reason for a user to select brushless
servomotors for specific applications such as in the food
industry where w a s h d o w n is a c o m m o n requirement.
US Practice
It is c o m m o n practice for manufacturers o f electrical
machines in the United States to adopt less formal desig-
nations, as given in Table 1.6.
26 MECHANICALAND ENVIRONMENTAL:Degree of Protection

Table 1.5 Frequently used degrees of protection for electrical machines

First numeral Second numeral

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

IPO0 IP02
IPl l IP12 IP13 IP17 IP18
IP21 IP22 IP23

IP44
IP54 IP55 IP56
IP65

Table 1.6 Protection categories in the US

open drip proof (ODP)
totally enclosed fan cooled (TEFC)
totally enclosed air over (TEAO)
totally enclosed nonventilated (TENV)
washdown duty (W)
a machine in which the ventilating openings are so constructed that successful operation
is not interfered with when drops of liquid or solid particles strike or enter the
enclosure at any angle from 0 to 15 downward from the vertical; these are
motors with ventilating openings, which permit passage of external cooling air
over and around the windings
the TEFC-type enclosure prevents free air exchange but still breathes air; a fan is
attached to the shaft, which pushes air over the flame during operation to help the
cooling process
the TEAO enclosure does not utilise a fan for cooling, but is used in situations where
air is being blown over the motor shell for cooling such as in a fan application; in such
cases the external air characteristics must be specified
a TENV-type enclosure does not have a fan
an enclosure designed for use in the food processing industry and other applications
that are routinely exposed to washdown, chemicals, humidity and other severe
environments

COOLING constant-torque load requiring constant motor current, as

discussed under A.C. motor characteristics, the motor has
General approximately constant losses over its speed range.

Very much related to the enclosure of the machine, but not
synonymous with it, is the method of cooling. All rotating
electrical machines designed for economy of materials and
dimensions require an effective form of cooling to ensure
that internal losses are dissipated within the limits of the
maximum temperature rise for the class of winding insula-
tion employed, and so that bearing and surface temperature
rise figures are kept within safe limits.
The different historical periods of development between
the D.C. and the A.C. motor resulted in the two having
different enclosures and cooling arrangements, the D.C.
motor as standard being drip proof (IP23) and force venti-
lated, the A.C. cage machine being totally enclosed (IP44),
fan cooled (TEFC), with a shaft-mounted fan at the nondrive
end running within a cowl to duct the cooling air over
a finned motor body. The result is that the standard D.C.
motor is readily force ventilated internally through its
winding space, Figure 1.32, to allow a wide speed range,
whereas the standard A.C. cage motor is not.
It should be noted that for variable speed A.C. applications,
the shaft-driven internal or external fans of the standard
IP23 or IP54 A.C. cage machine can produce a cooling
problem, as their cooling performance varies inversely as the
square of the shaft speed. At half speed they provide only
25 per cent of the full-speed cooling effect. On a typical
The motor will require significant derating of its output, or
cooling with constant-velocity cooling air provided by a
fan driven at constant speed independently of the motor
shaft speed.
D.C. motors and synchronous motors are generally of
IP23 enclosure and therefore suitable for constant-velocity
forced ventilation cooling, either from a frame-mounted
fan as already mentioned or, where the working environ-
mental conditions are so difficult as to require an IP54
enclosure, from a remote fan mounted in a clean-air position,
with ventilating ductwork between motor and cooling
fan unit.
The D.C. IP23 machine is restricted to use in a clean-air
environment or to one in which an air filter on the vent fan
inlet gives sufficient protection to the winding and com-
mutator. Where the working environment is so difficult as to
require a totally enclosed machine, an attractive form of
cooling is single-pipe motor ventilation. This employs a
remote fan, drawing air from a clean source and delivering it
through a pressurised duct system to an adapter on the
commutator-end end shield (IC17 of IEC 60034-6/EN
60034-6). Alternatively, double-pipe ventilation supplies
cooling air from a remote fan as described, and in addition a
discharge duct takes the used and warmed air away from the
motor (IC37).
 Chapter 1.7 27

: ~i :i~: : i

Figure 1.32 Typical arrangement of a forced ventilating fan on a D.C. motor

(courtesy Leroy-Somer)

Ducted ventilation possesses the advantage that injurious
gases and contaminants are unlikely to invade the motor
winding space from the working environment. Additionally,
the use of double-pipe ventilation and the introduction of
(say) a ten-minute purging period before main motor starting
may sometimes allow the IP55 enclosed D.C. motor to be
used in an atmosphere where there is an explosive gas risk,
for example in the printing industry, where the volatiles from
some inks constitute a hazard.
Although ductwork costs have to be taken into account, such
single or double-pipe ventilated D.C. motors can prove an
attractive alternative to totally enclosed D.C. motors, with
either closed-air circuit-air cooling (CACA) or closed-air
circuit-water cooling (CACW), IC0161, IC3666 and IC3166.
For the screen-protected IP23 D.C. machine, it is relatively
easy to arrange the machine with a frame-mounted fan,
blowing constant velocity air through the winding space. For
the much less popular IP54 totally enclosed fan-cooled
machine, the fan being motor-shaft mounted, the mechanical
arrangement is less satisfactory, requiring a separate cooling
fan motor to be mounted externally to the motor but inside
the cooling fan cowl.
This in turn can pose a problem when the application
requires a tachogenerator feedback signal, since the tacho-
generator is normally mounted coaxially at the rear of the
motor. With close-coupled bearingless tachogenerators of
short axial depth, however, it is possible to arrange satis-
factory mounting which is compatible with the forced
cooling arrangement.
CACW and CACA machines are available as both A.C. and
D.C. designs. Although a relatively expensive solution, this
is worth investigating where difficult ambient conditions
preclude lower cost alternative enclosures.
The differing patterns of development mentioned give
the A.C. cage motor the enormous advantage of being
available both for the difficult and for the explosion-hazard
environment in the flameproof enclosure form. Flameproof
D.C. motors are of restricted availability, particularly above
20kW, and on account of small demand are relatively
expensive.
The more common forms of motor cooling are specified by
IEC 60034-6 (EN 60034-6).
Air Filters
The fitting of an air filter to a forced ventilation fan can
provide useful protection against internal motor con-
tamination. However, heavy contamination of the filtering
element can reduce cooling airflow markedly. Although
thermal devices protect against this circumstance, closer,
more direct protection is possible by using an airflow, or
air-proving switch. This is generally arranged to monitor
the air pressure driving the air through the motor winding
space. As filter contamination gradually builds up, pressure
falls and the air switch will indicate an alarm condition
when the preset limit is detected. The drive system can be
arranged either to shut down immediately or after a preset
time interval to allow the driven machine to be cleared of its
product or to give a warning to the machine or process
operator of imminent shutdown.
By providing accurate and reliable protection, particularly
for A.C. cage motors (which on account of their nonlinear
electrical characteristics require special care in protection),
the facilities inherent in modem electronic motor controls
and associated sensors have enhanced the standard of
reliability of modem industrial drive systems.
DUTY CYCLES
The capacity of an electrical machine is very often tem-
perature dependent, and therefore the duty cycle of the
28 MECHANICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL: Duty Cycles
load
losses "////~//////////////////J///////////~
temperature
# ture of the motor to drop to that of the cooling medium (even
Figure 1.33 Load, lossesand temperature for duty type S1
application may significantly affect the rating IEC 60034-1
defines duty cycles as follows.
Continuous D u t y - $1
Continuous duty rating S 1 relates to a duty where the on-
load period is long enough for the motor to attain a steady
thermal condition. With rated load, this refers to its max-
imum permitted temperature. Starting and braking are not
taken into consideration on the assumption that the duration
of these events is too short to have any effect on the tem-
perature rise of the motor. Short time overloads are accep-
table. An off-load dwell period is of no significance if it is
followed by a load run. The load torque must not exceed
rated torque.
Example o f motor selection for continuous duty S1
The application calls for a power P1 over a speed range of
nal ~_ rta ~_ na2 (min- 1). The motor is rated according to the
maximum load torque and the maximum speed na2.
The selected motor must comply with the following
requirements:
rated power: PN > P1 x (na2/nal)
rated speed: nN > na2
rated torque: PN/nN >_P1/nal
load
l!
losses
temperature
Figure 1.34 Load, lossesand temperature for duty type $2
where PN and n N are the rated power and speed, respectively,
of the motor.
Short-time D u t y - $2
With a short-time duty cycle the on-load period is too short
for the motor to reach a steady thermal condition and the
subsequent off-load period is long enough for the tempera-
Omax
with the motor at rest). Starting and braking are not taken
into consideration. With $2 duty the load torque may be
greater than the rated torque, but only for an appropriately
short period.
When specifying short-time duty $2 it is also necessary to
state the on period e.g. $2-30 min. The standard specifica-
tions recognise the following on periods: 10min, 30min,
60 min and 90 min.
Intermittent D u t y - $3
An intermittent duty rating refers to a sequence of identical
duty cycles. Each cycle consists of an on-load and off-load
period with the motor coming to rest during the latter The
on-load period during one cycle is too short for the motor to
reach a steady thermal condition, and the off-load period is
likewise too short for the motor to cool to the temperature of
the cooling medium.
Starting and braking are not taken into account on the
assumption that the times taken up by these events are too
short in comparison with the on-load period, and therefore
do not appreciably affect the heating of the motor.
The load torque during one cycle may be greater than the
rated torque of the motor.
When stating the motor power for this form of duty, it is also
necessary to state the cyclic duration factor:
cyclic duration factor = (on time/cycle time) 100%
The standards specify that the duration of one cycle must be
kW
--1
shorter than l Omin. Cases where the duty cycle is longer
mm
than 10 min must be brought to the attention of the motor
kW/min- 1
manufacturer.
load
losses
Omax ~max
temperature
Figure1.35 Load, lossesand temperature for duty type $3
 Chapter 1.7 29

load
load

losses losses

6)max

/ TL
(gmax

temperature \ temperature

Figure 1.36 Load, lossesand temperature for duty type $4 Figure 1.38 Load, lossesand temperature for duty type $6

With short cycle times starting and braking must be If the motor had a ks3 of 1.4 then we could choose a motor
taken into account and the motor temperature rise must be with an equivalent continuous duty rating of 56.52/
checked (see $5). 1 . 4 - 41 kW at 1200 min-1.

The standards specify certain preferred cyclic duration fac-

tors: 15, 25, 40 and 60 per cent. Intermittent Duty with Starting- S4
The motor rating for intermittent duty $3 may be increased $4 is similar to $3 but taking starting into account.
over that applied to S 1 duty by a factor ks3. This factor may
be of the order of magnitude 1.4. Motor manufacturers can
advise on this. Intermittent Duty with Starting and
Example of motor selection for continuous duty 53 Electric Braking- S5
torque M1- 0.5 kNm for a period tl -- 10 s $5 is similar to $3 but taking starting and electric braking
torque M 2 - 0.4 kNm for a period t2--30 s into account.
torque M 3 - 0.6 kNm for a period t3 = 5 s
cycle time T - 120s; motor speed = 1200min -1
Continuous Operation Periodic Duty- S6
cyclic duration factor = [(10 + 30 + 5) / 120] x 100 %
$6 is similar to $3 except that the duty cycle is such that the
= 37.5% motor has not returned to the temperature of the cooling
medium by the end of the off period. The cycle should be
select cyclic duration time of 40 per cent:
repeated until the temperature at the same point on the duty
r.m.s, motor torque - v/{[(0.52 x 10) + (0.42 x 30) cycle has a gradient of less than 2C per hour.

+ (0.62 5)]/[10 + 30 + 5]}

= 0.45 kNm Continuous Operation Periodic Duty with
Electric Braking- S7
motor rating PN = (27r/60) x 0.45 x 1200
= 56.52 kW @ 40 % cyclic duration time $7 is as $6 but taking electric braking into account.

load ~//~ ~~/~

load

losses
losses

~gmax
~gmax
temperature
temperature

Figure 1.37 Load, lossesand temperature for duty type 55 Figure 1.39 Load, lossesand temperature for duty type $7
30 MECHANICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL: Duty Cycles

Duty with Nonperiodic Load and

load ~/////~ Speed Variations- $9
$9 duty cycles should be discussed with the motor
manufacturer as the effects of this duty cycle are heavily
losses dependent upon specific motor design philosophies.
I II II II I
~) rnax
temperature
Duty with Discrete Constant Loads - Sl0
As with the $9 duty cycle, $10 duty cycles should be
speed
t__ 4111 discussed with the motor manufacturer.

TERMINAL MARKINGS AND DIRECTION

Figure 1.40 Load, lossesand temperature for duty type $8 OF ROTATION

General
speed / Terminal markings and directions of rotation are set out in
the international standard IEC 60034-8 (EN 60034-8).
load NEMA also defines the terminal markings in NEMA stan-
dards publication no. MG1.
For clarity the two standards will be discussed separately.
losses

Omax IEC 60034-8

temperature ~..A ~ .... GENERAL

Figure 1.41 Load, lossesand temperature for duty type $9 IEC 60034-8 describes the terminal windings and direction
of rotation of rotating machines. A number of broad con-
ventions are followed:
windings are distinguished by a CAPITAL letter (e.g.
.p
PN U, V, W)
end points or intermediate points of a winding are dis-
tinguished by adding a numeral to the winding (e.g.
load
U 1, U2, U3)

0
I- "1" I 1 t DIRECTION OF ROTATION
Tc
Pv
IEC 60034-8 defines the direction of rotation as an
observer facing the shaft of the motor (viewing from the

losses

o
I 1 t
drive end).
In A.C. polyphase machines (without a commutator) the
direction of rotation will be clockwise when the alphabetical
sequence of the terminal letters of a phase group corresponds
0 01 $A02 Tc
with the time sequence of the supply/terminal voltages.

temperature
oN '1 = =

AO4
For D.C. machines see below.

TERMINAL MARKINGS FOR A.C. MACHINES

o 1 ff
rc
Figure 1.42 Load, lossesand temperature for duty type SI0
The terminal markings for three-phase stator windings of
synchronous and asynchronous machines are marked as
shown in Figures 1.43 to 1.46.

TERMINAL MARKINGSFOR D.C. MACHINES

Continuous Operation Periodic Duty with
Related Load Speed Changes- $8 Individual windings

$8 is as $7 but with defined and cyclic load speed The terminal markings for D.C. commutator machines are as
changes. shown in Figures 1.47 to 1.51.
 Chapter 1.7 31

U1 Vl Wl E I ~ OE2
Figure 1.51 Separately excited field winding with two
terminals

Compensated motor with compensating and

commutating windings for clockwise rotation
U2 V2 W2
Figure 1.43 Single winding with six terminals
E1

U V W
I E2
A1 ~ A 2
C1 C2
l
AlE1
I
or AE
I
C2E2
or CE
or A or C
or A1 or C2
Figure 1.44 Delta connection with three terminals
Figure 1.52 Compensated motor

U V W N
( ()
Compound motor with commutating windings
for clockwise rotation

1
w w

Figure 1.45 Star connection with four terminals

i A1 ( ~ A 2 B1 B2
F10 ~ OF2
Figure 1.46 D.C. excitation winding of a synchronous
AlE1 D2E2
ou/or AE ou/or DE
ou/or A ou/or D
ou/or A1 ou/or D2
A10 O OA2 Figure 1.53 Compound motor

Figure 1.47 Armature winding with two terminals

Shunt-wound D.C. m o t o r - connections for
clockwise rotation
B10 / r ' Y ' ~ ' - " ~ O B2

Figure 1.48 Commutating winding with two terminals

C10 ~ C2
A1
O A2

Figure 1.49 Compensating winding with two terminals E1 E2

Figure 1.54 Shunt-wound motor

D10 ~ O D2
Note: the direction of rotation will be clockwise, regardless
Figure 1.50 Series excitation winding with two terminals of voltage polarity, if connections are made as in Figure 1.54.
32 MECHANICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL: T e r m i n a l M a r k i n g s and D i r e c t i o n o f R o t a t i o n

Series D.C. m o t o r - connections for Table 1.7 General guidance for terminal markings
clockwise rotation
armature A1, A2, A3, A4 etc.
brake B1, B2, B3, B4 etc.
D2
alternating-current rotor M1, M2, M3, M4 etc.
windings (slip rings)
capacitor J1, J2, J3, J4 etc.
control signal lead C
attached to commutating
winding
dynamic braking resistor BR1, BR2, BR3, BR4 etc.
D
field (series) S1, $2, $3, $4 etc.
field (shunt) F1, F2, F3, F4 etc.
line L1, L2, L3, L4 etc.
A2 magnetising winding El, E2, E3, E4 etc.
d (for initial and maintenance note: El,E3 and other
magnetisation and odd-numbered
Figure 1.55 Series motor demagnetisation of terminals should be attached to
Note: the direction of rotation will be clockwise, regardless permanent magnet fields) the positive terminal of the
of voltage polarity, if connections are made as in Figure 1.55. magnetising supply for
magnetisation
resistance (armature R1, R2, R3, R4 etc.
Series D.C. generator- connections for and miscellaneous)
clockwise rotation resistance (shunt field V1, V2, V3, V4 etc.
adjusting)
D1 shunt braking resistor DR1, DR2, DR3, DR4 etc.
space (anticondensation) H1, H2, H3, H4 etc.
heaters
stator T1, T2, T3, T4 etc.
starting switch K
thermal protector P1, P2, P3, P4 etc.
(e.g. thermistor)
D equalising lead = (equals sign)
neutral connection terminal letter with numeral 0

O A2
J

Figure 1.56 Series generator

Note: the direction of rotation will be clockwise, regardless of F1 shunt
voltage polarity, if connections are made as in Figure 1.56. field
O'
~D
e--
i
i
i.
comp comm
NEMA field field

GENERAL

NEMA MG1 provides for general guidance for terminal A1 C A2 F2

Figure 1.57 Shunt-wound motor anticlockwise rotation
markings for motors, generators and their auxiliary devices
facing nondrive end
as given in Table 1.7.

D.C. MOTOR DIRECTION OF ROTATION

The standard direction of rotation of the shaft for D.C.

motors is anticlockwise (counter clockwise) as viewed from
the end opposite to the motor shaft. F'Ip shunt
field
The direction of rotation depends upon the relative polarities t"
|
:)

of the field and armature, therefore if the polarities are both _

|
|

reversed then the direction of rotation will be unchanged. comm

Reversal can be obtained by transposing the two armature field
leads or the two field leads. The standard direction of rota-
tion for generators will of course be the opposite of the case -I-

for motors. A2 A1 F2

Connections for the three main types of D.C. motor are Figure 1.58 Shunt-wound motor clockwise rotation facing
shown in Figures 1.57 to 1.62. nondrive end
 Chapter 1.7 33

The first of these categories includes temperature, altitude

comp comm series
and the effects of the weather (electric storms, for example).
field field field
The second includes effects of the electrical supply system
including system faults, voltage surges, voltage dips and
power switching effects.
Again, there are different standards. Countries using a 60 Hz
A1 C A2 $1 $2 supply system tend to follow the ANSI or NEMA stan-
dards and the remaining countries tend to follow the IEC
Figure 1.59 Series-wound motor anticlockwise rotation
facing nondrive end standards.

Temperature
comm comp series
field field field One of the key factors which determines the rating of
an electric motor is the temperature rise at full load of
its active materials. The permissible temperature rises for
various classes of insulation material are specified in the
+
standards. Both NEMA and IEC use 40C as the base
A2 C A" $1 $2 ambient temperature.
Figure 1.60 Series-wound motor clockwise rotation facing The life of a motor is equal to the life of its winding insu-
nondrive end lation (disregarding the wear of bearings, brushes, slip rings
F 1.[ . shunt or commutator which can be replaced at relatively low cost).
o '' field Any service conditions influencing temperature rise and thus
"" comp comm series the condition of the insulation must be given particular
"~|
|
field field field attention.
|
|
r . . . . . . . . . . . m
If a motor is installed in an ambient temperature above its
|

rated value, the permissible temperature rise will need to be

A1 C A2 $1 $2 F2
reduced to keep the absolute value of the maximum tem-
Figure 1.61 Compound-wound motor anticlockwise perature at its design level. This is a key consideration for all
rotation facing nondrive end users and high ambient temperatures must be discussed with
the supplier in order to ensure high availability and long life.

F 1_[ . shunt The temperature rise in the motor results from the losses
0 I i I caused by the conversion of energy (electrical to mechan-
( D i l l
I-- ical) which can be expressed in the following equation:
L
1.1.1 comm comp series
i
i field field field
i
i
i
Ploss - Pelec -- Pshaft
i

A2 c A1 Sl $2 F2
In practice, it is not the losses of a motor but its efficiency 07)
which is quoted; this is calculated as follows:
Figure 1.62 Compound-wound motor clockwise rotation
facing nondrive end Z] -- (Pshaft 100)/Pelec

The resulting energy losses are stored in the motor and the
A . C . MOTOR DIRECTION OF ROTATION greater part is dissipated to the surrounding atmosphere by
ventilation, the condition depending upon the heat storage
NEMA MG1 states quite clearly that terminal markings of
capacity of the motor and the temperature rise. With con-
polyphase induction machines are not related to the direction
stant load, the steady-state condition is reached when the
of rotation.
amount of heat produced by the losses in the machine is
For synchronous machines, numerals 1, 2, 3 etc. indicate equal to the heat dissipated. In continuous duty, this state of
the order in which the terminals reach the maximum equilibrium is typically reached for industrial motors after
positive values (phase sequence) with clockwise shaft about three to five hours. The resulting temperature rise of
rotation. the winding and other parts of the motor is the difference
between the temperature of the particular motor part and the
Again, it is best to consult with the manufacturer.
coolant temperature. It may be determined from the increase
in resistance of the winding:
AMBIENT CONDITIONS
0 -- [(Rw - RK)/RI,:] x (235 + tcold -- tcoolant)
Introduction where O is the temperature rise of the winding (C), t c o l d is
the temperature of the cold winding (C), tcoolant is the
There are two main categories of ambient condition:
temperature of the coolant (C), Rw is the motor winding
1 those due to geographic conditions resistance at operating temperature (~) and Rx is the motor
2 those which are man made winding resistance when cold (f~).
34 MECHANICAL
AND ENVIRONMENTAL:Ambient Conditions
As a rule of thumb the life of typical winding insulation
decreases by about 50 per cent for each 10C.
It should be noted that the flame temperature is neither a
criterion for the quality of the motor nor for the temperature
rise of the winding. An extremely cold motor may have
higher losses and higher winding temperatures than an
extremely warm motor.
Altitude
Owing to the fact that air density reduces with increasing
altitude, it is necessary to allow for the resulting reduction in
cooling capacity of the air when motors are operated at
altitudes in excess of their rating.
It is normal for motors to be rated for a maximum altitude of
1000 m.
Some manufacturers rate their machines for combinations
of ambient temperature and altitude without derating, for
example 40C/1000 m or 30C/2000 m or 20C/3000 m.
It should be remembered that, although the outdoor
temperature at higher altitudes is usually low, the motors
will probably be installed indoors at higher ambient
temperatures.
The IEC recommendation is to reduce the permissible
temperature rise by 1 per cent per 100 m above 1000 m.
The operating altitude is important and should be specified
when purchasing a motor.
Power Supply System
GENERAL
The windings of any electrical machine must be designed to
operate on the supply to which it is to be connected.
Further, it is necessary to coordinate the protection of the
motor and its cables within the system.
The constraint frequently imposed on any user of a supply
system is the maximum current or kVA which can be
drawn during starting. This constraint may lead the user to
consider altematives to direct-on-line starting (DOL) such
as, in order of increasing flexibility, star-delta starting, an
electronic soft start or a variable-frequency inverter. When
considering the supply constraints at start, it is important
to take into account the supply impedance to ensure that
there is sufficient voltage at the machine terminals to
provide sufficient torque capability to overcome the load
torque.
SUPPLY VOLTAGE VARIATION
It is laid down in IEC 60034-1 that motors must be capable
of delivering their rated output at supply voltages between
95 per cent and 105 per cent of the rated value.
NEMA MG1 describes conditions of supply variation
between 90 per cent and 110 per cent of the rated value. It
states that operation under such conditions for extended
periods of time may accelerate the deterioration of the
insulation system of the motor.
1.0
0
-~ 0.9
0'}
c'-
~ o.8
0.7 I I I I ~-
0 1 2 3 4 5
voltage unbalance, %
Figure 1.63 Derating factor due to unbalanced supply
SUPPLY VOLTAGE UNBALANCE
Voltage unbalance in per cent may be defined as:
percentage voltage unbalance
maximum voltage deviation from average
= 100x
average voltage
For example, with voltages of 400 V, 408 V and 392 V, the
average is 400 V, the maximum deviation from the average
is 8 V and the percentage unbalance is [100 x (8/400)] =
2 per cent.
Voltage unbalance can produce serious overheating in A.C.
motors due to the high negative sequence currents which
flow with a relatively small out of balance voltage compo-
nent. This negative sequence voltage produces in the air gap
of the motor a flux rotating against the rotation of the rotor,
tending to produce high currents. It is important, on all
supplies where voltage unbalance may be a problem, to
provide protective devices to trip the motor if the sustained
unbalance exceeds 3 per cent.
A derating curve is given by NEMA in MG1 which
should be applied to motors operated on an unbalanced
supply. The standard also recommends that motors
should not be operated on supplies with a voltage unbalance
in excess of 5 per cent. The derating curve is given in
Figure 1.63.
NOISE AND VIBRATION
General
Noise and vibration are both unwanted cyclic oscillations.
Vibration can be considered as structure-borne noise as
opposed to airborne noise.
Vibration
Magnetic, mechanical and airflow inaccuracies due to con-
struction lead to sinusoidal and pseudosinusoidal vibrations
over a wide range of frequencies. Other sources of vibration
can also affect motor operation, such as poor mounting,
incorrect drive coupling, end-shield misalignment etc.

Consider the vibrations emitted at the operating frequency,
corresponding to an unbalanced load the amplitude of which
swamps all other frequencies and on which the dynamic
balancing of the mass in rotation has a decisive effect.
In accordance with ISO 8821, rotating machines can be
balanced with or without a key or a half key on the shaft
extension. ISO 8821 requires the balancing method to be
marked on the shaft extension as follows:
H half-key balancing
F full-key balancing
N no-key balancing
The testing of the vibration levels is undertaken with either
the motor suspended, Figure 1.64, or mounted on flexible
mountings, Figure 1.65.
The vibration speed can be chosen as the variable to be
measured (in mms-1). This is the speed at which the
machine moves either side of its static position.
As the vibratory movements are complex and nonharmonic,
it is the r.m.s, value of the speed of vibration that is used to
express the vibration level.
Other variables, which could be measured, are the vibratory
displacement amplitude (in microns) or vibratory accelera-
tion (in m s-Z).
I Certain correction factors may be applied where the test
Figure 1.64 System for suspended machines (measuring
points as indicated)
I the induction motor, there are applications where special
I r i reduce noise:
i use a reduced magnetic loading (lower flux densities)
I~ ] ~'~
f ~
Figure 1.65 System for machines with flexible mountings
(measuring points as indicated)
Chapter 1.7 35
If the vibratory displacement is measured against frequency,
the measured value decreases with the frequency. High-
frequency vibrations are not taken into account.
If the vibratory acceleration is measured against frequency,
the measured value increases with frequency. Low-frequency
vibrations (unbalanced loads) cannot be measured.
The maximum value of r.m.s, speed of vibration is the
variable chosen by the standards and is generally classified
as in Table 1.8 for medium-sized machines.
Noise
It is inevitable that even an economically designed and effi-
cient electric motor will produce audible noise, due for ex-
ample to magnetic torsions and distortions, bearings or
airflow. The latter type of noise is most predominant in two-
pole and four-pole machines with shaft-mounted fans and
most D.C. machines where a separately-mounted fan is most
common.
Procedures for testing for motor noise are clearly laid out
in the standards; although there are detailed differences
between them, the principles are the same.
Referring to Figure 1.66, a series of background sound-
pressure readings is taken at the prescribed points. The
motor will then be run on no load and at full speed. A.C.
motors will be supplied at rated voltage and frequency.
Synchronous machines will be run at unity power factor.
reading is close to the background reading.
In most industrial applications the motor is not the pre-
dominant source of noise and the overall situation must be
taken into account when making a noise analysis.
Many steps can be taken to reduce the noise of electrical
machines including:
the use of oil-lubricated sleeve bearings which are much
quieter than most other bearing types
careful choice of bearing lubricant which can affect the
noise of the machine
careful design of the machine air circuits to minimise
ventilation noise
Although the D.C. motor is generally less troublesome than
action is needed. The following measures can be made to
increase the number of armature slots
skew the armature slots (or, less commonly, the pole
shoes)
use continuously graded main pole gaps or flare the gaps
at the edges of the main pole
increase the air gap
brace the commutating poles against the main poles
use semiclosed or closed slots for the compensating
winding
select the pitch of the compensating winding slots to give
minimum variation in air-gap permeance
36 MECHANICAL
AND ENVIRONMENTAL:Noise and Vibration

Table 1.8 Maximum r.m.s, speed o f vibration

Class Speed n (min- ]) Frame size H (mm)

8 0 < H < 132 132 < H < 225 225 < H < 315

N (normal) 600 < N < 3600 1.76 2.83 4.45

R (reduced) 600 < N < 1800 0.70 1.13 1.76
1800 < N <m 3600 1.13 1.76 2.83
S (special) 600 < N < 1800 0.44 0.70 1.13
1800 < N < 3600 0.70 1.13 1.76

a i

i i lm i

h : i :

~-- - -O- . . . . . . O- . . . . . . . ----0 ........ 0"

i
i
i

i
i
lm
i

O
b
i

....h jL
i

I
|
| i
i

I
i i
| i

b
O

:I
|
|
, lm |
i
|
I
|
...... - ~ .... 4 ........

Figure 1.66 Location of measuring points for horizontal machines

a vertical plane
b horizontal plane

use a twelve-pulse rather than a six-pulse D.C. drive or

fit a choke/reactor in series with the machine to reduce
the current ripple
mechanical
vibration
After the designer has taken whatever steps to minimise the
noise generation at source, it may still be higher than is
absorbed
energy(heat)
acceptable. To achieve the specification it may now be
necessary to apply external silencing. This may be in the
form of inlet or outlet air duct silencers or even the fitting of
a complete enclosure.
incident e n ~ transmitted energy
(airbornen o ~ (airbornenoise)
The use of acoustic partitioning requires a good know-
ledge of at least the octave band sound pressure levels
present in order that good silencing can be achieved. Air- reflected ~
borne noise striking an acoustic partition will, like other energy
forms of energy, be dissipated in various ways as shown in
Figure 1.67. Figure 1.67 Energy flow in an acoustically excited partition
 Chapter 1.7 37

MOTORS FOR SPECIAL APPLICATIONS 100

Geared Motors 80

o~ 60
Standard industrial motors are often unsuitable as direct
drives for low-speed applications. Moreover, the use of O
L"
N 40
motors with low and medium ratings is uneconomic at low
speeds. Geared motors are available for such applications. 20
These units consist of a high-speed motor and a gear reducer
assembled to form an integral unit. 0 I
0 20 40 60 80 1O0
The hardened teeth of the gear wheel resist high stressing speed, %
and ensure long life of the assembly.
Figure 1.68 Torque~speed characteristic of a torque motor
Geared motors are widely used on single machines such
as tower cranes, lifts/elevators, construction machinery, in
agriculture etc., as well as in industrial plants.
environment, where explosive gas-air mixtures may occur in
dangerous concentrations.
Brake Motors
The decision as to whether an outdoor area or an enclosed
Mechanical brakes are often used in conjunction with motors location should be considered subject to an explosion hazard
instead of, or as well as, electrical braking circuits. These as defined by the relevant regulations and specifications
units consist of a motor and a brake assembled to form an rests entirely with the user or, in case of doubt, the compe-
integral unit. tent inspecting authority.
It is important to note that the brake may be rated to brake It should be realised that the degree of hazard is variable and
the motor and its load or may be rated to provide a holding this has led to the concept of area classification and the
duty only. A holding only brake will be quickly destroyed if development of design techniques to ensure that electrical
it is used to brake a load from speed. It is common practice equipment will operate safely in the specified hazardous area
particularly on brushless servomotors that the brake be rated zones.
for holding duty only.
Harmonised standards exist in Europe under the guidance of
In order to rate a brake motor correctly the following CENELEC. In North America, emphasis is also placed on
information about the application is necessary: test and accreditation, under the guidance of Underwriters'
Laboratories (UL) and CSA; however the nomenclature is
type of load and the type of duty of the unit
different from European practice.
frequency of braking cycles per hour
total inertia (motor, brake, gearbox (if fitted) and load)
CENELEC
referred to motor speed
load torque as a function of speed, referred to the motor The seven commonly recognised methods of protection, as
shaft published by CENELEC are as follows:
whether the load torque has a braking or accelerating
effect EN 50 014 general
braking time and braking torque required EN50015 (Ex)o
EN50016 (Ex)p
Brake motors can be designed to be fail safe - if the power is EN50017 (Ex)q
lost than the brake will automatically be applied. EN50018 (Ex)d
EN50019 (Ex)e
EN50014 (Ex)i
Torque Motors
Although comprehensive guidance on the selection of
Torque motors have been developed from the basic designs explosion-protected equipment is contained within the
of three-phase squirrel-cage induction motors. They are standards, the information to be considered falls into four
not designed for a definite output but for a maximum categories.
torque, which they are capable of delivering at standstill
(i) The type of protection of the apparatus in relation to
and/or at low speed (when supplied from a fixed-frequency
supply). They have a torque speed curve of the form shown the zonal classification of the hazardous area.
in Figure 1.68. The degree of protection required is dependent upon
the presence of ignitable contaminations of inflatable
gas or vapour in relation to the length of time that the
MOTORS FOR HAZARDOUS LOCATIONS explosive atmosphere may exist, and this is defined as
in Table 1.9.
General
(ii) The temperature classification of the apparatus in
Manufacturing processes in many sectors of industry can be relation to the ignition temperature of the gases and
described as hazardous by the nature of the operating vapours involved.
38 MECHANICAL
AND ENVIRONMENTAL:Motors for Hazardous Locations

Table 1.9 Protection in hazardous locations
Zone 0 a zone in which an explosive gas-air mixture
is continuously present, or present for long periods
Zone 1 a zone in which an explosive gas-air mixture is
likely to occur in normal operation
Zone 2 a zone in which an explosive gas-air mixture is not
likely to occur in normal operation,
and if it occurs will only exist for a short time
Table 1.12 Equipment suitable for different zones
Zone Type of protection
0 (Ex)ia
(Ex)s - specifically certified
1 any of the above plus
(Ex)d; (Ex)ib; (Ex)p; (Ex)e; (Ex)s
2 any of the above plus
(Ex)N or (Ex)n; (Ex)o; (Ex)q

Table 1.10 Temperature classification These recognised types of protection are as follows:

Maximum surface (Ex)o - oil immersed

temperature (C) All or part of the apparatus is immersed in oil to prevent
T1 450 ignition.
T2 300
(Ex)p - pressurised
T3 200
T4 135 Since it is not practical to manufacture explosion-proof
T5 100 motors in large sizes, it is common practice to employ
T6 85 pressurised motors for zone 1 applications. These motors
tend to be manufactured to normal industrial standards
except that special attention is paid to the sealing of all
Table I. 11 Ignition temperatures removable covers and to shaft seals. The motors must be
,,

totally enclosed. Cooling must be by air-to-air or air-to-water

Example of Ignition Suitable equipment regarding heat exchangers.
compound temperature temperature classification
(of) Before the motor is energised it must be purged with at least
five times its own volume of clean air to remove any
Acetone 535 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
flammable gases which may be present.
Butane 365 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
Hydrogen 270 T3 T4 T5 T6
sulphide (Ex)q - p o w d e r filled
Diethyl ether 170 T4 T5 T6
Carbon 100 This form of protection is very unusual in rotating
T5 T6
disulphide machines.

Electrical apparatus must be selected to ensure that the
maximum surface temperature is below the ignition
temperature of the specified gas. EN50 014 gives temp-
erature classifications for equipment as in Table 1.10.
These classifications can be related to the ignition
temperatures given in Table 1.11.
(iii) The apparatus subgroup (if applicable) in relation to the
relevant properties of the gases and vapours involved.
Explosion-protected electrical apparatus is divided into
two main groups:
group I mining applications
group II all nonmining applications
For some types of protection, notably flameproof
enclosures, it is necessary to subdivide group II
according to the properties of the gases, vapours or
liquids, since apparatus certified and tested for, say, a
pentane-air mixture will not be safe in a more easily
ignitable hydrogen-air mixture. This has led to appa-
ratus subgrouping i.e. IIA, liB and IIC.
(iv) The suitability of the apparatus for the proposed
environment.
Explosion-protected apparatus appropriate to a parti-
cular zone is readily identified by reference, Table 1.12.
( E x ) d - explosion p r o o f
All parts of the motor where igniting arcs or sparks
may be produced are housed in a flameproof enclosure.
The sealing faces, cable entries, shaft glands etc. are made
with comparatively large gap length and limited gap clear-
ances to prevent ignition of the surrounding explosive
atmosphere. During operation explosive mixtures penet-
rate only seldom into the enclosure. Should an internal
explosion occur, it is prevented from spreading to the
external atmosphere.
(Ex)e - increased safety
This type of construction is used for motors without com-
mutators or slip rings, which do not produce sparks during
normal operation.
This type of motor may be used in zone 1, with some qua-
lifications, and in zone 2 areas. It is required that all surface
temperatures are kept within the ignition temperature of the
specified gas under all conditions of operation or fault.
To avoid the danger of ignition in the event of a fault, sui-
table protective devices such as circuit breakers with mat-
ched thermal characteristics should be used to protect the
motor against overheating.
The worst abnormal condition that can occur without per-
manently damaging the motor is a stalled condition. Most
 Chapter 1.7 39

motor designs are rotor critical, the rotor temperature Testing authorities
increasing more rapidly than the stator under stalled condi-
tions. The surface temperature of the rotor conductors is the The main US and EEC testing authorities are shown in
critical and limiting factor in this type of motor. Tables 1.15 and 1.16.

The te characteristic of (Ex)e motors is important and must Table 1.13 US and European temperature classification
be quoted on the nameplate. It is defined as the time taken
for a winding, when carrying the worst case current, to be European North American Maximum surface
heated up from the temperature under rated operating classification classification temperature (C)
(EN50 014) (NEC NFPA 70)
conditions to the limiting temperature, te must never be less
than 5 s. T1 T1 450
T2 T2 300
T2A 280
(Ex)i - intrinsically safe
T2B 260
The concept of intrinsic safety is based upon restricting the T2C 230
electrical energy within the apparatus and its associated T2D 215
wiring to prevent the occurrence in normal operation of T3 T3 200
incendive arcs, sparks or hot surfaces. It is necessary to ensure T3A 180
T3B 165
that high voltages cannot be induced into the intrinsically safe
T3C 160
circuit. Shunt diodes are usually employed as barriers
T4 T4 135
between the intrinsically safe and the hazardous areas. T4A 120
This method is used in signalling, measuring and control T5 T5 100
circuits but is not practical for motors. T6 T6 85

(Ex)s- special protection

Table 1.14 US hazardous area classification
This protection concept allows for certification of equipment
Class I gas or group C ethyl-ether, ethylene,
which does not comply with the specific requirements of the
vapour cycle propane
established forms of protection. gasoline, hexane, naphtha,
group D
benzene, butane, propane,
(Ex) N a n d (Ex)n alcohol, lacquer vapours,
and natural gas
In the designation of type-N apparatus, the upper case N is Class II hazardous group F carbon black, coal or
used in the UK, but the lower case n has been proposed for dusts coke dust
the European standard having a similar concept. group G flour, starch or grain dust
Nonsparking motors, which are suitable for use in zone 2 Class III easily fibres easily ignitable but
ignitable not able to be suspended in
areas, are supplied in the UK to BS5000:Part 16. No part of
fibres air to produce ignitable
the motor may exceed 200C during normal operation but it
mixtures, such as rayon,
may do so during starting. nylon, cotton, saw dust
and wood chips

North American Standards

The principles applied in North America are broadly similar Table 1.15 European Economic Community approved
to those in Europe. The key differences are as follows. testing authorities

Temperature classification Country Name Location

Although the basic temperature classifications of the Belgium 1NIEX Paturages

Denmark DEMKO Herlev
european standards are retained, interpolation has occurred
France Cerchar Verneuil
between some T classifications giving greater resolution.
LCIE Paris
Table 1.13 shows the result (with cross reference to the Germany BVS Dortmund-Derne
European classification). PTB Braunschweig
Italy CESI Milan
The apparatus subgroup UK BASEEFA Buxton
In the US, the system of area classification and gas group-
ing is again different to European practice. Here the hazar-
dous area is divided into flammable gases or vapours Table 1.16 Main North American testing authorities
and combustible dusts. The key classifications are given in
Country Name Location
Table 1.14.
Canada CSA Toronto
Class I, group D is approximately the equivalent of the
USA Factory Mutual Norwood
European Group IIA with temperature classification to suit Underwriters' Laboratory Northbrook
the specific explosion hazard.
40 EFFECTSOF SEMICONDUCTORPOWER CONVERTERS:General
8 EFFECTS OF SEMICONDUCTOR POWER CONVERTERS
GENERAL
The control of electric motors by means of power electronic
converters has a number of significant effects. These are
primarily due to the introduction of harmonic components
into the voltage and/or current waveforms applied to the
motor. In the case of A.C. machines which are normally
considered to be of fixed speed there are additional impli-
cations which need to be considered including mechanical
speed limits and the possible presence of critical speeds
within the operating speed range.
DRIVE CONVERTER EFFECTS UPON
D.C. MACHINES
The effects due to deviation from a smooth D.C. supply are,
in general, well understood by drive and motor manufac-
turers. The impact of ripple in the D.C. current clearly
increases the r.m.s, current, which leads to increased losses
and hence reduced torque capacity. The harmonics asso-
ciated with the current ripple lead to the now universal
practice of using laminated magnetic circuits, which are
designed to minimise eddy currents. With chopper con-
verters, which are used in servo amplifiers and traction
drives, frequencies in excess of 2 kHz can be impressed on
the motor. Special care is needed to select a motor with
sufficiently thin laminations.
The ripple content of the D.C. currents significantly affects
commutation within a D.C. machine. The provision of a
smoothing choke can be extremely important in this respect,
and recommendation should be made by the motor manu-
facturer depending upon the supply converter used.
Apart from the thermal and commutation impacts, the ripple
current also results in pulsating torque, which can cause
resonance in the drive train. Laminating the armature not
only improves the thermal characteristic of the motor but
also its dynamic behaviour by decreasing the motor time
constant.
DRIVE CONVERTER EFFECTS UPON
A.C. MACHINES
Introduction
It is often stated that standard off-the-shelf A.C. motors
can be used without problem on modem PWM inverters.
Although such claims may be largely justified switch-
ing converters do have an impact and certain limitations
do exist.
NEMA MG1-1987, Part 17A gives guidance on operation
of constant-speed squirrel-cage induction motors for use on
a sinusoidal bus with harmonic content and general purpose
motors used with variable-voltage or variable-frequency
controls or both.
Machine Rating-Thermal Effects
Operation of A.C. machines on a nonsinusoidal supply
inevitably results in additional losses in the machine. These
losses fall into three main categories:
(i) Stator copper loss - this is proportional to the square
of the r.m.s, current. Additional losses due to skin
effect must also be considered.
(ii) Rotor copper loss - the rotor resistance is different for
each harmonic current present in the rotor. This is
due to skin effect and is particularly pronounced in
deep bar rotors. Since the rotor resistance is a function
of frequency, the rotor copper loss must be calculated
independently for each harmonic. The increase in
rotor copper loss caused by harmonic currents is very
often a significant component of the total losses, par-
ticularly with PWM inverters which have significant
higher harmonics for which slip and rotor resistance
are high.
(iii) Iron loss - this is increased by the harmonic compo-
nents in the supply voltage. The increase in iron loss
owing to the main fluxes is usually negligible, but
there is a significant increase in losses due to end
winding leakage and slew leakage fluxes at the har-
monic frequencies.
The total increase in losses does not directly relate to a
derating factor for standard machines since the harmonic
losses are not evenly distributed through the machine. The
nonfundamental/harmonic losses mostly occur in the rotor
and have the effect of raising the rotor temperature. Whether
or not the machine was designed to be stator critical (stator
temperature defining the thermal limit) or rotor critical
temperature clearly has a significant impact on the need for,
or magnitude of, any derating.
Many fixed-speed motors have shaft-mounted cooling fans.
Operation below the rated speed of the motor therefore
results in reduced cooling. Operation above the rated speed
results in increased cooling. This needs to be taken into
account by the motor manufacturer when specifying a motor
for variable-speed duty.
Machine Insulation
CURRENT-SOURCE INVERTERS
Current-source inverters feeding induction motors have
motor terminal voltages characterised as a sine wave with
the superposition of voltage spikes caused by the rise or fall
of the machine current at each commutation. The rate of rise
and fall of these voltage spikes is relatively slow and only
the peak magnitude of the voltage is of practical importance
in considering the impact on machine insulation. The
supply voltage never exceeds twice the crest voltage of
the sinusoidal waveform, and is consequently below
almost all recognised insulation test levels for standard
machines.

Current-source inverters feeding synchronous machines
are even gentler on insulation systems, as the sinusoidal
terminal voltage is reduced during commutation producing
the same effect as notching on the supply associated with
supply converters.
VOLTAGE-SOURCEINVERTERS
PWM inverter drives are used with standard induction
motors in very large numbers throughout the world, and their
advantages are well known in terms of improved energy
efficiency and flexibility of control. Occasionally drive users
are advised to take special precautions over the motor
terminal voltage because of an effect sometimes referred to
as spikes or dv/dt which could possibly damage the motor
insulation. This section explains the effect and prescribes the
steps which should be taken to ensure that the motor insu-
lation system gives a long reliable life when used with a
PWM drive.
Summary
The main effects of PWM drive waveforms on motor insu-
lation are as follows:
Motor winding insulation experiences higher voltages
when used with a PWM inverter drive than when driven
directly from the A.C. mains supply. This effect is
caused by the fast-rising PWM voltage pulses which
result in a transiently uneven voltage distribution across
the winding, as well as short duration voltage overshoots
because of reflection effects in the motor cable. It is a
system effect that is caused by the behaviour of the drive,
cable and motor together.
For supply voltages up to 500V A.C., the voltage
imposed by a correctly designed inverter is well
within the capability of a standard motor of reputable
manufacture.
For supply voltages over 500V A.C., an improved
winding insulation system is generally required to ensure
that the intended working life of the motor is achieved.
When the motor used is of uncertain quality or cap-
ability, additional circuit components can be added to
protect it.
Guidance for avoiding problems and
explanation of the phenomena involved
1 The voltage at the drive terminals is limited within tight
bounds by the drive circuit. The motor cable increases
the peak motor voltage. In applications with short motor
cables (i.e. 10 m or less) no special considerations of any
kind are required.
2 Output inductors (chokes) or output filters are sometimes
used with drives for reasons such as long-cable driving
capability or radio frequency suppression. In such cases
no further precautions are required because these devices
also reduce the peak motor voltage and increase its rise
time.
3 In all other cases the following guidance should be
followed:
(a) Preferred approach - select a suitable motor
Chapter 1.8 41
For supply voltages less than 500 V A. C.
Check that the motor has the capability to operate with a
PWM drive. Most reputable motor manufacturers have
assessed their products for drive applications and can give
an assurance of compatibility.
Alternatively, Figure 1.69 shows the peak voltage/rise-time
withstand profile, which is required for reliable operation.
The motor supplier should be asked to confirm this cap-
ability. Figure 1.69 also shows the capability of a typical
good quality motor, which comfortably exceeds the
requirement. However, note that conformity of the motor
with IEC 60034-17 alone is not sufficient.
For supply voltages in the range 500 V-690 V A. C.
Select an inverter-rated motor. An enhanced insula-
tion system is required. The permitted voltage/rise-time
curve should equal or exceed that shown in Figure
1.70. Figure 1.70 also shows the capability of a typical
inverter-rated motor for use up to 690 V, which comfort-
ably exceeds the requirement. Note, however, that con-
formity of the motor with NEMA MG31 alone is not
sufficient.
(b) Alternative a p p r o a c h - use additional preventative
methods
It may not be possible to follow the above recommen-
dations, for example because the drive is to be retro-
fitted with an existing motor or data is not available
for the motor concerned.
In this case, additional preventative measures are
recommended. The most cost-effective measures are
usually drive output line chokes, for lower power sys-
tems, and motor cable termination networks, for higher
powers. More details are given later.
(c) Factors affecting motor selection:
star windings are preferable to delta windings
windings with single conductors are preferable to
those containing parallel paths
motor loading and duty should be carefully assessed
to ensure that the motor does not over heat -
the insulation system is degraded by excessive
temperature.
Special cases
1 High braking duty
Where the drive spends a large part of its operating time
in braking mode, the effect is similar to increasing the
supply voltage by up to 20 per cent and the relevant
precautions must be taken for the higher voltage.
2 Active front end (regenerative/sinusoidal/unity power
factor input drives)
For drives with active front ends (regenerative and/or
unity power factor) the effective supply voltage is
increased by up to 15 per cent and the relevant precau-
tions must be taken for the higher voltage.
Special control schemes
Some drive designs using flux vector control with fast
acting flux orientation can generate continuous double
pulses where the output voltage changes by twice the
D.C. link voltage in a single step. This can result in four
42 EFFECTS OF SEMICONDUCTOR POWER CONVERTERS: Drive C o n v e r t e r Effects u p o n A.C. M a c h i n e s

2.6
2.4
2.2
2.0
> 1.8
~11"~ l/ typical standard motor for up to 500 V

'

,01---
0.8
0.6
0.4
02
"0 i t-
O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2
voltage pulse rise time, ps (IEC definition)

Figure 1.69 Peak voltage~rise-time profile requirements for supplies up to 500 V A.C.

2.6 I
2.4
2.2
2.0 minimum requirement up to 690 V

> 1.8

; 1.2-I II
,otll
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 l l l l

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2
voltage pulse rise time, Its (IEC definition)

Figure 1.70 Peak voltage~rise-time profile requirements for supplies up to 690 V A.C.

times the D.C. link voltage appearing at the motor
terminals, causing increased stress and possibly pre-
mature motor failure. The stress is so extreme that a
combination of inverter-rated motor and additional
measures such as line chokes may be required to prevent
motor damage. The drive supplier should be consulted
for detailed guidance in this case. Please note that Control
Techniques drives do not use this form of control.
Additional preventive measures
The two most cost-effective techniques are:
Output inductors (chokes) and output filters
These are all connected at the drive in series with its
output. They all work by forming a low-pass filter in
conjunction with the motor cable impedance, thus
reducing the rate of rise of the drive output voltage.
Some overshoot still occurs, which is controlled by
damping or clamping. This results in some power loss,
which must be allowed for in sizing the inductors or
selecting the filter. The loss is roughly proportional to the
motor cable length and the drive switching frequency.
The use of an inductor with 2 per cent impedance at the
maximum output frequency is sufficient to lengthen the
rise time to a point where it is no longer a consideration -
5 ps is easily attainable. The natural high-frequency
loss in a standard iron-cored inductor gives sufficient
damping, and this is more cost effective than using a
low-loss inductor with separate damping components.
Commercially available dv/dt and sinusoidal filters
should not normally be considered purely for motor
protection, since their cost is excessive. They may,
however, be specified for other reasons such as EMC or
motor acoustic noise.
Choice of inductor
The inductance should be chosen so that the impedance
does not exceed 3 per cent pu at maximum frequency,
otherwise the voltage drop will cause significant loss of
torque at high speed.
Conventional iron-cored inductors are suitable. Allow-
ance should be made for additional core loss because
of the presence of high frequencies. Special low-loss
 Chapter 1.8 43

.. .... ,. .... , .... ,. .... ! .... ... ~ ~ '. ,.

high-frequency inductors should not be used because
severe resonance problems can occur.
Individual phase inductors or three-phase inductors are
equally effective.
Other benefits
Reduced loading effect on the drive from the cable
........... .,771"11i1i..71 ii,
capacitance
Reduced radiofrequency emission from the motor cable
(EMC) ll
i ........ .......... .... i ........ i ...... . .......
Disadvantages .......... : ......... l ......... : ......... i ........ ~ ........ ": ......... "t ........ ": ......... i...

Voltage drop oov looiJs i

. . . . i . . . . : . . . . . . . . . ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; . . . . . . . . .
Power loss
Cost is modest at low current ratings but increases Figure 1.71 Motor terminal voltage with inductor
rapidly with increasing rating
For power levels above 100 kW the inductance at 3 per
cent pu may be insufficient for the purpose ' ' ' ' i ' ' " ' I . . . . i ' ' ' ' I . . . . | ' ' ' ' i ' ' ' ' I ' ' ' ' i . . . . ! . . . .

+
A.

2 Motor cable terminating unit

. . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

With increasing drive rating the above methods become . . . . T

t
+
" " "

. . . . . . .

increasingly expensive since they have to pass the entire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,-I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

: : : : + : : :
drive output current. For powers exceeding about 70 kW :I: . . . .

it may be more cost effective to use a terminating unit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MI max ~ . ~. . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

This is a resistor-capacitor network, which is connected .

. .
.
. .
. 800 v
.
. . .l-
.~.
.
.
. . . .

at the motor terminals in parallel with the power con- -~++-~ + + + ~ - ~ - ~ - + ~ ~ '-O-~H-~-H ++-,-+i + + + ~
nections and presents an impedance approximately 1

matching that of the cable during the pulse edges. This ..... i .... : .... i .... i .... ~- ....
,L
i .... : .... i .... : ......
. . . . ! " i i :
suppresses the reflection. It does not change the rise time
but it virtually eliminates the overshoot. It has the lUl
advantage of not carrying the drive output current, but
power loss tends to be greater than that for an inductor i .... i .... i .... i ......
and mounting at the motor terminals may be incon- / ~ , , , i . . . . i . . . . i . . . . i . . . . "t . . . . i . . . . ' . . . . " . . . . " . . . .

venient and require a special sealed construction to

match that of the motor. Figure 1.72 Motor terminal voltage with terminating unit
(note different time scale)
Figures 1.71 and 1.72 show typical waveforms produced
by these methods.
Precautions Table 1.17 Relative costs of alternative techniques
The unit must have an enclosure rating (e.g. IP Motor Drive Motor Output dv/dt Sinusoidal Terminator
number or NEMA category) suitable for the motor rating inductor filter filter
application.
(400 V supply)
Other benefits 2.2kW 350% 100% 74% 443% 334% 170%
None 75kW 220% 100% 14% 99% 146% 9%
250kW 120% 100% 5% 65% not 3%
Disadvantages practical
May affect the control of some kinds of flux vector or
other closed-loop controllers
Power loss
Technical explanation of the phenomena
Additional cost and inconvenience of motor terminal
mounting Review of PWM principles
The output voltage of the drive is a series of pulses
3 Output filters
with magnitude either + VD.C. or --VD.C., where VD.C. is
More advanced output devices are available, in the form
the drive D.C. link voltage, with pulse-width modula-
of dv/dt filters and sinusoidal filters. They have similar
tion (PWM). Because the motor load has inductance, the
benefits for motor terminal voltage, but since they are
current flowing and the magnetic flux in the motor comprise
relatively expensive they are unlikely to be cost effective
mainly the underlying low frequency of the pulse-width
unless they are also needed for other reasons.
modulation with a small ripple component at the switching
frequency. Figure 1.73 illustrates in simplified form a part of
Table 1.17 shows some relative costs of typical examples of
the output voltage waveform, with the associated motor
these alternative techniques. From this it may be concluded
magnetic flux.
that output inductors are the most economic measure for
systems rated up to about 70 kW, beyond which terminators VD.C. is typically about 1.35 times the r.m.s, supply
become more attractive. voltage, for example 540 V with a 400 V supply.
44 EFFECTSOFSEMICONDUCTOR
POWERCONVERTERS:
Drive Converter Effects upon A.C. Machines
+VD.c.
voltage
i1~~[~ I ~ time
UUI U
--VD.c.
L,__
Figure 1.73 PWM inverter output voltage and current
Table 1.18 Typical frequencies and times
Frequency (Hz) Period/time
Power output 50 20 ms
Switching 3000 333 #s
Pulse rise time - 100 ns
Typical frequencies and times are given in Table 1.18.
Note the timescales. The rise time is five orders of magni-
tude shorter than the output period.
Drive designers generally aim to use the highest practical
switching frequency, since this has a variety of benefits
including reducing the audible noise from the motor. This
means they are constantly seeking to use faster power
switching devices, which give lower switching losses
through shorter rise times.
All of the pulse edges in Figure 1.73 have amplitude equal to
the D.C. link voltage. Standard PWM controllers only gen-
erate these unipolar pulses. Some special control schemes
without PWM modulators can generate bipolar pulses,
which change from + VD.C. to -- VD.C. in one transition.
Motor voltage
The PWM pulse rise times are so short that the time for the
pulse to travel down the motor cable can easily exceed
the rise time. For example, the velocity of the pulse is
typically 1.7 x 10s m s - 1, SOin 100 ns it has travelled only
17m. When this happens, analysis needs to rely on
transmission-line theory. Full details are beyond the scope
of this guide, but the essential mechanism is as follows:
At each pulse edge the drive has to charge the
inductance and capacitance of the cable, so a pulse of
energy is delivered into the cable. The pulse travels at
a velocity which is characteristic of the cable and is
typically 1.7 x 108 ms-1.
When the edge reaches the motor terminals, a
reflection occurs because the motor surge impedance
is higher than that of the cable (this is true for most
low-voltage motors although the impedance does fall
as the motor rating increases). The voltage tends
towards double the step magnitude; i.e. there is an
overshoot approaching 100 per cent.
The reflection returns to the drive where it is again
reflected, but in the negative sense because of the low
impedance of the drive.
When this second reflection returns to the motor
terminals, it cancels the overvoltage. Therefore the
overshoot lasts for about twice the time of flight in the
cable. If the rise time of the pulse is longer than twice
the time of flight in the cable, then the overshoot is
cancelled before it reaches 100 per cent.
For a single pulse of magnitude VD.C., regardless of the
motor cable length, the overshoot can never exceed 100
per cent of VD.C.. However, the duration of the overshoot
does increase with increasing cable length.
For an ideal lossless cable, the rise time of the pulse is
maintained along the cable so that the rate of change of
voltage at the motor terminals (dv/dt) approaches twice
that at the drive. However, in practice, the cable exhibits
high-frequency loss, which causes an increase in the rise
time. This also means that the rise time at the motor
terminals is fixed mainly by the high-frequency behaviour
of the cable, so that contrary to statements sometimes
made it is not the case that the introduction of new faster-
switching power devices increases the stress on the motor.
Note that bipolar pulses, which have pulse edge magni-
tudes of 2 VD.C., are also increased by 100 per cent so that
the total voltage during the reflection is then 4 VD.C.. These
can be generated by some kinds of drive with special
vector control schemes.
Figure 1.74 shows some typical measured voltage wave-
forms, which illustrate the effect in practice. Even with
4 m of cable some overshoot is apparent. With 42 m the
overshoot is virtually 100 per cent.
Winding voltage
The voltage overshoot has little effect on the main motor
insulation systems between phases and from phase to
earth, which are designed to withstand large overvoltage
pulses. Typical dielectric strengths for motors of reputable
origin are about 10 kV. However, some small low-cost
motors may have had economies made in the interphase
insulation, which can lead to premature insulation failure.
Because of its short rise time the pulse also affects the
insulation between turns, and especially between coil
ends. The voltage pulse travels around the motor winding
as it does along the motor cable. Figure 1.75 illustrates
how this results in a large part of the pulse appearing
across the ends of a coil during the time between it
entering one end and leaving the other.
In practice even in the largest low-voltage motors the
voltage between electrically adjacent turns is insignificant,
but between the ends of the coil it may briefly reach a
substantial part of the pulse magnitude. In this simplified
illustration the entire pulse voltage appears across the coil.
In practice magnetic coupling between turns reduces this.
Figure 1.76 gives a summary of the results ofmeasurements
made with a range of rise times on a variety of motors.
With a sinusoidal supply voltage the coil ends only
experience a fraction of the phase voltage, as determined
by the number of series coils. With a drive, therefore,
there is a considerable increase in the voltage stress
between the coil ends. The effect of this depends on the
motor construction.
Large motors using form winding are constructed so that
the coil ends are not in contact. The interturn insulation
 C h a p t e r 1.8 45

order of 1400 V, as could be generated by a drive with a

500 V A.C. supply. In the USA where supplies of this
level are common, many motor manufacturers routinely
use an inverter grade wire with further enhanced insula-
.................. !....M2;max...........................................................
6154 V tion withstanding at least 1600 V.
There is a possibility of a low-energy electrical discharge
'i'i'i'i'i'i'i'i'i
................................................... , , , , . i . . | . i . . . . , l , ,
effect called partial discharge, which can occur in voids
between wires. This is because of the electric field

"....
"....
'.'."
....
"......
'".'..'
.'.." concentration in such voids where the permittivity of the
gas or air is lower than that of the insulation material. At
every pulse edge a small discharge of energy occurs,
II
i :
which may gradually degrade the insulation system. If the
effect is excessive, the motor fails prematurely with an
20d V 400fis

interturn fault. Resin impregnation suppresses this effect,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

as well as contributing to the physical stability of the

winding under high mechanical stress or vibration.
. . . . , . . . . ! . . . . ! . . . . ! . . . . ~ . . . . i . . . . I . . . . I . . . . I . . . .

For supply voltages higher than 500 V further measures

i ........ i......... i......... i ......... i .................
t i ......... i ......... i ......... i ........ are required to prevent partial discharge. Inverter rated
i i i M~ maxl 1 i i i i motors use inverter-grade winding wire, which is resistant
........ ; ......... !A .... ~ 4 v i ........ + ......... i ......... i ......... i ......... i .........
to partial discharge, as well as multiple impregnation
regimes to minimise voids, and enhanced interphase
insulation.
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : ...... ; .... ; .... ; .... i .... '

Motor standards
.................. i ..............................................................................

. . . . . . . . . . . J
The international standard IEC60034-17 gives a pro-
m file for the withstand capability of a minimum standard
motor in the form of a graph of peak terminal voltage
against voltage rise time. This replaces the older IEC34-
200 V 400ns

17 standard, which gave a rather arbitrary 500 V/~ts limit
without a clear rationale. The new standard is based on
. .
research into the behaviour of motors constructed with the

i
:
:
i
" '
i minimum acceptable level of insulation within the IEC
i
........ i ...... i ..... ~ ...... " ................... .: ......... " ......... ~ ......... " ......... motors standard family. There is a great deal of published
:: :: i i. i: :i
:
technical information on this subject. The best description
......... . ......... ~ M2m.~ ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i ......... ~ ......... i ......... ~ .........
! 13t~:d) kV i i ! : !
is contained in a paper written by workers at Dresden
University who carried out a major research exercise on
the subject: 'Failure mechanism of the interturn insulation
of low-voltage electric machines fed by pulse-controlled

m
". I inverters', M. Kaufhold et al., IEEE Electrical insulation
magazine, vol. 12, no. 5, 1996.

Tests show that standard PWM drives with cable lengths

of 20 m or more produce voltages outside the IEC60034-
!........i.........iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii'i'i'i'[iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii'i'i'il 17 profile. However, most motor manufacturers produce
! 06 i2.00.; i i i [ as standard motors the capability of which substantially
exceeds the requirements of IEC60034-17. Figures 1.69
Figure 1.74 Motor terminal voltage waveforms for vary- and 1.70 give the actual requirements for supply voltages
ing cable lengths (note scale changes) up to and exceeding 500 V, respectively. Standard motors
a cable length = 0.5 m are widely available to meet the requirements of Figure
b cable length = 4.0 m 1.69. Usually, a special inverter-rated motor is needed to
c cable length = 42.0 m meet the requirements of Figure 1.70. Such motors carry a
price premium of between 3 and 10 per cent depending on
then does not experience the high-voltage pulse. Smaller the rating.
random-wound motors may however have coil end wires Figure 1.77 gives some measured voltages for a typical
in contact, so then special attention is required to the system, showing that they exceed the IEC60034-17 limits
quality of the interturn insulation. but they do not exceed the capability profile of a typical
standard motor from a well known manufacturer.
Motor interturn insulation design
Modern motors of good quality manufacture use advanced This graph illustrates clearly the effect of lengthening the
winding wire, which has a multilayer insulation system motor cable. The rise time increases steadily with
and is easily capable of withstanding peak voltages of the increasing length, and the overshoot falls off after a peak
46 EFFECTSOF SEMICONDUCTORPOWERCONVERTERS:Drive Converter Effects upon A.C. Machines

motor termin~l=J ,
V VJ V I V F
,,.h
t=0 t=0!2T t=0'03T
i

)/ :
turns

;/
Voltage between coil ends: i/--~ coils
(7=propagation time around coil) ~ ' L

i i

',7",,

Figure 1.75 Propagation of pulse through motor windings

1.0 from one end of the rotor shaft to the other. If the bearing
breakover voltage is exceeded this will result in a current
flowing through both bearings. In some large machines it is
0.8
common practice to fit an insulated bearing, usually on the
nondrive end, to stop such currents flowing.
~ 0.6 This mains frequency issue is well understood and with
d. 0.4 modem motors such problems are rare.

0.2 Supply asymmetry

0 s eady s a e
o ~
rise time, gs
Figure 1.76 First coil voltage distribution against incident
voltage rise time
at about 50 m. The voltage stress on the motor therefore
falls above quite moderate cable lengths.
NEMA publishes similar limits in the USA in MG1 part
31, shown in Figure 1.78. The measurements suggest that
these limits are insufficient for drives operating much
above 500 V. However, inverter-rated motors are readily
available with much improved capability, as shown.
Bearing Currents
In theory the sum of the three stator currents in an A.C.
motor is zero and there is no further path of current flow
outside the motor. In practice, however, there are conditions
which will result in currents flowing in or rather through the
bearings of A.C. motors even when fed with a sinusoidal 50
or 60 Hz supply.
ROOT CAUSESOF BEARINGCURRENTS
Magnetic asymmetry
.~
An ideal power supply is balanced and symmetrical.
~ Further, the neutral is at zero potential with respect to the
system earth. With all modem PWM inverter supplies,
although it can be assumed that the supply feeding the motor
is indeed balanced and symmetrical in peak and r.m.s.
amplitudes, it is impossible to achieve perfect balance
between the phases instantaneously, when pulses of different
widths are produced. The resulting neutral voltage is not
zero with respect to earth, and its presence equates to that of
a common-mode voltage source. This is sometimes referred
to as a zero sequence voltage. It is proportional in magnitude
to the D.C. link voltage (itself proportional to the supply
voltage), and a frequency equal to the switching frequency
of the inverter.
This common-mode voltage will lead to the flow of currents
through stray impedances between the inverter phase con-
nections and earth. This includes motor cables.
Considerable research into this complex subject has shown
that the common-mode currents can be usefully considered
in three distinct frequency ranges:
a) Supply frequency (typically up to 100 Hz)
This type of current flow is usually related to motor
cable asymmetry and not power supply characteristics.

It is well understood that an asymmetric flux distribution b) The switching frequency of the inverter (typically 1 to
within an electrical machine can result in an induced voltage 20 kHz)
 Chapter 1.8 47

2.6
2,4 -

2,2 -

2.0 -

1,8 -

> 1.6-
I _/'- typical standard motor for up to 500 V
1.4
m
o 1.2 m.,0 m .....
," .[20 ,rrff"..:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . "0" lEG 34-17 (new version, up to 690 V)
1.0 100 m
i ...............
7
0.8-'"
0.2_0.4_0.
- 6 5Om
.......... i.................................................................................................... up(lversion,to
d 690 V)

,T" I I I I I I I I I I "~

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2
voltage pulse rise time, its (IEC definition)

Figure 1.77 IEC limits, manufacturers" limits and measurements

Test results at voltages with SWA cable lengths as indicated: 415 V A. C. supply; II 480 V A. C. supply

2.6 typical inverter-rated motor for 500V-690 V

2.4 s
s
s
s
2.2 $
$
$
2.0 AA A
A
1.8
NEMA (MG1 part 31) inverter-fed motor for up to 690 V
> 1.6
typical standard motor for up to 500 V
~ 1.4 mJ m
I
o> 1.2
m30 m50.m . . . . . . . ....................
.,""'1'
i "c"a'4: i T iX ; ; "u'p" "gg"o" i "
1.0 100 m .............(EC 34-17
II -

0.8 ................................ (Oldup

toVersion'6V)
90
5m
0.6
0.4
0.2
~- I I I I I I I I I I I ~"

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2
voltage pulse rise time, #s (IEC definition)

Figure 1.78 Limits and measurements for motors rated over 500 V, and NEMA MG1
Test results at voltages with SWA cable lengths as indicated: II 480 V A. C. supply; A 690 V A. C. supply

As described above, this is the fundamental frequency of Rather than consider the phenomena in further detail, it is
the common-mode voltage. Owing to the relatively low more helpful to consider what can be done to protect against
frequency, most of the currents which flow at this fre- the risk of bearing currents.
quency return to the inverter without passing through
motor bearings due to their high impedance. GOOD PRACTICESTO REDUCE
THE RISK OF BEARING CURRENTS
c) Common-mode resonant frequencies stimulated by
inverter switching (typically 50 kHz to 5 MHz) The first thing to remember is that although a great deal
This is considered to be the most critical and is has been discussed and published on the subject of
responsible for nearly all nonmechanically induced bearing currents associated with inverter-fed motors, it is in
bearing problems in inverter-fed motors. practice a rare event where the particular combination of
Frequency range can be limited by limiting the switch- motor construction, installation and inverter has caused a
ing time of dv/dt of the PWM pulses. problem.
48 EFFECTSOF SEMICONDUCTORPOWERCONVERTERS:Drive Converter Effects upon A.C. Machines

That said, any motor may be subject to beating currents Table 1.19 Maximum motor speeds and balancing for L-S
MV (2/4/6 pole) motors
if its shaft is connected to machinery at a different
ground potential than that of the motor frame. In order Motor type Maximum speed Balancing
to eliminate motor flame voltage it is necessary that a (min-1)
grounding strategy is adopted to keep all system components
80 15 000 S
grounded at the same potential. This needs to be achieved
90 12 000 S
for all frequencies, not just the 50/60Hz which many
100 10 000 S
grounding practices were based upon. This means avoid- 112 10 000 S
ing high-inductance paths - keeping cable runs as short as 132 7500 S
possible. 160 6000 R
160 LU 5600 R
Define a low-impedance path for the common-mode cur- 180 5600 R
rents to flow back to the inverter. As the common-mode 200 4500 R
current flows through the three motor conductors (cable), the 225 ST/MT/MR 4100 R
best return path would be through a shield around that cable. 225M/MK 4100 R
This could be in the form of a screen. Obviously, it is 250 4100 R
280 SP 3600 R
necessary to connect the screen at both the motor and the
315 3000 R
inverter, although this is in conflict with conventional
practice on screening. Such measures are well defined by
most reputable manufacturers in their EMC guidance. A
conduit would act in the same way, but it is important to The following issues should be considered by the motor
ensure that the conduit is capable of providing a reliably manufacturer when sanctioning use in the overspeed range:
continuous high-frequency path. Conduit is designed to
mechanical stress at the rotor bore and assurance that the
provide mechanical protection and may not be electrically
shaft to core fit is secure
continuous. Further, care needs to be taken to ensure that the
beating life, which is a function of the speed for anti-
cable lies within conduit for the entire distance between
friction beatings; each beating has overspeed and tem-
motor and inverter.
perature limits which need to be reviewed
In all cases take great care with the terminations of the beating lubrication, which is also a function of speed and
screen. All terminations must be of low resistance and low operating temperature; grease may not adhere properly
inductance or the benefit may be greatly attenuated. and oil may churn or froth
vibration, which is a function of the square of the angular
An obvious action is to use symmetrical motor cables. Take velocity; care must be given to ensure no operation near
care to ensure that the ground cores in the cable are sym- system critical or natural frequencies
metrically arranged to avoid asymmetrical induced currents airborne noise can be dramatically increased at higher
in the motor cable. speeds
winding stress caused by vibration of the windings at
SUMMARY high frequency may require additional winding bracing
and treatment
Bearing currents in inverter-fed motors is a complex proper attachment of balancing weights affixed to the
subject area. It has received wide publicity and is a prac- rotor or fan assembly; at high speeds shear stress levels
tical problem but only in very limited situations. The may be exceeded
number of motor bearing failures due to beating currents is methods of shaft coupling should be reviewed; this
very small compared with mostly mechanical reasons for would apply to any other auxiliary devices attached to
failure. the motor shaft, notably including speed and position
transducers
The higher the supply voltage the greater the potential risk.
the speed rating and energy absorption capability of
Good system grounding and cabling practice are critical in brakes
defining the risk of beating current flow. maintaining acceptable internal stress levels and fits of
cooling fans
When a beating failure has occurred and beating currents are
decreased motor efficiency caused by increased losses
suspected, detailed analysis at an experienced tribology
motor torque capability at increased speed
laboratory is necessary to identify the cause.
As an example, Table 1.19 gives the maximum speeds which
can be tolerated by Leroy-Somer MV motors in horizontal
Overspeed and vertical operation, directly coupled to the load and with
Most standard industrial motors may be capable of operating no radial or axial loading.
at speeds above their 50/60 Hz rating; however it is impor-
tant to have the manufacturer's assurance on the suitability
of any motor for operation above base speed. MOTORS FOR HAZARDOUS LOCATIONS
The bearings and type of balancing of the standard rotor The effects of converter supplies described above are, of
dictate a maximum mechanical speed, which cannot be course, applicable to motors designed for use in hazardous
exceeded without endangering the motor or its expected life. locations. Traditionally, it has been the responsibility of the

user to ensure that the motor does not overheat as a result of
misuse. This has been achieved through the use of devices
such as current-sensing protection relays. With converter
supplies, the situation is somewhat more complex and it is
necessary for the motor manufacturer to assume the
responsibility for rating the motor correctly for variable-
frequency inverter supplies. Thermistor sensors are mounted
at critical points in the motor, and used to monitor motor
temperature during operation. Trip relays are used to remove
the supply from the motor if any one thermistor reaches the
tripping temperature.
In North America, NEMA MG 1-1987 17A.04.10 states that
motors operated from variable-frequency or variable-voltage
Chapter 1.8 49
power supply or both, should not be used in division 1
hazardous (classified) locations unless:
The motor is identified on the nameplate as acceptable
for variable-speed operation when used in division 1
hazardous (classified) locations.
The actual operating speed range is not outside the
permissible operating speed range marked on the motor
nameplate.
The actual power supply is consistent with the type of
power supply identified in information, which is sup-
plied by the motor manufacturer.
 CHAPTER
Power Electronics
@ 1 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
2 DRIVE CONVERTER CIRCUITS
1 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
GENERAL
All A.C. and D.C. drives use power semiconductor devices
to convert and control electrical power. The devices operate
in the switching mode (either on or off) which causes the
losses to be reduced and conversion efficiency to be
improved compared to operation in linear mode.
The practically important power semiconductor devices in
relation to motor drives can be considered as follows:
diode rectifier
thyristor (includes phase control, fast and asymmetric
types)
gate turn-off thyristor (GTO)
bipolar junction transistor
MOSFET
insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT)
integrated-gate commutated thyristor (IGCT)
other devices
This section reviews the important characteristics of these
devices. The electronic gate drive circuits for operating
2
51
72
many of them are, in general, complex with integration of
many protection features such as overcurrent. For this
reason, details of these circuits have been, for the most part,
limited to a description of the requirements to gate the
devices.
DIODE RECTIFIER
The PN junction diode, Figure 2.1, is the simplest of all
semiconductor devices. It may be considered as an electro-
nic switch the conduction state of which depends on the
polarity of an externally applied voltage. When a sufficiently
high positive voltage is applied to the anode with respect to
the cathode, current will flow in a forward direction, the
device acting as a closed switch. The forward voltage drop
across the device is typically one to two volts. Conversely,
when a negative voltage is applied, current flow is prevented
and the diode is able to block voltages up to a certain level,
VRRM, which is the maximum reverse voltage that can be
applied repetitively if breakdown of the PN junction is to be
52 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES: D i o d e Rectifier
b forward current
anode
cathode
b
C I
forward volt drop
,i{--- forward
conduction
leakage
VRRM
current
/ size. Fast-recovery diodes find their main use in free-wheel
I
J I
t =IV
~_ reve rse
breakdown
reverse
blocking
Figure 2.1 Diode
a symbol
b PN junction
c VII curve
prevented. The voltage-current characteristic of the diode is
shown in Figure 2.1 c, illustrating the two modes of operation.
Unfortunately, the diode does not behave as a perfect switch
when it is forced from a conducting state to a blocking state. A
reverse current, with peak value Irrm, flOWS during the reverse
recovery time t,~, see Figure 2.2. During this time, stored
charges, responsible for forward current flow, are removed
from the PN junction. The total charge recovered, Qrr, along
with lrrm and t,~, forms part of the diode specification; these
are important parameters in many applications as they deter-
mine the energy loss in the diode each time it switches off.
The reverse recovery time may be reduced by careful design
of the doping profile of the PN junction and by measures
such as doping with particular elements or irradiating the
junction with an electron beam. These features are designed
to reduce the number of charge carriers in the diode and also
to reduce their lifetime so that I , ~ and trr are both reduced.
A side effect of this is that the forward voltage drop
increases so there is a trade off between it and speed.
Generally, a diode used for low-frequency rectification of
A.C. to D.C. power has a long &r, and high Qrr as it has been
optimised for minimum forward voltage drop. Diodes of this
type are available in ratings as high as 8000 V and 6000 A.
Diodes with fast characteristics, that is short trr and low Q~r,
are referred to as fast-recovery diodes. As these have been
forward volt
i, ~] applied to turn
rrm- " d i o d e off
diode on diode off
Figure 2.2 Diode switch o f f and reverse recovery
optimised for speed they tend to have higher forward voltage
drops which restricts their current rating for a given chip
functions (where they must quickly commutate current
v
from and to primary switching devices) and high-frequency
v
rectification.
THYRISTOR
The thyristor, or silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR), is a four-
layer PNPN device shown in Figure 2.3. In the off state the
device can be considered as three diodes in series, so that
current conduction is prevented in either direction. Figure
2.3c shows that the reverse characteristic (cathode positive
with respect to anode) is similar to that of the diode; how-
ever, the forward characteristic exhibits no current flow
other than leakage current until the central control junction,
J2, breaks over. Anode current/14 is then able to flow, limited
solely by the external load and supply capacity.
The forward breakover voltage is equal in magnitude to the
reverse voltage, because in the blocking state J1 supports
almost all the voltage, junction J3 breaking over at about
10 V. Once breakover in the forward direction occurs, the
thyristor behaves rather like a diode which has two junctions
(J1 and J3) because the gate P region is neutralised by for-
ward current flow. The overall forward voltage drop is
therefore between 1.5 and 2 V.
With the thyristor forward biased it is normally tumed on by
injecting a positive pulse of current, Io, into the gate, causing
J2 to break down (assuming that the device has been forward
blocking). Once the anode current has exceeded the latching
current, the gate pulse can be removed. Typical waveforms
of gate current, anode current and anode cathode voltage
during turn on are shown in Figure 2.4. Typical turn-on time
for a thyristor is several microseconds, depending on anode
current.
For the thyristor to remain in the conducting state, the anode
current must reach the latching current level, It, and not fall
below the holding current, 1/4, IL being greater than 1/4.
The thyristor is normally turned off by forcing the anode
current to zero by applying a reverse voltage for a minimum
period of time before it can regain its forward-blocking state,
as shown in Figure 2.4. During the first stage of tum off a
reverse current flows because of stored charges for a time,
trr, while junctions J1 and J3 recover. This process is similar
 Chapter 2.1 53

b anode A
&

J1

l 1
Vforward Vreverse
gate G J2
J3

forward on-state volt drop q{-- values of V when thyristor gated

holding current
reverse leakage latching current
current ~L - -

_ )~) ) J
J
r
forward leakage forward breakdown
current
reverse
blocking

reverse breakdown

Figure 2.3
a thyristor symbol
b thyristor structure
c thyristor characteristic

- o._!~ I ,

stffte J
r e c ~ t q / reapplied

1
C ~
_r "v''"
' Iv. '
turn ~ VRRM
off I on j. on 4 turn off J. off

Figure 2.4 Thyristor switching waveforms

a gate current
b anode current
c anode voltage
54 POWER SEMICONDUCTORDEVICES:Thyristor

to a diode turning off. The control junction J2 needs an
additional time to recover, called the recombination time, tqr,
and only then can a forward voltage be reapplied at a maxi-
mum specified rate. The total turn-off time, tq is an important
parameter for thyristors in fast switching applications.
Thyristor Gating Requirements
The gate cathode characteristic of a thyristor resembles
that of a poor PN junction and will vary between pro-
duction batches for a given type. To be certain of turning
on the thyristor, the gate current and voltage must attain
a gate power boundary characteristicsof
individual
VG~ .,. ~ \ thyristors
/ ~ ~,\~,"~ \ of same type
minimum levels, dependent on junction temperature,
which lie between the upper and lower resistance limits
shown in Figure 2.5a. It is also necessary to ensure that
the peak gate power (Vc Ic) is not exceeded. Figure 2.5b
shows a typical gating characteristic, illustrating the
boundary conditions.
A simplified example of a pulse-transformer-based firing
circuit is shown in Figure 2.6. Resistor R1 limits the gate
current while R2 provides a low impedance across the gate
to attenuate any gate voltage when the thyristor is in the off
state. To achieve short turn-on times, the gate current is
required to rise at a minimum of 1 A/Its. A succession of gate
pulses, Figure 2.6b, supplied by the gate drive circuit, causes
firing to occur when external conditions are suitable for
conduction.
Power Losses and Current Ratings
In normal operation the thyristor dissipates power in the

-2!5
/ J form of heat resulting mainly from:
forward conduction loss, which is a function of on-state
voltage and forward current
+25C switching loss, which is energy dissipated during turn on
and turn off
I / / / J I minimumlimit to ensure blocking leakage loss, which is a function of the off-
~ firingat given Tj state forward or reverse leakage current and blocking
voltage

IG The heat generated must be removed by a cooling system in

bl,Ov
order that the maximum junction temperature of the device
is not exceeded (usually 125C for a thyristor). The fol-
lowing equation describes the relationship between junction
temperature Tj and power dissipation PD for any semi-
VG conductor:
Tj = PD Rthjc + Tcase
where Rth/c is the thermal resistance, junction-to-case, and
Tcase is the case temperature of the device.
Clearly, the more efficient the cooling system, the grea-
ter the power that can be dissipated for a given case
temperature, which leads to greater current capability.

\
R1

24V t
0.1
10-3 10-2 10-1 100 101 102
A
IG ,,~

Gate characteristic and peak gate power dissipation

b 1A
Parameter A B C D
Pulse duration tp ms 10 1 0.5 0.1
Maximum allowable peak gate power W 40 80 100 150 o

Figure 2.5 Thyristor gate curves Figure 2.6 Thyristor gate circuit
a range of characteristics and limits a simplified firing circuit
b example characteristic b 20 kHz gate current pulse train
 C h a p t e r 2.1 55

There is a finite limit, however, expressed by the r.m.s.
current rating. This ensures that excessive heating of
internal joints and bonding wires is prevented. Thyristors
are therefore given an average current rating based on
practical case temperatures for a defined waveform, and an
r.m.s, rating, both of which must not be exceeded. Manu-
facturers also provide graphs of average power versus
average current, Figure 2.7a, and allowable case tem-
perature versus average current for various waveforms,
Figure 2.7b. From the graph in Figure 2.7a it can be seen
that average current decreases with duty cycle, the lines
terminating at the point when the maximum r.m.s, current
is reached. The graph in Figure 2.7b shows that the
maximum junction temperature is 130C and all the curves
converge to this point as the current reduces. This type of
information is essential for the selection of thyristor size
and for the design of the heat sink.
Surge Current Ratings
It is possible for the junction temperature to be exceeded for
short periods of time under fault or overload conditions. The
thyristor becomes predominantly resistive and it can be
shown that the temperature rise is proportional to:
IZ x tp
where tp is the pulse duration and I is the r.m.s, value of the
pulse current calculated over time tp.
The equation assumes that all the heat generated is not
dissipated but stored in the mass of silicon. An IZt rating can
be specified and is a useful parameter in determining the
size of fuse for overload protection. The thyristor is also
given a nonrepetitive surge rating, half sine wave in shape,
for 10 ms and is typically equal to about ten times the r.m.s.
current rating.

400

D.C.
180sin
120 J-I.
i 300 60 J-l.
30 Yl.

200

E
<
~ lOO
\

0 25 50 75 100 125 150

temperature, C (Tc)

b 400
RthKAK/W
l 0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.6
~ 0.8
1.0
d.c.
in
6oO;
120o.1"1.

0 100 200 300 A 0 25 50 75 100 125 150

v

current, A(ITAvMIIFAvM) temperature, C (TA)

Figure 2.7 Thyristor on state current and loss

a average on-state p o w e r dissipation for rectangular current w a v e f o r m
b m a x i m u m allowable case temperature Tcasefor rectangular current w a v e f o r m
56 POWERSEMICONDUCTORDEVICES:Thyristor
The conventional thyristor, which is turned off by applica-
tion of reverse voltage, has a structure which can be altered
to have characteristics to suit specific applications. Three
types of thyristor can be distinguished:
(i) Thyristor for A.C. line commutation (phase control
thyristor) - thyristors used in A.C. applications are
turned off, or commutated, naturally by the existence of
the A.C. supply, which changes polarity in alternate half
cycles. The thyristor is designed to have a low on-state
voltage, thereby maximising current rating at the
expense of relatively long turn-off times (typically 100
to 200 Its). This does not matter because the thyristor
switching frequency is low.
Equal forward and reverse voltage up to 12 000 V are
possible for large phase-control thyristors. For applica-
tions onA.C, supplies up to 500 V A.C., it is usual to specify
1400 V types, to allow for an overload factor of two.
It is common practice to use RC networks and varistors
across the thyristor to give additional protection.
(ii) Fast thyristors - these devices are generally used in
D.C. circuits such as choppers or inverters, although
their use is now less frequent as more modern devices
such as IGBTs have replaced them in many applica-
tions. Within a D.C. circuit there is no natural reversal
of the supply for thyristor commutation, therefore it
must be derived by external circuits. The process oftum
off under these conditions is called forced commutation
in contrast to line commutation. Typical commutating
circuits are expensive because they consist of inductors,
capacitors and auxiliary thyristors; however their size
can be reduced if tq, the total turn-off time, is kept to a
minimum. The design of the thyristor is therefore
optimised for low tq (typical values, 15 to 30 Its) but
unfortunately this has the undesirable effect of increas-
ing the on-state voltage drop, which consequently
lowers the current rating.
(iii) Asymmetric thyristor - in many fast-switching appli-
cations the reverse blocking capability of the thyristor
is not required because an antiparallel diode must be
connected across the device for reactive current con-
duction. Manufacturers have exploited this relaxation
by offering the asymmetric thyristor or ASCR, which
has even lower tq times than the fast thyristor but at the
expense of very limited reverse blocking. Turn-off
times as low as 8 Its are possible while still retaining an
acceptable 15 V reverse blocking.
Another technique for enhancing the performance of
both ASCRs and fast thyristors is to use an interdigitated
gate structure which considerably increases the device
di/dt rating at turn on. This technique effectively
enlarges the turn-on area of silicon available at the start
of gate firing, thus preventing excessive current density
near the gate which could lead to device failure.
High-Frequency Current Operation
Although the ASCR and fast thyristor have been designed for
high-speed operation, the maximum frequency that can be
switched in practice is limited to approximately 1-2 kHz with
forced commutation. High switching frequencies coupled with
high rate of rise of on-state current cause the turn-on losses
to reach very significant levels: in some situations the device
does not fully turn on owing to the limited current spread-
ing over the chip, demanding stringent current derating.
Resonant load circuits, such as those used in induction
heating, overcome the problems of excessive switching loss
by switching on at the point where the load passes through
either zero current or zero voltage. This technique allows
fast thyristors to be used at up to 50 kHz. Furthermore, the
load resonant circuit forms part of the forced commutation
circuit and in some circuit topologies additional auxiliary
thyristors are not required for commutation as this function
is performed by the main thyristors.
GATE TURN-OFF THYRISTOR
The gate turn-off thyristor (GTO), like the conventional
thyristor, can be latched into conduction by a short positive
gate signal but, unlike the thyristor, the GTO can revert to
the forward blocking state by the application of a negative
gate signal. The GTO can therefore replace the fast thyristor
and its associated commutation circuits in D.C. switching
applications. The circuit symbol and the more complex GTO
structure are shown in Figure 2.8. It is still a four-layer
device with similar voltage blocking capabilities to those of
the thyristor. The gate region is highly interdigitated with the
cathode, producing a patterned structure which is designed
to give high current turn-off capability by preventing con-
duction continuing in the cathode islands between the gate
contacts. This also ensures even current density across the
die during turn off. Although the physical operation of
the GTO is very complex, it is helpful to refer to the two-
transistor model of the GTO, Figure 2.8c, to understand how
turn off is achieved. The devices may be considered as two
interconnected transistors which have regenerative action:
the collector current of one feeds the base current for the
other transistor. It can be shown that (neglecting leakage
currents) the anode current IA is given by:
I G OLNpN
IA=
1 -- (OgupN -Jr- Olpup)
where Ia is the gate current, OlNp N and OLpNP are the common
base gains, where a =/3/(1 +/3) and/3 is transistor current
gain, Ic/I8. The current gains are dependent on the collector
current and increase as the current increases from zero.
Conduction of the thyristor is initiated by a gate current
pulse which raises the loop gain (O~NPN--[-OZpNp)to unity so
that from the above equation IA is infinite.
In practice, the anode current is limited by the load. Tum-off
action is produced by extracting sufficient current from the
gate to cause the loop gain to fall to a point where regen-
erative action ceases. The turn-off gain ~ o f f is the ratio of
anode current being controlled to negative gate current
required to produce turn off, and is an important parameter.
Typical values of ~off lie between three and five. To reduce
the loop gain, and hence increase the tum-off gain, the gate
is often connected to the cathode with a low resistance
within the package, emitter shorts, which has the side effect
of making the gate less sensitive for tum on. Unfortunately,
there is a limit to the maximum anode current that can be
 Chapter 2.1 57

anode A current flowing at the time. The anode current then falls

I rapidly, in several microseconds, as the device recovers its

blocking capability. After the bulk of anode current has been
commutated, a small tail current flows due to trapped
// charges in the base N region, adding to the turn-off loss.
gate After turn off it is normal to reverse bias the gate cathode
with a 15 V supply to prevent retriggering of the device.
cathode C During switch on and switch off considerable power is dis-
interdigitated gate sipated as heat, limiting practical GTO switching fre-
quencies to around 2 kHz.
st ru ~//u/,l~re
/lilll,sct 0 A
Snubber Design
(base region) The GTO must have a snubber circuit connected across it to
limit the rate of rise of voltage at turn off. An example is
~lV p shown in Figure 2.10. Unlike the thyristor, forward voltage
is reapplied immediately after turn off (compare Figure 2.4c)
which means that the dv/dt limit usually has to be lower,
, T J necessitating a larger and more lossy snubber. It is also
important that the voltage spike, marked Vs in Figure 2.9a,
which is due to snubber circuit inductance, is minimised
A A through good layout. In fact, manufacturers stipulate that the
I maximum controllable anode current cannot be guaranteed
unless a certain size of snubber capacitor is used and Vs does
not exceed a specific level.

C c Voltage and Current Ratings

I~T 2 ~PNP =
IT
PNP(~ ~ | O~NPN=~E
1
c2 ~
,4
~IE1
` T1NPN
~c
Figure 2.8 The gate turn-off thyristor
a circuit symbol
b structure
c two-transistor model of the GTO
switched off; generally this is about four times the average
current.
Switching Characteristics and Gate Drive
Example anode-current, anode-voltage and gate-current
waveforms are shown in Figure 2.9. Turn on is initiated by a
relatively high amplitude gate pulse and takes about 3 to
5 las. Despite the highly interdigitated gate structure there is
a practical limit to the rate of rise of anode current: therefore
external inductors are sometimes used to limit di/dt and turn-
on losses. After turn on, the gate current may fall to a lower
level, the 'back-porch' current, sufficient to minimise the
on-state voltage drop. If a continuous gate drive were not
provided, the volt drop would tend to increase at low anode
currents owing to the fall in loop gain.
To turn the GTO off, the forward gate current is removed
and a negative voltage source ( - 1 2 to - 1 5 V) is applied.
The resultant negative gate current increases rapidly until
large enough to stop GTO regenerative action. This may take
20 rts (the storage time ts) depending on the amount of anode
Like the thyristor, the GTO can be designed to have equal
forward and reverse blocking capabilities, or limited
reverse blocking with the advantage of improved turn-off
times. The latter type is sometimes referred to as an
anode-short GTO and is designed to be used with an
antiparallel diode. The forward on-state voltage drop is of
the order of 2 V, giving current ratings similar to those for
the fast thyristor.
BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR
The most common type of power bipolar transistor, some-
times referred to as the bipolar junction transistor or BJT, is a
three-layer NPN device as shown in Figure 2.11. PNP types
are available but they tend to have inferior voltage and
current ratings.
To conduct a collector current Ic, the transistor must be
supplied with a continuous base current 18, depending upon
the voltage level between collector and emitter. This rela-
tionship is shown in Figure 2.12.
The ratio Ic/18 is called the current gain hFE and may be less
than l0 for a 1000 V transistor. The gain can be greatly
improved if the base current is obtained from another tran-
sistor using the Darlington connection shown in Figure 2.13.
The three transistor stages are integrated on the same silicon
chip giving an overall gain of several hundred.
A typical curve of gain versus Ic for a 50 A 1000 V three-
stage (Mitsubishi QM50DY-2H) Darlington transistor is
shown in Figure 2.14. This illustrates the dependence of gain
on collector current. In practice, for motor drive applications
the power transistor is always operated as a switch. When
closed sufficient base current is provided to ensure that the
transistor operates in the saturated or quasisaturated mode.
58 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES: B i p o l a r Transistor

anode current

anode voltage

IGM IG
diGIdt~__~
...J=.~-,,,.~~ gatecurrent

diGQ/dt

IGQ

Figure 2.9 GTO gate waveforms

a collectorC

~
base B
iode
Rs

,[ emitter E
C

T
Figure 2.10 Typical GTO snubber lvc
Ic

Typically, VcE is 2 to 3 V for a Darlington operating in the

saturated region. When open a small negative bias is applied
to the base to ensure minimum leakage current.

Voltage Ratings
The transistor will break down if a sufficiently high collector
emitter voltage is applied, causing permanent damage. To
prevent this, various voltage ratings are defined: the two
most important are:
1 VcEv- the maximum voltage between collector and
emitter with the base reverse biased (usually - 2 V).
This is the highest rating and is used to classify the
device. VcEv ratings up to 1400 V are available.
2 VcEo- the maximum collector-emitter voltage with the
base open circuited. This rating tends to be the lowest
rating, being 50 to 90 per cent of VcEv. It is more
important than VcEv and indicates how rugged the
switching capability of the transistor is.
Figure 2.11 Bipolar transistor
a structure
b circuit symbol with current directions
Current Ratings
The continuous or D.C. current rating is the principal rating
used for classification. Although quoted at 25C case tem-
perature it is usually possible to achieve this rating at 100C
without exceeding the maximum junction temperature, tjmax,
assuming adequate cooling. The transistor can also be pulsed
with twice the D.C. rating or ICM for 1 ms at 50 per cent duty
cycle provided that peak collector power and tj'ma x a r e not
 Chapter 2.1 59

continuous collector power dissipation

e-
/
~ s SI
x_
0
I!
0
s S
0

I -at fixed values of Ie

saturation
voltage %%% I

I
~ Ii
i

f
leakage current
J' I

~ IB=O

reverse c o l l e c t o r emitter v o l t a g e VCE lforward breakdown

breakdown voltage

,,-lOV __~ ~,l~ linear region

saturated region

Figure 2.12 Characteristic VCE curve

I I I I
VcE=5.0 v
T 103 s
s
7 I s

~ 5
s
s
f
- ~,"~:,
.i
~ 4 Vce- 2.8 V
E
~ 3 f
\\\\
E 2

O
\X',
d 102
a 7 \v,
i I
I I I I
i
. ---5=25oc , I

.... ~. =125C ,
Figure 2.13 Three-stage Darlington arrangement I I I I
100 2 3 45 7101 2 3 45 7102
collector current I o A
exceeded. Ratings up to 1000 A with VcEv equal to 1200 V
Figure 2.14 D.C. current gain curve
are available in a single module.

Switching C h a r a c t e r i s t i c a n d Base D r i v e
reverse current IB2 the level of which is controlled by the
Typical operating waveforms are shown in Figure 2.15 for
base drive circuit flows out of the base for a period called the
the power transistor switching an inductive load clamped by
storage time during which stored charges in the base region
a free-wheel diode - a situation encountered in chopper
are removed. Once this is complete, the collector voltage
circuits and voltage source PWM inverters. When the tran-
rises and then the collector current falls in 0.5 to 2.0 Hs.
sistor turns on (ton typically 0.5 to 2 ps) the collector current
Typical storage and fall times are 10 ps and 2 ItS, respec-
will see a peak current higher than the load current due to the
tively. The storage time may be reduced by operating the
reverse recovery current of the free-wheel diode. The peak
transistor in a quasisaturated state. This is achieved by
current must be less than IcM. Forward base current I81 is
controlling the base current so that only just enough current
then maintained to keep the transistor at or near saturation
is supplied to hold VcE at a value just above the saturated
level.
value. This may be achieved using a relatively simple diode
Turn off is initiated by quickly removing the forward base clamp circuit known as a Baker clamp. As the collector
current and applying a reverse voltage to the base emitter. A current falls any stray inductance present in the power circuit
60 POWER SEMICONDUCTORDEVICES: Bipolar Transistor

will cause the collector emitter voltage to overshoot as
shown in Figure 2.15, making snubber circuits necessary.
The total power loss in the transistor will comprise switch-
on, switch-off and conduction losses. Switching losses are
almost double at 125C junction temperatures compared
with those at 25C because of the temperature dependence of
the switching times, but the conduction loss remains nearly
constant. Typical calculations for power and switching
losses are shown in Table 2.1. Generally, switching fre-
quency is limited to between 2 and 5 kHz, switching loss and
storage time being the determining factors.
Safe Operating Areas
During turn on and turn off, the instantaneous collector
current and voltage are both very high for short periods of
time, hence the switching losses. This is permissible pro-
vided that the locus of Ic and Vce lies within specified safe
operating curves defined by the manufacturer. When the
transistor is forward biased, for example during turn on, the
forward-biased safe operating area (FBSOA) curve is
applicable. For very short pulses it has a current boundary
limited by lcu and a voltage boundary limited by the VcEo
rating as shown in Figure. 2.16a. For longer pulses the

1
I
L

.L
-C a
I
I +~,~ T Vcc

o peak current due to

reverse recovery of
J freewheel diode
ve~h;ot

t~
ts - - ~

%~ ~--
IB

~,. %2
to.

turn-on A turn-off
loss
loss " ~ ' ~ A conductionloss

Figure 2.15 Bipolar transistor half-bridge switching an inductive load

a test circuit
b collector current and voltage waveforms
c base drive
d power loss over one switching cycle
 Chapter 2.1 61

Table 2.1 Calculation of switching and conduction losses a

forbidden area
for a bipolar transistor /c
Energy dissipated during turn on Wo, ~ 0.5 x t~c x Vcc x Ic ICM
Energy dissipated during turn off Woj:f ~ 0.5 x tic x Vcc x Ic (2 xlc)
Energy dissipated during Wcond ~ tcond X VCEsat X I c
conduction period forward bias
Switching loss (watts) esw :fsw X (Won "JI-moff) E)3
(-
safe operating area
Conduction loss (watts) PcoM = f~w x Wco,,a repetitive
Total average power loss Ptotal = P~w + PcoM
= Ic Tj ~< ~2SC
0
(-
c- tp defined
O
maximum power is limited by the junction temperature 0 (typically <1 ~s)
thermal limit and a complex phenomenon called secondary
breakdown. Secondary breakdown can be broadly described
as excessive localised heating in small areas of the
chip where current density is high due to uneven current VCEO(sus)VCE
distribution.
At turn off the transistor is reverse biased, therefore the
tcM
reverse-biased safe operating area (RBSOA) curve is I
applicable, Figure 2.16b. This curve is defined by the
maximum voltage and current ratings and secondary E:
reverse bias
breakdown effects due to uneven current distribution during safe operating area
(/) repetitive
turn off.
o tc
:3

:3
t-
.m
.i.-,
Short-Circuit P e r f o r m a n c e t-
O
Ie2 defined
o
v

If the transistor load is accidentally short circuited the col- Tj ~< 125 C
lector current will invariably exceed its allowable peak
rating pulling the transistor out of saturation. The device can
survive nonrepetitive surges of this nature provided that:
VCEV VCE
a surge is detected and interrupted within a specified VcEr(,u~)
(guide only)
time
VCE and I c do not exceed specified levels 160 _Tj'- 1:)5~_ I I
140 I I I
Most manufacturers guarantee that the device will survive a < IB2/-~ A-
limited number of short circuits under defined test condi- G 120 /

tions. A typical transistor may be rated for a peak current of E 100 b

II
four to six times rated current, with VCE of half-rated voltage
o 80 ,'~" A
and a short-circuit duration of 30 ~ts. This type of data is
o 60 /82=-3 A \%,
essential for the design of practical protection schemes
required by chopper and inverter applications. o 40 "~

MOSFET
The metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor
(MOSFET) was developed into a useful fast-switching
power device in the 1980s. There are both N-channel and
P-channel devices available, but for power applications
N-channel devices predominate due to their lower losses.
The device symbol for an N-channel MOSFET is shown in
Figure 2.17.
When a voltage, VGs, is applied between the gate and source
an electric field is set up within the device. The field modu-
lates the resistance between the drain and source, permitting
a current to flow in the drain in response to the applied
drain circuit voltage. The transfer characteristic is shown in
Figure 2.18.
With zero VGS applied, a positive voltage will be blocked at
the drain until the breakdown limit is reached. Any reverse
voltage applied will be clamped by the presence of a para-
sitic diode in the device structure. If VGs is raised no drain
20
0 200 400 600 800 1000
collector-emitter voltage VCE,V
Figure 2.16 Safe operating areas for bipolar transistors
a f o r w a r d - b i a s safe o p e r a t i n g area (FBSOA)
b reverse-bias safe o p e r a t i n g area (RBSOA)
c typical RBSOA
current will flow until the gate threshold voltage, typically 2
to 3 V, is reached. With Vcs above the threshold voltage the
characteristic has two distinct regions: a constant resistance
region with channel resistance Ros:o,), and a constant current
region where the transconductance of the device is almost
constant. RDs:o,) is a key parameter and will determine the
forward voltage drop (Ros:o,) I9) and ultimately the cur-
rent rating of the device. Operation within the constant
current region is normally avoided (to minimise conduction
losses) by setting Vcs high enough for the load current, a
value of 10 V is usually sufficient. With VGs above threshold
62 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES: MOSFET

drain In conventional high-voltage MOSFETs (>200 V) the lower

doping density and thicker die required for higher voltages
,1 has resulted in devices which have an on resistance pro-
'r - - -
I
/ I
I
2.5
portional to V{)ss, where VDSS is the voltage rating. This is
. - 1, - internal why there are relatively few devices rated above 600 V, and
t I
_ -,~ parasitic

gate diode
devices rated above 1000 V are very rare. A process tech-
0 I nology, marketed as CoolMOS by Infineon, uses a new

~
three-dimensional doping profile which allows the doping
density to be increased and chip thickness reduced compared
sourcet - - - J ID to conventional MOSFETs so that the on resistance only
increases linearly with voltage rating. This allows a smaller
p o s i t i v e voltage at g a t e
produces current in drain
l Vos
die to be used for a given rating although the more com-
plicated chip fabrication increases costs.
For low-voltage MOSFETs (< 50 V) the channel resistance
is significant, as opposed to high-voltage devices where the
body or drift region dominates. To reduce the channel
+ T resistance another process technology has been used: trench-
gate structure. A trench-gate device, as its name suggests,
has the gate etched down into the chip, rather than being a
Figure 2.17 MOSFET
planar feature near the surface of the chip. This reduces the
a circuit symbol channel length and so resistance, and also allows the cell size
b electrical circuit to be reduced thus giving more cells per unit area and hence
reduced resistance per unit area.

VGS=20 V (maximum)
constant current
VGS=10 V
q)
VGS= 6 V
VGS=3 V
drain-source voltage, VDS
parasitic diode volt drop
Figure 2.18 Power MOSFET characteristic
voltage the channel is able to conduct current in the reverse
direction as well as the normal forward direction. This fea-
ture can be exploited by using MOSFETs as very-low-
voltage drop diodes.
Voltage and Current Ratings
Current ratings are usually given for case temperatures of
25C; at the more practical temperature of 100C the current
rating is reduced because of an increase in RDs(on). The
variation in RDS(onjwith temperature depends on the voltage
rating of the device; lower voltage devices have a lower
temperature dependence, typically a factor of 1.2 from 25C
to 125C; for high-voltage devices the ratio may be two or
more. The positive temperature coefficient of on resistance
has the benefit that devices may be connected in parallel and
will share current equally. A chip is in fact made up of
thousands of MOSFET cells connected in parallel.
Switching Performance
The MOSFET has two very important differences to the
BJT; first it is a voltage-controlled device rather than being a
current-controlled device, and second it is a majority carrier
device rather than a minority carrier device. Being voltage
controlled with an oxide insulated gate, very little power is
needed to control the device, current only being required to
charge and discharge the gate capacitance. A majority car-
tier device only conducts due to intrinsic charge carriers.
This enables the device to switch off very quickly because
no time is required for the removal and recombination of
minority charge carriers, as there is in a bipolar transistor or
thyristor. Fast switching allows the MOSFET to be used in
vlsr0oss applications with switching frequencies of 100 kHz or more.
The down side of only having intrinsic charge carriers
available for conduction is that the conductivity of the sili-
con is lower and so a larger chip is required for a given
current rating.
Safe Operating Area
The MOSFET does not exhibit the phenomenon of sec-
ondary breakdown, which means that the safe operating area
curve for all operating modes is square. It extends to VDSS
along the voltage axis and up to four times ID in the current
axis. The only limitation to switching at these levels is that
the maximum junction temperature must not be exceeded.
Parasitic Diode
The parasitic or body-drain diode that exists within the
MOSFET structure has a slow switching characteristic
compared with the MOSFET channel itself. The switching
frequency of circuits which make use of the diode (for
example ultrasonic inverters) may be limited solely by the
diode and not the MOSFET. This is mainly due to very
significant diode switching losses, which are a function of
reverse recovery charge, and operating frequency. In some
 Chapter 2.1 63

a collector

low on-state 5
voltage diode , gate O

emitter
/ ~ - vdei or dy efast
n
. . . .

I C )
I

~k
b

)lvc
-- _~"qL __ parasitic VBE Ic
I diode
q I
'
I

.i

I Vos IpNp

Figure 2.19 MOSFETwith antiparallel diode GO

applications the body diode is actually bypassed by a fast

diode as shown in Figure 2.19; the series-connected diode VCE-" V DS+ (]MOS X RMOD) + VBE
Ei
prevents current from flowing in the body diode.
Figure 2.20 IGBT
a circuit symbol
b steady-state equivalent circuit
INSULATED-GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR

The insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) combines

the best features of a MOSFET and a BJT to give a
voltage-controlled device with low state losses. The circuit
symbol and terminal designations are shown in Figure 2.20a.
Operation
The on resistance of a high-voltage MOSFET is mostly due
to the drain drift region as explained in the previous section.
In an IGBT the resistivity of this region is substantially
reduced by the injection of charge carriers from an addi-
tional semiconductor layer in the device. The process is
called conductivity modulation, and results in on-state losses
comparable to those of the BJT. An IGBT may be modelled
as a low-gain PNP transistor and MOSFET connected as
shown in Figure 2.20b, the additional semiconductor layer
being the emitter of the PNP transistor, which is also the
collector of the IGBT.
The on-state voltage VCE(saO of the IGBT has three
components:
collector doping density than do NPT types. NPT devices
generally have faster temperature independent switching and
a positive temperature coefficient of VcE(saO, and PT devices
have a strong temperature dependence of switching loss and
a negative temperature coefficient of VCE(saO.
Unlike the MOSFET, the IGBT does not have a parasitic
diode inherent within its structure, so that a suitable anti-
parallel fast diode may be selected to match the speed of the
IGBT.
Voltage and Current Ratings
The principal voltage rating of the IGBT is the collector-
emitter breakdown voltage VcEs specified with zero gate
emitter voltage. Devices are available with ratings from
250 V up to 6500 V. Although devices are available with
terminal current ratings up to 2400 A, these devices use
many IGBT chips connected in parallel. Single chips typi-
cally have a maximum rating of 300 A.

VCE(sat) -- VBE + (Iz) X RDeaFr) + (Iv x RcI-I)

where Vee is the forward voltage drop of the PNP transistor,
RDRIFT is the drift region resistance and is much smaller than
in an equivalent MOSFET due to the conductivity modula-
tion, and Rci-i is the MOSFET channel resistance. Typical
values for VCE(saO a r e 2 to 3 V at rated current and 25C for a
1200 V rated device.
Trench-gate IGBTs have been developed recently which
with an optimised geometry reduce both RDRIFr and Rci4
giving a lower VCE(saOfor a given current density.
There are two basic types of IGBT: punch through (PT) and
nonpunch through (NPT). The difference relates to the
doping and thickness of the drift region and the collector
layer, PT types having a thinner drift region and higher
Switching Behaviour and Gate Drive
Like the MOSFET, the IGBT is voltage controlled and the
gate presents a capacitive load to the drive circuit. Turn on
takes place when the capacitance has been charged to above
the gate-emitter threshold voltage, which is usually 4 to 5 V.
Typically a 1200 V 100 A IGBT will turn on in less than
200 ns. During the conduction time, the gate emitter voltage
is held at between 13 and 17 V so that VCE(saO is kept as low
as possible to minimise conduction losses.
Turn off is initiated by discharging the gate emitter capaci-
tance. The MOSFET structure turns off first, allowing Ic to
fall rapidly to an intermediate level. A slower fall of current
then follows as the PNP structure turns off. Unfortunately,
the gate drive circuit can only control the MOSFET turn off
64 POWER SEMICONDUCTORDEVICES: Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor
and has no influence on PNP behaviour. Turn-off delay time
and current fall time are much shorter than for equivalent
bipolar transistors owing to the low gain of the PNP structure
and processing steps taken to reduce the carrier lifetime.
Both these measures have the effect of increasing Vce(saOso
there is a trade off between low switching loss and low
conduction loss. To give optimum performance in low and
high-frequency applications IGBTs are available in different
families, optimised for either low conduction or low
switching loss.
Both turn-on and turn-off times can be adjusted by selection
of gate resistor value; this controls the rate at which the input
capacitance is charged or discharged. This is a very impor-
tant feature as it allows turn on to be set at a rate which suits
the reverse recovery characteristic of the free-wheeling
diode, and allows the rate of turn off to be reduced if
required to limit inductive voltage overshoot.
During the off state the IGBT gate emitter is normally held at
a minimum o f - 5 V to ensure that the device cannot be
spuriously tumed on.
Safe Operating Area (SOA)
The FBSOA and RBSOA curves for an IGBT chip are both
square, and bounded by the rated breakdown voltage, and the
pulsed collector current, IDM, usually twice the rated D.C.
current ID. The square SOA makes the IGBT a very robust
device and allows operation without snubber circuits, thus
reducing system losses and size. Although the chip RBSOA
is square the device RBSOA may have some reduction in
VcE at high currents. This is due to wiring inductance within
the package, which during turn off increases the voltage at
the chip above that measured at the terminals. Modern
IGBTs do not suffer from secondary breakdown unlike
BJTs. The RBSOA for an Eupec BSM100GD120DLC is
shown in Figure 2.21.
Short-Circuit Performance
Most IGBTs produced for high-power applications are short-
circuit rated. This means that the device is able to withstand
240
200
160
IC, module
<120 [.... IC, chip
80
40
0 r
o 6c o
Figure 2.21 Reverse-bias safe operating area for Eupec BSM100GD120DLC
a short period of very high dissipation without damage. A
typical device will be rated for a short-circuit duration of
10 ~ts with test conditions of a current of ten times ID, with a
collector-emitter voltage of half rated voltage, and 125C.
During this fault condition the junction temperature may
exceed 300C. The control and gate drive circuit must detect
the overcurrent condition and switch off the IGBT within the
rated time to avoid damage. The short-circuit current may be
controlled by adjusting the gate voltage. For the Eupec DN2
series devices a Vce between 10 and 17 V will produce
short-circuit currents of between two and ten times ID. To
reduce the inductive voltage overshoot when turning off the
large short-circuit current, the gate drive circuit may slow
down the turn off under these conditions by limiting the gate
discharge current.
Series and Parallel Operation
Although devices are available up to 6500V, the more
common value is 3300 V. For some applications this is not
sufficient and so devices must be connected in series. This is
easier to achieve with IGBTs than with many other power
devices due to the following combination of characteristics:
voltage control, fast switching, square SOA. Figure 2.22
shows how two IGBTs may be connected in series. The
resistors maintain steady-state voltage balance by compen-
sating for differences in device leakage currents. Very fast
transients are balanced by the capacitors, which can be much
smaller than for a similar circuit using BJTs or thyristors.
During switching, differences in delay from one device to
another will tend to lead to unbalanced voltages. The active
clamp circuit, formed by the zener string and IGBT, limits
VcE to a value a little above the zener breakdown voltage.
The voltage-controlled gate means that little current is
needed and fast switching ensures a fast response. The IGBT
is able to survive this operation because of the square SOA.
Devices may be connected in parallel to make up power
switches with ratings of many kA. When using devices with
a positive temperature coefficient little or no derating is
required. When using devices with a negative temperature
coefficient it is usual to select devices with the same Vce(saO
and apply a derating factor.
1 oo 12oo 14oo
VcE(V)

ance resistor
A.C. balance
capacitor
Figure 2.22 Series connection IGBT with active clamp
anode
oate t I'/1 I cathode
Figure 2.23 IGCTsymbol
INTEGRATED-GATE COMMUTATED
THYRISTOR
The integrated-gate commutated thyristor (IGCT) is a
development of the GTO and has essentially the same device
structure. By operating with a turn-off gain of 1, rather than
3 to 5 for a GTO, faster turn off is achieved and the
requirements for snubbers much reduced. In order to have
the correct conditions for turn off the gate circuit inductance
must be very low. To achieve this the gate circuit is inte-
grated into the device - hence the name integrated-gate
commutated thyristor. IGCTs are available with or without
an antiparallel diode.
As with a GTO, the IGCT is a four-layer device with a highly
interdigitated gate structure. The device can be triggered into
the on state by applying a positive gate current allowing
current to flow between the anode and cathode. Once swit-
ched on the current is determined only by the external cir-
cuit. The on-state voltage is typically 3 V for a 4500 V rated
device. Turn off may be achieved by reverse biasing the
main power circuit, or more normally by extracting current
from the gate. Sufficient current is extracted from the gate so
that no current flows across the gate to the cathode junction,
and the device behaves as a PNP transistor. This gives fast
turn offwith a safe operating area (SOA) similar to that for a
bipolar transistor.
Voltage and Current Ratings
The maximum repetitive voltage, which can be blocked, is
represented by VDR~, with devices available up to 5500 V.
C h a p t e r 2.1 65
2000
VDM <~ VDRM
1600
rj = o - ~ s o c
1200
<
v
O
800
400
0 1()00 2000 3()00 4000
vo (v)
Figure 2.24 IGCTSOA
This voltage is greater than the maximum voltage which can
be sustained during switch off. The on-state average and
r.m.s, current ratings, ITAVE and IrnMs, determine the maxi-
mum load current. In the on state the device can withstand
high surge currents, but the device cannot switch off these
currents. The maximum current, which can be turned off
under defined conditions, is IrGQM. Devices are available
with ratings up to 4000 A. The maximum controllable cur-
rent is approximately twice the on-state current.
Switching Behaviour and Gate Drive
Turn on is initiated by application of a positive gate current
typically up to 100 amps. Lower gate currents may be used
but this increases the turn-on time and limits di/dt capability.
Once conduction is initiated the gate current may be reduced
to the back-porch current of a few amps. As with a GTO this
is necessary due to the low device loop gain at low anode
currents.
At turn on the anode current di/dt must be limited to prevent
hot spots as the conduction spreads out from the gate, and
also in applications with a free-wheel diode to limit the
reverse recovery di/dt. However, once turn on is initiated
through the gate, the anode current di/dt cannot be controlled
via the gate, and so an inductor and associated snubber must
be added.
In order to turn the device off sufficient gate current must be
extracted from the device for the regenerative action to stop.
To allow operation with little or no snubber and minimise
switch-off losses a turn-off gain of 1 is used, (i.e. all anode
current is diverted out of the gate), and this must be
accomplished fast enough to prevent current redistribution in
the device which would lead to hot spots and a reduction in
device turn-off rating. In a standard GTO package the gate
inductance is of the order of 50nil. To divert an anode
current of 2000 A out ofthe gate in 1 ~ts would require 100 V.
This would lead to very high gate drive power losses, and
66 POWER SEMICONDUCTORDEVICES: Integrated-Gate C o m m u t a t e d Thyristor

also exceeds the gate reverse breakdown voltage of anode

approximately 20 V. By integrating the gate drive unit into
the IGCT assembly a gate circuit inductance of 5 nH is gate %
achieved. Now only 10 V is required to achieve the required
gate current di/dt, gate drive power is reduced and the
breakdown voltage is not exceeded.
To switch the large gate current required an array of low-
voltage MOSFETs is used coupled to a bank of low-impe-
dance electrolytic capacitors. Gate drive power consumption
can be significant, approximately 80 W for a 700 A device
switching at 500 Hz.
As with a GTO, an IGCT has a minimum on and off time. cathode
The minimum times of 10 gs are determined by a combi-
anode
nation of time required for current density across the chip to
stabilise and for the gate drive circuit to prepare for the next
switching event. A typical maximum average switching

,K
frequency is 500 Hz, although this may be increased to 2 kHz
with a suitable gate unit and some reduction in current gate &
rating.
In the event of a short-circuit fault the device must be on FET off FET

switched off before the anode current rises above the maxi-
mum controllable current or control will be lost and the
device destroyed.

OTHER POWER DEVICES AND MATERIALS

MOS-Controlled Thyristor cathode

Figure 2.25 MCT symbol and circuit

The MOS-controlled thyristor (MCT) was developed to
exploit the low conduction loss of a thyristor with the low
gate drive power and fully controlled behaviour of a
MOSFET. The symbol and simplified equivalent circuit of
an MCT is shown in Figure 2.25. anode
Operation is most easily understood from the equivalent
circuit. In the off state the turn-off MOSFET is held on, this
keeps the PNP device off and the MCT can block positive
anode cathode voltage. To turn on, the turn-off FET is
switched off and the turn-on FET switched on. This provides
base current to the NPN transistor and regenerative action
then takes place as with a standard thyristor. Once in the on
state the MCT has a similar surge capability to a thyristor,
and low voltage drop of 1 to 2 V. To turn off the MCT the
on gate(~
"'
cathode
off gate

turn-off FET is again turned on. This short circuits the PNP
transistor base and so regenerative action stops and the anode
device turns off in a manner very similar to that for a GTO.
Although the MCT offers low on-state loss and low gate
drive power, there are important limitations which have
prevented widespread use of the device; the gate bias must
be maintained at all times to ensure that the device remains
off, and the switching safe operating area is limited to half
rated voltage at rated current.
Devices have been made with maximum ratings of
approximately 1500 V, 100 A.
on gateC) I
MOS Turn-off Thyristor off gate ( ~
1
The MOS tum-off thyristor (MTO) is very similar in many off FET
respects to the MCT and IGCT. The circuit symbol and
cathode
equivalent circuit are shown in Figure 2.26. In contrast to
other power devices the MTO is a four-terminal device; in Figure 2.26 MTO symbol and equivalent circuit

addition to the main power terminals there are two gate
terminals, one for turn on and another for turn off.
As can be seen from the equivalent circuit, the MTO com-
prises a GTO, which is responsible for turn on and con-
duction, and a MOSFET, which is only used during turn off.
To turn on, a gate current of several tens of amps is injected
into the turn-on gate. Once conduction is initiated regen-
erative action starts and the anode current is limited only by
the external circuit. As with GTOs and IGCTs, a back-porch
current of several amps is required to ensure that the device
stays on with minimum voltage drop. To turn off, the back-
porch current is switched off and a positive voltage applied
to the turn-off gate terminal. This switches on the MOSFET
which diverts current out of the gate forcing regenerative
action to stop and the GTO to turn off. As with an IGCT,
sufficient gate current is removed to give a turn-off gain of
near unity, which gives much faster turn off than for a GTO
operating at a turn-off gain of 3 to 5. As the turn-off
MOSFET is integrated into the MTO, the inductance is low
enough to ensure that the gate current can be removed fast
enough to prevent current redistribution during turn off.
Devices have been made with ratings up to 4500 V, 500 A
with plans for ratings up to those of conventional GTOs.
Silicon Carbide
The vast majority of semiconductor devices use silicon (Si)
as their base material. Although the process technology is
well developed, Si has some limitations for power devices,
most notably a maximum junction temperature of 125C to
175C. By using silicon carbide (SIC) as the base material,
devices may be operated with junction temperatures of
250C to 350C. Furthermore, SiC has a breakdown field
strength five times that of Si and a thermal conductivity
three times that of Si. Overall SiC offers lower loss devices,
faster switching and much higher operating temperatures.
Despite the significant technical gains in performance pos-
sible, SiC is much more difficult to process than Si and the
fabrication technology is relatively young. This makes
devices rated at more than a few amps not commercially
viable, although this is expected to change over the next five
to ten years.
POWER DEVICE PACKAGING
Power devices are available in a very wide range of
packages, a selection of which is shown in Figure 2.27.
The very smallest packages are the wafer-scale packages,
which only have a layer of passivation on the surface of
the chip. These must be soldered to a printed circuit board
(PCB) or other substrate and switch ratings are limited to a
few hundred VA. Packaged devices, normally housing a
single chip, for through-hole or surface mounting, are
available in industry standard sizes such as D2-Pak, TO-
220, TO-247 in ratings up to 10 kVA. For larger devices
with ratings up to 1 MVA isolated base modules with
moulded plastic cases are used. There is a wide variety of
packages containing one or more devices but with little
standardisation in sizes. For the highest power devices, up
to 10MVA, pressure contact packages are used. These
only house a single device.
Chapter 2.1 67
Pressure Contact Packages
Pressure contact packages are in general only used for very
high-power applications, and devices rated above 4.5 kV or
2.5 kA are in general only available in these packages. They
are well suited to devices with a large single chip such as
thyristors, although they are also now being applied to
multichip devices such as IGBTs.
CONSTRUCTION
As shown in Figure 2.27e, a pressure contact package
consists of two large copper pole pieces between which the
chip is sandwiched. Externally applied pressure ensures
contact between the chip and the contact plates. For the
gate connection an internal pressure contact is provided. A
ceramic body provides the rest of the enclosure and may be
ribbed to increase the creepage distance over the surface.
After assembly the joints are welded, the package evac-
uated and sealed. In use the device is clamped between two
plates, usually the heatsinks, and a known pressure applied.
As the pole pieces are in direct contact with the chip the
heatsinks and mounting plates are all live. Great care must
be taken to ensure the correct even contact pressure; this
makes the mechanics of pressure contact devices quite
complex.
FEATURES
Pressure contact devices have several features which
make them well suited to very high-power, high-reliability
applications:
Double-sided cooling gives significantly reduced ther-
mal impedance compared to single-sided cooling. This
allows a device to operate at a high loss per unit area.
The two main causes of power device wear out are the
failure of wire bonds and soldered contacts, due to
thermally induced mechanical stress. As a pressure
contact device has no wire bonds or soldered joints it
has a very good thermal cycling capability which is
especially important in applications such as railway
traction.
In the event of a failure the device will go short circuit.
This allows redundancy to be built into high-voltage
applications which have several devices connected in
series.
The package has a high rupturing IZt so that with correct
fusing it is possible to prevent rupture of the device in
the event of failure. It is very important in high-voltage
applications (>3 kV) to limit damage to other
equipment.
Large Wire-Bonded Packages for
Power Modules
Large wire-bonded packages are used for power modules
housing single devices rated over 50 A or multiple devices
rated over 10 A. Maximum ratings are typically 4.5 kV and
2.5 kA. They are very widely used and are much cheaper
than the equivalent device in a pressure pack.
68 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES: P o w e r D e v i c e Packaging

a 1 to lOmm
glass passivation

silicon chip

solder bumps

10 to 40 mm

bond wire epoxy silicon chip

leads
copper slug

/
30 to 150 mm

lead.,

~lastic case

)3 DBC substrate
Cu

40 to 200 mm

leads I"1 bond wire soft-gel fill silicon chip

plastic case

DBC substrate
~ copper base plate

40 to 120 mm
v

spring contact copper pole piece silicon chip

gate lead

ceramic body

copper pole piece

Figure 2.27 Package cross-sections types

a w a f e r scale
b TO-220
c direct b o n d e d c o p p e r (DBC)
d c o p p e r base
e pressure

CONSTRUCTION
There are two basic types of package, either with or without
a copper base plate, as shown in Figure 2.27c and d. The
copper base plate gives better transient thermal impedance,
aids heat spreading across the heatsink and makes the device
less prone to damage due to incorrect mounting.
The chip or chips are first soldered to the direct bonded
copper (DBC) substrate. This consists of two layers of
copper, between which there is an Aluminium Oxide
(A1203) or Aluminium Nitride (A1N) insulator. The DBC
isolates the chips and the power circuit from the base plate of
the device and so the heatsink may be earthed. The top layer
of copper is etched to form an interconnect pattern similar to
a printed circuit board. Wire bonding is then used to connect
the substrate, chips and package terminals. A plastic package
supports the power terminals and provides mechanical pro-
tection. To provide electrical insulation and environmental
protection the chips and bond wires are covered in an
insulating gel.
In use, the package is fixed to a heatsink using screws
with electrical contacts and either soldered or screw
terminals.
PACKAGE TYPES
Single power devices with screw power terminals are
available in ratings from approximately 50 A to 2500 A.
For currents above 800 to 1000 A several parallel contacts
are used. There is a wide variety of package sizes, from
20 mm x 92 mm to 140 mm x 190 mm, some sizes being
adopted as a de facto standard.
Screw terminal packages are also available with multiple
power devices. These may range from a half bridge (two
power switches) to a three-phase inverter. Ratings are
available up to 450 A, 1200 V as a three-phase inverter.
For packages which contain multiple devices at current
ratings up to 150 A, all solder terminals tend to be the most
cost effective. Two industry standard packages are the
Econo2 and Econo3. These are available from a large
number of manufacturers and may house a three-phase
inverter, three-phase rectifier, or rectifier, inverter and brake
chopper. The latter type are often known as power integra-
tion modules (PIM) or converter inverter brake (CIB)
modules.
Packages containing multiple devices are also available
with screw terminals for the power connections or pressure
contacts.
In addition to the main power devices the control, moni-
toring and protection circuits may also be mounted within
the module. These parts are commonly known as intelligent
or integrated power modules (IPMs). The additional circuits
are normally assembled onto a small PCB, which is wire
bonded to the main power devices.
FEATURES
Large wire-bonded packages with moulded plastic hous-
ings are the most flexible of power device packages. The
moulded case allows many terminals to be placed in a
Chapter 2.1 69
variety of locations and features may be incorporated to
increase the creepage and clearance distances between
terminals.
The DBC substrate allows several chips to be placed within
the package and connected in a variety of ways to form
either high-current single switches or complete power cir-
cuits, as in the case of a PIM or CIB module. Where addi-
tional control or monitoring circuits are required, these may
be easily incorporated in the DBC or a separate PCB within
the housing.
Devices with solder terminals are only designed to be sol-
dered to a PCB. Screw-terminal packages are more flexible
as they may be screwed to a PCB for low or medium-current
applications or to busbars for higher currents.
Compared to pressure packs, wire-bonded packages have
some disadvantages for very high power applications: surge
current rating may be wire-bond limited, in the event of a
failure the device will go open circuit as the wire bonds blow
off, and in the event of a major device failure the package
may rupture.
Small Wire-Bonded Packages for
Discrete Devices
Small wire-bonded packages for discrete devices are made
in very large volumes and have the lowest production
costs. In general, they only contain a single chip although
some packages are available with two chips, for example
an IGBT with antiparallel diode. The ratings of these
devices are limited by the available chip area and the
current rating of the leads. Surface mount (SM) packages
are commonly available up to 30A, with through-hole
devices up to 70 A.
CONSTRUCTION
The chip is first soldered to a copper slug before wire
bonding to the lead frame. An epoxy resin is then moulded
over the chip to provide mechanical support for the leads,
electrical isolation and environmental protection.
PACKAGE TYPES
There is a wide variety of packages, many of which are
industry standard. Packages, which are designed for screw
mounting, such as TO-220 or TO-247, can also be clip
mounted. Using a clip saves parts and labour and gives
more even contact pressure to the heatsink. By having a
package without a mounting hole, the popularity of clip
mounting is being exploited to fit larger chips within a
given footprint.
In many power applications it is desirable to have isolation
for the heatsink. Traditionally this has been achieved by
putting an insulating washer between the device and heat-
sink. By moulding the epoxy resin around the whole copper
slug and chip a fully insulated package can be produced. As
the epoxy is a poor thermal conductor, device ratings are
reduced. To overcome this limitation, devices are also
available which have a small DBC substrate rather than a
70 POWERSEMICONDUCTORDEVICES:Power Device Packaging

copper slug. This provides electrical isolation and much APPLICATIONS

better thermal conductivity than epoxy resin.
Cost and performance requirements are paramount in
FEATURES deciding the most suitable power semiconductor device for a
particular application. The following tables summarise
Packages are soldered to a printed circuit board, which in the
device characteristics, packages and applications for the
case of surface-mount packages provides the cooling path in
most popular power devices.
addition to electrical connection.

Table 2.2 Comparison of power semiconductor devices

Property SCR GTO BJT MOSFET IGBT IGCT

Self-commutation no yes yes yes yes yes

ability
Maximum r.m.s. 5000 A 2000 A 1000 A 300 A 2400 A 1700 A
current rating
Maximum voltage 12 000 V 6000 V 1600 V 1500 V 6500 V 5500 V
rating
Maximum switched VA 30 MVA 30 MVA 1 MVA 30 kVA 4 MVA 12 MVA
rating
Surge current ability excellent excellent limited limited limited excellent
(15 x Imvts) (15 x Im4s) (2 x IRMS) (4 X InMS) (2 X IRMS) (15 X InMS)
Operating current 140 A/cm 2 30 A/cm2 40 A / c m 2 75 A / c m 2 140 A / c m 2 30 A / c m 2
density at rated at 2 kV at 4.5 kV at 1000 V at 200 V at 1200 V at 4.5 kV
device voltage
15 A/cm 2 35 A/cm 2
at 800 V at 3.3 kV
Maximum junction 125C 125C 150C 150C 150C 115C
temperature C
On-state losses low medium medium high medium low
Switching losses very high very high high very low low medium
Turn-on ability medium medium good very good very good medium
(di/dt limit) (di/dt limit) (di/dt limit)
Turn-off ability none via gate poor-slow medium-long very good very good good
and lossy storage time
Turn-off safe na poor medium excellent excellent medium
operating area (50 %) (75 %) (100 %) (100 %) (70 %)
(percentage of
rated voltage at
rated r.m.s, current)
Load short-circuit none poor medium medium excellent poor
turn-off ability (2 x IR.vts) (4 X IRMS) (4 x It~ts) (10 x IR~ts) (2 x IRMS)
Snubbers usually yes yes yes no no no
required
Minimum on or 10-100 Its 10-50 Its <liLts < 100 ns < 1 Its lOgs
off time
Maximum 250 Hz 500 Hz 5000 Hz 100 000 Hz 10 000 Hz 500 Hz
switching
frequency
Switching time no no yes yes yes no
controllable
from drive circuit
Drive circuit power low high high low low high
Drive circuit complexity low high medium low low high
Series and parallel device selection very difficult series difficult; fairly simple fairly simple fairly simple
operation and passive series or parallel requires series and series and in series,
components parallel device selection parallel parallel, selection more difficult
required may be needed in parallel
for parallel
 Chapter 2.1 71

Table 2.3 Typical power semiconductor device application areas as a function of system voltage and equipment VA rating

Application Supply voltage and equipment VA RATING

up to 240 V A.C., 400 V D.C. from 240 V A.C., 400 V D.C. above 690 V A.C., 1200 V D.C.
up to 690 V A.C., 1200 V D.C.
up to 1 kVA from 1 kVA up to 1 MVA above 1 MVA

a.c. motor drives

voltage source inverter MOSFET, IGBT IGBT, BJT IGBT, IGCT, GTO
current source inverter SCR, BJT, GTO SCR, GTO, IGCT
cycloconverter SCR
soft starters SCR SCR SCR
d.c. motor drives
force commutated MOSFET, IGBT, BJT IGBT, BJT IGBT, IGCT, GTO
line commutated SCR SCR SCR

Table 2.4 Availability of power device types and ratings in a variety of packages

Property Discrete Power module Pressure pack

Available devices SCR, GTO, SCR, BJT, SCR, GTO,

BJT, MOSFET, IGBT MOSFET, IGBT BJT, IGBT, IGCT
Maximum voltage rating 2000 V 6500 V 12 000 V
Maximum current rating 100A 2500 A 6000 A
Electrical failure mode open circuit open circuit short circuit
Power circuit connections solder solder, screw, or pressure contact
pressure contact
Control circuit connections solder solder, screw, or flying leads
pressure contact
Mounting method solder, screw or clip screw pressure plate
Cooling method convection to air, single-sided conduction double-sided conduction
conduction to PCB to heatsink to heatsink
or heatsink
Isolation from heatsink only with selected yes no
packages
Package rupture current low medium high

Table 2.5 Power semiconductor symbols

Meaning Specific to: Meaning Specific to:

aNPN large signal current gain GTO IGM maximum peak positive GTO
of a common-base NPN gate current
transistor; ratio of collector Iao maximum negative gate GTO
current to emitter current current during turn-off interval
aPNP as NPN, but for a GTO 1tt holding current
common-base PNP transistor IL latching current
/3off turn-off gain; ratio of anode GTO IMOS drain current of MOSFET in IGBT
current being controlled IGBT equivalent circuit
to negative gate current IpNP collector current of parasitic IGBT
required to produce turn off PNP transistor in IGBT
0 conduction angle equivalent circuit
hfe static forward current transfer Lr reverse recovery current
ratio of a common emitter IT direct on-state current
transistor; ratio of d.c. ITAVF_. the average on-state current IGCT
output current to d.c. input rating
current ITRMS the r.m.s, on-state current rating IGCT
f switching frequency IFGQ nonrepetitive peak controllable
IA anode current on-state current
18 continuous base current ITGQM the maximum current which IGCT
IB1 forward base current can be turned off under defined
182 reverse base current conditions
Ic continuous collector current BJT, IGBT PD power dissipation
ICM peak collector current Qrr reverse recovery charge
ID peak value of pulsed drain current RCH MOSFET channel resistance IGBT
Ia gate current RDRIFT drift region resistance IGBT
72 POWERSEMICONDUCTORDEVICES:Applications

Table 2.5 (Contd.)

Meaning Specific to: Meaning Specific to:

RDS(on) drain source on resistance VCE(sat) collector-emitter saturation

RMOD resistance of epitaxy region IGBT voltage
in IGBT equivalent circuit VcEo(sus) collector-emitter sustaining
R thjc thermal resistance, junction voltage, with open base, Ic
to case specified
case case temperature VcEs collector-emitter breakdown IGBT
junction temperature voltage, specified with zero
bmax maximum allowable junction gate emitter voltage
temperature VcEp peak collector-emitter voltage BJT, IGBT
tcond conduction time during short-circuit current
tl fall time fall time
tic turn-off crossover time BJT VcEv collector-emitter voltage with
tgq turn-off time GTO reverse-biased base-emitter
t~t turn-on time GTO junction
toe turn-off time VD direct off-state voltage SCR
ton turn-on time VDS drain-source voltage MOSFET
tp pulse duration Va gate voltage
tq total turn-off time SCR VaE gate-emitter voltage
tq~ recombination time Vas gate-source voltage
trc turn-on crossover time BJT VR reverse voltage
trr reverse recovery time V~ repetitive peak reverse voltage
ts storage time Vs voltage spike between anode GTO
VBE base-emitter voltage and cathode during fall time
V(SR)CES collector-emitter breakdown IGBT Wco,,d energy dissipation during the
voltage, gate-emitter short conduction time
circuited Woff energy dissipation during the
V(BR)DSS drain-source breakdown MOSFET turn-off time
voltage, gate-source Won energy dissipation during the
short circuited turn-on time
Vcc collector-emitter supply voltage
VCE collector-emitter voltage

2 DRIVE CONVERTER CIRCUITS

In order to concentrate on the salient characteristics of the
many alternative power conversion circuits used in power
electronic drives today, it is necessary to make a number of
simplifying assumptions. A somewhat idealised theory will
therefore be presented. Practical aspects, such as switching
delays, will only be discussed where they have practical
significance. The diversity of machines which can be used
with alternative power converters will be limited to those
seen as being of greatest practical importance.
A.C. TO D.C. POWER CONVERSION
General
Prior to considering the relative merits of alternative con-
verters it is necessary to establish meaningful performance
parameters. Useful to the user and system designer are:
r.m.s, value of the A.C. current for a constant D.C.
current Id
overall A.C. power factor defined as the ratio of mean
power (W) to volt-amperes (VA) [note: the power factor
thus defined equals the product of the displacement
factor (the fundamental power factor or cos4~ i.e. the
phase shift of the fundamental current with respect to
the A.C. supply) and the distortion factor (the ratio of
the r.m.s, of the fundamental current to the r.m.s, of the
total current)]
maximum attainable A.C. power factor that can be
achieved using capacitors only to counter the funda-
mental VAR consumption of the converter
A.C. supply current harmonics for a constant D.C.
current Id
D.C. voltage as a function of A.C. voltage
D.C. power for a constant D.C. current Ia
voltage tipple-although form factor or peak-peak
values are often used as a measure of voltage ripple, it is
more useful in practice to consider a factor M, which is a
measure of the volt-second integral of the voltage pulses;
 Chapter 2.2 73

the peak-peak current ripple A i d is then given by:
A i d -- MVdo
where Vao = the maximum attainable D.C. voltage,
f = the A.C. frequency and L = D.C. circuit inductance
pulse number p is the number of pulses of D.C. voltage
during one complete A.C. cycle (1 cycle = 20ms for
50 Hz supply, 16.67 ms for a 60 Hz supply)
In the half-controlled circuit, two of the thyristors shown in
Figure 2.30 are replaced by diodes. A number of diode
combinations are possible: (Ap + Bp), (An + Bn), (Ap + An)
or (Bp + Bn). Figure 2.32 shows typical waveforms for the
case when Ap and Bp are diodes. Note the absence of any
negative voltage, and the reduction in A.C. current periods.
Only energy flow from the A.C. to D.C. side is possible.
SINE WAVE INPUTCONVERTERS

Converters for Connection to a
Single-Phase Supply
UNCONTROLLEDCONVERTERS
Only two power circuits need be considered in this category.
The half-wave configuration of Figure 2.28 is not particu-
larly useful for power applications, but is included as an
introduction to semiconductor behaviour in bridge circuits.
The single device is available for conduction from 0 to 180
(the positive half cycle). A freewheeling diode may be added
across the load to conduct the load current during the
negative half cycle, and prevent it being reduced to zero. For
With growing demands to reduce harmonic effects on the
supply, and improve the supply power factor, circuits are
now coming to the market, notably in switch-mode power
supplies (SMPS), which draw near sinusoidal currents from
the A.C. supply at unity power factor. A typical circuit is
shown in Figure 2.33.
It is expected that, as greater regulation is introduced in
respect to allowable harmonic content of drive systems, this
type of circuit will become more common. However, in such
situations it is often more cost effective to have a single

1
long time-constant loads, the load current can be considered
to be continuous: derived from the supply during the positive
half cycle and carried by the diode during the negative half
cycle.
When this circuit is used, a capacitor often replaces the
t
VD.C.
freewheeling diode, maintaining the output during the idle
half cycle. A notable application of this particular circuit is
for high-frequency SMPS secondaries.
The detailed characteristics of this circuit will not be con-
sidered further.
Figm'e 2.29 shows full-wave rectification from an A.C.
l
supply in its most popular form. The four diodes conduct in
diagonal pairs during every alternate half cycle of A.C. line
__1 I
i7'
I
I
I
0 ~ 2~
voltage.
Figure 2.29 Single-phase full-wave uncontrolled bridge
CONTROLLEDCONVERTERS

Again, only two power circuits are of practical importance. P

O
Figure 2.30 shows the power circuit for the fully controlled t~
c ~ Vo.c.
bridge together with associated A.C./D.C. relationships.
Bp
Figure 2.31 shows how the D.C. voltage can be varied by
adjusting the firing delay angle c~. Since negative D.C.
voltages are possible, energy flow from the D.C. side to the
.)
A.C. side is possible.

v
> o

( ) ) T
Va
conducting thyristors
top row bottom row
A.C./D.C. relationships
VD.C

Ap An 0 0
BR Vab + [d
' l Bp An
Bn 0
Vba --]d
0
l o
Figure 2.28 Single-phase half-wave uncontrolled bridge Figure 2.30 Single-phase fully controlled bridge
74 DRIVE CONVERTER CIRCUITS: A.C. t o D.C. P o w e r Conversion

Ap Bp

Bn An

~l--ll
t:z
conduction periods power
Va~ factor
controller

m I/ab Vba

Figure 2.33 Single-phase sine wave input converter

o 21c..

"', ..
i ! v

D.C. side voltage waveforms

i\I /\
AL
IF

a--i I
J I i
A.C. supply current waveforms A
W
~c
Figure 2.31 Single-phase fully controlled bridge, D.C.
voltage control

Ap Bp ~ Ap
lw

A n
gn I
I
Figure 2.34 Three-phase full-wave uncontrolled bridge

conduction periods More complex, and expensive, converter arrangements exist

which monitor the supply voltage and control currents in
such a way as to minimise supply voltage distortion. Such
i i systems are rare.
n o" i . o " " r ~ vba i

Converters for Connection to a

Three-Phase Supply
VDC i"
UNCONTROLLED CONVERTERS
. , . .
! ..!
A variety of uncontrolled converters is available, however
I "'-. .... -'" I only one is of practical importance in regard to drive sys-
I tems, namely the full-wave bridge converter. This arrange-
D.C. side voltage waveformi
, ment is as shown in Figure 2.34.
I i In contrast to the single-phase bridge, where altemate pairs
i

of devices conduct, switching in the three-phase bridge
i I alternates between the upper and lower row of devices. This
means that there are six conduction periods per A.C. cycle,
A.C. supply current waveform
each device conducting for a period of 27r/3 (120 elect.).
Figure 2.32 Single-phase half-controlled bridge, D.C.
voltage control CONTROLLED CONVERTERS

Two power circuits are of practical importance:

supply converter with a common D.C. bus feeding multiple
The fully controlled circuit is by far the most important
drives.
practical bridge arrangement. Figure 2.35 shows the power
Commercial three-phase sine wave input converters tend to circuit together with associated A.C./D.C. relationships.
take the form of an IGBT bridge connected to the supply Figure 2.36 shows how the D.C. voltage can be varied by
operated as a current controller to draw sinusoidal currents. adjusting the firing delay angle a. The pulse number, p, of
A practical implementation of such a scheme is shown in this bridge equals 6. Energy flow can be from A.C. to D.C.
Chapter 6.3. or D.C. to A.C.
 Chapter 2.2 75

Table 2.6 Salient characteristics of the main single-phase A.C to D.C converters
Bridge Fully controlled Half controlled

Firing angle a a

Vdo ~2N2 Vs ~2N2 Vs

71" 71-

Pdo ~2N2Vs/d ~2N2Vs/d

Vd/Vdo cos a 0.5 (1 4- cosa)

Is/Id 1 N { (Tr - c~)/Tv}

Overall power ~2 N
c o2s a N{Z/Tr} (1 + cos a )
factor 7r N (Tr - a )

Maximum corrected cos a 1 + cos a

power factor N(Tr2/8 - sin 2 a) N{Tr/2. (Tr- a) - sin 2 a }

Input power/Pdo cosa 0.5 (1 + cosa)

Input VARs/Pdo sina 0.5 sina

Supply current 0 for n even 0 for n even

nth harmonic/Id
0.9/n for n odd 0.64/n- N(1 + cos na)
for n odd

Phase of supply na na/2

current harmonics

Va$ P

/a I 2 pi
T
v ~ ~ v~= o.75 V~o
n I. n2~Cwn
N Vt,a Vca Vc~ Va~ Vac Vbc Vba Vca Vo~

conducting thyristors A.C./D.C. relationships ia]l I I I I I

top bottom Vd ia ib ic
row row

Ap An 0 0 0 0
Bn Vab + id -- i d 0
Cn Vac + id 0 -- id
Bp An Vba -- id + id 0 Vd ..'" Vd=0.75 Vdo
Bn 0 0 0 0
Cn Vbc 0 + id -- i d
vt,. Vc. Vcb Vab Vac V.c vb. vo. Vcb
Cp An V~a -- id 0 + id
Bn Vcb 0 -- id 4- i d ial I I I I I F
Cn 0 0 0 0
Figure 2.36 Three-phase fully controlled bridge, D.C
Figure 2.35 Three-phase fully controlled bridge voltage control
76 DRIVE CONVERTERCIRCUITS: A.C. to D.C. Power Conversion

In the half-controlled circuit either the top three devices of current ripple on A.C. supply harmonics is of great practical
Figure 2.35 (Ap, Bp and Cp) or the bottom three devices (An, industrial importance mainly in relation to three-phase
Bn and Cn) are replaced by diodes. The pulse number of this bridges (ignoring the single-phase traction requirement).
bridge equals 3. Only energy flow from A.C. to D.C. is Practical experience has led to the adoption by many of the
possible. The voltage tipple is much greater than in the case following values:
of the fully controlled bridge, but the A.C. current drawn is
lower at reduced D.C. voltage. Figures 2.37 and 2.38 show 15 = 0.2511 (ideal = 0.211)
the half-controlled bridge. 17 - 0.1311 (ideal = 0.1411)
111 -- 0.0911 (ideal - 0.1111)
Voltage Ripple Characteristics 113 -- 0.0711 (ideal - 0.0811)

The voltage ripple characteristics for the most significant
bridge configurations are shown in Figure 2.39. It should be
noted that these characteristics are for idealised conditions of
smooth D.C. current and zero supply impedance. Increases
in supply impedance generally tend to result in somewhat
lower D.C. voltage tipple levels.
Practical Effects
The characteristics presented above have, for the most part,
been based upon idealised conditions of negligible A.C.
inductance and constant D.C. current. Although these
assumptions provide a convenient means for comparison
they are not often valid in practice. It is not practicable
to consider all such effects here. The effect of D.C. link
In general, the amplitudes of higher harmonics are rarely of
significance, in regard to supply distortion. Under conditions
of very high D.C. current ripple, the fifth harmonic can
assume a considerably higher value than that quoted above.
A practical example would be an application with a very
capacitive D.C. load (e.g. a voltage source inverter): in such
a case where no smoothing choke is used 15 could be as high
as 0.511.
D.C. Motor Drive Systems
In principle, little has changed since 1896 when Harry Ward
Leonard presented his historic paper 'Volts versus ohms -
the speed regulation of electric motors'. In practice, however,
many advances have been made from auxiliary machines
through mercury-arc rectifiers to thyristors.

~dc
0.25

o
A
w
I
I
A
i v~ > _ ~ A - - - - - z~ z~ z~ n

-1.0 0.0 1.0

mean D.C. voltage/Vdo

Figure 2.39 Ideal voltage ripple characteristics

1 phase fully-controlled bridge
1 phase half-controlled bridge x
Ani Bn.L Cn,,L 3 phase fully-controlled bridge A
v i
3 phase half-controlled bridge
Figure 2.37 Three-phase half controlled bridge

ap
,,~, Vl

i o I I I
I On I I I On I
- - ~ - an

I', I\ , ", /x. ,, ,, ,,-, /\ /"\ .,,,,. ,,"\

I/- ,'~_ ,, /'\ ,~, _., .>", ,~ ,<, /~

I,, ,I, I I I I
J I I
Figure 2.38 Three-phase half controlled bridge, D.C. voltage control
 Chapter 2.2 77

Table 2. 7 Salient characteristics of the three-phase A.C. to D. C converters described in the

text

Bridge Fully controlled Half controlled

Firing angle a a
a > 7#3 a < 7r/3
Vao
-3N2
-G -3N2
-G
7r 7r

Pdo
3N2 3N2
--G& --G~

gd/Vdo COS OL 0.5 (1 + c o s a )

ls/Ia N(3/2) N {(Tr- a)/Tr} N(3/2)

Overall power factor (3/70 cos a N3. (1 + cos a) (3/270 - (1 + cos a)

N(71 - ol)

Maximum corrected
COS O~ 1 + cosa 1 + cosa
power factor
N(Tr2/9 - sin2 a) N{27r(Tr - a) - sin2 a} N{47r2/9 - sin2a}

Input power/Pao cos a 0.5 (1 +cosc 0

Input VARs/Pao sin a 0.5 sin a

Supply current 0 for n = 3, 6, 9 . . . 0 for n = 3 , 6, 9 . . .

nth harmonic//d 0 for n even N(3/mr) .N(1 - cos nc0 for n even
N6/mr for n odd N(3/mr).N(1 + cos na) for n odd

Phase of supply na ncd2

current harmonics

\ I
I \I
X
I\
/ \

Figure 2.40 Single converter D.C. drive

I 1 Figure 2.41 Single converter reversing~regenerative D.C
drive

In applications where motor resistance varies with tem-

perature, or on sites with poorly regulated supplies which
The D.C. motor is still a versatile machine for variable-speed
result in unacceptable variations in field current, a controlled
drive systems and is often the preferred choice when con-
power converter is employed with current control. Such field
siderations such as freedom from maintenance or operation
controllers are further discussed later as applied to field
under adverse conditions are not paramount.
weakening control.
In Chapter 1.1 it has been shown that complete control o f a
D.C. machine can be achieved b y controlling the armature SINGLE-CONVERTERDRIVES
voltage, Va, and the field current, I f Two power converters
Figure 2.40 shows a single-converter D.C. drive. In its most
are employed for this purpose in most variable-speed drives
basic form the motor will drive the load in one direction only
which employ the separately excited D.C. machine. (In
without braking or reverse running. This is said to be a
referring to the number o f converters in a drive, it is c o m m o n
single-quadrant drive, only operating in one quadrant o f the
to ignore the field converter - this nomenclature will be
torque-speed characteristic.
adopted below). It is relatively c o m m o n in simple drives for
the field converter to be a single-phase uncontrolled bridge Such drives have wide application from simple machine tools
thereby applying fixed field voltage. to fans, pumps, extruders, agitators, printing machines etc.
78 DRIVE CONVERTERCIRCUITS:A.C. to D.C. Power Conversion
If the drive is required to operate in both the forward and
reverse directions and/or provide regenerative braking, a
single fully controlled converter can still be used. However,
some means of reversing either the field or armature con-
nections, as shown in Figure 2.41, must be added.
Reversal of armature current can involve bulky (high-
current) reversing switches but, due to the low inductance
of the armature circuit, can be completed in typically
0.2 seconds. Field current reversal takes longer, typically of
the order of 1 second; however lower cost reversing switches
may be used. The field reversal time can be reduced by using
higher voltage field converters to force the current. Forcing
voltages up to four per unit are used but care must be taken
not to over stress the machine. Obviously this increased
voltage cannot be applied continuously and requires either a
switched A.C. supply or a controlled field converter.
Armature and field reversal techniques are used where
torque reversals are infrequent such as in hoists, presses,
lathes and centrifuges.
DUAL-CONVERTER DRIVES
When a four-quadrant drive is required to change the
direction of torque rapidly, the delays associated with
reversing switches described above may be unacceptable. A
dual converter comprising two fully controlled power con-
verters connected in inverse parallel can be used as shown in
Figure 2.42. Bridge 1 conducts when the armature current IA
is required to be positive, bridge 2 when it is required to be
negative.
There are two common forms of dual converter. In the
first, both bridges are controlled simultaneously to give the
same mean output voltage. However, the instantaneous
voltages from the rectifying and inverting bridges cannot
be identical, and reactors Lp are included to limit the
current circulating between them. The principal advantage
of this system is that when the motor torque, and hence
current, is required to change direction (polarity), there
need be no delay between the conduction of one bridge
and the other. This is the dual-converter bridge with cir-
culating current.
In the circulating-current-free dual converter, only one
bridge at a time is allowed to conduct. The cost and losses
associated with the Lp reactors can then be eliminated, and
economies can also be made in the drive control circuits.
However, the penalty is a short time delay, as the current
passes through zero, while the thyristors in one bridge safely
turn off before those in the second are fired. This delay
introduces a torque-free period of typically 10ms. Speed
reversal for a 3 kW drive of this type from - 1 5 0 0 to
v set-point level. The resulting characteristics are shown in
I Figure 2.43.
Lp
t Lp
2 means of stopping the motor and its load, and as the only
Figure 2.42 Single-phase dual-converter D.C. drive
+1500rev/min can still be achieved in approximately
200 ms.
This circulating-current-free dual converter is by far the
most common industrial four-quadrant D.C. drive and is
used in many demanding applications - paper, plastics and
textile machines where rapid control of tension is required
are good examples.
FIELD CONTROL
The output power of a motor is the product of torque and
speed. If torque reduces in proportion to increases in speed,
the motor is said to have a constant power characteristic.
In applications where material is coiled or uncoiled at con-
stant tension, the torque required to produce that tension
varies in proportion to coil diameter, and rotational speed
required to maintain a constant peripheral speed (and
therefore line speed) is inversely proportional to diameter. A
motor having a constant power characteristic is well suited
to this type of application, the advantage being that a smaller
motor can be used than would otherwise be the case.
Machine tool drives also make use of constant power
operation, since loads are small at high speeds and heavy
work is done at low speed.
As explained in Chapter 1.1, the torque produced by a D.C.
motor is proportional to the product of armature current and
field flux. By weakening the field as speed increases, a
constant power characteristic can be achieved.
In practice, there are two major techniques for field weak-
ening, both of which rely on a field controller which itself is
a simple thyristor converter operating in a current control
mode.
In the first method, suitable for coiler and uncoiler applica-
tions, the field current reference is arranged to be inversely
proportional to coil diameter (measured directly, or calcu-
lated from the ratio of line speed to motor speed). Since flux
is not strictly proportional to field current, this method does
not give a true constant power characteristic unless com-
pensation for the nonlinear part of the motor field curve
is applied.
The second method is to use the field controller with an outer
voltage loop having a fixed reference, and to use motor
armature voltage as the feedback signal. At low speeds, the
voltage loop saturates, providing maximum field current,
since armature voltage is below the set value. As speed
increases, the armature voltage rises to the point where
it matches the preset reference in the field controller.
Above that speed an error signal is produced by the voltage
loop, which causes the field controller to weaken the motor
field current and thereby restore armature voltage to the
As regenerative braking depends on the return of power from
the motor to the mains, it cannot work if the mains supply
fails due to a blown fuse or a power cut. Dynamic braking of
four-quadrant drives is often encountered as a fail-safe
means of (reverse) braking of single-ended drives. This
involves switching in a resistor across the D.C. motor.

I approximately 100 Hz, which is too low for many servo-
constant field I field weakening
O
L tages. (Near unity power factor can be achieved using an
E
speed
0
constant constant power
torque
"'I
0 tance emphasis shall be placed on their consideration.
0
0 For the purpose of illustration bipolar transistors will be
E
base speed speed
Figure 2.43 Constant power operation using a field
controller
Since the kinetic energy of the motor and its load is con-
verted into heat by the braking resistor, it is important to rate
it correctly for the duty it is expected to perform, taking
account of load inertia and the number of stops per hour.
D.C. TO D.C. POWER CONVERSION
General
D.C.-D.C. power converters (often referred to as choppers)
provide the means to change one D.C. voltage to another. It
is more usual for the conversion to be to a lower voltage,
although step-up converters are available and have sig-
nificant potential for the future.
D.C.-D.C. power converters are fed from a D.C. supply
usually comprising an uncontrolled A.C. to D.C. converter
or alternatively a battery supply; the controlled D.C. output
can then be used to control a D.C. machine as in the case of
the controlled A.C. to D.C. converters.
D.C. drives employing controlled A.C. to D.C. converters
have several important limitations, which are overcome by
the D.C.-D.C. converter:
The inability of a thyristor to interrupt current means that
an alternating supply is necessary to commutate the
converter- this precludes operation from a D.C. supply.
This is a common requirement on battery vehicles and
D.C.-fed rail traction.
The D.C. ripple frequency is determined by the A.C. and
is, for a 50 Hz supply frequency, 100 Hz for single-phase
and 300 Hz for three-phase fully controlled bridges. This
means that additional smoothing components are often
required when using high-speed machines, permanent-
magnet motors or other special motors with low arma-
ture inductance.
As a result of the delay inherent in thyristor switching
(3.3 ms in a 50 Hz three-phase converter) the current
control loop band width of the converter is limited to
Chapter 2.2 79
drive applications.
Thyristor-controlled A.C.-D.C. converters have an
inherently poor input power factor at low output vol-
uncontrolled rectifier feeding a D.C.-D.C. converter.)
Electronic short-circuit protection is not economically
possible with thyristor converters. Protection is normally
accomplished by fuses.
D.C.-D.C. converters are however more complex and
somewhat less efficient than A.C.-D.C. converters. They
find application mainly in D.C. servodrives, rail traction
drives and small fractional kW drives employing permanent-
magnet motors.
Since step-down converters are of greatest practical impor-
considered, however MOSFET, IGBT and GTOs are
widely used.
Step Down D.C.-D.C. Converters
SINGLE-QUADRANTD.C.-D.C. CONVERTER
The most basic D.C. to D.C. converter is shown in Figure
2.44. The output voltage is changed by pulse-width mod-
ulation (PWM) - that is, by varying the time for which the
transistor T is turned on. The voltage applied to the motor is
therefore in the form of a square wave of varying periodicity.
Because the motor is inductive the current waveform is
smoothed, the flywheel diode D carrying the current while
the transistor is turned off.
The basic formulae relating the variables in this circuit are as
follows:
Va = VD.C. " t ' f
A Ia = VD.C./(4" La "f)
wherefis the frequency of transistor on pulse (Hz), A/a is the
maximum deviation of armature current, La is the motor
inductance, t is the on pulse duration (s) and VD.C. is the
source D.C. voltage.
The circuit is only capable of supplying unidirectional cur-
rent and voltage to the motor and is therefore not capable of
four-quadrant operation, that is reversing or regenerating.
Industrial applications for this circuit are normally limited to
drives below 5 kW and simple variable-speed applications.
In traction applications, however, drives of this fundamental
type are designed at ratings of many hundreds of kW.
Two-QUADRANT D.C.-D.C. CONVERTER
In order to achieve full four-quadrant operation a converter
must be capable of supplying reversible voltage and current
to the motor. A circuit that is capable of two-quadrant
operation - that is motoring and braking in one direction
only - is shown in Figure 2.45. This converter is able to
reverse the current flow to the motor but unable to reverse
the motor terminal voltage and hence the speed. During
motoring, the converter operates as the basic chopper with
T1 and D2 carrying the current. During braking (or regen-
eration) T1 is inoperative and T2 controls the current.
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Step-up D.C.-D.C. Converters
As with step-down converters, many alternative configura-
tions exist for step-up converters. Although a full description
is not necessary, the principle is of value.
Figure 2.47 shows a much simplified arrangement of a step-
up converter. When T is turned on, current builds up in
inductor L. When T is turned off, the energy stored in L is
transferred to capacitor C via D. When the capacitor voltage,
which is the same as the motor armature voltage, reaches the
desired level, T is turned on once more. C cannot discharge
via T as diode D is reverse biased.
In this way a stabilised voltage typically twice the input D.C.
voltage can be obtained. This circuit is particularly useful
when operating on low-voltage supplies and can lead to very
cost-effective converter designs.
A.C. TO A.C. POWER CONVERTERS WITH
INTERMEDIATE D.C. LINK
General
This category of A.C. drive, commonly termed a variable
frequency inverter, is by far the most important in respect of
the majority of industrial applications. It is considered here
as a complete converter; however the input stages have
been considered earlier in isolation, and their individual
characteristics so described are, of course, applicable.
Alternative input stages to some of the drives are applicable.
Also, some converters may be used with a variety of
machine types. Only practically important combinations are
described.
The concept of these inverter drives is well understood -
rectification of fixed frequency, smoothing and then
inverting to give variable frequency/variable voltage to feed
an A.C. machine. Within this broad concept two major
categories of drive exist:
voltage source in which the converter impresses a vol-
tage on the machine, and the machine impedances
determine the current
current source in which the converter impresses a current
on the machine, and the machine impedances determine
the voltage
Voltage Source Inverters
GENERALCHARACTERISTICS
The fixed-frequency mains supply is a voltage source behind
an impedance. Voltage source inverters can be similarly
L D
i
~c
Figure 2.47 Step-up D.C.-D.C. converter
Chapter 2.2 81
considered, and consequently are very flexible in their
application. Major inherent features include:
Multimotor loads can be a p p l i e d - this can be very
economical in applications such as roller table drives,
spinning machines etc.
Inverter operation is not dependent upon the
machine - indeed, various machines (induction, syn-
chronous or even reluctance) can be used provided that
the current drawn is within the current rating of the
inverter. Care should be taken where a low power-factor
motor is used (e.g. reluctance) to ensure that the inverter
can provide the required VARs.
Inherent open-circuit protection, very useful in applica-
tions where the cables between the inverter and motor
are in some way insecure (e.g. fed via slip-tings, subject
to damage etc.).
Facility to ride through mains dips can easily be pro-
vided by buffering the D.C. voltage link with capaci-
tance or, where necessary, a battery.
Motoring operation only in both directions is possible
without the addition of resistive dumps for braking
energy or expensive regenerative converters to feed
energy back to the supply.
SIX-STEP SQUARE-WAVE INVERTER
A typical D.C. link square-wave voltage-fed inverter drive is
shown in Figure 2.48. The three-phase A.C. supply is con-
verted to D.C. in the phase-controlled rectifier stage. The
rectified D.C. power is then filtered and fed to the inverter.
Note that the D.C. link reactor is small compared to those
used in current-source designs. Indeed, in drives up to about
4 kW it is not practically necessary. Some manufacturers
omit the reactor in designs to 400 kW and above; however
this has a significant effect upon supply harmonics and
unduly stresses the rectifier and filter capacitor.
The inverter switching elements shown as transistors T1 to
T6 are gated at 60 intervals in the sequence in which they
are numbered in the diagram, and each transistor conducts
for 180 . The feedback diodes D1 to D6 are connected in
inverse parallel with the transistors, and permit the retum of
energy from reactive or regenerative loads through the
inverter to the D.C. link.
For a star-connected motor, synthesis of inverter output
voltage waveforms is shown in Figure 2.49. The phase-to-
neutral voltage of the inverter has a six-step waveshape, and
the corresponding phase-to-phase voltage has 120 con-
duction angle. The output frequency is controlled by the rate
at which the inverter transistors are triggered into conduction
by the inverter control circuitry. Reversing the firing
sequence of transistors in the inverter changes the direction
of rotation of the motor, and no switching of power leads,
either on the incoming supply or to the motor itself, is
necessary.
The phase-controlled rectifier regulates the D.C. link voltage
and this, in tum, determines the magnitude of the output volt-
age from the inverter. Thus, the output voltage/frequency
relationship may be controlled to regulate the motor flux in
the desired manner.
82 DRIVE CONVERTERCIRCUITS: A.C. t o A.C. P o w e r Converters w i t h Intermediate D.C. Link

D.C. link inverter

T3 I I T5

0
,

I ,

rectifier

Figure 2.48 Square-wave voltage-fed inverter

Very high-speed motor operation is possible by increasing

the output frequency. Faster switching devices such as MOS
transistors and insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBT) can
be used to achieve this performance.

I, It is known that the square-wave inverter gives objectionable

torque pulsations at low-frequency operation, below
VBc approximately 5 Hz. This pulsating torque is due to the
interactions of low-order harmonics with the fundamental
voltage, causing a stepping or cogging motion to the rotor
running at low speed. Hence, the pulsating torque limits the
low-frequency operation of the square-wave inverter.
Appropriate feedback control techniques or flux weakening
can attenuate the low-speed pulsating torque problems.
VCA
The existence of a phase-controlled rectifier to control the
voltage of the inverter as illustrated in Figure 2.48 is
an inherent weakness of this circuit. The phase-controlled
rectifier will present a low power factor to the A.C. supply,
at low speeds, and the D.C. link filter capacitor is large and
phase-to-phase voltages reduces the response time of the system to voltage and hence
speed changes. If the drive system is one for which regen-
VAN
c~
erative braking operation is a requirement, the rectifier has
I\ ,,,,,,, to be of inverse-parallel type. The input power factor and
response time of the drive can be improved by replacing the
//
'/ ]\\\ I// f II phase-controlled rectifier with a diode rectifier feeding a
r%. I D.C. chopper which regulates the input voltage to the
.I
\ I ~ inverter. For recovering regenerative energy of the load, a
phase-to-neutral voltage
two-quadrant chopper will be necessary. The alternative
Figure 2.49 Square-wave voltage-fed inverter, output supply converter arrangement of a diode bridge plus chopper
voltage and current also provides a fixed voltage link, which is more econom-
ically buffered, if mains dip ride through is required.
The advantages of the square-wave inverter are high effi-
The voltage-fed square-wave drive is usually used in low-
ciency (98 per cent), suitability to standard motors, potential
power industrial applications where the speed range is lim-
good reliability and high-speed capability. However, it suf-
ited to ten to one and dynamic performance is not important.
fers from low-speed torque pulsations and possible low-
Recently, this type of drive has largely been superseded by
speed instability.
PWM-type voltage-fed inverters. Nevertheless, the voltage-
In a square-wave inverter, each harmonic voltage amplitude fed square-wave inverter can be easily adapted to multi-
is inversely proportional to the harmonic order and hence motor drives where the speed of a number of induction
there are no pronounced high-order harmonics. These are motors can be closely tracked. It is also used in some high-
filtered out by the motor leakage inductances. frequency ( > 1 kHz) and some high-power applications.
 Chapter 2.2 83

PULSE-WIDTH MODULATED (PWM)INVERTER _ carrierwave

A ~ ~ r ] ~ ~ ~ : sinewave
In the PWM inverter drive, the D.C. link voltage is uncon- ~/~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ar,,,~k~referencesignal
trolled and derived from a simple diode bridge. The output
voltage can be controlled electronically within the inverter i/A'
V',',V,
,, ,,'V"
, ,",,,,, V",,,,,", ,' ', V '8
by using PWM techniques. In this method, the transistors are , , ,
I
, t
II
~
II I I
,~_upperthyristor
I I I 'I ,, , , on
switched on and off many times within a half cycle to gen-
erate a variable-voltage output which is normally low in
+sV"l Fll II II II- -!
harmonic content. 0,v.I IIU II U_
A PWM waveform is illustrated in Figure 2.50. per phase output voltage, _~ ~_ lower thyristor on
(with respect to mid D.C. link point)
A large number of PWM techniques exist each having dif-

VIH
ferent performance notably in respect to the stability and
audible noise of the driven motor.
Using the PWM technique, low-speed torque pulsations are
virtually eliminated since negligible low-order harmonics
are present. Hence, this is an ideal solution where a drive
system is to be used across a wide speed range.
Since voltage and frequency are both controlled with the
PWM, quick response to changes in demand voltage and
PWM line voltage
U LIUHH
frequency can be achieved. Furthermore, with a diode rec-
tifier as the input circuit a high power factor, approaching
unity, is offered to the incoming A.C. supply over the entire
speed and load range.
PWM inverter drive efficiency typically approaches 98 per
nr F U1
cent but this figure is heavily affected by the choice of
PWM phase voltage
switching frequency- the higher the switching frequency
the higher the losses in the drive. In practice, the maximum Figure 2.50 Sinusoidal PWM line and phase voltages
fundamental output frequency is usually restricted to 100 Hz
in the case of gate turn-off thyristors (GTO) or about 1 kHz
for a transistor-based system. The upper frequency limit may
be improved by making a transition to a less sophisticated CONVERTER-FED SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE
PWM waveform with a lower switching frequency and
ultimately to a square wave if the application demands. Once rotating, a synchronous machine generates A.C. vol-
However, with the introduction of faster switching power tages which can be used for the natural commutation of a
semiconductors, these restrictions to switching frequency converter connected to its terminals. Indeed, the connected
and minimum pulse width have been eased. synchronous machine behaves as the mains in respect of the
A.C. to D.C. converters described earlier.
In general, a motor with a large leakage reactance is desir-
able to limit the flow of harmonic currents and thereby
Figure 2.51 shows the basic components of the drive system.
minimise losses.
A low-impedance or stiff D.C. current source is required and
is obtained from a controlled rectifier and a series reactor.
MULTILEVEL CONVERTERS
With a stiff current source, the output current wave is not
At high powers and/or high voltages it is not possible to greatly affected by the magnitude of the load.
implement PWM strategies with high switching frequencies.
The synchronous machine can be approximately represented
The waveform of such systems can be improved by pro-
by a counter e.m.f, in series with an equivalent leakage
viding intermediate D.C. voltage levels. Commercial sys-
inductance. The D.C. current is switched through the
tems of this type exist, but their application is quite rare.
inverter thyristors so as to establish three-phase, six-stepped
symmetrical line current waves. Each thyristor conducts for
Current Source Inverters 120 and at any instant one upper thyristor and one lower
thyristor remain in conduction.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
It is necessary to maintain an approximately constant
Whereas each voltage-fed inverter can be used with most
angular relationship between the rotor and stator e.m.f.s and
forms of A.C. machine, a different design of current-source
hence automatically maintain the correct inverter frequency.
inverter is usually adopted for synchronous and induction
This is an important point. The inverter does not impose a
motors. Current-source drives are usually, but not always,
frequency upon the machine, rather the machine itself
single-motor systems, and since current is controlled, have
determines the frequency. The motor cannot therefore pole
simple short-circuit protection.
slip. The drive is accelerated by increasing the current fed to
In contrast to voltage-source inverters full four-quadrant the motor, which then accelerates and thereby increases the
operation is inherently possible. frequency.
84 DRIVE CONVERTERCIRCUITS:A.C. to A.C. Power Converters with Intermediate D.C. Link

TH5 TH2
,/ I I

v[
Ld Id

TH5' TH1

,C'
TI-
TH2'
|
supply rectifier inverter synchronous
machine

Figure 2.51 Converter-fed synchronous machine

As in the D.C. drives, the A.C. supply power factor is poor at upon the converter-fed synchronous machine drive having
low speeds. Full four-quadrant operation is possible without additional components to provide VAR compensation.
additional components.
Figure 2.52 shows a basic power circuit. The diagram
Special procedures are necessary for starting these drives somewhat belies the potential complexity of the VAR
because at standstill the machine voltage is not available to compensator. In its simplest form, this could comprise
commutate the current. In essence this is usually achieved by capacitors plus appropriate switches. Control of such a
momentarily switching off the D.C. link current every sixth system is somewhat involved and it is often better to use a
of a cycle. This allows the thyristors in the inverter to turn cycloconverter or even an auxiliary synchronous machine to
off so that the next pair can be fired. Above approximately 5 provide the commutation and motor VARs.
per cent of rated speed the machine generates sufficient This system is only appropriate for high-power drives,
voltage for natural commutation and control is undertaken in generally above 4MW, where an induction motor is
a similar manner to that of a D.C. drive. preferred.
Applications for this type of drive fall into two main cate-
gories. First, starting converters for large synchronous FORCED-COMMUTATED INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVE
machines, the converter being rated only for a fraction of the
machine rating. Second, as large high-power (and sometimes A forced-commutated induction motor drive is the most
high-speed) variable-speed drives for a variety of applica- widely used current source inverter at power levels in the
tions. Power ratings typically from 1.5 to 30 MW at speeds range 50-3500 kW at voltages up to normally 690 V (high-
up to 8000 r.p.m, are available. Also of import is the fact that voltage versions 3.3 kV/6.6 kV have been developed, how-
high-voltage drives are offered with supply voltages up to ever they have not proved to be economically attractive).
typically 5 kV, but systems up to 25 kV are in service where
Figure 2.53 shows the inverter and motor of the drive. The
the high-voltage converter technology is similar to that used
for HVDC power converters. D.C. link current Id, taken from a stiff current source, is
sequentially switched at the required frequency into the
CONVERTER-FED INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVE stator windings of the induction motor. The motor voltage
waveform is approximately sinusoidal apart from the
Unlike the synchronous machine, the induction motor is superposition of voltage spikes caused by the rise and fall
unable to provide the VARs or terminal voltage to com- of machine current at each commutation. Further distor-
mutate a converter connected to its terminals. Commercial tion is caused by the effects of slot tipple and D.C. current
schemes are available, however, which are closely based tipple.

II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~VAR
I r , compensator
r" . . . . . . . . . . . .

I I Ld Id
1
supply I 'I II 2 .~ { _7

M
1

induction
inverter motor
rectifier

Figure 2.52 Converter-fed induction motor

 Chapter 2.2 85

Power can flow in only one direction via the diode bridge,
O which means that motoring torque can be developed only at
subsynchronous speeds. For reverse running it is necessary
TH 1 FH3 TH5 to reverse the phase sequence of the stator supply.
37 x7 x7
(; II ,, || This drive can be very economic when designed for opera-
II I|
,) tion over a limited speed range below synchronous s p e e d -
this is the useful operating region for fans, pumps etc. The
~7D1 \ 703 ~7D5
uo A ,L
B J.
C';
M) converter bridges required for such limited speed range
operation need only be rated at a fraction of that of the
machine which it is controlling. It is necessary in such
7D6 7D2 designs to provide a starter, usually a resistance to run the
~ZD4 I I motor up to the lowest controllable speed. This means that
'; II " should there be a fault with the converter equipment, the
II
system can be easily designed to run at full speed without the
ZTH4 7TH6 7TH2 controller.
Note that the supply harmonic currents and VARs asso-
IF
ciated with the converter part of the drive may be sub-
Figure 2.53 Forced-commutated induction motor stantially reduced by adopting a limited speed range
solution.
The operating frequency range is typically 5 to 60 Hz, the The static Kramer drive finds application mainly at ratings
upper limit being set by the relatively slow commutation between 1 and 20 MW, with induction motors with four or
process. Special motors with low leakage inductance do more poles (stability problems exist with two-pole motors,
offer advantage with this converter and allow reduced which can only be resolved with care). Speed ranges of 30
capacitance in the inverter and/or higher operating fre- per cent are typical (i.e. 70-100 per cent rated speed). The
quency. Below 5 Hz, torque pulsations can be problematic induction motor stator can be wound for any conventional
but PWM of the current can be used at low frequencies to voltage e.g. 6.6 kV, 11 kV.
ease the problem.
This system is most commonly used for single-motor DIRECT A.C. TO A.C. POWER
applications such as fans, pumps, extruders, compressors
CONVERTERS
etc. where very good dynamic performance is not necessary
and a supply power factor, which decreases with speed, is
General
acceptable.
This final category of power converter converts the fixed-
STATICKRAMERDRIVE frequency, fixed-voltage A.C. supply to a variable fre-
quency and/or variable voltage without an intermediate
The static Kramer drive is shown in Figure 2.54 and com-
D.C. link.
prises a slip-ring (wound-rotor) induction motor together
with an uncontrolled converter, D.C. smoothing reactor and
a fully controlled converter in the rotor circuit. Soft Starter/Voltage Regulator
The diode bridge gives an output voltage Va that is propor-
Figure 2.55 shows a typical soft start comprising inverse
tional to the slip of the motor. Vd is opposed by the D.C.
parallel connected thyristors in each supply line to an
voltage of the fully controlled bridge, a small potential dif-
induction motor. Alternative connections are available but
ference being sufficient to circulate current corresponding to
the principles are similar.
the required load torque. Ideally, neglecting losses, the fully
controlled bridge D.C. voltage sets the speed to which the The converter shown in Figure 2.55 is used to control the
motor will accelerate. Control is therefore very similar to voltage applied to the motor and in this way soften the
that for a D.C. drive. effects of switching an induction motor direct-on-line

Ls

v~

Figure 2.54 Static Kramer drive

86 DRIVE CONVERTERCIRCUITS:Direct A.C. to A.C. Power Converters

-__k

r~

AL
\
v

Figure 2.55 Typical soft start

Figure 2.56 Cycloconverter

(DOL). Although the converter will control the cur-

rent drawn from the supply, its most usual application is in
controlling torque to provide smooth jolt-free acceleration.
Because the stator frequency is unchanged, a reduced run-
ning voltage, and hence flux, equates to a large slip which
J Ap J Bp J Gp
results in additional rotor losses - care must therefore be
i,o
taken in its application.
A

In a number of specialised cases, purpose-designed high-

resistance rotors (or slip-ring motors with external rotor res- JOAn J
,~Bn
istors) are used to form a variable-speed drive - the rationale ~ ) On output
for such a system is based more on history than technology.
More recently, such converters have been employed as
combined soft starters/power-factor controllers/energy-
saving devices. The case for significant energy saving by
J
oAm J
08m J
/0 Grn
this form of converter is often hard to prove.
A crude form of frequency control is possible by modulating
(varying cyclically) the thyristor firing angles at the required
output frequency. Commercial systems are available but
they are of limited value as supply current and motor torque A B C
are of poor quality. input

Cycloconverter Figure 2.57 Matrix converter

A typical scheme for a cycloconverter drive is shown in

Figure 2.56. Each motor phase is supplied, in effect, from a
dual A.C. to D.C. converter which was described earlier. It is
usual to employ circulating current-free converters. To avoid
line to line short circuits, isolating transformers are used on
the supply side. By modulating the firing angles of the dual-
bridge converters, a controllable three-phase set of voltages
can be produced suitable for feeding polyphase A.C.
machines.
The drive is inherently four quadrant. The maximum output
frequency is limited to approximately half the supply fre-
quency by considerations related to harmonics in the motor
currents and torque, stability and dimensions of the drive
components. The cycloconverter therefore finds application
in low-speed drives. The complexity of the drive also means
that only high-power systems ( > 1 MW), or specialised
applications (e.g. conveyor drives for use in hazardous
environments), are economic. They are used on large ball
mills, minewinders etc. They are also used to feed multi-
motor loads such as roller tables.
Owing to the modulation of the converter firing angles, the
harmonic content of the A.C. supply is complex and designs
for appropriate harmonic filters somewhat involved.
The cycloconverter is suitable for feeding both induction and
synchronous machines. In specialised applications such as
wind generators, cycloconverters have been placed in the
rotor circuit of a slip-ring induction motor. Such a system,
known as a static Scherbius drive, is detailed below.
Static Scherbius Drive
The static Scherbius drive is closely related to the static
Kramer drive, with the single-quadrant diode bridge in the
rotor circuit replaced by a cycloconverter.

The cycloconverter is used as the voltage and frequency
changer between the rotor and the supply. The cyclo-
converter is inherently regenerative, and the output can be
controlled up to half the supply frequency in both phase
sequences. It is thus possible for the system to operate as a
full four-quadrant drive. For a given converter rating the
range of speed control is therefore twice that of a static
Kramer drive.
The relative complexity of the drive limits its application to
somewhat specialised high-power applications where a very
limited speed range only is required and perhaps stringent
harmonic current limits have been imposed by the supply
authority.
Matrix Converter
Recently, attention has been refocused on the matrix con-
verter shown in Figure 2.57. Although the basic circuit is not
Chapter 2.2 87
new, recent advances in power devices offer the potential to
overcome many of the drawbacks inherent in the circuit
when the switches comprise inverse parallel thyristors.
Limitations in the maximum output voltage (86 per cent
input) means that its application in the commercial industrial
market could be problematic. There are prospects for use in
integrated motors and some servo systems where machine
voltage is not seen as critical.
Commercial systems are available only for very specialised
applications at present. It has yet to be proven to be a
practical and cost-effective industrial drive.
 CHAPTER 3

Speed and Position Feedback Devices

i 1 D.C. TACHOMETER GENERATOR 90

m 2 A.C. TACHOMETER GENERATOR 92

3 RESOLVER 92

4 ENCODER 97

@ s SELECTION OF A FEEDBACK DEVICE FOR A DRIVE SYSTEM 99

B 6 MECHANICAL CONSIDERATIONS 100

/I 7 GLOSSARY OF TERMS 101

The precise control of speed, position or acceleration
requires appropriate measuring systems to be applied to the
controlled variable. Although considerable progress has
been made in the development of sensorless drive systems,
these schemes tend to result in improvements in dynamic
and shaft performance as opposed to precise positional or
speed accuracy.
This chapter deals with sensors extemal to the drive module
itself.
Before considering the various forms of sensor, it is neces-
sary to clarify the, often misunderstood, difference between
resolution and accuracy of a feedback device:
Resolution
The resolution of a feedback device is most simply described
as the number of measuring steps in one revolution of the
motor shaft. For an incremental encoder it is the number of
pulses per revolution.
90 D.C. TACHOMETERGENERATOR: General
Resolution is often described in terms of number of bits. This
is related to the twos complement; for example, a 12-bit
feedback device has the equivalent of 212= 4096 measuring
steps per revolution.
For analogue feedback devices such as resolvers, where a
resolution is quoted it usually refers to an associated
resolver-to-digital converter.
Accuracy
The accuracy of a sensor is best described as the position
deviation within one signal period or measuring step.
In an encoder the accuracy is influenced primarily by
the eccentricity of the graduation to the bearing, the elasti-
city of the encoder shaft and its coupling to the motor
1 D.C. TACHOMETER GENERATOR
GENERAL
The D.C. tachogenerator, also known as a tachometer or
more commonly as a tacho, is an electromagnetic transducer
that converts mechanical rotation into a D.C. output voltage.
This voltage is directly proportional to rotational speed. In
addition, it has a polarity sense dependent on the direction of
rotation.
The basic theory of the D.C. motor described in Chapter 1.1
applies to the tacho. There are, however, some aspects which
differentiate the tacho from the generic D.C. motor:
1 Linearity of the output- the tacho must provide a D.C.
output voltage proportional to the shaft speed with a
defined linearity.
2 Smooth output - the output voltage must be relatively
smooth/free from ripple, particularly in the frequency
range in which the drive is operating.
3 The output voltage for a given speed should be constant
with changing temperature.
The tacho output is directly proportional to speed.
This relationship can be expressed in the form:
where Vg is the output voltage of the tacho, Kg is the transfer
constant of the tacho and n is the speed of the tacho. Kg is
often quoted in volts per 1000 min-1.
There are two basic forms of D.C. tachogenerator, shunt-
wound and permanent-magnet types. Most modem tachos
are of the permanent-magnet type, which are compact and
robust.
shaft, the graduation, the optics and the electronic signal
processing.
For analogue feedback devices, the accuracy is influenced
primarily by the winding distribution, eccentricity of the air
gap, uniformity of the air-gap flux and the elasticity of the
resolver shaft and its coupling to the motor shaft. When
used, the accuracy of electronic signal processing can also
heavily influence performance.
Electronics can be used to improve accuracy. This is pos-
sible as many of the causes of error are fixed and correction
techniques such as calibrated look-up tables can be used.
To ensure smooth drive performance, a speed feedback
device must give high resolution. At low speeds the position
deviation of the encoder within one signal period, i.e.
accuracy, affects speed stability.
OUTPUT VOLTAGE RIPPLE
The ripple voltage is defined as the variation in output vol-
tage caused by the number of armature coils for a given
design. Hence, the basic ripple frequency is dependent upon
the number of coils and is a measure of the number of cycles
in one revolution.
The fundamental ripple can be distorted by intemal random
and cyclic electrical noise, such as commutation due to
varying contact resistance between the brush and commutator
interface and brush bounce. In addition, misalignment of the
driving medium and the output shaft of the tachometer would
cause serious modulation in the output signal.
t-~
O
O
"t~ ---- vg/n
e-
(D
O')
0
c-
O
shaft speed n
Figure 3.1 Tachogenerator output voltage versus shaft
speed

To overcome the internal distortion, high-quality brushes
are used, having low contact resistance and sufficient
brush force to maintain positive contact stability without
degrading the brush life. Enough cannot be said to ensure that
the end user correctly aligns the drive and driven shafts
because it becomes critical if a good signal is required at the
lower speeds.
The ripple voltage is usually measured in r.m.s, although
peak to peak values are sometimes quoted.
High-frequency brush ripple and its harmonics is rarely
quoted in performance data since a minimum of electronic
smoothing effectively removes these components without
adding a significant time delay to transient events.
TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
Tachogenerators are specified in respect of their temperature
error. The quality of this parameter is closely related to the
design principle and materials used in the manufacture of the
tacho. In order of increasing cost:
Uncompensated generators
This is the lowest cost type, having a temperature error up to
0.2 per cent per K of magnet temperature.
Compensated generators
This type has a temperature error in the area of 0.05 per cent
per K of magnet temperature. Low-cost ceramic magnet
materials are often used in combination with thermistor-
based compensating networks. This temperature compen-
sation system limits the application of this type of tacho to a
temperature range up to 75C.
The output impedance is generally higher than that of the
more expensive types.
Stable generators
This type has a temperature error in the area of 0.02 per cent
per K of magnet temperature. They are usually based on
Alnico 5 magnets.
Ultrastable generators
This type has a temperature error in the area of 0.01 per cent
per K of magnet temperature. To achieve this low level of
temperature sensitivity Alnico 8 or Alnico 5 magnetic
material in combination with a compensating alloy in the
magnetic field circuit is used.
LINEARITY AND LOAD EFFECTS
Linearity is defined as the deviation from a straight line
voltage/speed relationship at any given point within the
speed range, as a percentage of the theoretical output at that
point.
A limiting factor for linearity is the speed at which
the machine is rotating. A deviation will occur at speeds
beyond the machine's capability, caused by aerodynamic
lift of the brushes etc. and the hysteresis losses in the
armature core.
Chapter 3.1 91
Linearity of output voltage is also affected by the output
current drain. This current in turn depends on the voltage
gradient of the tacho, the mechanical speed and the load
impedance.
A further impact could be armature reaction and saturation
effects particularly in very high-speed applications.
Linearity should not be confused with the tolerance given
to the output voltage which is normally given as +10
per cent.
STABILITY OF THE OUTPUT
The stability of the output voltage is mainly determined by
the state of the commutator surface. To maintain the com-
mutator in good condition the recommended load RL should
be typically between 50 and 500 times RA, where RA is the
armature resistance of the tacho. The use of high values of
RL, within the above limits, will improve linearity and sta-
bility, particularly under conditions of fluctuating load. The
use of values below or above the limits can lead to excessive
brush and commutator wear, or to increasing instability of
the output.
The ideal commutator condition is with a carbon track
deposited on the commutator surface which has a shiny, dry
appearance, evenly distributed around the commutator cir-
cumference. A thick deposit of oily or powdery carbon
suggests that contamination has occurred and the output
will be unstable. A bright, polished copper surface is not
recommended and commutator cleaning sticks, abrasive
powders or commutator lubricants must not be used. If
cleaning becomes essential, the brushes must be removed,
the armature may be rotated typically up to 1000min-1
and a hard felt pad moistened with a nonoily cleaning
fluid held against the commutator surface to remove car-
bon and debris. It is important to allow the commutator
surface and the intersegment insulation to dry thoroughly
before reassembly, and to fit new brushes if possible
since the old ones may well be impregnated with the
harmful contaminant. In this case it is desirable to run the
tacho at speed with a low value of load resistance to bed in
the brushes.
M A X I M U M TERMINAL VOLTAGE
The maximum terminal voltage is a function of the bar to bar
voltage seen at the commutator and a value of 12 volts bar to
bar is typical to ensure stability in the output signal. To
exceed this value will result in poor stability and, in the long
term, destruction of the commutator bars and brushes due to
the high self-induced currents in the windings under com-
mutation. The maximum voltage is rarely quoted, rather the
maximum speed.
M A X I M U M OPERATING SPEED
Either voltage or commutation will be the limiting factor on
the maximum operating speed. These values are normally
given in the manufacturer's data sheets.
Care should also be taken on very high-speed applications
that the mechanical speed limit is not exceeded.
92 D.C. TACHOMETERGENERATOR:Mechanical Construction

brush assembly

bearing

- - t(-.-------.-)

armature assembly field assembly

Figure 3.2 Typical construction of a D.C. tachogenerator

MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION
The mechanical construction of tachogenerators varies
considerably. Many are separate devices mounted on the
outside of a motor or machine, and others are integral, some
even are wound onto the same armature as the motor they are
monitoring.
Figure 3.2 shows a typical arrangement used in many drive
applications.

2 A.C. TACHOMETER GENERATOR

A.C. tachogenerators/tachometers generate a three-phase
A.C. voltage proportional to speed, which is rectified into
a D.C. voltage via an integral, usually three-phase, diode
bridge. The polarity of the D.C. output voltage is not
dependent upon the direction of rotation so can only be
used on drives having only one direction of rotation. The
advantage of such generators is that they are almost main-
tenance free, being of brushless design. The rectifier has a
linearity error of approximately 1.5 volts due to the forward
voltage drop of two diodes. This error is essentially constant
throughout the speed range.
Output voltage ripple is typically in the order of 4 per cent.
These are low-cost units with moderate performance used on
unidirectional applications.

3 RESOLVER

The resolver is a specific member of the synchro family. A sensing devices which can operate together to provide a rota-
synchro is a general term for a family of angular position tional torque, for light loads. Alternatively, they can provide
 Chapter 3.3 93

(CX or TX) (CT or TR)

transmitter receiver supplyfor
,, S3 ~ torquechain
= ,R1 ,_,1~s3
input ,"N~ N

,n0uti
angle @
"r Sl
I
' ~
i T S2 "', outputsignal
; ~
output
, angle
"'. for controlchain
"

Figure 3.3 A simple synchro

torquetransmitter
(TX) torquedifferential
transmitter(TDX) torquereceiver
(TR)
$1 $3
(TX) inp
shafta
)
I
r TDXA L O / ~ . ~TgX T ~ ~ l . . ( T R , . s h a f f ,
stator~ R"~..kZ.k~'
~ "~l:pul: angle
TXl
rTtXr ~S2 S2~
~_......I~ ~S2 [rTtRri
R2 R1 inputangle R2 R1
to TDXshaft
Figure 3.4 Torque transmitter~differential transmitter~receiver

a signal with direction and magnitude information enabling
a servomotor system to provide rotational torque. A resolver
is a modified form of synchro used for resolving angular
position into coordinate data for use in control systems.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
All synchros and resolvers have the same basic construction,
a wound rotor, carried on precision bearings, free to rotate
inside a fixed, wound stator. Operation is based on the
principle of a rotary transformer, so that when windings are
in electrical alignment a maximum voltage is induced from
the primary to the secondary. When the two windings are
situated at right angles to each other, there is no coupling and
no voltage is induced in the secondary winding. At any other
angle a voltage will be generated which takes the form of a
sine wave as the rotor shaft moves through 360 electrical
degrees.
SYNCHROS
This simplified description ignores the fact that a single
winding on a rotor and stator would not give angular rotation
information, so the synchro family is based on a three-phase
transmission system. The voltages induced in the three stator
windings are displaced with respect to each other by 120
electrical degrees. If the three stator coils are connected to
another similar three-phase stator, an alternating field will be
set up in alignment with the first. A rotor within that stator
field will have a voltage induced in it the amplitude and
phase of which will be an indication of the input rotor
position.
If the output rotor is energised from the same source as the
input rotor, it will develop an alignment torque.
TORQUE SYNCHROS
Torque synchros are applied when it is required to transmit
light torque without additional servo components. Their use
is normally limited to driving instrument pointers, compass
cards and similar applications. Typical components used in
systems are:
torque transmitter (TX)
torque receiver (TR)
torque differential transmitter (TDX)
These components may be used together in a torque chain as
follows.
From Figure 3.4 it can be seen that when the two rotors are
energised from the same source and the stators are connected
as shown, there will be a torque developed by interaction
of the stator field and the rotor field of the receiver. The
94 RESOLVER: TorqueSynchros
torque will be to bring the rotor of the receiver into align- rotoroutput
ment with that of the transmitter. When aligned, the
torque is zero. The torque/misalignment curve is of sinu- ~ . Ii VrIteasigdeu
(arl'm's')/7~
soidal form between zero and 180 with its maximum
value at 90 .

Typical alignment accuracy for torque synchro chains is

+ 1. Where this is not sufficiently accurate gear reduction
systems may be used, and then the accuracy can be increased
by the gear ratio, less a factor for gear error and backlash.

Typical performance figures for torque synchros: clrotati

ockwionse" minimium
coupl ng "-counter
clockwise
rotation
transmitter accuracy: + 6 . . . 10 arc min
receiver accuracy: + 5/60 arc min Figure 3.5 Effect of null output voltage
receiver/transmitter: + 6/45 arc min
differential transmitter: 6 . . . 10 arc min

CONTROL SYNCHRO
The control synchro is similar to the torque synchro but with
high impedance windings, which reduce the system current
loading, magnetic nonlinearity errors and temperature rise.
This often enables smaller components to be used in a given
application. The magnetic circuit is modified to provide
uniformity of output, rather than torque output.
The components of the control synchro are the control
transmitter (CX), control transformer (CT) and control dif-
ferential transmitter (CDX), and they may be used in the
same way as torque synchros except that the rotor of the
control transformer provides an electrical output signal as
the input to a servomotor drive amplifier, which provides the
error correction torque.
When the shafts of CX and CT are aligned, a null voltage
will appear at the rotor terminals of the CT. A slight
deviation from this alignment will produce a signal in the
rotor winding with phase relative to the reference voltage
which will depend on the direction of deviation.
The control transformer can therefore be considered a null
detector and it is most often used in this way. However, the
null is never zero, there is always a residual voltage present,
as shown in Figure 3.5. This is due to stray coupling within
the laminated stator that results in an in-phase voltage,
a quadrature voltage, both at fundamental frequency, plus
a number of harmonics. The level of this residual voltage
is typically in the range 3 0 - 1 0 0 m V depending upon the
supply voltage and individual specification, with some 50 to
80 per cent at fundamental frequency.
Typical performance figures for control synchros:
transformer accuracy: + 6 . . . 7arc min
transmitter accuracy: + 6 . . . 8 arc min
differential transmitter: + 6 . . . 10 arc min
RESOLVER
General
The resolver is a special version of a synchro and has
two windings on the stator and one or two on the rotor.
R1, $4
rotorI I stator
R3 =$2
_.$1
stator
-$3
Figure 3.6 The basic configuration of a resolver
Furthermore, the windings are displaced by 90 to each other
compared to the 120 spacing of the synchro. The basic
configuration is as shown in Figure 3.6.
The prime purpose of a resolver is to provide Cartesian
coordinate output signals from a polar coordinate input,
plus the ability to add mechanical rotation of the resolver
shaft.
Depending on the control circuit requirements,
resolvers may be supplied with one or two windings on the
stator. The input may be fed to the rotor or the stator,
although rotor-fed units are more usual. It is often con-
venient to build in a voltage reduction ratio between the
primary and the secondary windings known as the trans-
formation ratio (TR), to match into the next stage of the
servo control electronics.
Computing Resolvers
Computing resolvers are primarily used for calculating
trigonometrical functions and they are available with a
feedback winding built in, or without. They are normally
stator fed and the nonfeedback versions are for operating on
substantially constant voltage sources. When there is a
likelihood of the source voltage changing, feedback versions
can be supplied. These are units with additional windings in
the stator slots, in which a voltage is generated and com-
pared with the input; the difference is amplified by a high-
gain amplifier and fed to the main windings. This feature
compensates for variation in source voltage, and also redu-
ces the effect of variation in frequency, winding temperature
and load impedance.

Typical performance figures for computing resolvers:
Nonfeedback
phase shift: 2 . . . 2 0
null output: 1 0 . . . 60mV
sine deviation: 0 . 1 . . . 0.25 per cent
Feedback
phase shift: 5 . . . 2 0
null output: 1 5 . . . 80mV
sine deviation: 0 . 0 5 . . . 0.2 per cent
Phase Shifting
If a two-phase, or quadrature, supply is applied to a two-
phase stator winding the electromagnetic field in the air gap
will rotate and generate in the rotor voltages of equal mag-
nitude but 90 displaced. The phase relationship of the rotor
to the stator voltages will be determined by the rotor angle.
This is a useful technique for generating a supply of variable
phase for a number of test applications.
Brushless Resolvers
Originally all synchro devices employed slip rings and
brushes to feed current to the rotor, but brushless resolvers
have been developed in which current is fed to the rotor
through a circular transformer mounted at the end of the unit.
Generally, this technique is used only for rotor-fed units
having a single rotor winding. Two rotor windings can be
provided but a second transformer is then necessary and the
construction can become uneconomic.
Typical performance figures for brushless resolvers:
phase shift: - 8 . . . +30
null output: 1 5 . . . 120mV
electrical error: 3 . . . 15 arc min
resolver stator assembly transformer stator
resolver body
IL
rotor assembly
resolver rotor
stack assembly
Figure 3.7 Sectioned view o f a brushless resolver
Chapter 3.3 95
Multipole Resoivers
Multipole resolvers may be used where higher accuracies
are required and emulate the geared systems previously used
but without the additional hardware and associated gear
errors.
Typical performance figures for multipole resolvers:
phase shift: 6 . . . +16
null output: 1 ... 15 mV
electrical error: 3 ... 7 arc min
A.C. Rotary Pickoffs
A.C. rotary pickoffs are transducers having a single-
phase input and output. They normally operate on 400 Hz
or higher frequencies, and the output voltage/rotor angle is
reasonably linear. There are essentially two types, one
having an angular range up to 25 and the other with an
angle up to 65 . The narrow-angle version has four stator
coils connected in a balanced bridge configuration as shown
in Figure 3.8.
The output voltage is the result of the impedance
change within the magnetic circuit caused by the position/
rotation of the salient pole rotor. The voltage output sensi-
tivity in volts per degree is proportional to the excitation
voltage.
For the wide-angle rotary pickoff, the primary excita-
tion on the stator is separate from the secondary winding
on the rotor. The rotor is eccentric in the stator bore resulting
in a variation of flux linkage as the rotor rotates. The sen-
sitivity is proportional to the transformation ratio between
primary and secondary turns and may be made larger than
that for the narrow-angle type. A centre tap can be provided
in the secondary winding to give two balanced outputs,
which are in antiphase. A typical output curve is given in
Figure 3.10.
/ assembly
transformer rotor
assembly
96 RESOLVER:Resolver

output Resolver-to-Digital Conversion

red 1 Of all angle-measuring transducers the resolver is inherently
the most robust and stable in long-term performance and in
relatively hostile operating environments. Where a digital
oreen4 output signal is required the analogue resolver can still be
used in conjunction with resolver-to-digital (RJD) conver-
sion electronics.
R/D converters can be designed to accept input from both
black synchros and resolvers. An internal transformation circuit is
used to convert synchro signals to a resolver/quadrature
Figure 3.8 Narrow-angle A.C rotary pickoff, stator coil signal format.
configuration
A number of techniques have been applied to the R/D
conversion. Common is the use of single or double RC
phase-shift circuits in which the zero crossing times of
stator the two resolver format signals are compared. The differ-
excitation ence is used to gate a clock, the frequency of which can
R1 $1
be scaled to indicate the digitally coded angle.
T T Another is the real-time function generator, in which
two resolver format signals are applied to trigonometric
"', L ~ ~ bidirectional
.]]~i tatin function generators, providing an analogue output volt-
age that is integrated and digitised, then fed back to
balance a bridge from which the value of the angle could
be derived.
An improved version is the ratio-bounded harmonic oscil-
- ~', rotor lator, although it suffers some disadvantages in that it is not
" l i d "', output a real-time measurement so, like the RC converters, it
$2 experiences staleness errors.
Figure 3.9 Wide-angle A.C. rotary pickoff, stator coil With the introduction of monolithic semiconductor devices,
configuration ratiometric tracking converters were widely adopted. This
technique is based upon a servo loop in which the converter
tracks the input continually while there is any change taking
place in the ratio of the sine and cosine signals. Since the
typical output
characteristics system is ratiometric, neither changes of input voltage, nor
~10- voltage drop in the lines between resolver and converter are
of significance.
~ 8
7
For high-accuracy R/D systems the repeatable nature of
5 a resolver's error profile can be compensated for by means
shaft GW 4
degrees a3
80706050403020 1 phase shift
I I I I I I I I I I I I I
(o lead)
2I0 20304050607080 degrees 5
3 shaft CCW d 3.0
4 6 2.5
5 i_
2.0 transformation ratio / ~
6 output volts c
0
7 in-phase ..~
t~ 1.5 ~,..versus
frequency ( l e f t - h a n ~
8 component E
9
~ 1.0
- 10 " 0.5 15
i__

Figure 3.10 Typical output curve of wide-angle A.C. rotary " 0 J,O
30 100 300 ~ 1Ok 30k lOOk
pickoff Hz
phase shift ~"~uency'
versus frequency (right-hand scale) ~ 90

Typical performance figures for A.C. pickoffs:

phase shift: 2 . . . 3 0 80
null output: 2 5 . . . 4 5 m V Figure 3.11 Performance characteristics of resolvers with
voltage sensitivity: 220...750mV/degree variations of temperature and carrier (supply)
output linearity: 0.4... 3 per cent frequency

of a look-up table. This technique can be applied to complex
system installations or to simple R/D conversions to enhance
the performance.
Although it is often convenient to utilise a reference supply
voltage and frequency in common with other servo com-
ponents, operation at higher frequencies can be of benefit for
R/D conversion. Many designs of converter operate in the
4 ENCODER
The encoder principle is simple: a photocell is
positioned behind a slotted disc, or more commonly a
transparent disc with lines photographically drawn on it. A
light source shines through the disc into the cell. The pho-
tocell output is monitored as the disc is rotated with
the encoder shaft. The number of pulses per revolution
(p.p.r.) can range from tens to several thousand. The choice
of encoder is important. Physically, the encoder must be
compatible with the environment and also with the
mechanical system.
Encoders have the advantage that their output is in the form
of a pulse train the frequency of which is not affected by
temperature or attenuation of long cable runs as is the ana-
logue signal of a tachogenerator or resolver. It is therefore
potentially capable of contributing to extremely accurate
digital speed control.
Encoders can be classified into two primary types:
(i) incremental encoders that produce digital signals
which increase or decrease the measured value in
incremental steps
(ii) absolute encoders that produce a code value, which
represents the absolute position directly
These two types of encoder have somewhat different tech-
nologies at their heart and may therefore be considered
separately.
INCREMENTAL ENCODER
The basic technology of incremental encoders is often
referred to as the Moir6 principle - a photoelectric scan-
ning method to produce periodic signals using two fine
gratings, which are positioned closely to each other and have
approximately parallel and equally spaced lines. If the
gratings are moved relative to each other periodic fluctua-
tions in brightness can be seen. These fluctuations are con-
verted to electrical signals via photoelectric sensors.
Using this method it is possible to scan very fine graduations
which can be produced very accurately using photographic
Chapter 3.4 97
range 50 Hz to 20 kHz with a bandwidth of 1 kHz. It is of
value therefore to illustrate the dynamic characteristic of a
typical resolver over a range of frequencies and severe
operating temperatures.
From the typical curves in Figure 3.11 it can be seen that the
optimum range is from 400 Hz to 5 kHz.
etching techniques. Imperfections in the gratings can be
averaged out increasing the overall measuring accuracy and
reliability.
In practical encoders a second signal is produced phase
shifted from the first by 90 . These signals are then digitised
(squared) and fed into a counter in which counting pulses are
derived from the square-wave edges. Simultaneously, the
square wave signals are applied to a direction-determining
circuit, which transmits the counting pulses to the positive or
negative port of the bidirectional counter. This method of
determining linear or angular displacement by counting
pulses is commonly referred to as the incremental measuring
method.
Typically, the finest grating used is 8 l.tm. Finer gratings can
be manufactured but cannot be scanned in the same manner
as it would be necessary to maintain too high a tolerance on
the gap between the two gratings. Scanning signals of a
relatively coarse grating are therefore fed into a circuit
which interpolates between signals increasing the apparent
resolution by a factor of, typically, five.
The encoder produces a train of pulses the frequency of
which is proportional to speed. The direction of rotation
can be determined if necessary by pulses from a second
photocell, displaced 90 in phase from the first, as shown in
Figure 3.12.
a I I I I I I
bl I I ! I I I
clockwise rotation
I I I I I I
b I I I I I I I
anticlockwise rotation
Figure 3.12 Pulse trains corresponding to bidirectional
rotation o f an encoder
98 ENCODER:Incremental Encoder
Incremental encoders are available in the following common
forms:
Incremental - readily available from a wide variety of
suppliers. Almost any line count available up to 5000 per
revolution. Special line counts and output options are
easily obtained.
Incremental with block commutation signals - again,
readily available but somewhat constrained by lack of
industry standards. Mounting configuration, signal con-
ditioning and power supplies vary widely. Available in
line counts up to 8000, plus block commutation signals
(120 elect blocks) for two, four, six, and eight-pole
motors. They are being developed in both hollow-shaft
and modular versions by a variety of encoder suppliers.
Incremental with sine wave c o m m u t a t i o n - this type of
encoder generally has sinusoidal quadrature outputs,
with a 1 volt peak-peak amplitude. Commutation is
accomplished using a quadrature one cycle per revolu-
tion output.
Marker pulses are available on incremental encoders to give
a precise mechanical reference position. This is used when
the absolute position of the motor shaft is required. In such
cases at start up of a machine a procedure often referred to as
homing is undertaken which typically requires the motor to
mmmmm ml~mml~mirJI H m,lmm~mml;mmi~mmm~E ~ ~ ~
m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m
mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm
mmmm mmmm mmmm mmmm
mmmmmmmm
Figure 3.13 Pure (natural) binary code
mm mm mm nm
mmmm mmmm
Figure 3.14 Gray code
28 positions
Figure 3.15 Gray excess code
be turned at low speed by one revolution or until the marker
pulse is located.
Where it is necessary to know the absolute position at tum
on and without rotating the motor, it is possible to have
a battery-backed encoder and control electronics, or to use
an absolute encoder.
ABSOLUTE ENCODER
In absolute encoders the value of the actual position is
immediately measured when the system is switched on.
Absolute encoders do not therefore need a counter since the
measured value is derived directly from the graduation
pattern. In most cases the output from the encoder is in the
form of a pure binary code or in Gray code.
A further coding exists which is a direct derivative of the
Gray code, and is called the Gray excess code. This com-
prises a section from the middle of a Gray code pattern and
permits the transmission of other than 2 and yet remains a
unit-distance code.
In the example in Figure 3.15 where the last two code
values have been omitted from the graduation pattern, to
give 28-position resolution, the code would be described as a
28-excess-3 Gray code.
mhl m[a mu ~ ~ ~ ~ r~4 w l ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ W
mm mm mm mm
mmmm mmmm

SIN/COS ENCODER
The optical arrangement of a sin/cos encoder is similar to
that of an incremental encoder. They provide the differential
analogue output signals ( i A, 4- B, and 4-R) equivalent to
those of an incremental encoder but of sinusoidal wave
shape, and of magnitude typically 1 V peak to peak.
The sinusodial wave shape allows high-resolution position
determination. Direction and speed of rotation is detected as
in the incremental encoder.
The angular position can be determined by knowing the line
count of the encoder and, when between two consecutive
increments or lines, deriving the phase from the analogue
signals A and B. The reference mark R provides absolute
position determination, if the angle at which the encoder is
mounted is known.
The incremental count and hence the incremental posi-
tion can be determined by a timer that counts up when
A is the leading sequence and counts down when B is
the leading sequence. When digitised, both edges of A
and B are counted, thus the incremental position t~incr is
given by
~incr-- [360/(4 x N) x incr] + ~o
5 SELECTION OF A FEEDBACK DEVICE FOR A DRIVE SYSTEM
The combination of any motor drive package must consider
a number of criteria including:
Absolute versus incremental p o s i t i o n - the need for
absolute or incremental position information is generally
application dependent, and many drive systems can
develop or handle either type of interface.
Tachometers inherently give speed information and do
not give position. Position can only be derived by inte-
grating the speed signal.
Resolvers inherently provide absolute feedback. In cases
where absolute position information is needed, e.g. for
robotics applications, a resolver can therefore be a
good choice.
Rotary encoders can provide either incremental or
absolute outputs and, in fact, most absolute encoders
now provide both.
Chapter 3.5 99
where incr is the timer count or incremental count, N is the
line count of the encoder and ff~0is the zero position.
One incremental step is equivalent to a 90 (electrical) phase
shift of the signals, A and B.
The phase ~ of the sinusoidal signals A and B can be used to
interpolate the position between two consecutive line counts
or four incremental steps, which are equivalent to each other.
It can be calculated as
~5 = 90 + arctan (B/A), if A > 0
q~ = 270 + arctan(B/A), if A < 0
which has the advantage that the absolute amplitudes of A
and B, which are a common function of the encoder's
rotation speed and supply voltage, do not affect the ratio and
hence the angle. Since the arctan-function is ambiguous, one
has to check the sign of the sinusoidal signals A and B to
identify the correct quadrant.
It is this ability to interpolate between the line counts asso-
ciated with incremental encoders which gives the sin/cos
encoder such an advantage in applications where high
resolution is required. Care must be taken in the practical
implementation of sin/cos encoders due to the low signal
levels which are commonly used.
High-speed o p e r a t i o n - any feedback system will
generate data based upon the resolution of the sensor,
multiplied by the interpolation factor of the interface
electronics (interpolation is a method for producing
measurement steps which are smaller than a quarter of
the scanning signal period).
For most resolver-based systems, the feedback element
provides one cycle of output per revolution and so is
an absolute position device. Because the position infor-
mation is produced by amplitude modulation of a
carrier signal, it usually needs to be converted to a
digital format before it can be used by a modem motor
controller. Resolver-to-digital converters (RDC) inter-
polate the resolver output signals and provide typically
10, 12, 14, or 16-bit results, depending upon the con-
verter used. When coupled to a 12-bit RDC, a position
measurement resolution of 360o/212 or 5.27 arc minutes
is obtained.
100 SELECTION
OF A FEEDBACK DEVICE FOR A DRIVE SYSTEM
For an encoder, the maximum speed is limited primarily
by the frequency response of the sensor. Encoders gen-
erally have a maximum frequency response capability
in the range 200-400 kHz, which allows a 4096 cycle
per revolution encoder to turn at 6000min-1 without
missing counts. Higher performance is available at
higher cost, with a maximum frequency response cap-
ability of approximately 1 MHz.
Low-speed o p e r a t i o n - low-speed operation requires
high resolution and accuracy from the sensor.
Many encoder-based drive systems have simply selected
the encoder resolution/pulse number based upon the
maximum speed of the application and the frequency
response of the encoder input of the drive. For example,
many drives use a 2000 pulse per revolution encoder
with a 200 kHz maximum frequency input capability of
the drive. This allows the motor to run at 6000 min-1
without missing counts.
In a digital system, where encoder pulses are counted
over a defined time period, quantisation effects result in
what can best be described as a ripple on the speed
feedback signal. Whilst this occurs at all speeds, the
effect (percentage ripple) is higher at low speeds. Whilst
this is rarely a practical problem, in some applications it
can be important. In such applications a sine-cosine
encoder should be used.
d Motor efficiency- in permanent magnet servodrives
where the switching of current to the machine windings
is determined by information from the position sensor,
motor efficiency is a function of the accuracy of the
position information.
Single cycle sine-wave-type commutation signals gen-
erally have accuracies to about 5 mechanical.
6 MECHANICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Speed and position feedback devices are obviously subject
to the acceleration and speed associated with the motor or
load that they are measuring.
Encoders:
angular acceleration 104 rad s -2
max acceleration of 1000 m s -2 for shock and impact valid
for 11 ms
vibration resistance 100 m s -2 from 50 to 2000 Hz
Maximum speed is generally related to bearing life and
forms one of the selection criteria for specific applications.
Hall effect switches are in the same range, and are
typically very difficult to align.
Resolver and optical encoder commutation can be good
to 10 arc min with some careful planning, and they are
very simple to align.
e Accuracy- in general, optical encoders have an advan-
tage in this area. Specially fabricated resolvers can
be obtained which are accurate to 4-2 arc min, but in
general resolvers have accuracy ratings of 4-2 to
4- 20 arc min. The resolver-to-digital converter (RDC)
adds an uncertainty of 2 to 4- 8 arc min. Resolver errors
also have both static and dynamic contributions, which
result from the acceleration error in the RDC tracking
loop, offset voltages that are uncompensated, phase
shift between the signals and the reference voltage, and
capacitive or inductive crosstalk between the resolver
signals and the reference cabling. Noise in the inter-
connect or on the reference will generate speed-depen-
dent errors proportional to the phase shift in reference
and inversely proportional to the reference frequency.
Modular incremental rotary encoders usually have an
accuracy rating of two arc minutes or better over all
operating conditions.
f High-temperature operation - resolvers are capable of
operating at high temperatures, and in many cases can be
operated at up to 150C.
Standard encoders are typically specified for use up to
100C... 125C.
Although the encoder is usually mounted within the
motor housing, many measures are normally taken to
thermally isolate it from the motor core. As a result, it is
usually not necessary to require a feedback device to be
operated above 100C.
Moment of inertia of the rotor and the coupling of the
feedback device form a single vibrating mass system
with a natural frequency, which needs to be outside the
operation frequency range of the drive. A large number of
different coupling types exist, but in general a diaphragm
type is usually preferred to give the highest natural
frequency.
The natural frequency is given by the equation:
f = (1/27c). N(C/I)

where f is the natural frequency in Hz, C is the torsional
rigidity of the coupling (Nmrad -1) and I is the moment of
inertia of the sensor motor (kg m2).
It is interesting to note that although many suppliers quote
current loop torque bandwidths of servo amplifiers of 2 kHz
and above, the natural frequency of the very best coupling is
approximately 2 kHz. It is not possible to take advantage of
better converter performance.
Resolvers:
No one can discount the sturdiness of the resolver. It is a
simple device with a similar make up to the motor, con-
sisting of windings, bearings etc. However, for the majority
of the environments encountered, an encoder is completely
7 GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Absolute measuring system - the measuring value is
determined by reading information from a scale, without
counting. The measuring value is immediately available
after switch on.
Accuracy grade - grade of quality, determined by the
maximum permissible measuring deviations within a pre-
determined measuring range (e.g. 1 m).
Amplitude evaluation - method of evaluating signals gen-
erated by dynamic scanning (with cartier frequency): the
amplitude variation of two alternating voltages of the same
frequency is used to determine the measuring value.
Angle encoder - angle-measuring device, converts the shaft
rotation angle into electrical signals (can be incremental or
absolute).
Carrier frequency method - scanning method used mainly
with magnetic and inductive measuring systems (see
dynamic scanning).
Direction discriminator - part of a bidirectional counter,
which determines the counting direction.
Distance-coded reference marks - incremental measuring
method, whereby the absolute position can be determined by
evaluating the systematically varying distances between
consecutive reference marks.
Dynamic scanning - scanning method by which two alter-
nating signals of constant amplitude and slightly different
frequencies are generated and where the phase between the
two signals represents the measuring value.
Eccentricity e r r o r - measuring error of an angle encoder
caused by an eccentricity in the mounting of the circular
graduation.
Chapter 3.7 101
adequate. Because both encoders and resolvers can be
purchased with or without bearings, neither can claim an
advantage in this respect; however, frameless resolvers
may have slightly less sensitivity to axial play than a mod-
ular encoder would. With respect to electronics, it is true
that the resolver electronics can be mounted remotely from
the motor, in a less extreme environment. However, they are
much more complex than those of the encoder. Typical
encoder designs use a small number of very basic compo-
nents. It is possible that for extremely high-impact shock
environments a resolver could claim some advantage over an
encoder. However, if resolutions of less than 1000 counts per
revolution are desired then an encoder with a metal or mylar
code wheel can compete favourably with resolver designs.
Encoder - apparatus consisting of a measuring standard and
a scanning unit (transducer, sensor).
Gray code - unit-distance code system in which only one
code signal changes with the transition from one measuring
step to the next.
Incremental measuring system - measuring method by
which the measuring value is derived by the summation
(counting) of increments (measuring steps).
Integral coupling - innovative angle encoder design with
built-in coupling, located preferably on the stator side.
Interferential measuring system - photoelectric measuring
system with a phase grating scale where scanning signals are
produced via the interference of diffracted beams.
Interpolation - method for producing measuring incre-
ments which are smaller than a fourth of the scanning signal
period.
Measuring system - consists of an encoder and associated
electronics incorporating interpolation, counter, readout
and/or data interface.
Modular angle encoder - angle encoder, consisting essen-
tially of disk and scanning unit assemblies (rotor and stator)
which are integrated into a machine or a rotary table.
Moir~ principle - photoelectric scanning method to produce
periodic signals using two fine gratings, which are closely
positioned to each other and have approximately parallel and
equally spaced lines.
Multiturn rotary encoder - absolute rotary encoder which
determines the angular position of the shaft and the number
of shaft rotations.
102 GLOSSARY
OF TERMS
Phase evaluation - method of determining position by
detecting the phase between alternating voltages having a
slight variation in frequency.
Phase grating scale - scale with step grating which diffracts
the transmitted or reflected light into two or more orders.
Radian - standard unit of angle: the angle at which the arc of
circle has the same length as the radius.
Reference m a r k - random graduation pattern which, when
traversed over, produces a signal peak, which may be used to
determine an absolute datum within an incremental mea-
suring system.
Reference pulse - square-wave signal produced when the
scale reference mark is traversed over; normally one mea-
suring step wide; may be used to define an absolute datum
within an incremental measuring system.
Resolution- measuring step, smallest digital unit of the
measuring value.
Resolver - inductive angle-measuring device, producing
two alternating voltages the amplitudes or phases of which
depend on the (shaft) rotation angle.
Reversal error - measuring error which results from
approaching a position from different directions.
Scanning frequency - response level which limits the
velocity of an incremental measuring system.
Static scanning - scanning method, which generates peri-
odic signals during movement. The signal periods and
fractions thereof correspond to a definite linear or angular
displacement.
Systematic error - reproducible measuring deviation, which
can be compensated for by e.g. computation.
Torsional stiffness - rotational rigidity of a precision cou-
pling governing the reversal error of a rotary encoder.
 CHAPTER 4

Drive Control

~ 1 GENERAL 103
iiiiiiiiiiiiii~iiiiiii

~'!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!ii!i
~'~"~ 2 A.C. MOTOR DRIVE CONTROL 105

iiii 3 D.C. MOTOR DRIVE CONTROL 114

:,ii!iii
iii!iiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiii!
4 ANALYSIS OF AND SET UP OF A SPEED CONTROLLER 116

1 GENERAL

THE IDEAL CONTROL SYSTEM OPEN-LOOP CONTROL

Many applications exist where something has to be con- Unfortunately, the transfer function of many systems is not
trolled to follow a reference quantity. For example, the speed a constant and so, without any form of feedback from the
of a large motor may be set from a low-power control signal.
This can be done using a variable-speed drive as shown in
mains power supply
Figure 4.1.

Ideally, the relationship between the reference and the

motor speed should be linear and the control system should
respond instantly to changes in the reference. Any control
speed reference
W*
] v=r,=b,e-I motor M
_1. I

speed
system can be represented, as shown in Figure 4.1b, with
W
an input reference signal, in this case a speed reference, a
b
transfer function G and an output, in this case the speed of speed reference ,.] speed
rotation of the motor shaft W. For the system to be W* I v W
ideal, the transfer function G would be a simple constant,
so that the output is proportional to the reference with no
delay. Figure 4.1 Variable-speed drive and motor
104 GENERAL: O p e n - L o o p C o n t r o l
output to correct for the nonideal nature of the transfer
function, the output does not remain proportional to the
control signal. Using an induction motor supplied by a
simple open-loop variable-speed drive as an example, the
following are some unwanted effects that can occur in
control systems.
Regulation
The output of a simple open-loop drive can be a fixed fre-
quency, which is proportional to the speed demand signal.
Therefore, the frequency applied to the motor remains
constant, for a constant speed demand. However, the speed
of the motor drops as load is applied because of the char-
acteristic slip of an induction motor, and so the speed does
not remain at the demanded level.
Instability
It is possible under certain load conditions and at certain
frequencies for the motor speed to oscillate around the
required speed even though the applied frequency is con-
stant. Another major source of instability in rotating mech-
anical systems is low loss elastic couplings and shafts.
Nonlinearity
There are many possible sources of nonlinearity; if, for
example, the motor is connected to a gearbox the speed at
the output of the gearbox could be affected by backlash
between the gears.
Variations with temperature
Some aspects of the system transfer function may vary with
temperature, for example the slip of an induction motor
increases as the motor heats up, and so for a given load the
motor speed may reduce from the starting speed when the
motor was cold.
Delay
With a simple open-loop inverter and induction motor there
can be a delay before the motor speed reaches the demanded
level after a change in the demand. In very simple applica-
tions, e.g. controlling the speed of a conveyor belt, this type
of delay may not be a problem. In more complex systems,
such as machine tools, delays have a significant effect on the
quality of the system.
These are some of the unwanted effects that can be produced
if an open-loop control system is used. One method that can
be used to improve the quality of the controller is to use a
measure of the output quantity to apply some feedback to
give closed-loop control.
speed error current reference
Werr i*
speed reference
W~
*~ F current
control
Figure 4.2 Closed-loop control system
CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL
The simple open-loop drive of the previous section is
replaced with a control system as shown in Figure 4.2. The
speed of the motor shaft is measured and compared with the
speed reference to give a speed error. The error is modified
by a transfer function F to give a current reference i* at the
input to the current control block. Various methods of cur-
rent control for motors are discussed in the next section;
however, for now it should be assumed that the motor cur-
rent can be controlled to give a torque which is proportional
to the current reference. If the speed of the motor varies from
the reference level a speed error is produced and the torque
applied to the load is modified to bring the speed back to the
reference level.
It is necessary to choose a suitable transfer function F to
obtain the required performance from the closed-loop con-
trol system. The function could be a simple gain, therefore
the current reference i*= Kp x Werr. This would give some
degree of control over the output speed, but the speed error
must have a nonzero value if any torque is required to hold
the motor speed. If the speed error is not zero, then the speed
would not be at the required reference level, and so the speed
would vary with load. By adding an integral term so that the
current reference i*= Kp x Werr+ Kifwerrdt, it is no longer
necessary to have any speed error even when torque is
required to drive the load at the reference speed. The integral
term accumulates any speed error over time and builds up a
current reference to provide the necessary torque. A closed-
loop control system with proportional and integral terms is
called a PI controller. Although there are many types of
closed-loop controller, the PI controller is the most com-
monly used because it is simple to implement, relatively
easy to set up and well understood by most engineers.
CRITERIA FOR ASSESSING THE
PERFORMANCE OF A CLOSED-LOOP
CONTROL SYSTEM
The step response is one method of assessing the ability of
a closed-loop control system to follow a step change in
the reference. Some example step responses are shown in
Figure 4.3 for a simple second-order system.
If the output reaches the reference in the shortest possible
time without any overshoot the response is described as
being critically damped. If overshoot is not acceptable,
then this represents the best possible response giving the
minimum delay between the input and the output of the
system. If the system damping is increased the response
current torque
i Te
motor load
 Chapter 4.2 105

5
100
IIII
,, 1000
IIII
lOO(
~ ,~nder damped ,8 III "bUl IIII
-5
III \ II
dB-10 N

-15 III \ II
-20 III II I
~: ed -25 III "l
-30 III rad s-1
I
0- - "t3"~ [O]) lO00q
10 IIII
-10 1oo "~
I \
I I I I
-20
-30
\
\
Figure 4.3 Step responses deg-40 \
-50 \

becomes slower and is described as being over damped.
Alternatively, if the system is under damped the response
includes some overshoot and may oscillate about the
required reference before settling. These results, which are
for a simple second-order system, show that increasing the
damping reduces overshoot and slows down the system
response. As will be demonstrated in Chapter 4.4, real sys-
tems can be more complex and increasing the damping does
not always give this result.
The step response may be the closed-loop response of the
system, where a change to the reference level in the mini-
mum time is required. Alternatively, the step response may
show the change of output to some other stimulus, such as a
load torque transient. In this case the response should be as
small as possible.
The step response can be used to assess the controller per-
formance when it is used in isolation. However, if the con-
troller itself is to be included within the closed control loop
of another system, the gain and delay of the original system
are important as they affect the performance of the outer
system. The gain and delay can be measured by producing a
bode plot showing the gain and frequency response as shown
in Figure 4.4.
An ideal controller would have unity gain and zero phase at
all frequencies; however, in a real system as shown in Figure
4.4 the gain reduces and the phase delay increases at higher
frequencies. A measure of these effects is the bandwidth
-60
-70 \
-80
-90
rad s-1
Figure 4.4 Bode plot of system gain and phase
of the system, which is often defined as the - 3 dB point
for the gain characteristic. In the example this occurs at
670 rad s -1. The corresponding phase delay varies depend-
ing on the order of the system. A first-order system has a
delay of 45 at the - 3 dB point, whereas a second-order
system like the one in the example has a delay of 60 at the
- 3 dB point. The transport delays associated with digital
systems can further increase the delay at the - 3 dB point.
In many cases the bandwidth is quoted as an indication of the
dynamic performance of a control system, i.e. the higher the
bandwidth the better the system performance. This band-
width is usually quoted as the frequency at the - 3 dB point
of the gain characteristic, and particularly with a digital
implementation may give no indication of the quality of
the control system at all. If the controller is to be included
within another closed-loop control system the phase delay
is important. If the delay is too large it may be necessary
to detune the outer loop to maintain stability. The amount
of overshoot in the step response is also important in
many applications. Increasing the frequency of the - 3 dB
point of the gain characteristic may result in unacceptable
overshoot.

2 A.C. MOTOR DRIVE CONTROL

There are many types of variable-speed drive each given of typical control systems for a range of differ-
suited to different applications or for operation with ent types of variable-speed drive operating with A.C.
different types of motor. In this section descriptions are motors.
106 A.C. MOTORDRIVECONTROL:General-Purpose Open-Loop A.C. Drive
GENERAL-PURPOSE OPEN-LOOP
A.C. DRIVE
The open-loop A.C. drive is a high-power variable-fre-
quency voltage source. In its simplest form, the output fre-
quency is defined by the user's reference and a suitable fixed
frequency to voltage characteristic used to define the output
voltage. Although this type of drive is normally designed to
supply one or more induction motors connected in parallel, it
can also supply other types of A.C. motor or it can be used as
a variable-frequency/variable-voltage power supply. The
following description relates to the operation of an open-
loop A.C. drive with an induction motor.
Figure 4.5 shows a block diagram of a typical general-pur-
pose open-loop drive. Each of the blocks within the control
system is described in the following sections. For this type of
control system feedback is required from the output current
of at least two phases of the inverter and the voltage from the
D.C. side of the inverter. These feedback signals can be
derived from within the drive itself, and so no external
feedback, such as the motor speed or position, is required.
The control system allows a simple open-loop vector strat-
egy to be implemented. In common with all other A.C. drive
control strategies described in this chapter the control sys-
tem is based on a reference frame as described later.
Space-vector Modulator and Inverter
The power circuit is a diode rectifier and voltage source
PWM inverter. The space-vector modulator converts a
modulation depth, m, and modulation angle, Om, into control
signals to turn the six devices in the inverter on or off. The
modulation depth defines the output voltage from the
inverter as a proportion of the range available without over
modulation, and the modulation angle defines the angle of
the space-vector representation of the three-phase voltages
at the inverter terminals. The modulator is called a space-
vector modulator because it applies voltages to the three
phase windings of a motor to give a voltage vector in space
with respect to the body of the motor. This voltage vector is
conceptual rather than real as voltage does not exist as a
space quantity, such as, for example, flux.
There are eight possible states for the devices in the inverter,
excluding those that result in shoot through, as shown in
Figure 4.6. These states give six possible active voltage
f*
I fcornp*
voltage
I
I
YI i characteristic Vs I
I [~ f IT T II
s,i01
compensation['-
' I xy "~J.~ 'sQI D Q ' ~ ,
Figure 4.5 Open-loop drive control system
vectors (U 1 to U6) , and the remaining two states (Uo and U7)
give zero voltage vectors where all three output phases are at
the same voltage level. By switching rapidly between the
various states the average output from the inverter can be a
voltage vector at any angle with the required magnitude. In
the example given in Figure 4.6 a voltage vector at angle c~
could be synthesised by producing u~ and U2 each for 50 per
cent of the time. Changing the ratio of the time during which
u~ and I!2 are active allows the vector to be moved from u 1 to
u2 with a locus which forms one side of a hexagon con-
necting the tips oful and u2. The magnitude of the vector can
be controlled to be anywhere inside the hexagon connecting
the tips of the active vectors by introducing periods of zero
voltage with vectors Uo and u7. The active vector periods and
inverter output waveforms for the required vector Us are
shown in Figure 4.6c.
A space-vector modulator produces sinusoidal output vol-
tages provided that the vector locus is a circle. The limit for
sinusoidal operation is a circular locus that just fits inside the
hexagon in Figure 4.6b. Operation outside this circular locus
is over modulation and, although the fundamental output
voltage can be increased, odd harmonics of the fundamental
output voltage are also produced. At full over modulation,
i.e. when the locus of the voltage vector is the hexagon
shown in Figure 4.6b, the average output voltages are tra-
pezoidal waveforms. It is possible to further increase the
output voltage by making the angular velocity of the voltage
vector vary as it moves round until the output voltages are
square waves. The fundamental output voltage for these
ranges is given in Table 4.1 as a ratio between the drive
supply voltage and the output voltage for an ideal drive,
which has a simple diode rectifier at its input.
The waveforms in Figure 4.6c show that an upper or lower
power device in each output phase of the inverter is always
on. This may be an IGBT or a diode depending on the
direction of the output current from each phase. When the
control system switches off an IGBT it must allow a short
time, the safety margin, before turning on the other device in
the same phase to prevent short pulses of current flowing
from the positive to the negative rails of the inverter through
both devices in that phase. During this safety margin, the
dead time, the output voltage of the inverter is undefined as
it is dependent on the direction of the output current.
Although the dead time is short it distorts the inverter output
voltage and has the most significant effect at low modulation
I Ivo M
\
~
I
~
soace
' ' vector
modulator
R \
~
~ and
inverter ]
] Y ,._1
vl
motor
. "r Oref(reference
~rframeangle)
Isv
 Chapter 4.2 107

depths. It is possible to reduce this effect by using dead-time
compensation to modify the widths of the IGBT control
signals depending on the direction of the inverter output
currents.
The modulation depth does not define the absolute output
voltage of the inverter because the D.C. voltage at the input
to the inverter can vary with drive supply voltage or if the
drive operates in braking mode. Therefore the required
voltage magnitude [v*[ must be converted to modulation
using the following equation:
m- v/3 x v*l/V~.c.
where VD.C. is the D.C. link voltage and Iv*l is scaled to a
value equivalent to the peak phase voltage.
Reference-frame Translation
It is helpful to apply voltages and measure currents in a
reference frame aligned with some quantity in the motor. In
an open-loop drive the reference frame is usually aligned
with the stator flux. As will be explained later, the type of
control system used with this type of drive only ensures
that the reference frame aligns with the flux under steady-
state and not during transient conditions. By using this
technique the voltages and currents appear as D.C. quantities
under steady-state operation, even though the motor currents
and voltages are A.C. quantities. The x and y axis currents
relate to the production of flux and torque in the motor,
respectively. A reference frame is simply a set of axes as
shown in Figure 4.7.
The method used to calculate the position of the reference
frame and to control the motor voltage is covered in the next
(4.1) section. First, in this section, the translation of the current
feedback into the required reference frame and the transla-
tion of the voltage references from the reference frame into
an angle and voltage for the modulator are described.
The current feedback is taken from two of the three inverter
output phases (is, and isv). These can be converted into two-
phase quadrature currents (isD and isQ) and then into current
components in the x and y axis of the required reference
frame as follows"
isD- isu (4.2)
isQ -- (i,, + 2isv)/v/3 (4.3)
t'~ -- i~D COSOref + isQ sin O,.~f (4.4)

a ..... ~_J++J~V+?+ imotl-lor isy -- isQ cos Oref - isO sin Oref (4.5)

where 0ref is the angle of the required reference frame.

inputrectifier D.C.linkand inverter The voltage reference components (vsx and Vsy) can be
brakingchopper converted to a magnitude and angle by simple rectangular to
polar conversion.
u3(U LVUW L) u2(UuVuWL)

V s l - v/(v~2 + v~2) (4.6)

Ov -- tan -1 (V~y/V~x) (4.7)

zerovi~a~!W~)ct ul (UuVLWL)
Reference-frame Generation
uo(U LV LWLi
It is a convention with open-loop drives to use the syn-
uT(UuVuWu) u5(U Lv LW U) u6(UuVLW U)
chronous frequency related to the required speed of the
I I I motor as the reference, i.e. 50 Hz for 1500 min -1 using a
i i i
i i i
, , ,
four-pole motor. The reference shown in Figure 4.5, f*, is
i i | compensated with a frequency from the slip compensation

| | !

U0 U1 U2 U7 U7 U2 Ul U0

Figure 4.6 Space-vector modulation

a power circuit Vsy ~ R s i s y
b space vectors
c inverter output voltages

Table 4.1 Fundamental output voltages

Range Maximum output/input
isy is

voltage ratio
Space-vector modulation 1.00
without over modulation
Space-vector modulation 1.05
with over modulation stator flux (in steady state)
Square-wave operation 1.10
Figure 4.7 Stator flux reference frame
108 A.C. MOTOR DRIVE CONTROL: General-Purpose Open-Loop A.C. Drive
block. When the reference frame is aligned with the stator
flux the y axis current, i,y, is a measure of motor torque, and
so the slip compensation block can estimate the change of
motor speed with load applied due to motor slip (see Chapter
1.2). By adding the compensation value to the frequency
reference, the reference is increased as load is applied to the
motor, f~omp is integrated to give the reference frame angle
Orefi and so the reference frame rotates at frequency fcomp. If
fixed values of V~x and V~y were used the drive would apply
voltages to the motor at the frequency f~omp, which should
hold the motor speed constant even when a load is applied.
The frequency adjustment applied by the slip compensation
block may not be very accurate as the motor slip varies with
temperature, but this method gives moderate control of
speed without any form of motor position or speed feedback.
The motor stator flux is defined as:
~s -- / Vs - Rsisdt (4.8)
where qDs is the stator flux, vs is the voltage vector repre-
senting the motor terminal voltages and is is a vector
representing the motor currents. In the steady state the vol-
tage vector applied to produce the stator flux leads the flux
by 90 and is given by:
V~s - - Vs - Rsis (4.9)
In Figure 4.7, V~x - Rsisx and V~y = v~s + Rsisy. If V;x and V~y
are derived in this way then the x axis of the reference frame
is aligned with the stator flux, and the y-axis current can be
used as a measure of load for slip compensation etc. For
constant stator flux, Iv l must be proportional to frequency
up to the rated frequency of the motor. Above rated fre-
quency, Iv ,l is held constant so that the flux falls with
increasing frequency to give flux-weakening operation.
This method of control gives good and robust motor control
down to approximately 3 per cent of rated motor frequency.
The motor speed can be controlled below this frequency, but
usually at reduced torque. This method gives significantly
better performance than the fixed-voltage control methods
described in Chapter 1.2.
Current Limit
The motor current cannot be allowed to increase with load
without any limit or the inverter protection system will trip
user
frequency ramps
reference
maximum
allowed value
PI
of isy
Figure 4.8 Current-limit system
the drive when fast acceleration is required or a large tran-
sient load is applied to the motor. Therefore, a current-limit
system is required to decrease the frequency reference when
a large decelerating load is applied, or increase the fre-
quency when a large accelerating load is applied. Figure 4.8
shows a current-limit system commonly used with open-
loop drives.
The frequency reference, f*, is derived from the user fre-
quency reference via a ramp block which limits the rate
of change of frequency and hence the rate of change of
motor speed. If the torque-producing current in the motor
exceeds the current limit then the PI controller is enabled
to modify the frequency reference. If the motor is produc-
ing too much accelerating torque because a large load has
been applied the frequency reference is reduced towards
zero and unless the load reduces with speed the motor
stalls. If the motor is producing too much accelerating
torque because the ramp rate is too fast the PI controller
reduces the rate of change of frequency reference so that
the current is limited because the acceleration ramp is
extended. If the decelerating torque is too large because a
large accelerating load has been applied or the decrease in
frequency reference is too fast, the PI controller works in the
opposite way and either accelerates the motor or reduces the
deceleration rate.
Performance and Applications
The performance characteristics of the open-loop drive
control system applied to an induction motor can be sum-
marised as:
Moderate transient performance.
Full torque production down to approximately 3 per cent
of rated motor speed.
Although a good estimate of stator resistance (R,)
improves torque production at low speeds, the control
system will work with an inaccurate estimate, albeit with
reduced torque. The stator resistance can be measured by
the drive with a simple test.
Although a good estimate of motor slip improves the
ability of the drive to hold the reference speed, the
control system will work with an inaccurate estimate,
albeit with poorer speed holding. The motor slip depends
on the rotor time constant of the motor (Tr) and this
cannot be measured easily.
No position or speed feedback is required from the
motor shaft.
I
I
current
above limit

This type of drive is used in many applications where
moderate performance is required and where providing
position feedback would be unacceptable because of the
environment or cost, or is simply not necessary. The fol-
lowing are some examples of applications where open-loop
drives are used:
fans and pumps
conveyors
centrifuges
PERMANENT-MAGNET SERVODRIVE
The permanent-magnet servodrive is generally used for
applications requiring high performance where motor shaft
position feedback can be used. Because the rotor is not
symmetrical this feedback must give absolute position
within each electrical revolution of the motor. Figure 4.9
shows the control system of a permanent magnet servodrive.
The inverter control and reference frame transformation
is the same as for the open-loop drive. The other blocks
within the control system are described below.
Reference-frame Generation
In common with the open-loop drive the reference frame
must be aligned with the motor flux so that the current
in the x and y axes controls the flux and torque, respect-
ively. In the open-loop drive the stator flux is used because
it is easy to calculate its position without rotor posi-
tion feedback. However, the effects of the current in each
axis are not completely decoupled because the x-axis
current changes with motor torque even if the stator flux
is constant. It is preferable to align the reference frame
with the rotor flux as this gives complete decoupling so that
the x-axis current controls the rotor flux and the y-axis
current controls the torque produced by the motor. In the
control system shown the x-axis current reference is set to
zero, and so all the rotor flux in the x axis is produced by the
magnets. The torque produced by the motor is given by
Te = K1 ~rxisy, where K1 is a constant, ~rx is the component of
rotor flux in the x axis and isy is the component of current in
the y axis. As ~rx is produced by the magnets and is constant,
i*sx=O
Te=i*sy
Figure 4.9 Permanent-magnet servomotor drive control system
Chapter 4.2 109
the torque is proportional to i~y. The rotor flux position is
easy to calculate from the absolute rotor position as shown
below.
It is clear that the absolute position within each electrical
revolution is required, and so the position feedback device
must give some absolute position information. Traditionally,
resolvers have been used as they can give the absolute
position of the rotor (see Chapter 3.3), but these are being
replaced by incremental encoders which give more precise
feedback with lower cost interface electronics in the drive.
However, an incremental encoder does not give the absolute
position of the rotor, and so additional Gray code signals are
required to find the absolute position at power up. For a
three-phase six-pole motor a three bit Gray code is repeated
three times per mechanical revolution giving the position to
within 60 during each electrical revolution. Provided that
the angle between the Gray code signals and the magnets is
known the reference frame can be placed within +30 of the
correct position. Once the motor has rotated past a change
from one Gray code value to another, the position is known
exactly and the incremental signals can be used to track the
absolute position until the drive is powered down again. The
incremental encoder with additional Gray code signals is a
relatively cost-effective form of feedback. Other types of
encoder that can provide the absolute position of the rotor
are described in Chapter 3.4.
Current Control
Unlike the open-loop drive the permanent-magnet servo-
drive uses closed-loop current control giving the drive the
ability to change the current and hence the torque produced
by the motor very rapidly. A simple PI controller is provided
for each axis of the reference frame. The reference for the x-
axis (flux-producing current) is zero because the flux is
provided by the magnets on the rotor. The y-axis reference
defines the torque-producing current and hence the torque
produced by the motor. Although the currents and voltages
are D.C. quantities in the steady state, high dynamic per-
formance is still required so that the phase delay of the
current controllers is as small as possible and the effect on
the outer speed controller is minimised.
;[soace F
vector (3 ~] mo 3r
k/
[modulator
and
inverter
"1
Oref(reference
~ frame angle) absolute
position
feedback
oo ,sv
110 A.C. MOTOR DRIVE CONTROL: P e r m a n e n t - M a g n e t Servodrive
rotor flux
Figure 4.10 Rotor flux reference frame for a permanent-
magnet motor
The description of the current controllers has been kept
simple and does not include anything about compensation
for cross coupling or back e.m.f.
Speed Control
The outer speed controller is shown as a PI controller using
the differential of the position as speed feedback. A more
detailed description of this type of controller is given in
Chapter 4.3.
Performance and Applications
The performance characteristics of the permanent-magnet
servodrive can be summarised as:
Good dynamic performance at all speeds.
Full torque operation down to standstill.
Permanent-magnet servomotors usually have low iner-
tia. Combined with a fast sample rate for the speed
controller and fast torque control, this gives a speed
controller with a very high bandwidth.
Position feedback is required that gives the absolute
electrical position of the motor.
Permanent-magnet motors exhibit an effect called cog-
ging related to the geometry of the motor, which results
in ripple in the motor torque. This effect can be mini-
raised by good motor design, but can still be a problem.
flux
controller
W*
i~x ,~1 flux
i* "'1 calculator
sy ~1
I
Figure 4.11 Closed-loop induction motor drive control system
The control system described has a zero current refer-
ence in the x axis, and so the rotor flux cannot be
altered by the drive. This limits the maximum speed of
operation as the motor voltage increases with speed.
Field weakening is possible but, owing to the large
effective air gap of a permanent-magnet motor, a large
amount of current is required to reduce the flux, making
the drive inefficient in the field-weakening region. It is
also necessary to limit the maximum speed with field
weakening because, although the motor terminal vol-
tages are reduced by reducing the flux while the drive
is enabled, when the drive is disabled the voltages
return to the level that would be produced without field
weakening and may damage the power electronics in
the drive.
The drive can be used in simple torque control, without
the speed controller shown in Figure 4.9.
The following are some examples of applications where
permanent-magnet servodrives are used:
* machine tools where precise and dynamic performance
is required
pick and place applications where the requirements are
less precise, but where rapid movements are required
more recently, permanent-magnet motors with high
numbers of poles (e.g. 32 poles) have been used in
low-speed applications such as direct (gearless) drives
for lifts.
CLOSED-LOOP INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVE
The closed-loop induction motor drive, often referred to as a
closed-loop vector drive, is used in many applications
requiring better performance than that of an open-loop drive
with an induction motor. To obtain the best performance
with this type of drive position feedback is required from the
rotor, but unlike the permanent-magnet servodrive only the
change of position and not the absolute position is required.
The control system is similar to that used with a permanent-
magnet servomotor as shown in Figure 4.11. Descriptions
are only given for blocks that have not already been covered
in previous sections.
vo.c.
space
vector
modulator
and
inverter
Omr(reference
frame angle) incremental
3osition
feedback

Flux Calculator and Reference-frame
Generation
In common with the permanent-magnet servodrive the
reference frame is aligned with the rotor flux. Unlike the
rotor flux in a permanent-magnet motor, which remains at a
fixed position with respect to the rotor and at a constant level
defined by the magnets when operating without field
weakening, the rotor flux in an induction motor moves at slip
frequency with respect to the rotor and the flux is provided
by the x-axis current. Therefore, a flux calculator is required
which derives the magnitude and angle of a vector to
represent the rotor flux. By convention a current vector is
defined called the rotor-magnetising-current space vector,
imr, which represents the rotor flux. This vector is aligned
with the flux and has a magnitude proportional to the flux,
but in units of current. The magnitude and angle of this
vector are given by the following equations where Or is the
rotor position and Tr is the rotor time constant of the motor:
]imr[-- i~x/(1 + sty) (4.10)
Omr -- Or q- f i~y/(Trlimrl)dt (4.11)
As with the permanent-magnet motor the torque is propor-
tional to the x-axis component of flux and the y-axis com-
ponent of current, and so Te--Kz[imr[isy , where K2 is a
constant. To achieve a linear relationship between the
demanded torque at the output of the speed controller, Te,
and the torque produced by the motor the torque demand
must be modified using ]]mr[ to give the y-axis current
demand, isy, as shown in Figure 4.11. The angle Omrgives the
angle of the rotor flux and can be used as the reference-frame
angle for translation of currents and voltages. As the rotor of
an induction motor is simply a symmetrical conductive cage,
the absolute position is not important, and so only the
incremental position is required to define Or. Therefore,
a simple incremental encoder can be used for position
feedback.
Flux Control
As the flux is produced by the x-axis component of the stator
current (equation 4.10) it is easy to control the flux level, and
unlike for the permanent-magnet motor the current is
reduced when reduced flux is required. Therefore, this type
of drive is well suited to high-speed operation with field
weakening. The motor is normally operated at rated flux up
to the speed at which the terminal voltage reaches the rated
level or the maximum voltage that can be produced by the
inverter while still maintaining control over the motor cur-
rents. Above this speed the motor voltage is limited by
reducing the x-axis current reference i~x.
Performance and Applications
The performance characteristics of the closed-loop induction
motor drive can be summarised as:
Good dynamic performance at all speeds.
Full torque operation down to standstill.
A position feedback device that gives the incremental
position of the rotor is required.
Chapter 4.2 111
Wide power range of motors available so that this type of
drive can be used for applications requiring less than
1 kW up to more than 1 MW.
Suitable for field-weakening applications where motors
can be operated up to many times base speed.
The drive can be used in torque control, without the
speed controller shown in Figure 4.11. The estimate of
the flux position to align the reference frame is important
as this affects the absolute level of torque produced for
a given torque reference. The flux position calculation
is dependent on an estimate of the rotor time constant,
which varies significantly with rotor temperature.
However, it is possible to include a rotor time constant
estimator in the drive control system, so that the drive
gives consistent torque control.
Closed-loop induction motor drives are used in many
applications where good dynamic performance is required
and especially where an induction motor drive is required to
give full torque at standstill. The following are some
examples of applications where this type of drive is used:
cranes and hoists
lifts
high-speed spindle applications
material winding
Operation without Position Feedback
The control system described above requires incremental
rotor position feedback, but it is possible to implement the
scheme without any physical feedback device. This can be
done by estimating the rotor position from information
available to the drive through the motor voltages and cur-
rents. One class of methods used to determine the rotor
position, referred to as model-based methods, uses a model
of the motor to calculate the rotor speed and hence the
incremental rotor position. When a physical position feed-
back device is used the drive gives good dynamic perfor-
mance and operates with full torque even at standstill. When
a position estimator is used the dynamic performance is
reduced and the minimum speed for full torque operation is
similar to that of the open-loop drive. However, a closed-
loop induction motor drive without position feedback does
have the following advantages and disadvantages when
compared with an open-loop induction motor drive:
Advantages
light load instability problems that can occur with an
open-loop drive are eliminated
torque control operation is improved
starting with a spinning motor is faster
fast closed-loop current control reduces trips under
transient conditions
Disadvantages
the motor model is normally dependent on the stator
resistance and the rotor time constant; incorrect esti-
mates of these parameters can cause a significant
reduction in performance at low speeds; without real
position feedback information it is difficult for the drive
to compensate for variations in these parameters.
112 A.C. MOTORDRIVECONTROL:Four-Quadrant Operation
FOUR-QUADRANT OPERATION
The drives described in this chapter are normally based on
the power circuit shown in Figure 4.12a. This power circuit
has the following drawbacks:
Although the inverter allows power flow in either
direction, the diode rectifier only allows power to flow
from the supply into the drive. Therefore the chopper
circuit must be used to dissipate unwanted energy in the
resistor when braking power is fed from the motor to the
drive.
The currents taken from the supply generally contain
significant harmonics.
The voltage at the inverter input is theoretically limited
to the peak line voltage of the supply. In practice this is
reduced further by voltage drops in the converter. This
limits the maximum output voltage without over mod-
ulation to less than the supply voltage.
If the diode rectifier is replaced with an inverter as shown in
Figure 4.12b, the input currents can then be controlled to
give almost sinusoidal waveforms with unity displacement
factor. It is also possible for power to flow in either direction
through the input inverter so that the drive gives full four-
quadrant operation.
su00, * mtt
input rectifier D.C.link and inverter
brakingchopper
,u00,, + f o,or
input inductors inputinverter D.C.link inverter
Figure 4.12 Alternative A.C. drive power circuits
a standard A.C. drive power circuit
b four-quadrant drive power circuit
isx=O PI ~
* ~)_~ * "
VD ' ~ PI PI - ~
Figure 4.13 Input inverter control system
The input inverter can be controlled in a similar way to an
inverter supplying a motor, using the reference-frame-based
control system described in previous sections. A control
system for the input inverter is shown in Figure 4.13.
Reference-frame Generation
If the reference frame is aligned so that the vector repre-
senting the supply voltage lies along the y axis, the x-axis
current controls reactive power flow and the y-axis current
controls real power flow. As the input currents should have
unity displacement factor the reactive current reference, i~x,
is set at zero. The voltage at the D.C. terminals of the
inverter is regulated by a PI controller which produces the
real current reference, i~y.
It is possible to provide voltage feedback from the supply
side of the input inductors as the input to a phase-locked loop
(PLL) to derive the reference-frame angle. However, this
requires voltage isolators connected across the supply which
may be at a very high-power level for a large converter. A
much more cost-effective alternative is to use the modula-
tion angle, 0m, as the feedback representing the angle of the
supply voltage. This is valid provided that the current con-
trollers are operating correctly because this angle is the angle
of the voltage vector applied on the inverter side of the input
inductors. Normally the phase shift across the input induc-
tors is small even at high loads, and so Omcan be used to
represent the angle of the supply voltage vector. If the supply
voltage is aligned with the y axis of the reference frame
Oref-- Orn -- 90 , therefore Ov= 90 . The reference-frame
angle can be defined by a PLL as shown in Figure 4.14. The
PLL is required to make the control system stable and to
smooth out transients in 0v due to the operation of the current
controllers and supply voltage distortion.
Performance and Applications
The performance characteristics of the four-quadrant drive
described here can be summarised as:
Full four-quadrant operation.
Approximately unity displacement factor and minimal
input current harmonics.
Fast transient control of the D.C. voltage at the input to
the motor inverter even during motor transient operation.
p space
I , ' vector ii:.iiiiiiiiiii~i!i]'
l ~
~ modulator supply
I0~ z'-~ ~ andlei~
r I I I input
inductors
 Chapter 4.2 113

Table 4.2 Effect of different possible voltage vectors on

Ov stator flux
v

Voltage Effect on magnitude of Effect on the angle of

T
90
vector
u~
~s ( ~s )
increase
~ (0~)
retard
u2 increase advance
Figure 4.14 Reference frame PLL u3 decrease advance
U4 decrease advance
u5 decrease retard
u6 increase retard
The D.C. link voltage of a drive with an input diode u0 or u7 almost no change almost no change
rectifier is limited to less than the peak line supply vol-
tage. With an input inverter the D.C. link voltage can be
boosted to levels above this.
No supply voltage feedback required.
Four-quadrant drives are used in applications where good
quality input waveforms are required and/or significant U3 U2 """~_~'Z~-~ ~,, direction of
/,4 ". ~, \ r o t a t i o n
braking energy can be returned to the supply. The following
are some examples of applications where this type of drive is u4~, N/ ,~u, ",~',.
used: x
115 1.16 ~
engine test loading systems
cranes and lifts
cable laying winders

DIRECT TORQUE CONTROL

The drive control systems described so far all use space-
vector modulation to produce the inverter control signals.
An alternative method of control that can be used when a
motor is connected to the drive is direct torque control. From
the earlier description of the space-vector modulator it is
clear that the inverter can only produce any one of eight
possible voltage vectors. At each sample point direct torque
control selects one of the eight voltage vectors to change the
motor flux and torque to the reference values as quickly as
possible.
The principle of direct torque control is demonstrated in
Figure 4.15. The stator flux is given by the following
equation:
~, - / vs - R, isdt (4.12)
In the example shown the selection of each of the different
possible voltage vectors will have a different effect on the
stator flux given in Table 4.2.
The aim of the control system is to hold the magnitude of the
stator flux, CPs, within the hysteresis band indicated by the
two dotted lines in Figure 4.15, therefore at the instance
shown one of the voltage vectors u3, 114, or us must be
selected to reduce the magnitude of ~s. The torque produced
by the motor is proportional to the rotor flux multiplied by
the stator current at fight angles to the rotor flux. If the angle
between the rotor flux and the stator flux is increased in the
direction of rotation then the component of stator current
leading the rotor flux by 90 must increase because the
difference between the rotor and stator flux vectors is Ls'is,
where L~' is the so-called transient leakage inductance of
the motor. Therefore, advancing the stator flux in front of the
rotor flux increases the accelerating torque, and retarding the
Figure 4.15 Direct torque control
stator flux behind the rotor flux increases decelerating
torque. The selection of the voltage vector is further con-
strained by the change in torque required. If the torque is
to be increased at the instance shown in the example
then voltage vector u3 or u 4 must be selected or if the torque
is to be reduced u5 must be selected. Torque is also con-
trolled by a hysteresis method. A switching table is con-
structed which contains the voltage vectors to be selected to
control the stator flux and the torque to stay within their
hysteresis limits.
An example of a control system based on direct torque
control is shown in Figure 4.16. The torque reference, T~,
and the flux magnitude reference, [~Ps[*, are derived in
the same way as for a drive using a space-vector modulator.
The hysteresis comparators then produce the required
change in flux and torque, and the switching table selects
the required inverter state to give a voltage vector that
will change the flux and torque as required. The angle of
the stator flux, a~s, is used to determine which 60 sector the
stator flux is in, as different areas of the switching table are
used for different sectors.
The direct torque control system requires an estimate of the
stator flux and the torque for the hysteresis comparators, and
an estimate of rotor speed for the speed controller. These are
derived from a model-based estimator using the motor cur-
rents and an estimate of the motor voltages from the
switching table state and the inverter D.C. input voltage,
VD.C.. It is important to note that although the principle of
direct torque control appears simple and does not depend on
estimates of motor parameters, the motor model used to
derive the estimates of torque, flux and speed is complex and
114 A.C. MOTOR DRIVE CONTROL: Direct T o rque Control
Flux stator flux ~lq~sl*
controller hysteresis
comparator
T*~
PI "~/ torque
h ste ess
comparator
I
ro
I%1
Figure 4.16 Direct torque control system
is heavily dependent on the motor parameters. The following
list gives a comparison between direct torque control and a
control system based on a space-vector modulator:
The calculations for the current controllers, reference-
frame translation and space-vector modulator are more
complex than for the direct torque control hysteresis
comparators and switching table. However, the sample
rate required for direct torque control (typically 40 kHz)
is much higher than that for a space vector modulator
(6-12kHz), because direct torque control uses a hys-
teresis method.
As well as supplying a single induction motor, most
induction motor drives can also supply more than one
motor in parallel where the motors are different sizes, or
the drive can be used as a general-purpose variable-
frequency/variable-voltage power supply. Direct torque
control cannot be used in these applications, and so a
direct torque control drive must also be able to operate
with space-vector modulation for these applications.
3 D.C. MOTOR DRIVE CONTROL
Most medium and large-size industrial D.C. motor drives
are based on a separately-excited motor. The flux is gener-
ated by a field winding and the torque by a higher current
armature winding fed via a commutator. These two wind-
ings are completely independent, and so the flux and
torque can be controlled independently as shown in Figure
4.17a. Although the field winding usually has a long time
constant, the armature winding time constant is normally
very short allowing fast changes of armature current and
hence torque.
I VDC
v
switching k,I /') "1
table inverter "-~ motor
v
P"I ,, ,
switching
state
Isu
electromagnetic torque,
stator flux and speed Isv
estimator
r
Because direct torque control is based on hysteresis
controllers the inverter has a continuously variable
switching frequency.This is considered to be an advan-
tage in spreading the spectrum of the audible noise from
the motor, but the range must be controlled so that it does
not exceed the maximum allowed by the power elec-
tronics of the inverter. Care must also be taken with
direct torque control to ensure that changes from one
voltage vector to another more than 60 away do not
occur repetitively as this can increase the stress on motor
insulation.
A direct torque control drive inherently delivers a change
in torque in the shortest possible time within the limits of
the sample rate. Because of the sampling and calculation
delays usually associated with space-vector modulator-
based systems a change in torque can take several
samples. However, dead-beat type algorithms can be
used with a space-vector modulator system giving per-
formance which compares well with that of direct torque
control.
FLUX CONTROLLER
The field converter is either a half or fully-controlled thyr-
istor converter. The half-controlled converter can only apply
positive voltage to the field winding, and so the current in
the winding can be increased quickly, but decays relatively
slowly. The fully-controlled converter can apply positive or
negative voltages, and so the performance is the same
whether the current is increasing or decreasing. When the
motor is rotating at a speed below base speed the field
 Chapter 4.3 115

flux field
r
J D.(
v,~ I controller
Phase
controller i~: v"-~iF PI converter
m c or

* ' ~ , ~ V~ continuous
PI ~ I phase armature
~ controller converter
speed
cbntinuous feedback

firing
VA ~1 angle
supply ~_1 prediction
voltage "-I

A .,

armature---, positive field supply

supply = 2~"- t ~ ~ ~bridge ,I
t
field converter
(fullycontrolled)
~_IL~ + ~L_~egative
'i 7- ~ ];ridge
w w

armatureconverter
Figure 4.17 Separately excited D.C. motor drive
a control system
b power circuit

current reference is constant at the rated level for the motor,
and so the motor armature voltage increases with speed. The
armature voltage reaches its rated level at base speed, and
above this speed the flux controller reduces the field current
reference, i~, to keep the voltage at the rated level as the
speed increases further. The armature voltage feedback can
include armature resistance compensation to avoid the effects
of the armature resistance drop on the voltage control loop.
control the firing angle of the converter. When the current is
discontinuous the relationship is highly nonlinear and varies
with the voltage level applied to the motor. The drive stores
the relationship between the firing angle and motor current
for different output voltage levels, and during discontinuous
current operation the correct firing angle is selected by the
firing-angle prediction block for a given current reference.
Any errors are trimmed out by an integrator operating on the
current error.

TORQUE CONTROLLER When a change in direction of torque is required one

For four-quadrant operation two thyristor bridges are used
as shown in Figure 4.17b. Both bridges can apply positive or
negative voltage to the motor, but the positive bridge can
only supply positive current and the negative bridge negative
current. Therefore, the positive bridge conducts when posi-
tive torque is required and the negative bridge when nega-
tive torque is required. The bridges are phase controlled to
apply the voltages required by the reference, v], to the
motor. Owing to the high voltage ripple in the converter
output and the unidirectional nature of thyristors, the current
in the armature can be continuous or discontinuous. While
the current is continuous the relationship between the vol-
tage reference and the actual applied voltage is a cosine
function and the voltage reference can be used directly to
bridge must stop conducting and the other bridge must
become active. It is clear from the power circuit diagram
that only one bridge must conduct at a time during this
changeover to avoid a short circuit across the armature
supply. It is important that this changeover occurs as quickly
as possible to give good dynamic torque control. Modem
microprocessor-controlled drives enable intelligent methods
to be used to keep the bridge changeover delay as short as
possible.
Commutation from one thyristor to another during con-
tinuous current operation is acheived by applying firing
pulses to a nonconducting thyristor that has a more positive
phase supply voltage than the thyristor presently conducting
in the top row (or more negative in the bottom row). This is
116 D.C. MOTOR DRIVE CONTROL: Torque Controller
earliest firing
point
positive
voltage
negative
voltage
inversion
limit
Figure 4.18 Voltage produced by top row of thyristors
demonstrated by the example shown in Figure 4.18. The
supply has some inductance, and so the current does not
transfer instantaneously from one thyristor to the other, but
takes a finite time known as the overlap time. During this
period the voltage applied to the motor is derived from the
average of the two conducting phases. This presents no
problem during motoring, when the bridge operates as a
rectifier, except for distortion of the supply known as
notching. However, during braking the bridge operates as an
inverter and care must be taken to ensure that commutation
is complete before the inversion limit shown in Figure 4.18.
If it is not complete by this point the current builds up again
in the thyristor which should turn off and a large pulse of
current flows in the motor. This is known as inversion fail-
ure. The traditional way of preventing inversion failure is to
limit the firing angle to allow commutation to be completed
before the inversion limit; however, this limits the motor
voltage during braking so that it is less than the limit when
motoring. Modern D.C. drives include algorithms which
monitor the situations that lead to inversion failure, allowing
the firing angle to move right back to the inversion limit
under some conditions.
4 A N A L Y S I S OF A N D SET UP OF A SPEED CONTROLLER
The speed controller performance is important in many drive
applications. In this section a speed controller is used first as
an example to demonstrate the theoretical analysis that can
be used to predict the performance of a closed-loop con-
troller and then to show the unwanted effects produced by
delays often found in digital control systems.
PERFORMANCE AND APPLICATIONS
The performance characteristics of a D.C. motor drive can
be summarised as:
The current controller sample rate is limited by the
possible commutation rate of the thyristors in the
bridges. In general, the sample rate and hence the band-
width of a D.C. drive is ten times lower than that of an
A.C. drive.
The D.C. drive with separately-excited D.C. motor is
used in similar applications to closed-loop induction
motor drives. Because the flux and torque are controlled
by separate winding, the decoupling of flux and torque
control is not dependent on knowledge of the motor
parameters. Therefore accurate control of torque is more
easily achieved.
The thyristor power circuits used in a D.C. drive cost less
than an IGBT inverter for an A.C. drive of equivalent
power rating. However, a D.C. motor is generally more
expensive than an A.C. motor of equivalent power
rating, at power ratings below approximately 200 kW. In
general, D.C. motors require more maintenance than do
A.C. motors.
A full four-quadrant D.C. drive can be constructed with
two thyristor bridges as shown in Figure 4.17b; however,
the input power factor is poor. A full four-quadrant A.C.
drive using an input converter as described in Chapter
4.2 takes currents with significantly less harmonics and
with almost unity displacement factor.
The drive can be used in torque control, without the
speed controller shown in Figure 4.17.
Although it has been predicted for many years that A.C.
drives will replace D.C. drives, this has only happened
slowly and many D.C. drives are still manufactured. These
are used in many industrial applications especially in larger
sizes. The following are some examples of where D.C.
drives are used:
cranes and hoists
lifts
material winding
IDEAL SPEED CONTROLLER
For the purposes of this analysis it is assumed that an ideal
speed controller is used with a load that is a pure inertia. This
can be used for most simple systems, especially in servo
applications where the load usually is an inertia with very

speed current
controller controllers
w*(s)---+ ,,
Kv+ KJs Kc
I "
I
Figure 4.19 Ideal speed controller with inertia load
little friction. An s-domain diagram of such a speed
controller is given in Figure 4.19 where:
w*(s) = speed reference (rad s -1)
w(s) = speed (rad s -1)
isy = torque-producing current (A)
Te = electrical torque from the motor
Ta = torque disturbance (N m)
Tm = mechanical torque applied to the load (N m)
J = load inertia (kg m 2)
Kp = proportional gain of the speed controller (1/(rad s-l))
K; = integral gain of the speed controller (1/(rad s-l))
Kc = closed-loop gain of the current controllers (A)
Kt = motor torque constant (N m A - 1)
The closed-loop gain of the current controllers depends on
the current rating of the drive. The gain is defined so that a
current reference from the speed controller of unity gives a
torque-producing current of K~ amps. If an output of unity
from the speed controller results in a torque-producing
current that is equal to the rated current of the drive, then Kc
can be defined as the r.m.s, rated current of the drive. The
motor torque constant defines the torque produced per unit
current. Normally, Kt is defined in N m per amp of r.m.s.
phase current for a servomotor. Therefore, an output of unity
from the speed controller produces K~ x Kt N m. The closed-
loop response of the speed controller is given by:
w(s)/w*(s) = G(s)/[1 + G(s)] (4.13)
where G(s) is the gain in the forward part of the loop. If
Ko -- KcKt, then:
+ be used. The closed-loop step response is different from the
(4.14)
+ (X,, + Xi/ )Xo/ J]
Rearranging gives:
w(s)/w*(s) - [sKp/Ki + 1]/[s2j/(KoKi) + sKp/Ki + 1]
(4.15)
The natural frequency of the system is defined as
w,,= x/(KoKi/J) and the damping factor ~=w,,Kp/(2Ki),
then:
w(s)/w*(s) = [s2~/w,, + 1]/[sZ/w 2 + s2~/w,, + 1] (4.16)
This equation gives the closed-loop response of the speed
controller in terms of its natural frequency and damping
factor. Step responses are shown in Figure 4.20a for a typical
servodrive speed controller to a 1.0 rad s -1 reference step for
different values of damping factor.
C h a p t e r 4.4 117
motor Td
inertia
load
. Ir
Kt ~ 1/sJ
In addition to the closed-loop step response the stiffness
of the system can be assessed by its response to a torque
transient. From the s-domain block diagram w(s)=
(Te + Ta)/sJ and Te = - Ko(Kp + KJs)w(s). Combining
these equations gives:
w(s)lw*(s) = [llXoKi][s/(sZJ/KoKi + sXplXi + 1]
(4.17)
Dividing both sides by s is equivalent to integrating in the
time domain. If Or is the rotor position:
Or(s)/Ta = [1/XoXi][1/(sZJ/XoKi + sXp/Xi + 1] (4.18)
Or(s)/Ta- [1/KoKi][1/(sZ/w 2 + s2~/w, + 1] (4.19)
This equation defines the response of the speed controller to
a torque transient. The compliance angle is defined as the
steady-state change of angle to a steady-state torque dis-
turbance of rated torque which is the torque produced when
the drive is delivering rated current. The responses shown in
Figure 4.20b are the position changes as a result of a step
torque disturbance of rated torque for a typical servodrive
with a compliance angle of 0.07 rad (4).
The response to a torque transient is similar to the second-
order response shown in Chapter 4.1. As the damping factor
is increased the overshoot is reduced and the response
becomes slower. Once the steady state is reached the posi-
tion has changed by the compliance angle of 0.07 rad. If a
steady-state change of position after the application of a load
is not acceptable an additional outer position controller must
response to a torque transient because of the s term in the
numerator. As the damping factor is increased the overshoot
is reduced, but with unity damping factor there is still 10 per
cent overshoot. Also, the rate of response improves with
increased damping factor. It would appear from these results
that the higher the damping factor the better the response, i.e.
slower response to a torque transient and faster response to
a step change of reference. Although this is the case with
an ideal speed controller some of the nonideal characteri-
stics of a real system limit the value of the gains and
hence the best possible quality of the responses (see
Chapter 4.4).
CALCULATING THE REQUIRED GAINS
The gains for an ideal speed controller should be set up
in two stages. First, the integral gain is set up to select
118 ANALYSIS OF AND SET UP OF A SPEED CONTROLLER: Calculating t h e Required G a i n s

4=1/3

\ / ~= 2/3
rad s-1
4=1
1.0

= 3/2

~=3
0.5

0 ' 2o
time, ms

rad
~ 4= 1/3

0.08

0.06

0.04

4=1

0.02

y 4-3

o 3'0 40 5'0
time, ms

Figure 4.20 Step response of an ideal speed controller

a closed-loop speed response
b response to a torque transient

the compliance angle or the bandwidth of the system and,
second, the proportional gain is selected to give the required
amount of damping. The gains are calculated in the units
used in the previous section. It is unlikely that these could be
entered directly into the gain parameters of an actual drive as
the units used vary from one drive manufacturer to another,
and so some scaling is normally required to convert these
values. The values calculated for an ideal speed controller
can be used in many applications, but care must be taken not
to exceed the bandwidth limit of a particular drive.
Equation 4.18 represents the response to a torque transient.
After a transient has been applied the resultant steady-state
change of position can be derived from this equation as
Or-Ta/KoKi. If Tdrated is the rated torque and Or complianc e
is the compliance angle, the equation can be rearranged
to give the required integral gain for a given compliance
angle:
g i = Tdrated / (KoOrcompliance) (4.20)
If rated torque is defined as the torque from a torque-pro-
ducing current that is equal to the rated current of the drive,
then Tdrated-- K c K t - - K o. Therefore, K i - l/Orcomplianc e. The
compliance angle may be defined for a different current
level, such as drive full-scale current, which may be two or
three times the rated current. Therefore equation 4.20 may
be more appropriate.
Alternatively, the integral gain can be selected to give the
required bandwidth of the speed controller. The integral gain
defines the natural frequency of the controller, wn. The
relationship between the natural frequency, wn, and the
bandwidth is defined by the proportional gain. The natural
frequency has already been defined as W n - v/(Kogi/J). This
can be rearranged to give the required integral gain:
Ki - wZnJ/Ko (4.21)
The damping factor has already been defined as ~ - w,,Kp/Kil
2. Although the user must select the required damping factor
for a particular application, a damping factor of unity is often
 C h a p t e r 4.4 119

used for servo applications. By rearranging this equation and sample period for speed torque controller
substituting for w, from equation 4.21, the proportional gain speed measurement controller delay
delay
can be calculated as:
v ~ v ~ v

Kp = 2~v/((KiJ)/Ko) (4.22) difference in torque time lag due

position feedback reference to the torque
and with unity damping factor: over this p e r i o d calculation controller
gives speed
Kp -- 2v/((KiJ)/Ko) (4.23) feedback

Figure 4.22 Unwanted speed controller delays

The relationship between the natural frequency and band-
width can be determined from equation 4.16. If the band-
width, Wbw,is arbitrarily defined as the point where the gain
is - 3 dB, i.e. w(s)/w(s)*= 1/x/~, then:
Wbw/Wn- - x/'[(2( 2 + 1 ) + v/((2( 2 + 1) 2 + 1)]
The value of W b w / W n for different values of damping factor is
shown in Figure 4.21. It can be seen that with a damping
factor of unity Wbw/W.= 2.5.
NONIDEAL EFFECTS IN A REAL SPEED
CONTROLLER
Most modem drives have digital current and speed
controllers which include various delays that affect the
~4
#3
0 015 :1 1:5 2 2~5
damping factor, ~
Figure 4.21 Effect of damping factor on bandwidth
characteristics of the speed controller response. The most
significant delays are shown in Figure 4.22.
(4.24) Figure 4.23 shows how these delays cause additional over-
shoot in the speed controller step response. In both cases the
calculations for an ideal speed controller have been used to
derive the proportional and integral gains to give unity
damping factor. In Figure 4.23a the required bandwidth is
672 rad s -1 (107 Hz), and is probably at or beyond the limit
of acceptable performance for this particular drive. The ideal
speed controller overshoot of 10 per cent has been increased
to 25 per cent by the additional delays. In Figure 4.23b the
required bandwidth has been increased further to
1000 rad s- ] (159 Hz), and the performance has deteriorated
further.
The effect of these additional delays can also be seen in the
bode plots of the closed-loop system response. Figure 4.24
shows the bode plot for the speed controller set up to give the
results shown in Figure 4.23a. The frequency at the - 3 dB
point of the gain plot has increased significantly from the
characteristic of an ideal speed controller, whereas the fre-
quency at the 60 point of the phase plot is similar to that
of an ideal speed controller. This reinforces the point made
in Chapter 4.1 that the phase delay of a controller should
be used as a measure of the response time, and not the
frequency at the - 3 dB point of the gain characteristic. If
the frequency at the - 3 dB point had been used in the
3 example given, the bandwidth would have appeared to be
2000 rad s -1 (318 Hz) and yet the phase delay limits the real
performance to that of a controller with bandwidth close
to that of the ideal system, i.e. 672 rads -1 (107 Hz).

'""""''"'"'"..,..,...,,.,..,,,.,, b
~ real speed controller er

4e~-ideal speed controller

= i i I =
i i i i i i i i I l l l l i l l i l l i i l l i i i i l i l i l l i i i l l i l

Figure 4.23 Effect of system delays on speed controller step response

a limit of drive bandwidth
b above limit of drive bandwidth
120 ANALYSISOF AND SET UP OF A SPEEDCONTROLLER:Nonideal Effects in a Real Speed Controller

1~~ _ i,,]-"~"-[-~." ,, real speed controller Other effects can limit the maximum possible bandwidth of
a speed controller. For example, the quantised nature of the
encoder feedback can cause high-frequency torque ripple
which manifests itself as acoustic noise from the motor. A
high proportional gain in the speed controller increases this
dB 101 effect, and so the proportional gain and hence the integral
gain must be limited to limit the motor noise.
-15
-20
-25
-30
rads-1
18 !9. !9o0 tqqq
-10
-20
-30
de,.,-40
u_50.
-60.
-70.
-80
-90
rads-1
Figure 4.24 Bode plot of speed controller closed-loop
response
 CHAPTER 5
Switched-Reluctance and S t e p p e r - M o t o r Drives
~ 1 G EN ERA L
2 SWITCHED-RELUCTANCE MOTORS AND CONTROLLERS
~.~i 3 STEPPER-MOTOR DRIVES
1 GENERAL
All the motors described earlier have the characteristic that
they can be operated, albeit at essentially fixed speed, when
fed by an appropriate D.C. or A.C. supply. In this section we
consider a group of drive systems where the motor can only
be used in conjunction with its specific power converter and
control, and consequently only overall characteristics are
relevant.
Switched-reluctance drive systems are of growing impor-
tance notably in applications where high low-speed torque
is required, and less importance is placed on smoothness
of rotation. Although considerable advances have been made
in improving the noise characteristic of this drive, it can still
121
122
134
be a limiting factor where a broad operating speed range is
required.
Stepper-motor systems are somewhat in decline. Their
operating characteristic of being controlled by a computer
pulse train is now a common feature of many modem servo-
drives. Also, where rapid settling times are required, stepper
drives, which are inherently open loop, are not ideal in
both fundamental performance and the fact that varying
mechanical friction has a significant impact. This variability
can make stepper drives unacceptable in applications where
the transient performance is important.
122 SWITCHED-RELUCTANCEMOTORSAND CONTROLLERS:Basic Principle of the Switched-Reluctance Motor

2 SWITCHED-RELUCTANCE MOTORS A N D CONTROLLERS

BASIC PRINCIPLE OF THE means that, for a given value of phase current, the magnetic
SWITCHED-RELUCTANCE MOTOR flux linked by the windings is maximised, and therefore the
phase's electrical inductance - defined as flux linkage per
Like the stepper motor, the switched-reluctance motor unit current - is at its maximum value.
(SRM) produces torque through the magnetic attraction
which occurs between stator electromagnets (formed by Assuming that mechanical self inertia carries the rotor
winding coils on salient poles) and a corresponding set of past TDC, it can be seen that the polarity of torque prod-
salient poles formed on a simple rotor made only of elec- uced by the motor will reverse if we continue to energise
trical steel (or other ferromagnetic material). The stepper the phase windings beyond the fully aligned position; see
and switched-reluctance motor share the same basic princi- Figure 5.3. Although the rotor is still turning clockwise
ple of energy conversion, and both are members of the under its angular momentum, the torque is now applied in an
family of variable-reluctance motors. anticlockwise sense, and will first reduce the rotor's clock-
wise angular velocity, and eventually may - depending on
The intuitively straightforward principle of torque produc- the initial rotor speed and the total moment of inertia - cause
tion is easily visualised in the very simple reluctance motor it to reverse.
illustrated, in cross section, in Figure 5.1.
Thus, the polarity of torque can be reversed, and braking (i.e.
The motor illustrated is commonly referred to as having a generating) can be accomplished without reversing the phase
'two-two' pole structure, the two numbers referring to the
number of stator and rotor poles, respectively. Intuitively, it
can be seen that if current is passed through the stator i current
phase
windings, with the rotor position as shown above, then the
rotor will experience a clockwise torque - as indicated by
the arrows. Note that, since no permanent magnets are
involved, the polarity of the phase current is immaterial.
This permits the use of a wide range of power electronic
drive circuits, as will be shown later.
If the rotor (and any associated mechanical load) is free to
move, this torque will cause the rotor to accelerate clock-
wise. Torque will continue to be produced in a clockwise
sense until the rotor reaches the fully aligned position shown
in Figure 5.2. The fully aligned rotor position is sometimes q
referred to as 'top dead centre' (TDC) by analogy with the
internal combustion engine.
At top dead centre (TDC), the magnetic circuit - completed
by the rotor - offers minimum opposition to magnetic flux. Figure 5.2 Rotor at top dead centre (TDC); zero torque
This opposition is known as the magnetic circuit's reluc- produced, magnetic circuit reluctance at a mini-
mum and electrical inductance at a maximum
tance, and is analogous to resistance in an electrical circuit.
Hence, at TDC, the phase reluctance is at a minimum. This

phase i current
phase
current
laminated
steel stator
{ ~h~fl"

laminated
steel rotor

C
Figure 5.1 "Two-two" reluctance motor Figure 5.3 Torque reversal beyond TDC

phase
[pv
Figure 5.4 Rotor at "bottom dead centre" (BDC); zero
torque produced, magnetic circuit reluctance
at a maximum and electrical inductance at a
minimum
current, in spite of the fact that the machine has no magnets
or windings on its rotor. When braking or generating, mech-
anical work performed on the rotor is converted into energy
in the magnetic circuit, which can then be recovered as elec-
trical energy to the power supply by means of the phase
winding.
If the rotor turns still further clockwise, it will eventually
reach a second position of zero torque, this time when its
poles are fully unaligned with respect to the stator poles.
Qualitatively, we may say that the clockwise and counter-
clockwise forces now balance each other out, and the net
torque is zero. The fully unaligned position is commonly
referred to as 'bottom dead centre' (or BDC), as illustrated in
Figure 5.4.
In contrast with Figure 5.2, the magnetic circuit's reluctance
is now clearly at its maximum possible value, and the
electrical inductance of the phase is correspondingly at a
minimum.
Now consider how to use the torque-productive intervals to
operate the switched-reluctance machine as a motor or
generator.
Operation as a M o t o r
Motoring operation of the SRM requires that the torque
generated by the machine acts in the same sense as the actual
direction of rotation. In other words, the torque should be of
a polarity- i.e. direction - such that it reinforces the present
direction of rotation.
Through study of Figures 5.1 to 5.4 we can see that, to
operate the machine as a motor, we should energise the
winding of the machine only while the rotor and stator poles
are approaching each other. In other words, ideally, apply
phase current only while the magnetic circuit reluctance is
decreasing - or, equivalently, while the phase's electrical
inductance is increasing - with respect to time.
Assume that we want rotation in a clockwise direction,
starting with the rotor positioned as shown in Figure 5.1. We
should energise the phase winding until the rotor reaches
Chapter 5.2 123
TDC (Figure 5.2) when we must switch the phase current
off. The rotor will coast beyond TDC under its own
momentum (Figure 5.3), until it reaches BDC (Figure 5.4).
The phase can then be switched on again and the whole cycle
repeated. If we fail to switch the phase current off at TDC
then, while the current, or to be strictly correct the magnetic
flux associated with it, persists, anticlockwise torque will be
produced as the rotor turns further clockwise. This anti-
clockwise torque will reduce the average motoring torque
produced by the machine over a cycle of operation.
Note that the machine will operate equally well as a motor
in either direction of rotation, the stator coils just need to be
energised over the appropriate range of angular position.
Operation as a Brake or Generator
So far as basic control of the machine is concerned, there is
no fundamental distinction between the terms generating
and braking. As an aside, it could be argued that generating
is concerned with the efficient conversion of mechanical
work to electrical energy, whereas braking is simply the
removal of mechanical energy from the load regardless of
where that energy ends up. For the purposes of our present
simple explanation, the two terms will be regarded as being
equivalent.
It is fairly easy to see that generating with the SRM is a
mirror image of the motoring operation. Generating requires
that the torque be of a polarity such that it opposes the
present direction of rotation. Following on from the previous
example, again assume that the present direction of rotation
is clockwise. We therefore require anticlockwise torque to
brake or generate.
This time, considering Figures 5.1 to 5.4 reveals that we
should energise the phase winding when the rotor poles are
moving away from the stator poles, as shown in Figure 5.3.
In other words, current should be applied when the phase
inductance is decreasing (or reluctance increasing). The
current should ideally be switched on at TDC, and off again
at BDC. Again, if magnetic flux, and current, persist when
the rotor has turned beyond BDC, then motoring torque will
be produced over part of the machine's electrical cycle, and
the average braking (or generating) torque will be reduced.
To Summarise so Far
Motoring torque is produced when a phase is energised
while its inductance is increasing with respect to time.
Conversely, braking (or generating) torque is produced if the
phase is energised while its inductance is falling with respect
to time. We can therefore choose motoring or generating
operation of the SRM simply by timing the excitation of the
phases with respect to the rotor position. Hence it is a
reluctance machine in which the phases are controlled, or
switched, in accordance with rotor position, giving rise to
the name switched-reluctance motor. Note that it is a self-
synchronous machine, i.e. the stator excitation frequency is
locked to the rotor speed. This is in contrast to, say, the
induction motor, where rotor speed is a result of the applied
frequency.
Figure 5.5 shows the variation of phase inductance as a
function of angle for a typical SR machine. If we apply
current over the intervals discussed above, then the polarity
124 SWITCHED-RELUCTANCE MOTORSAND CONTROLLERS: Basic Principle of t h e Switched-Reluctance M o t o r
a
/ X .... Lmax
I I I I I I
60 120 180 240 300
mechanical angle (degrees clockwise)
on on
I off I I
on
I o, I I o, I I off
Figure 5.5 a typical inductance with angle
b phase current for clockwise torque
c phase current for anticlockwise torque
of torque can be seen to depend on whether the inductance is
rising or falling with angle.
If the machine is only lightly magnetically loaded (when it
will be producing only a modest amount of torque for its
size), then the steel from which the rotor and stator are made
will behave magnetically in an approximately linear fashion.
That is, for a given number of turns on the windings, the
phase's magnetic flux will vary approximately in proportion
to the phase current. If linearity is assumed, then it can be
shown that the torque produced as a function of angle is:
V- (i2(dL/dO))/2
This relationship shows independence of polarity of phase
current (due to the i2 term) and that the torque polarity
depends on the slope of the inductance curve with angle.
Given that the angular spacing of Lma x and Lmi n a r e fixed by
the machine's rotor pole pitch, the magnitude of the induc-
tance's gradient with angle will depend on the difference
between Lma x and Lmi n. Thus the output of the machine,
for a given current depends on this difference, which
should ideally be as large as possible. In a practical machine,
the ratio of Lma x t o Lmi n will typically lie in the range 4:1
to 10:1.
Relationship between Torque Polarity
and Motoring/Generating
Reversing the polarity of torque, for a given direction of
rotation, switches the machine between motoring and brak-
ing operation. To do this, it is necessary to simply alter the
excitation pattem so that each phase is energised either when
the inductance is rising or when it is falling. Note also that
braking torque becomes motoring torque - and vice versa -
if the direction of rotation is reversed, provided that the exci-
tation pattem with respect to rotor angle remains unchanged.
The choice of rotational direction defined as positive
(increasing) angle, as shown in Figure 5.5, is an arbitrary
one. Once this is decided, we can define positive or forward
torque and speed in the same sense. Motoring operation then
occurs when the torque sign and speed sign are the same;
braking occurs when they are dissimilar.
CONTROL OF THE MACHINE IN PRACTICE
Low-Speed Operation
The simple control methodology discussed so far assumes
that (for motoring operation) a controlled phase current is
Lmin switched on when the rotor reaches BDC, and off again at
TDC. By varying the magnitude of the phase current, the
360 average torque produced by the motor can be regulated.
This approach is indeed used in practice to control the motor
on
at relatively low rotational speeds. The power electronics
of, I applies the full D.C. supply voltage to the phase winding(s),
thereby causing the magnetic flux - and hence phase
on
current - to rise at the maximum possible rate. When the
phase current has reached its working value, which at low
speeds will occur within a relatively small rotor angle, the
converter must limit the current, which it does by reducing
and controlling the average voltage at the winding. This is
usually accomplished by switched-mode action, or so-called
chopping of the phase current. When the rotor reaches TDC,
the power converter applies the full D.C. bus voltage in
reverse across the winding. This forces the flux linkage, and
hence the phase current, to fall at the maximum possible
rate, until both the flux and current are zero. Again, at low
rotor speeds, this happens in a small mechanical angle.
What Happens as Speed is Increased?
An important point, not considered earlier, is the recognition
that magnetic flux and phase current cannot, in practice, rise
or fall instantaneously. Faraday's Law states that the rate of
change of flux linkage (equal to magnetic flux, qS, multiplied
(5.1)
by the number of winding turns Nph) is proportional to the
applied voltage, Vph, hence:
dch/dt = (Vph/Nph) (5.2)
Inductance is defined as flux linkage per unit current, i.e.:
L = (Nph" ~ ) / i (5.3)
We can rewrite equation 5.3 to yield an expression for
current:
i = (Nph . dp)/L (5.4)
The relationship of equation 5.4 is key to understanding the
current waveforms in the switched-reluctance motor phases.
The current at any instant is determined by the ratio of
magnetic flux linkage to inductance. Remember that mag-
netic flux is a function of the applied winding voltage and
time (equation 5.2), and the phase inductance is a function of
rotor angle and hence has both speed and time dependency.
Medium-Speed Operation
Equation 5.2 shows that the rate of change of magnetic flux
is constrained by the available D.C. supply voltage. Con-
sequently, from equation 5.4, the current will take a finite
time to reach its working value when switched on at Lmi n and
a second (longer) time to fall back to zero when we switch
off at Lma x. At low rotational speeds, these time intervals will
occupy negligible rotor angle, and it is possible for the phase
current waveforms to closely approximate the ideal square-
wave functions shown in Figures 5.5b and 5.5c.

, , , | , | ,
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
mechanical angle (degrees clockwise)
r-
o
-
Figure 5.6 Phase inductance and realistic current wave-
form at medium speeds
However, as the rotational speed increases, the time occu-
pied by an electrical cycle of the machine falls with the
reciprocal of speed, and the rise and fall times of the current
become significant. This yields the sort of phase current
waveform shown in Figure 5.6.
The finite rise time of the phase current means that a little
torque will be lost because the current has not reached its
working value when the inductance starts to rise. However,
the persistence of current beyond Lma x (TDC) is more sig-
nificant, because it results in a short period of braking
torque. Not only does this reduce the average motoring
torque, but the extended phase current also brings a small
increase in winding losses. This means that the output has
fallen and the losses have increased, and therefore this tail
current can noticeably reduce the efficiency of the motor.
The nonlinear shape of the current at turn off is due to the
fact that not only is the magnetic flux falling linearly with
time, but the inductance also falls. This means that, by
equation 5.4, the current decreases less rapidly than might
otherwise be expected. The effect is less marked at Lmin
because here the inductance changes less rapidly with angle
(hence, for a given speed, with time).
It is the rate of change of magnetic flux relative to the rate of
change of inductance with time that determines whether the
rise and fall times of the current are significant or not. Note
that the rate of change of magnetic flux is determined by the
number of turns on the winding as well as the supply voltage
(equation 5.2). This means that the same effect will be
noticed at a lower rotor speed if the number of turns on the
phase winding is increased or if the D.C. supply voltage is
reduced.
How is Performance Maintained as
Speed Increases?
The effect of tail current could be minimised by using
relatively few turns on the motor windings, thereby ensuring
that the rate of change of flux was always large enough to
force the flux and current up and down within a negligibly
small rotor angle, regardless of speed. However, this would
mean that, for a given working value of magnetic flux in the
motor, very large phase currents would be needed. This
would increase the cost of the power electronics required to
Chapter 5.2 125
control the motor, and this approach is not used in practical
drive systems.
A preferred approach is normally adopted to mitigate this
effect - angle advance. The switch-on point of the phase
current is advanced with respect to the rotor angle, so that the
magnetic flux and current have already reached their
working values by the time the phase inductance starts to
rise. Similarly, the turn-off angle is advanced, so that by the
time the inductance starts to fall, the magnetic flux and
current have already been forced to relatively low values,
and little braking torque results.
If the angle advance is too great, however, torque will again
be lost. Too early a switch-on angle will place significant
flux in the machine when the inductance is still falling from
the previous cycle. The resultant braking torque will reduce
the average output of the machine while adding to the phase
current, hence also worsening efficiency. Switching off
too early will avoid the braking torque otherwise incurred
as the inductance falls beyond top dead centre, but it will
unnecessarily reduce the torque. Increasing the peak phase
current can restore the output, but this may worsen the root-
mean-square phase current, hence increasing the copper losses
in the winding and again worsening efficiency. Therefore, an
optimum degree of angle advance must be chosen for both
switch on and switch off, so as to maximise efficiency and
output for the torque and speed level in question.
High-Speed Operation
As the rotor speed rises still further, the rate of change of
inductance with respect to time increases along with it and
the effects illustrated in Figure 5.6 are exacerbated. Even-
tually, a speed is reached where the phase current can be
naturally limited by the phase inductance, while still main-
taining a sensibly broad pulse of current and flux. Under
these conditions, there is no need to limit the phase current
by reducing the phase voltage, and the torque can be effi-
ciently controlled simply by adjusting the switching angles
with respect to rotor angle. This is sometimes referred to as
the single-pulse control mode, so called because the phase
voltage is applied as one continuous pulse, rather than being
chopped by repeated switching of the power electronic
control circuit.
If the speed is high enough, it is possible for the current to
inflect and actually decrease, despite the full positive supply
voltage still being applied to the winding. This is shown in
Figure 5.7. Note the inflection of the waveform at peak
current. This occurs in spite of the fact that the full supply
voltage is applied to the winding, and that the phase mag-
netic flux is therefore increasing. The current rolls over
full D.C. supply voltage applied to
winding; magnetic flux increasing
~ / full D.C. supply applied in reverse;
fl x.~decreasing
v
time
Figure 5.7 Effect of large rate of change of inductance on
phase current at high speed
126 SWITCHED-RELUCTANCE
MOTORSAND CONTROLLERS"Control of the Machine in Practice
because time rate of rise of inductance exceeds the time rate
of rise of magnetic flux, and therefore, by equation 5.4, the
current must fall.
Eventually, if the speed increases still further, a point is
reached where it is only just possible to reach the chosen
working flux level, and then drive the flux back down to
zero, within one electrical cycle. The peak flux, and hence
current, is then limited by the available D.C. bus voltage, and
any further increase in speed will necessitate a reduction in
peak flux and hence in output torque. This defines the base
speed of the switched-reluctance motor.
It is possible to operate the machine with a component of
continuous (standing) current and flux. That is, the current
and magnetic flux associated with a given phase do not fall
to zero before the next cycle of operation begins. This so-
called continuous-current mode has some further implica-
tions for the control of the machine, but is useful in increasing
the available power output above base speed. It is especially
useful in systems where a wide constant power range is
needed or where a large transient overload capability is
needed at high speeds. This technique has been patented by
Switched Reluctance Drives Ltd and Emerson.
Summary of Typical/Practical Control
The phase currents are always switched synchronously with
the rotor's mechanical position.
At low speeds, the phases are energised over the entire
region of rising inductance, and active current limiting is
required from the controller. Torque is controlled by adjust-
ing the magnitude of the phase current.
As speed increases, the rise and especially fall times of the
phase current occupy significant rotor angle, and it is usual
to advance the turn-on and turn-off angles with respect to
rotor position. The torque is now controlled by both the
current limit level and by the switching angles, although
current is usually used as the primary control variable.
At high speeds, the rise and fall times occupy still greater
rotor angles. The current naturally self limits and it is pos-
sible and indeed usual to control the torque using only the
switching angles. The shape of the current waveform is
greatly influenced by the high rate of change of inductance
with respect to time.
speed torque
error demand
,
i ~
see
demand~ speed
H parameter.~
cntr' "control
controller
error
amplifier
Figure 5.8 Basic speed-controlled switched-reluctance system
The use of angle advance, with the switch-on and switch-off
angle both independently adjustable, means that it is possi-
ble to maintain a high level of energy conversion efficiency
as operating conditions are varied. The SR machine, when
controlled in this way, is capable of producing high effi-
ciency over a very wide range of torque and speed.
By choosing appropriate switching angles and current levels,
together with an appropriate electromagnetic design, the
torque-speed characteristic of the switched-reluctance drive
can be tailored to suit the end application. Furthermore, simply
by changing the control parameter selection with torque and
speed, a given machine design can be made to offer a choice
of different characteristics. It is usual to store the control
parameter variations within the motor control system, e.g. as
mathematical functions (of torque demand and motor speed),
or as look-up tables, either of which can readily be embed-
ded into the controlling microprocessor's software code.
Control of Speed and Position
When controlled as described, the switched-reluctance
machine and its basic control system form essentially a
torque-controlled drive. This can be compared in perfor-
mance to a separately-excited D.C. machine with controlled
armature current. This is sometimes what we want, e.g. for
tension control in winding machinery or for web handling.
However, more commonly, controlled speed (or even posi-
tion) is what the end user requires. If torque is still produced
as the motor speed increases, the SRM's speed will increase
without limit if additional measures are not taken to control it.
To do this, we simply include the basic torque-controlled SR
machine within an outer speed regulating loop, as is done with
the traditional D.C. drive. Feedback of speed can be readily
derived from the rotor position sensor, if one is used, other-
wise from sensorless control position data.
Figure 5.8 shows a typical control structure for a basic
speed-controlled switched-reluctance system.
Position control of the SRM can be achieved (in the con-
ventional manner) by adding a further position control loop
around that shown in Figure 5.8. Note that, under closed-
loop position control, the SR machine is not limited to shaft
positions corresponding to its natural detents. The shaft
position can be controlled to any desired resolution using the
switchingangles
and current control level
position f e e d b a c k for c o m m u t a t i o n
.~ .J
Ikup I I core I ,, ,motor
l power
switching
motor speed for parameter
determining and for speed control

position control loop. This will in turn demand speed, and
thence torque, which will ultimately be translated into the
appropriate currents in each phase required to maintain the
set position.
POLYPHASE SWITCHED-RELUCTANCE
MACHINES
The simple single-phase machine we have discussed so far is
capable of producing torque over only half of its electrical
cycle (which, for the two-two pole structure, repeats twice
per revolution). Motoring or braking torque from such a
machine will necessarily be discontinuous, and hence start-
ing in the desired direction is not possible from all rotor
positions. Single-phase motor starting can be ensured by
including a small parking magnet within the stator, posi-
tioned such that the rotor always comes to rest in a torque-
productive position. These limitations are acceptable for
some applications, and the single-phase SR motor is espe-
cially useful for low-cost high-speed applications such as
vacuum cleaner fans.
More demanding applications use higher pole numbers on
the machine's rotor and stator, with the stator poles wound
and connected into multiple identical phases. Figure 5.9
illustrates the cross section of a three-phase six-four
machine. Here, diametrically opposed coils are connected
together to form three-phase circuits, denoted as phases A, B
and C.
The excitation of the phases (in this case, three in number) is
interleaved equally throughout the electrical period of the
machine. This means that torque of the desired polarity can
be produced continuously, thus greatly reducing the varia-
tion in output torque with respect to angle, the 'torque ripple'.
Furthermore, machines with more than two phases are able
to start in either direction without requiring special mea-
sures. The number of phases can in theory be increased
without limit, but phase counts from one to four inclusive
are the most common for commercial and industrial
applications.
Many different combinations of pole count are possible. It is
sometimes beneficial to use more than one stator pole pair
per phase, so that, for example, the twelve-eight pole
structure is commonly used for three-phase applications.
Figure 5.9 Cross section of three-phase six-four SRM
Chapter 5.2 127
Each phase circuit then comprises four stator coils connected
and energised together.
Increasing the phase number brings the advantages of
smoother torque and self starting in either direction. (Self
starting is possible with two phases, but only in a pre-
determined direction, generally using a profiled or stepped
rotor design. Self starting in either direction requires at least
three phases.)
A higher phase count does increase the complexity of the
associated power electronics and, to some extent, the signal
level controls. However, increased power electronics costs
are mitigated by the power throughput being equally dis-
tributed between the phases of the controller, and its total
volt-ampere rating may therefore be no g r e a t e r - and in
some cases may actually be less - than that required for
a machine of low phase count.
LOSSES IN THE SWITCHED-
RELUCTANCE MOTOR
Like any other electric motor, the losses in an electric
machine may be categorised as follows:
a Copper losses (in the p h a s e winding) - resistive heating
from the main phase current, plus any losses due to
circulating or eddy-current heating in the copper
(sometimes called proximity effect and an important
consideration at high frequencies). Skin effect, which
effectively raises the winding resistance by concentrat-
ing the current around the outside of the conductor, must
be taken into account when calculating the effective
phase resistance and the copper losses in a high-
frequency machine.
b Iron losses (in the rotor and stator steel) - caused by the
changing magnetic flux within the steel. Eddy-current
losses, caused by induced circulating currents in the
steel, generally increase with the square of frequency,
and hysteresis losses follow the frequency of excitation
directly. The overall rate of increase of iron loss with
frequency therefore lies somewhere between the two
cases. The iron losses are heavily dependent on the
electromagnetic properties of the steel used.
c Friction and windage losses - mechanical losses
resulting from the rotational speed, such as bearing
losses, air friction, turbulence and shearing of air layers
at rotor edges.
At relatively low rotational speeds - and especially in
smaller machines - the iron losses are usually small, and
the copper losses dominate. At higher speeds, the losses in
the iron become important, and they are a key factor in the
design of large high-speed SR machines. Relatively high
windage losses at high speeds result from the rotor structure.
For a given grade of steel and lamination thickness, the iron
losses depend not only on the frequency of excitation seen
by the steel, but also on the magnitude of the magnetic flux
and the flux excursions. The magnetic loading of different
sections of the rotor and stator steel varies throughout the
cycle of operation as the phases are switched on and off, and
as the rotor position changes. Furthermore, in a polyphase
machine, many sections of the rotor and stator steel carry
flux from more than one phase. The problem therefore has
128 SWITCHED-RELUCTANCE
MOTORSAND CONTROLLERS:Losses in the Switched-Reluctance Motor
both time and spatial dependency. Modelling and calculating
iron losses in the SR machine is a highly complex matter,
and obtaining accurate results is notoriously difficult. Good
results depend on sophisticated finite-element analysis com-
bined with a detailed knowledge of the machine's operation
and of the steel type in use.
EXCITATION FREQUENCY
Each stator pole must complete one full cycle of energisation
for each and every rotor pole that passes it, and hence the
frequency of excitation per phase is determined by the pro-
duct of the number of rotor poles and the speed of the rotor in
revolutions per second. That is:
fph = (nr S)/60
where nr is the rotor pole count, and S is the rotor speed in
revolutions per minute.
Since there may be multiple interleaved phases, the total
excitation frequency will be given by:
for = (nphfph S)/60
These figures are important in the calculation of motor and
power electronics losses, and also in determining the time
periods with which the control electronics will have to work.
POWER ELECTRONICS FOR THE
SWITCHED-RELUCTANCE MOTOR
Power Supply and Front-end Bridge
The switched-reluctance drive, like a conventional A.C.
inverter, controls the motor using power switching devices
which connect the various phases of the motor to a D.C.
supply of relatively constant voltage. Typically, this D.C.
supply will be derived from standard single or three-phase
A.C. power lines by means of a bridge rectifier, filter
capacitors and, optionally, a filter choke.
If dynamic braking is required, the D.C. supply will receive
an average current flow back from the SR machine as
mechanical energy is converted back to electrical energy.
The D.C. supply must be receptive to the generated power,
which will initially cause the voltage across the filter capa-
citors to rise. The capacitors may be sufficient to accom-
modate transient braking energy, but thereafter it must either
be dissipated in a braking resistor or returned to the A.C.
power supply through an active bridge. In this respect, the
switched-reluctance system is again no different to a stan-
dard A.C. drive.
Power Switching Stage
It was shown earlier that the rate of change of flux linkage is
equal to the applied winding voltage, and that it is necessary
to get the flux, and hence current, to the correct value in the
shortest possible time (hence angle). It then follows that, at
the switch-on and switch-offangles, we want to force the flux
up and down, respectively, by applying the maximum pos-
sible winding voltage. When the phase is excited, we further
need to be able to control the current to any desired level.
Unipolar excitation is normal for the switched-reluctance
machine, and as such the associated power circuits apply
winding current in one direction only. There are many dif-
ferent power converter topologies which can be used with
the switched-reluctance machine. Discussion of all these
variants is beyond the scope here, but a brief summary may
be helpful to establish a choice of preferred power circuit.
Most power-circuit topologies used for the SR motor have
either one or two solid-state switches per phase, each of
which requires an actuating circuit to open and close it.
In spite of the number of possible power-circuit variations, it
will be found that the total VA rating (volt-ampere product)
of the switching devices used never falls below a certain
minimum value. For example, power-switching topologies
using only one power-switching device per phase may be
superficially more attractive in cost terms than a two-switch-
per-phase circuit. But, the single power switch will have to
handle at least twice the voltage seen by each device in the
two-switch circuit, and so the total VA rating is the same as,
or possibly greater than, that for the two-switch case. This
rule will be seen in the following examples.
Single-Switch-per-Phase Circuits
Figure 5.10 shows one phase of a possible single-switch
power circuit.
The power switch S is here shown as a MOSFET, but could
equally be an IGBT, GTO, bipolar transistor or other
switching device. Two parallel rails are required, the mains
D.C. supply (+ VD.c.) being connected across C2. When S is
closed, VD.c. is applied to the phase and flux increases
accordingly. When S is opened, the phase current commu-
tates to diode D, and the winding sees a negative voltage
equal to the potential across C1. Flux and current are then
driven down by this negative voltage, which is typically
equal to VD.c. in magnitude, as shown, but need not neces-
sarily be so.
Only a single-gate drive circuit is needed per phase, refer-
enced to the zero volt rail (which may be connected directly
to the signal level controls and, in a low-voltage system, be
at ground potential). This can offer savings in low-voltage
or nonisolated systems. Simple single-switch-per-phase
circuits are occasionally used in low-cost appliance and auto-
motive applications where the saving in the number and/or
A
+2VD.C.(typical)
c1 z~D
S
a
+ VD.c
phase
winding t
fromcontrol
electronics lgate driveLI S
T circuit T
w ~
I w
OV
Figure 5.10 A single-switch-per-phase topology

complexity of gate drive circuits is attractive. Their use in
high-power industrial systems has become less common,
however, partly because of the availability of MOS-gated
power switches such as MOSFETs and IGBTs which can be
operated from simple low-cost gate drive circuits. Addi-
tionally, the circuit above has only two switching states and
as a result offers less control flexibility than the two-switch
circuit, which is discussed later. Note that the switch sees the
full winding current and (when returning energy to the
supply via D) twice the supply voltage VD.c..
The circuit of Figure 5.10 requires a centre-tapped power
supply, which can conveniently be obtained by splitting the
supply reservoir/filter capacitance into C 1 and C2, as shown.
The motor will draw energy from C2, some of which will be
returned to C 1 at the end of the electrical cycle via the diode
D. Some means must therefore be provided either to dis-
sipate energy from C 1, or to return energy from C 1 to C2. If
this is not done, the respective capacitor voltages will drift
towards an unbalanced condition, and ultimately most of
the total supply voltage will appear across C 1. This circuit is
sometimes referred to as the C dump, presumably because a
capacitor (here C1) is used as a dumping ground for
unconverted energy returned from the motor. An additional
switching device is often used to return this energy from
C1 to C2, so that an n-phase motor will require (n + 1)
switches.
Multiple-Phase Operation
If the motor has two - or any even number o f - phases, then
the drift of capacitor voltage may be eliminated by
connecting the second phase as shown in Figure 5.11. The
D.C. supply can then be conveniently connected across C1
and C2 so that the capacitors form a centre tap or midpoint
on the power supply. The idea can be extended to four
phases, six phases etc. in ti~e obvious manner, by connecting
equal numbers of the phases as high-side and low-side
switches. By drawing the second phase's energy from C1
1
from control m gate
~
electronics drive
circuit
I OV
Figure 5.11 Single-switch-per-phase topology with two phases (H circuit)
Chapter 5.2 129
and returning it to C2, the average current flow in the two
capacitors can be equalised and the average (D.C.) voltage
balance will be maintained if the phase currents are iden-
tical. The circuit is in fact self stabilising if the phase ener-
gisation is not current limited, since an increase in capacitor
voltage will lead to an increase in phase current. If current
control is used, h o w e v e r - as it usually will be at low and
medium speeds - then additional measures are needed to
ensure that voltage balance is maintained. Note that the gate
drive circuit for the second phase (B) is not referenced to
the 0 V rail, and in fact its common-mode potential swings
rapidly between VD.c. and 0 V as the switch $2 is opened and
closed. The gate driver must be carefully designed in order
to deal with these conditions. (The common-mode voltage
may swing at a rate of many thousands of volts per micro-
second using modem IGBT or MOSFET switches.)
Each switch in Figure 5.11 experiences the full supply vol-
tage (VD.c.), but the windings only see half this voltage
during flux up and deflux. This means that, for the same rate
of change of flux as before, the number of turns on the
windings must be halved, necessitating twice the phase
current for the same working flux level. The total switch VA
per phase is therefore (once again) 2 x VD.c. x IpH.
Single-Switch Circuit using
Bifilar Winding
Another well known single-switch topology uses a bifilar
(two strand) winding in the motor, in which the phase energy
is supplied via one winding and returned by the other,
Figure 5.12.
This circuit has the advantage that all the power switches can
be referenced to the zero volt supply rail, which is attractive
for low-voltage systems, e.g. automotive applications.
Because the two halves of the winding are connected in the
opposite sense to each other, transformer action means that
+Vo.c.
D1
+ VD.c./2
phase A
$1 D2 2
130 SWITCHED-RELUCTANCE
MOTORSAND CONTROLLERS:Power Electronics for the Switched-Reluctance Motor

each switch sees theoretically twice the D.C. supply voltage
during energy return (deflux). However, the electromagnetic
coupling between the two strands of the winding is inevi-
tably imperfect, and this results in sometimes large addi-
tional voltage overshoots across the switches when they
open. This means that the switches must be of signifi-
cantly higher voltage capability than the theoretical 2
VD.c., but still carry the full winding current. The VA rating
therefore in practice always exceeds 2 VD.c IH-I per
phase.
Furthermore, the machine winding is more complex and
requires additional connections to the power electronics,
both of which increase cost. The efficiency of a bifilar
machine is marred because, at any instant, the phase current
is flowing through only a part of the available conductor area
in the winding. The copper fill factor (i.e. the proportion of
winding space actually containing copper) is also a little
worse, because of the additional, separately insulated,
winding required.
Two-Switch Asymmetrical Bridge
A two-switch asymmetrical bridge topology is the most
common one used for switched-reluctance motor control.
Two switches and two diodes are employed, as shown in
Figure 5.13.
Here, the gate drive of S 1 is referenced to the zero volt rail
(the low-side switch), and $2 has a floating gate drive (the
high-side switch). The drive circuit for $2 must, like the
phase B gate driver of Figure 5.10, withstand rapid swings in
common-mode potential as $2 opens and closes.
Each power switch is exposed to the full D.C. supply voltage
VD.c., and switches the full winding current Iei-i. The total
VA rating per phase is therefore again 2 VD.c x IH-I. The
power electronics rating is therefore no worse than that for
the single-switch cases (and better than that for bifilar).
Although additional power switches are required, the total
switch heat losses are distributed among two packages per
phase, which eases thermal management, especially in high-
power drive systems.
More important in many applications is the fact that the
asymmetrical bridge circuit offers additional control flex-
ibility, which is useful in managing the phase current and
acoustic noise of the machine.
Note that, because the motor phase is connected in series
with the two switches across the power supply rails, this
power circuit is not susceptible to the shoot-through fault
condition which can arise in conventional inverters. Indeed,
closing both switches at the same time is a prerequisite for
normal operation of the machine. This can simplify protec-
tion of the power electronics, although it should be noted
that a shoot-through fault would occur if the terminals of
the motor phase were inadvertently short circuited, e.g. by
incorrect user installation.
Figure 5.14 shows an outline schematic for a complete three-
phase SR power converter, with no braking.

+ vo.c + Vo.c.
A

~D1
l
S2 ~ L.[gatedriveL
/circuit /
_12 C phasewinding f
n

,gatedriveU Sl
gate l I s ~'circuit I D2
[ d"ve
_ T
1. 1.
OV ov !
Figure 5.12 Bifilar SR power electronics topology Figure 5.13 Asymmetric bridge power circuit

RLI

' _~ Q1 D2 4 5 D

p s CT-C phase C
1o C2 C3 C4
2o , -=O1 ~ |--
3o
A.C. line input ~ Q; _~~~6
/
D1t "~~ D3 4 D5~
_ _ [
Figure 5.14 Basic three-phase power converter circuit

simple thermal mRn~rl~.m~.nt
coolbearings
\
coolrotor ~ii!i~ii~i!iJi~i!iii!i~iii~s~i~i~ilii!!ii
i~ii!iiiliiiiliiiiiii~iiiiiiiiiiiiiii!~i~iiiii:~~~```~````~`~`~``~~~iiii!
high dV/dtwithstand
lowercapacitanceto
frame reduces RFI
Figure 5.15 Key advantages of the switched-reluctance machine
A D V A N T A G E S OF THE
SWITCHED-RELUCTANCE SYSTEM
The switched-reluctance machine combines the advantages
of relatively high specific output with great simplicity and
robustness.
Rotor Construction
Because the rotor carries no windings, magnets or con-
ductors of any kind, the machine is well suited to high-speed
operation, and is a good choice for use in harsh environments
and/or at high temperatures. Heating of the rotor is confined
to eddy-current and hysteresis losses in the steel and, as a
result, the rotor runs relatively cool in the majority of
applications, enhancing bearing life.
Stator Construction
The stator is also very simple and robust, requiring only
short-pitched coils which are placed over the salient stator
poles, and which can easily be prewound on a former or
bobbin. The stator windings - unlike those of an induction
motor - are not distributed over many slots, and the phases
do not cross each other in the end-winding region. This
largely eliminates the risk of a phase-to-phase insulation
failure. The simplicity of the coils allows the end windings
to be much shorter than those typically found in induction
motors, and the losses associated with the end windings
(which do not contribute to the output of the motor) are
reduced. This improves efficiency and allows the construc-
tion of relatively short stack (pancake) motors with minimal
penalty on specific output. The winding construction tends
to yield a lower capacitance to the frame than does a con-
ventional A.C. motor, typically 20 to 30 per cent less. This
improves electromagnetic compatibility and reduces radio-
frequency interference, because coupling of high-frequency
currents to the stator is somewhat reduced.
As mentioned above, with the possible exception of
machines operating at very high speed and at high power,
the machine's losses are concentrated in the stator,
which is relatively easily cooled. Thermal management of
the machine is therefore relatively simple. Furthermore, the
fact that the rotor heating is minimal, especially during stall,
Chapter 5.2 131
simple rotor:
no windings
no conductors
no magnets
no commutator
mechanically
robust
\ no phase overlaps
short winding overhangs
lower hot spots
less movement
means that the stall endurance of the machine is limited by
the thermal time constants associated with the stator. These
are generally long, owing to the large stator mass, and the
SRM performs well under conditions of prolonged stall.
By way of a summary, some of these key machine-related
advantages are illustrated in Figure 5.15.
Electronics and System-level Benefits
The SRM requires the use of power electronic controls for
commutation and control, in many ways similar to the
inverter used to vary the speed of an induction motor.
However, in contrast to the A.C. drive, the motor does not
require sinusoidal supplies in order to operate efficiently. As
a result, the power converter used with the SRM does not
need to switch at high frequencies. This reduces switching
losses in the power semiconductors at low motor speeds, and
is especially useful in medium and high-power drives (e.g.
10kW+) where switching losses can otherwise be sig-
nificant. To avoid tonal components in the drive's acoustic
noise, it is common to use current-control schemes with
randomised or spread-spectrum switching frequencies.
At higher speeds, the power semiconductors switch on
and off only once per electrical cycle of the machine
(Figure 5.7). The switch turn on occurs at zero current
(which implies zero loss), and turn off may occur at a current
less than the peak phase current due to natural roll over of the
current. The switching losses at high speeds are therefore
negligible.
The relatively low electronics switching losses, combined
with high torque per amp of phase current, mean that the
power semiconductor ratings in the switched-reluctance drive
can be somewhat lower than those in conventional systems.
The phases of the switched-reluctance drive system operate
independently of each other, and in the event of a fault
developing in one phase, the others are able to continue to
produce torque as normal. This gives the machine an almost
unique inherent fault tolerance with the ability to limp home
in the event of a partial failure.
The SR machine is capable of yielding very high over-
load torque; its ability to do so is really limited only by the
132 SWITCHED-RELUCTANCE MOTORS AND CONTROLLERS" A d v a n t a g e s o f t h e S w i t c h e d - R e l u c t a n c e System

Figure 5.16 High-performance SR Drive T M for textile applications (courtesy of Picanol, n.v., leper, Belgium) (SR Drive is a
registered trademark of Switched Reluctance Drives Ltd)

90-

o~ 80-
N,
0-

.m
._o 70-
(D

E
>, 6 0 -

50 I I I I I I I

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000

speed, min-1

Figure 5.17 System efficiency (mains to mechanical output) of 7.5 kW SR Drive T M system at rated output (SR Drive is a
registered trademark of Switched Reluctance Drives Ltd)

thermal time constants associated with the stator windings.
This high peak overload torque capability, combined with
relatively low rotor mechanical inertia (due to material being
removed at the outer diameter to form the salient poles),
means that the very high rates of angular acceleration are
possible.
Torque control stability and dynamics do not depend on
precise motor parameters, and good dynamic response is
inherently obtained. The electrical time constants associated
with the windings are generally short, and there is no need
(unlike with the vector-controlled induction motor) to keep
the machine fully or partially fluxed when it is lightly
loaded, in order to secure rapid response times. This can
bring efficiency and thermal benefits, especially in appli-
cations which may spend much of their time lightly loaded,
and operate only at full torque to skip quickly from one
speed or position to another, e.g. as shown in Figure 5.16.
Careful design and optimisation of control parameters can
yield excellent system efficiency over a wide range of torque
and speed, e.g. Figure 5.17. This shows the true system
efficiency (measured as mechanical power output divided by
the raw A.C. electrical power input to the power electronics)
of an IEC 132-frame 7.5 kW SR Drive system. The drive is
delivering a constant 50 N m torque from stall to 1500 min-1
and a constant mechanical output power of 7.5 kW from
1500 to 4000 min- 1.
The switched-reluctance system is capable of operating over
a wide speed range at constant power without the efficiency
or power electronics cost penalties associated with perma-
nent-magnet and induction-motor technologies under these
conditions. This is proving to be an attractive benefit for
automotive and traction applications, where significant
interest is being shown in the machine, especially when
these merits are considered along with its robust and simple
construction.
D I S A D V A N T A G E S OF THE
S W I T c H E D - R E L U c T A N C E SYSTEM
Although the machine is very simple in both construction
and concept, in practice saturation of the steel means that it
is highly nonlinear. As a result, it does not lend itself to the
relatively straightforward and well understood design
methodologies used for more traditional machines. The

analysis, design and control of high-performance switched-
reluctance motors is a complex matter, and without the
necessary tools and expertise it is easy to design a system of
poor or indifferent performance.
The motor and controller must be designed as a system and
operated together. The motor cannot be connected directly to
a mains power supply if its associated electronic controller
fails.
Because each phase operates independently of the others,
two cables per phase are usually required, although this is a
function of the power circuit used. With the most frequently
employed asymmetrical bridge power converter, a three-
phase system requires six motor leads.
It has been said of the SRM that it requires a short air-gap
length to perform well. It is true that the SRM can benefit
from a short air gap, which increases Lmax and hence the dif-
ference between Lma x and Lmi n. It is also true that excellent
results can be achieved using air-gap lengths equal to, or even
greater than, those normally employed in the production of
standard induction motors.
Torque Ripple
The torque produced by the SRM, when excited by constant
phase currents, is not inherently smooth even if three or
more phases are used. The SRM produces some residual
torque ripple; for a three-phase system this may typically
amount to 30 to 40 per cent (expressed as the peak-to-peak
excursion divided by the mean torque). Contrary to popular
wisdom, however, there are surprisingly few applications
where the presence of such torque ripple causes noticeable
process or control problems. Indeed, SRMs have been suc-
cessfully used in traditionally demanding applications, such
as positioning drives and for web tensioning, without
recourse to torque smoothing by exceptional electronic
means. Care must, however, be taken that higher-frequency
components (harmonics) of torque ripple do not cause undue
acoustic noise through exciting resonances in the load or
other associated mechanical arrangements.
If the natural torque ripple really is unacceptable, the torque
produced by the SRM can be smoothed using techniques
Figure 5.18 Exaggerated normal-force bending of stators
Chapter 5.2 133
such as current profiling. This involves modulating the phase
current (or flux) with respect to the rotor angle, so as to
cancel out the torque variations which otherwise occur.
Torque ripple can be reduced to a few per cent using such
techniques. Further smoothing is possible, but is probably
best accomplished using adaptive or self-tuning techniques
which are able to take into account the inevitable minor
variations from one motor to the next which will occur in
mass production. Adaptive techniques can also minimise the
effect of rotor position measurement error due to encoder
imperfections or misalignment.
Acoustic Noise
Acoustic noise was a well known problem with early SR
systems. Some of this may have been due to torsionally-
induced vibration (from torque ripple, as discussed above),
but it is important to distinguish this source of noise from
that due to the large normal forces experienced by the stator
poles in any electrical machine. These tend to distort the
stator from its desired round shape, Figure 5.18.
Because the normal forces exerted on each stator tooth
pulsate (as the rotor turns and as each phase is switched on
and off), the stator will tend to vibrate in various modes at
the phase frequency and harmonics, hence radiating acoustic
noise. Noise due to stator distortion and vibration can be
minimised by careful attention to mechanical design
(including the choice of pole structure and considerations of
back-iron thickness), as well as by electronic means. The
latter can make a significant impact by controlling the
spectral content of the normal forces seen by the stator poles,
and hence that of the resulting surface acceleration which
generates the noise.
Care must also be taken with general mechanical design and
stiffness. Good concentricity must be maintained if low
noise performance is to be attained.
Sufficient progress has, however, been made in the con-
trol of acoustic noise to permit the use of SRMs in
high-volume domestic appliances, e.g. washing machines,
where noise is a major concern, Figure 5.19.
134 SWITCHED-RELUCTANCE MOTORSAND CONTROLLERS:Disadvantages of the Switched-Reluctance System

!
i
Figure 5.19 Low-noise SR Drive T M system for domestic washing machines (courtesy of Maytag Inc.) (SR Drive is a registered
trademark of Switched Reluctance Drives Ltd)

3 STEPPER-MOTOR DRIVES

Stepping motors are a group of motors characterised by the This dependence means that the motor is eminently suited to
fact that the shaft rotates in angular steps corresponding to open-loop position and speed control, within limitations.
discrete signals fed into a controller. The signals are con-
verted into current pulses switched to the motor coils in a
specific sequence, and the motor acts as an incremental STEPPING-MOTOR PRINCIPLES
actuator, which converts digital pulses into analogue output There are three basic types of stepping motor:
shaft rotation. The speed of rotation is dependent on the
pulse rate and the incremental step angle, whereas the angle permanent magnet - PM
of rotation is dependent on the number of pulses fed to the variable reluctance - VR
motor and the incremental step angle. hybrid

rotation

A
B
r

b 60" c

Figure 5.20 Step sequence for a PM rotor stepping motor

 Chapter 5.3 135

rotation
f 30

b c

Figure 5.21 Step sequence for a VR rotor stepping motor

The Permanent-Magnet Motor
The permanent-magnet motor has a laminated, slot wound,
stator, usually with two, three or four phases. The rotor
mounted on a bearing in each end frame is usually a solid
cylinder magnetised in a two, four, six or eight-pole
configuration. Rotation of the motor shaft is achieved by
switching currents between coils to produce a change of
the electromagnetic field alignment. By controlling the
sequence of switching, the field can be made to rotate within
the stator bore and the rotor will rotate in synchronism.
When the electromagnetic field is in a fixed position, the rotor
will be aligned with it and the torque exerted will be zero.
By switching current to the next set of coils, the electro-
magnetic field will move to align with those coils and thus
out of alignment with the rotor. This will exert a restoring
force on the rotor to bring it into alignment again, which
results in a rotational torque being developed at the shaft.
Compared to the VR motor (described below) the PM ver-
sion develops a higher torque due to the magnet flux
strength, and it has a preferred axis of alignment because of
the polarised rotor. It should be mentioned that when the
rotor is 180 out of alignment the torque is zero, but this is a
very unstable position and any small movement to either
side of 180 results in the rotor returning to its correct
alignment position.
When the stator is not energised the PM rotor still tends to
align itself with a pair of poles, normally remaining in the
soft iron material with a number of equally-spaced poles,
which form paths of minimum reluctance in the overall
magnetic circuit. Since the rotor is not magnetised, polari-
sation is determined only by the stator excitation and the
step angle will be a function of the number of rotor poles
compared to stator poles. These are often not the same
number.
Although the VR motor has a lower static torque rating
compared to that of the PM motor, the absence of the per-
manent magnet in the rotor allows a higher speed range to
be achieved for similar input. Furthermore, the detent
torque is almost zero (a small amount may be present
depending on the type of rotor and its remnant magnetic
flux), so the motor can be moved freely when not energised.
There is not a problem of demagnetising the rotor, so torque
output can be uprated for short duty, although magnetic
saturation of the stator and winding temperature will deter-
mine the limits.
The Hybrid Motor
The hybrid motor is a combination of the PM and the
VR motors in that the rotor has a permanent magnet core
A
i

same position as when last energised; this is known as the ~' I

i
| stator
detent torque. Care must be taken that the current rating of
PM steppers is not exceeded, otherwise demagnetisation of
,C*, i
' :
~"F"" winding
| |
the rotor can occur. | i
i
i i
|
I rotor
When stepping in synchronism with the rotating stator field
i
a back e.m.f, is generated in the field coils due to the PM
--- - ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-I. . . . . . .
rotor. The amplitude is proportional to the stepping rate, i
|

which reduces current input as speed increases. Further, as a |

consequence of the inductive nature of the windings, the + flux due to

current input reduces as the switching frequency increases.
_ ,
permanent
There are a number of techniques, generally known as cur-
|
i

,'~ i

magnet
in rotor
rent forcing, to overcome this problem, which are described ! i
I
i
i
t . . . . . . ~ . . . . . i
in the following sections. i

The VR Motor A'

The variable-reluctance motor is similar to the PM Figure 5.22 Hybrid stepper, sectioned to show magnetic
motor, except that the rotor is not magnetised; it is formed of circuits
136 STEPPER-MOTORDRIVES: S t e p p i n g - M o t o r Principles

The most common configuration of the hybrid motor is a

four-phase wound stator, each pole having teeth spaced
equally at 1/48th revolution, and the rotor with 50 teeth
equally spaced. By switching currents to each pole pair in
sequence, the rotor moves round to align itself with the
nearest set of teeth and the angle of rotation is given by:

step angle - 360/(rotor teeth x stator teeth)

= 360/(50 x 4)

-- 1.8

The above assumes unipolar switching, which uses the

simplest circuits, but by half-step switching the angle can
be reduced to 0.9 and by ministepping the angle can be
reduced by a factor of ten or more.

STEPPING-MOTOR DRIVE CIRCUITS

Figure 5.23 Hybrid stepper sectioned on line AA' of
Figure 5.22
with soft iron end pieces. The magnet is polarised axially
and the magnetic path flows out radially through the end
pieces and back via the stator yoke. So the principle of
operation is quite different from that of either the PM or the
VR motor.
Nevertheless, the generation of torque is due to the forces
involved in the alignment of rotor teeth with stator pole teeth
and rotation controlled by switching of current to the coils in
a prescribed sequence.
(LOGIC MODES)
The performance characteristics of stepping motors are
significantly affected by the type of drive employed and the
way in which the phases of the motor are energised. Typical
logic modes are shown below for three and four-phase VR
and PM steppers. In Figure 5.24 the number preceding the
mode letter indicates the number of motor phases to which
the mode applies.
Mode A (unipolar, single coil) - only one phase at a time is
energised, i.e. one phase is switched off at the same time as
the next phase is switched on. The motor will execute one
basic step for each input pulse.

stepping modes
mode 2RA mode 2RAB mode 4A
1 1 1
2.1 1.2

m
2 2 2 4

12 2.1
1

mode 4B mode 4AB mode 3A

1 1
4.1 1.2 4.1 1.2
~''~, sssS "',
,,,,,sS```'`'.*

3.~ 2.3 3.2 }.3

3J 2
mode 3B mode 3AB mode 3RBC
~m
1 1.2 1.2.3 1.3
3.1 1.2 3.1 1.2 1.2.3 ",,~,,,," 1.2.3

"t" 2 . 3 ~ - 2 . 3

3 I 2 T23 ./ i ', ~T23

m
2.3 2.3 1.3 ~.2.3 1.2

Figure 5.24 Logic modes for three-phase and four-phase VR and PM stepping motors
 Chapter 5.3 137

UNIPOLAR SWITCHING
,t, E, C D The resulting pattern of currents is given in Figure 5.26.
Vs Reversing the sequence will cause a reversal in the direction
pulse of rotation. With the switching pattern of Figure 5.26, the
input
v
motor steps through its basic or full step angle of 1.8 for the
hybrid stepper. The pattern can be modified as shown in
Figure 5.27, introducing half stepping, i.e. a step angle of
0.9 with the following advantages:
translator higher resolution
smoother drive rotation
Figure 5.25 Unipolar switching
step resonance minimised
reduced settling time

The sequence of the switching pattern is also reversible

Mode B (unipolar, two coils) - two phases are energised
at any one time. This mode will produce higher holding
and dynamic torque and will reduce rotor oscillations,
but power input to the motor is double compared to mode A.
The motor will also execute one basic step for each input
pulse.
Mode AB (unipolar, half step) - this is a combination of
modes A and B in which the motor phases are energised
sequentially in modes A,B,A,B,A,B,A etc. The motor will
execute half the basic step for each input pulse. This mode
has the advantage of a smaller step angle which enables the
motor to operate at higher pulse rates.
Mode RBC (partial bipolar) - this is a more complex
mode requiring reversal of coil polarity as indicated in the
diagram by a bar placed above the phase number. This mode
is applicable only to a three-phase PM motor and enables it
to operate at a quarter of the basic step angle.
resulting in reversed motor shaft rotation.
Unipolar switching results in current flowing in one
direction only through the winding. Although the direction
of flow is not important, at best only two of the four motor
coils are energised at any one time. Improved performance
can be obtained by energising all four coils for each full
step. This can be achieved with bipolar switching.
BIPOLAR SWITCHING
By connecting pairs of coils in series or in parallel and
reversing the flow of current in coils, use can be made of all
four coils to give a higher torque.
It should be noted that with coils connected in series the
inductance is four times that of coils connected in parallel. So
although the low-speed performance is similar, the current

unipolar full-step switching

step number phase

1 1 1 0 0
clockwise anticlockwise
2 0 1 1 0
3 0 0 1 1
4 1 0 0 1

Figure 5.26 Current pattern for unipolar switching

unipolar half-step switching

step number phase

1 1 1 0 0

2 0 1 0 0
3 0 1 1 0
clockwise 4 0 0 1 0 anticlockwise

5 0 0 1 1

6 0 0 0 1
7 1 0 0 1
8 1 0 0 0

Figure 5.27 Current pattern for half-step unipolar switching

138 STEPPER-MOTOR DRIVES: B i p o l a r S w i t c h i n g

6 3

Figure 5.28 Parallel connection

I A A

1 4

A
w w v

Figure 5.29 Series connection

full step half step

step phase A phase B step phase A phase B
number number
1 +1 +1 1 +1 +1
2 -1 +1 2 0 +1
3 -1 -1 3 1 +1
4 +1 1 4 1 0
5 1 1
6 0 -1
7 +1 -1
8 +1 0

Figure 5.30 Current pattern for bipolar switching

R1

I
R R R2 R2
Vs

w
w

Vs

A C B D

Q
v w

Figure 5.31 Four-step L/R drive configuration Figure 5.32 Eight-step L/R drive configuration

and hence the torque, will fall off earlier at higher stepping
rates for the series-connected configuration. The choice
of coil connection should take this into account in addition
to the current and voltage capacity of the controller.
HIGH-SPEED STEPPING- L/R DRIVES
As stepping increases, the coil inductance and back e.m.f.
limit the current and the torque falls off with increasing
speed. Various techniques are used to overcome this pro-
blem. In the simpler drives, such as the L/R type, voltage
forcing is employed by using a supply higher than the coil
voltage and limiting the standstill current by a resistor in
series. This reduces the time constant of the coil/resistor
circuit and allows a faster rise time at each switch sequence.
Owing to the IR loss in the resistor, the use of L/R drives is
limited to relatively low-power motors.
When operating a unipolar drive in the four-step mode (full
stepping), the use of two resistors rather than a single resistor
will result in a better damped drive capable of operating at
higher stepping rates, yet the overall standstill efficiency is
the same.
With the eight-step mode (half stepping) it is necessary to
achieve a balance of torque between adjacent steps, that is
when one coil is on and two coils are on, so a three-resistor
network is used.
Voltage forcing by means of series resistors may also be
used with the bipolar drives.
CHOPPER DRIVES
To overcome the losses in voltage-forcing resistors and
produce a more efficient drive, essential for the larger
motors, a chopper-regulated technique is adopted. A high-
voltage D.C. source is used to obtain a fast build up of
current in the motor coils. When the nominal level is reached
the switching device is turned off, but the current tends to be
maintained by the motor coil inductance. When the current
has decayed below the nominal value, the switching device
is turned on again. This process of chopping is repeated with
increasing frequency as the motor step rate increases, until
the time constant of the motor coil circuit does not allow the
current to reach nominal value, when the supply reverts to a
constant voltage source.
The chopping principle can be applied to both unipolar and
bipolar drives.
BI-LEVEL DRIVES
A further variation of design is the bi-level drive in which
the supply voltage is maintained at a high level for
acceleration and deceleration, but is reduced to a lower level
once the motor is running at a constant load/speed. This
permits higher peak ratings to be applied to motor and drive
combinations.
APPLICATION NOTES
The stepping motor is a very versatile device with a wide
range of speed and torque, plus the ability to remain under
Chapter 5.3 139
control without the need for position or velocity feedback
devices, i.e. open-loop operation. But, there are certain
operating characteristics which have to be respected to
obtain satisfactory performance.
The stepping motor behaves like a slave motor, in fact in the
earliest designs such motors were known as repeater motors,
rotational velocity and position being determined by an
external pulse source. The dynamic characteristics are
shown diagrammatically in Figure 5.33; the top curve shows
the pull-out torque and the bottom curve the pull-in torque,
the area between the two curves representing the slew range
in which the motor cannot be started or stopped without
losing synchronism. Operation in this region requires con-
trolled acceleration and deceleration, i.e. ramping.
The optimum ramping rates and stepping rates are deter-
mined from motor performance data, after allowing for load
friction and inertia, in order to maintain synchronism with
the input pulses, over the total traverse. The ramping down
time can be less than for ramping up, because load friction
will assist in the deceleration.
Effect of Inertia
The inertia of the load connected to the motor shaft can have
a significant effect on dynamic performance. Best perfor-
mance is obtained with a load inertia equal to that of the
motor rotor and higher values of load inertia will result in an
increase in the mechanical time constant. As a consequence
of this the motor will exhibit a lower pull-in rate and a
general decrease in dynamic response.
Resonance
An important point to mention is the phenomenon of
resonance suffered by all stepping motors, to some degree
or other. This can occur under two particular circumstances.
torque
holding
to rq__.~
pull-out I
torque .[
pull-in star pulse
torque range I \ range ~ rate
I '
Figure 5.33 Dynamic characteristics
_. ramou? constant velocity
oo own
>
I
time
Figure 5.34 Effect of inertia
140 STEPPER-MOTOR DRIVES:Application Notes
T overshoot
step
position
time
Figure 5.35 Resonance effect
The first is when, at the moment the drive pulse is switched
on, the rotor lags so far behind the new step position that
the torque developed is not sufficient to accelerate the
rotor to the new position. This corresponds to point D in
Figure 5.35. The second is when the rotor swings so far
forward that the new step position is actually behind the
rotor, represented by point B. This will produce a reverse
torque, which will slow down the rotor so that it will not be
able to respond to the subsequent pulse, and may even
result in a reversed direction of rotation.
There are ways to overcome this phenomenon. Increasing
load friction can damp it out, but at considerable expense of
motor performance. Viscous friction dampers can be used,
which affect the transient response but not the steady-state
performance. Various electronic circuit modifications have
been devised to reduce oscillation and even changes to the
motor magnetic field geometry can be economic for large-
quantity applications.
In practice, by using half-stepping drive circuits and arran-
ging to operate motors away from the resonant
speed regions, combined with the inherent damping of load
friction, resonance does not usually present too much of a
problem. If the application permits, altering the acceleration
rate will often avoid resonance effects.
SPECIAL PRODUCTS
Stepper/Encoders
Originally the great advantage of the stepper motor was its
ability to operate in the open loop mode in position-control
and velocity-control systems. But as control systems became
more sophisticated the advantage of closing the loop became
evident. Since the stepping motor is a digital actuator it is
usual to employ a digital feedback device, such as an
encoder or resolver with R/D conversion.
It is also possible to design units in which the feedback
component is close coupled to the rear of the stepper.
Space-Rated Steppers
For operation in outer space long-term reliability is para-
mount and the simplicity of the stepper-motor construction,
coupled with the integrity of digital control, makes stepper
systems a favoured choice.
What is not so obvious is the attention to detail in the
manufacture of motors for space, the care required in the
finishing of individual parts to close tolerance, in the hand-
ling and transit between operations and the care
of assembly to ensure that there is no bruising of mating
surfaces or stress applied to threads, bearings or wire
connections. Following thorough cleaning of all parts the
units are assembled and tested in a clean room maintained
at a positive pressure to exclude foreign particles down to a
size of 1 micron.
To further ensure the long-term operational reliability of
the system it is quite normal for the system to be dual
channel so that, in the event of failure at any point, operation
can continue by switching to the second channel. Various
degrees of redundancy are used, in some cases a complete
redundant system, but in other cases the motor may be
provided with a redundant rotor/stator assembly in the same
housing. This is known as a tandem unit and then additional
care has to be taken in correct alignment of the two rotor/
stators to ensure a smooth transition on switchover.
Fuel Control Actuators
A rather similar application to the above is for tandem
steppers to control the fuel flow in gas turbine engines. In
this case there are other considerations, such as rotation over
a precisely specified angle with stops to prevent complete
engine shut down, the possibility of complete fuel con-
tamination, the need for the motor to survive in the event of
an engine fire and reliable operation in ambient temperatures
from - 5 0 C to +125C.
 CHAPTER 6

Practical Drives

i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i !i
iiii!i!ii!ii!i!ii!iiiii 1 G EN ERA L 141

iiiiii!iiiiii!iii 2 D.C. DRIVES 145

..!i.............. 3 A.C. DRIVES 151

i i !i i i i!!ii ~!~i~!i!~i~i~i i i~
i i i i i!i!i!i i i i i i i i i i i SOFT-START A.C. M O T O R C O N T R O L 169

i i i i i i!i i i i i i i i i i i l
A P P L I C A T I O N BOARDS A N D S O F T W A R E 172

1 GENERAL

Thus far this book has dealt largely with the theory of
variable-speed drives. The capability of commercially
available drives deviates from the theory, both in regard to
practical limitations of performance at the motor shaft and
also in regard to issues like control input performance. It is
important to also recognise the importance and value of
additional features that are incorporated in modem com-
mercial products. This chapter deals with some of these
practical aspects by describing commercial products, taking
as examples variable-speed drives manufactured by Control
Techniques.
Before considering the detail of specific drive products, it is
worth considering a few aspects of commercial drives which
may be considered common. When considering the theory of
drives it is convenient to limit the control aspects to torque,
speed and possibly position loops. In reality a large number
of other features are built in to modem digital drives
as standard. As highlighted in the Preface, the purpose of
this book is not to endorse or promote the products
from this manufacturer. Equally the publisher does not
endorse products from Control Techniques or any other
manufacturer.
142 GENERAL

Typically, the following functionality is incorporated in the
software structure:
selection between different types of speed and torque
reference
programming of analogue and digital inputs/outputs
selection of different ramp functions
setting up of the drive speed and current loops
monitoring of drive status parameters, trip log
programming of special application features such as
different types of torque control mode, digital lock
function etc.
programming of additional logic blocks and PID func-
tions which are available for user application set up
Figure 6.1 provides an overview of the typical software
structure of a modem, digital drive. Although this specific
diagram is for the Control Techniques' Mentor D.C. drive,
the basic structure remains broadly the same for D.C. and
A.C. drives.
It can be seen from the Figure that an offset to the demanded
speed can be input using parameter 1.04. This can be set to a
fixed value or can be programmed within the drive on an
option card to be a complex variable based upon any para-
meters input by the customer or a derived value within the
drive itself.
Consideration of the control diagram will start to provide an
insight into some of the control capabilities of a commercial
drive.
These capabilities can often be enhanced by the addition of
option boards. These may provide additional connectivity in
the form of a fieldbus interface, or additional control cap-
ability in the form of a second processor. These options are
discussed in sections 6.3 and 6.5.
Although modem drives can be operated directly from the
product-mounted keypad, it is more common to integrate
drives into larger automation systems. In such systems
the interface to the drive may be through a digital serial

speed
TB1-3 offset

I,.,71
1.04 I
post offset
I I "10 I I,.,31inch ref 12.o21
reverse
/ 1"-"3 i biplar
I,,~ se'ect select select

/
ramp 2.02
enabl~
Lix., i J
post ramp I 1.05 ] maximum speed
forward
ref refon I 1"06 I
2.04 inch ref .,,. /--
2.05 ..d

2.06 i
!
2.07 preramp
1.11 I - /
ref maximum 11-09 I
speed PID speed final current speed
error I output demand reverse firing angle
I~ ( ' ~ ~ - <
._.. o91 4.04
3 oo > - - 3.~0 4.05
I
I

4.06

current t
i " ~ ' ' ~ / " "".,. feedback limits current
- V """ ~losed loop only actual current

Figure 6.1 Typical control structure of a modern digital drive

< user drive > destination

40 0V [ 8.,61 an read rite

'bit' parameter

J 26 . invert
8.26 I
I 0
0

Figure 6.2 Programmable digital input

 C h a p t e r 6.1 143

link, or hard-wired digital and analogue inputs and DIGITAL OUTPUT

outputs.
Such inputs and outputs are typically of the following form.
DIGITAL INPUT
Programmability
With reference to Figure 6.2 it can be seen that by setting the
contents of parameter 8.16 it is possible to direct the input
command at terminal 26 to any read/write bit parameter
in the drive. The logic of the input can be reversed via
parameter 8.26.
Typical Specification
Digital inputs are usually referenced to the drive control zero
volts line (0 V). There is protection afforded by a series
resistor, clamp diodes and a filter capacitor:
input threshold 10 V + 5 V
hysteresis 0.3-0.8 V(IEC 1131-2)
mode positive logic (IEC 1131-2) or negative logic
The response time of digital inputs is very dependent
upon the way in which the software is implemented. The
inputs are scanned by the control software and it is this scan
time that is important to the response time. As it is a scan,
the time quoted is invariably the time between scans and is
therefore the worst case. It is common to have a number a
fast inputs ( < 345 gs) for use in time-critical applications
such as limit switch monitoring; others may be relatively
slow (~7 ms).
Programmability
An example of a digital output function would be an at-speed
signal. The output state changes when the actual value
reaches the demand signal. A typical programming flow is
shown in Figure 6.3.
Typical Specification
Digital outputs are usually referenced to the drive control
zero volts line (0V). There is often integral overcurrent
protection to ensure that damage is avoided if the output is
inadvertently short circuited. The output is invariably taken
from a supply rail ~24 V:
output voltage + ve control rail less voltage drop across
transistor switch and current sense resistor
(IEC 1131-2)
current capacity typically of the order of 100 mA
Again the response time of digital inputs is very dependent
upon the way in which the software is implemented.
ANALOGUE INPUT
Programmability
With reference to Figure 6.4 it can be seen that the analogue
speed reference can be input via terminal 3, via a voltage
reference selector (parameter 7.26) and scaling (parameter
7.20) to the speed demand parameter in the speed loop
(parameter 1.17) by means of the speed reference destination
parameter (7.15).

< user drive >

33 +24 V
sou rce

19 91i
i
read only invert

17
ST3
t
Figure 6.3 Programmable digital output

< user drive > volt 0-10 V

current speed 4-20 mA
TB1 20-4 mA
0-20 destination:
1 +10V current- / 20-0 any read/write
loop mode / parameter
0V
default = 1.17
-10V read only scale
17.281

analogue
speed
reference
I
[i 1

i
1 ~
@ o

I I
Figure 6.4 Programmable analogue input
144 GENERAL" Analogue Input

Typical Specification It is usual to incorporate some filtering, equivalent to

approximately 30 ps to ensure a reasonably smooth output
The specification for analogue inputs does vary considerably signal.
with the type of drive being considered and reference to the
specific drive specification is important. As a guide only we It can be seen that the features of a modem electronic
can consider precision analogue inputs which would be variable-speed drive embrace far more than the control of
associated with high-performance drives, and general ana- torque, speed or even position. Although it is not possible to
logue inputs which may be associated with products for less discuss all features of a modem drive, in this section we hope
demanding applications or as auxiliary analogue inputs on to reveal some of the less obvious features of commercial
a high performance drive: drives. The utilisation of some of these features is high-
lighted in Chapter 12 where applications are discussed.
(i) Precision analogue inputs - usually these inputs accept
differential input voltages: Typical environmental conditions for standard commercial
input voltage +IOV drives are"
gain accuracy 1% Ambient temperature: 0C to 40C (32-104F). At ambient
linearity O. 1% of actual input temperatures above 40C (104F) derate 1.5 per cent per C
resolution delta of 150 gV will give a change up to 55C (131F).
full-scale asymmetry 0.1%
zero crossing error
Storage temperature: - 4 0 C to 55C ( - 4 0 F to 131F).
< 300 gV
input impedance > 10 kf~ (differential) Maximum storage time" 12 months.
> 1 Mf~ (common mode)
Rated altitude: sea level to 1000m (3300ft). At heights
(ii) General analogue inputs - usually these inputs are above 1000 m reduce the full load current by 1.0 per cent for
referenced to the control zero volts: each additional 100 m (320 ft).
input -+- 10 V, 0-20 mA and 50 f~-5 kf~
Relative humidity: noncondensing to 85 per cent at 40C.
gain accuracy 3%
resolution 10 bit (A of 10 mV will give a change) Degree of ingress protection" IP 00 (unit for building into an
input impedance 100 kf~ (voltage mode) electrical enclosure).
< 200 f~ at 20 mA (current mode) Starts~hour (A.C. drives): unlimited by electronic control;
_<20 by interrupting the A.C. supply.
ANALOGUE OUTPUT Speed reference: - 10 to + 10 V or 0 to 10 V; 4 to 20 mA; 20
to 4 mA; 0 to 20 mA; 20 to 0 mA; digital speed input.
Programmability
Serial communications interface: RS-485 serial port, opti-
In the example shown in Figure 6.5 the analogue output is cally isolated.
programmed to provide a meter signal. It could equally well
be used to provide a speed reference, or other process vari- Materials: flammability rating of main enclosure - UL94-
able, to another drive or process equipment. 5VB; glands - UL94-V0.
Vibration (random)" packaged and unpackaged- tested to
Typical Specification 0.01 gZ/Hz (equivalent to 1.2 g r.m.s.) from 5 to 150 Hz for
one hour in each of three axes as in IEC68-2-34 and IEC68-
Analogue outputs are usually referenced to the drive control 2-36.
zero volts rail:
Bump~shock: packaged - tested to 40 g, 6 ms, 1000 times/
modes voltage and current
direction for all six directions as in IEC68-2-29. Unpack-
range + 10 V and 0-20 mA
aged - tested to 25 g, 6 ms, 1000 times/direction for all six
gain accuracy 3%
directions as in IEC68-2-29.
resolution 10 bit
EMC immunity: EN50082-2. Following specifications from
The update rate of the output may be better than 100 gs on
IEC61000-4:
high-performance drives, and is determined by the imple-
mentation of the control software. The analogue output is Part 2 - electrostatic discharge, level 3
not usually considered critical in this respect. Part 3 - radiofrequency field, level 3

< user drive >

source

20
OV
1 .o81
+lOV scale

12 o
o

Figure 6.5 Programmable analogue ouput

 C h a p t e r 6.2 145

Part 4 - transient burst, Part 6 - conducted radiofrequency, level 3

level 4 at the control terminals
level 3 at the power terminals EMC emissions - EN50081-2.

Part 5 - surge at the A.C. supply terminals (as specified by Aspects specific to the alternative types of commonly-used
EN50082-2 informative annex) drive system are detailed in the rest of Chapter 6.
level 4 line to ground
level 3 line to line

2 D.C. DRIVES

THE TECHNOLOGY
D.C. drives are widely used in applications which require
regeneration, precise speed control, dynamic performance
and constant torque over wide speed ranges. The technology
is mature and extremely reliable. Applications that tradi-
tionally favour D.C. drives include web handling, winders,
extruders, paper production, cranes, hoists, plastic produc-
tion and wire drawing.
Control Techniques Mentor II is a family of D.C. variable-
speed industrial drives. All sizes (7.5 to 750kW) share
common control, monitoring, protection and serial com-
munications features. Units are available in either single-
quadrant or four-quadrant configurations. Both types offer
comprehensive control of motor speed and/or torque.
Operating parameters are selected and changed either at the
drive keypad, through the serial communications interface,
or through MentorSoft, a WindowsrM-based configuration
software tool.
Mentor has many embedded configurable functions which
are easily adapted for virtually any application. These con-
figurable functions include items such as assignable I/O,
autotune, feedback selection, ratio control etc.
DRIVE SELECTION
The rating of a Mentor drive is based on the maximum
continuous current that it is designed to deliver. An overload
capacity of 150 per cent of the rated current for 30 seconds is

Figure 6.6 Control Techniques Mentor D.C. drive family

146 D.C. DRIVES"Drive Selection

Figure 6.7 EMC data and wiring recommendations

 Chapter 6.2 147

alternative l~ation ~:

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:: :=::...........
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:~'~~ii i:':~:::~R~!
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Drive
/ /

.............: ...............................................................................................
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(4 in) iiii~dliii~||iiiiii~6~iiiii~6i~iiiii::iii i:~iiii~iiiiil

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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .~i. .i.i.i.l.il.ili.!.i. . . . . . . . . . . #::!iiiiiiiiii:

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,~ -,,m ,- B i=m B m
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n

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back plate

alternative safety ground

connections for the motor

Figure 6. 7
148 D.C. DRIVES: Drive Selection

permitted, which may be utilised, for example, during Autotune

acceleration. If higher maximum currents are required, a
drive with a higher continuous current rating should be used, If optimum response is required from the drive, the current
so as not to exceed the maximum current limit setting of the loop, which is the inner control loop of the drive, must be set
selected unit. Additionally, in applications involving cyclic up to enable the outer speed control loop to function opti-
duty, the r.m.s, current over the whole cycle must not exceed mally. The dynamics of the current loop are principally a
the continuous current rating of the drive. function of the electrical characteristics of the motor as
discussed in Chapters 1 and 4.
The Mentor has a built in self-tuning procedure for its cur-
TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS AND rent loop, providing an easy route to full performance.
RATINGS
PC-Based Commissioning
A. C. supply requirements
Tools- MentorSoft
mains supply 208-480 V A.C. + 10% three phase
voltage: (optional 208-525/660 V A.C. + 10%) MentorSofl is a WindowsTM-based software tool. The func-
input frequency 48-62 Hz autosensing tions mentioned above are very similar throughout Control
phase rotation nonsensitive Techniques' complete range of A.C. and D.C. drives.
Although the parameters that are used to control and adjust
D. C. armature output voltage
the various features can be manipulated via the drive's
Six-pulse full wave. Table 6.1 shows maximum armature
onboard keypad, there is a set of software packages available
voltage for common mains supply voltages.
which make this manipulation easier, quicker and far more
visual/intuitive.
T a b l e 6.1 M a x i m u m recommended D.C.
armature voltage (1Q or 4Q) PERFORMANCE
Mains supply Maximum D.C.
voltage (V) armature voltage (V) The current-loop performance of a D.C. drive is limited by
the switching times of the drive as well as the control-loop
380 440 performance. The following traces were obtained on a Leroy
400 450 Somer D.C. motor type LSK 1122 S04; 9.5kW, 400V,
415 460 28.5 A with tachogenerator feedback.
440 500
460 510
480 530 Speed and Current-loop Response
Figure 6.8 shows the current-loop performance during the
Supply phase sequence
request for a speed reversal using default speed-loop gains.
Loss of one or more phases of input automatically detected;
The armature current rises from zero to maximum in
the drive will run irrespective of input phase rotation
approximately 30 ms.
Speed feedback Figure 6.9 shows the optimised performance.
motor armature voltage, or
tachogenerator, or Figure 6.10 shows the speed change due to the application of
encoder (pulse generator) a 100% step load change using product default speed loop
full PID speed loop algorithm
Current feedback .... i .... i .... i .... i .... i .... i .... i .... i .... i ' "
resolution 0.1%
current loop linearity 2%

Control speed
All analogue and most digital inputs configurable by the user
for specific applications; provision for encoder inputs for
position control applications; on-board provision for tacho-
2> :v.;, x_:_;-.7..~.....; ..... ; .... : ..... ; ..... ; .... : ....
generator calibration; in-built field-weakening controller,
with digital programmable control; drive software includes
current-loop self-tuning algorithm; user-defined menu for
quick access to most used parameters. current

DRIVE SET UP AND COMMISSIONING

All adjustment and application set up is via a menu-
driven parameter set controlled from a five-button keypad. Figure 6.8 Current response to a speed demand change
This provides a simple intuitive commissioning interface. (default loop gains), timebase - 50 ms/div
 Chapter 6.2 149

.... ,. .... ~ .... : ......... ,. ......... : .... ,. ........

..... :, ....
i
~ ................ :. .......... :. .... i .......... LOW-POWER ANALOGUE D.C. DRIVES
: i
Very simple low-power analogue D.C. drives, for use on a
single-phase supply, are widely available. They tend to be
2> simply constructed with a very much reduced feature set
speed
compared with the larger digital system drives.

The 4Q2 D.C. Drive

The 4Q2 is a 7.5 kW four-quadrant regenerative thyristor
D.C. controller for operation on a single-phase mains supply.
current
The D.C. motor speed controller is designed to provide full
four-quadrant control of conventional shunt-wound and
U
1 :ref~2{/50ms i i i...i
permanent-magnet motors, using either armature voltage or
iiii..ii',iiii',....',iii tachogenerator feedback.

Figure 6.9 Current response to a speed demand change

(optimised loop gains), timebase - 50 ms/div FEATURES

switch-selectable features (easy to configure)

gains. Speed is seen to transiently fall by 10% before the
speed/torque control
speed loop returns it to the original set value.
tacho/armature voltage speed feedback modes
status/fault or low-speed/zero reference
full-wave bridge, full control
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
20:1 constant torque speed range
2per cent regulation for 100 per cent load change
Mentor D.C. drives can be configured for use in a wide
with armature voltage feedback (0.5 per cent with tacho
variety of applications, some examples of which are"
feedback)
mechanical handling overload protection 150 per cent FLC for 15 s with trip
pick and place handling systems, complex transfer sta- indication
tions and automatic warehousing ambient - 10C to + 4 0 C
plastic extrusion
drives for single-screw extruders, involving the forcing Cheetah- P u m a - Lynx
of molten plastic through a die to form a continuous
product of film, sheet or pipe The Cheetah, Puma, Lynx range of D.C. motor controllers is
paper-making machines designed for the efficient speed control of both wound-field
steel processing - many applications including rolling and permanent-magnet D.C. motors from 0.18 to 7.5kW.
mills, metal forming and wire drawing All are single-quadrant controllers.

_I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

speed . . . . . . .x.. .~.~. ..~-...v,r~-.

_~.~.~..,
. r.,,~..,,
.~ .~.__I
.~.~.
i. .
:':= .= .v:~'.'.~r~.q
. . . . . . .

armature
current

mm -
-

-1 refA2V50ms i -
-2J ref B lV 50 ms I I I I I I Ii I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I -
I-

Figure 6.10 Speed change due to the application of 100 per cent step load change (using default speed loop gains),
timebase - 200 msldiv
150 D.C. DRIVES:Low-Power Analogue D.C. Drives

Figure 6.11 4Q2 D.C. drive controller

Figure 6.12 Lynx D.C. drive controller

FEATURES selectable status/fault or low-speed/zero reference relay

operation
speed/torque control operational modes full-wave bridge, fully controlled
tacho/armature voltage speed feedback modes 20:1 constant speed range
 Chapter 6.3 151

3 A.C. DRIVES

FEATURES C O M M O N TO ALL A.C. DRIVES Control Terminal Layout

Power Terminal Layout Typical control connections to an inverter are shown in

Typical power connections to an A.C. drive are shown in
Figure 6.13.
Typically, the power terminal layout allows the following
flexibility:
ability to power up the drive from an A.C. or a D.C.
source
paralleling of the D.C. links of multiple drives, where
required in specific applications
most Control Techniques drives have a built-in braking
transistor circuit, to which an external braking resistor
can be connected for dynamic braking
Figure 6.14.
Typically, the control terminals to an inverter provide the
following functionality:
a number of programmable digital inputs and outputs
a number of programmable analogue inputs and outputs
connections for a motor thermistor, to protect the motor
against overheating
one or more programmable relays
connections for serial communications with the drive

I + IDB"I - " I '2 I '3 I P-I u I v I w I~1

...... I i I
braking optional RFI I
resistor filter
I I I I motor
optional earth
thermal
protection i line reactor
device I I
sto0 [] [] [] fl~tses

start/
reset iil ,

motor
optional ' L1 L2 L3 - - -
mains supply
supply earth

Figure 6.13 Typical power connections to an A.C. drive

0 V common
10 kD
(2 k.Q min) local voltage speed reference input (A1)
+10 V reference output
0 V common quickey module
0-10 V socket
remote current speed reference input (A2)

4 - 20 mA
analogue output (motor speed) I:'" "1
+24 V +24 V output RJ45 ! ,i

' connector for t

0 v_i-~-- digital output (zero speed) serial c o m m s m
| i

drive enable reset

run forward . i I.
run reverse
local (A1) remote (A2) speed reference
jog select
+24 V output

15 --- ~1 faul.~~
ok
16

Figure 6.14 Typical control connections to an inverter

 152 A.C. DRIVES: F e a t u r e s C o m m o n t o All A.C. Drives

key to symbols
lllllllllllll single powercable
~ ,,(
m in m i D ii

I"..... ~ ..... I
i N

three-core powercable or ;P:~ii:al r:::;nra' i | ................... ' ~ - i |

IIIIIIIIIIIII three single power cables
........... -- ------ - - , I ) : _-.'...........
ground cable
connection to cable armour or
shield
maximumlength:50 mm(2in)
" drive
m m m m m m alternative safety ground
connection
armoured or shielded cable
(3-phase + ground)

no sensitive circuits permitted ///// ::i:LI: ~ L3~I~ .J--:i: VI: + _

in this zone
~ t l - '- , ~ ~-~
- a" u =
" w ""
,~t,L _ L L ~ w --'_LLL
I /
control cables
to the drives , I/
output 3
output 2
output 1
LI" L2" L3" E"
0V LOAD
ground RFI filter
host
controller ........: LINE
L1 L2 L3 E

A.C. I l' I

H!MI .......... IIIIIII1~"

"'"'"""'"'"'"'""'"' IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
ground plate

power-ground
bus-bar
_
::
i: :: i I1:
: : i: : :i ii~
!!!!!!!
re

,, i m-,,m

IN
" ~ l i b ....... ~ , v , } (,~
v
Q ._
----,- - l l m l l U l l l l l l I l m l l i n

General features
1 single-power ground busbar or low-impedance ground terminal
2 incoming supply ground connected to power ground busbar
3 connect grounds of any other circuits to power ground busbar
4 site ground if required
5 metal back plate, safety bonded to power ground busbar
6 system isolator, circuit contactors and fuses/MCB
7 alternative position for drive fuses/MCB
8 optional braking resistor mounted externally, protected and shielded by a metal grille
9 thermal overload device to protect braking resistor
10 alternative safety ground for motor
11 motor frame ground connection, if required
Special features for E M C
12 the A.C. supply cable must be shielded (screened) or steel wire armoured-the shield or armour should then be
bonded to the enclosure wall using standard cable gland fixings
13 back plate should be electrically bonded to the enclosure wall using a short low-inductive connection. Two flat braided
cables of nominal size 12 2.3 mm are suitable, or a single braided cable of equivalent dimensions
14 drive heatsink should be directly grounded to the back plate using the metal mounting brackets. It should be ensured
that the screws make direct electrical connection to the back plate by using screw threads tapped in the back plate
15 RFI filter should be mounted 150 mm (6 in) from the drive. The RFI filter casing is directly grounded to the back plate
by the fixing screws. The length of cables between the drive and RFI filter should be minimised
16 a shielded (screened) or steel wire armoured cable must be used to connect the drive to motor. The shield must be
bonded to the back plate using a noninsulated metal cable clamp. The clamp must be positioned no
further than 150 mm (6 in) from the drive
17 the shield of the motor cable should be connected to the ground terminal of the motor frame using a link that is as short as
possible and not exceeding 50 mm (2 in) in length. A full 360 termination of the shield to the motor terminal housing
(usually metal) is beneficial
18 the a.c. supply and ground cables should be at least 100 mm (4 in) from the drive and motor cable
19 sensitive signal circuits in a zone extending 0.3 m (12 in) all around the drive should be avoided
20 unshielded wiring to optional braking resistor(s) may be used, provided the resistor is either in the same
enclosure as the drive or the wiring does not run external to the enclosure. A minimum spacing of 0.3 m
(12 in) from signal wiring and the supply-side wiring of the RFI filters should be ensured
21 if the control circuit 0 V is to be grounded, this should be done at the host controller (e.g. PLC) and not at the drive
to avoid injecting noise currents into the 0 V circuit

Figure 6.15 Precautions f o r p r e v e n t i n g EMC p r o b l e m s

 Chapter 6.3 153

Wiring Precautions to Prevent EMC: EN50082-2 and EN61800-3 for im-

Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) Issues
Because modem inverter drives run at significant switching
frequencies, precautions need to be taken to prevent inter-
ference between the drives and other equipment connected
to the same power supply. Figure 6.15 shows the precautions
that should be taken to prevent electromagnetic compat-
ibility problems.
OPEN-LOOP INVERTERS
An open-loop inverter is characterised by the lack of any
form of actual/measured velocity feedback. Without feed-
back, precise speed control on an induction motor is difficult
due to the inherent slip of the motor.
munity EN50081-2 and EN61800-3
for emissions using the optional EMC
filter where required
UNIDRIVEVTC
Unidrive VTC is an open-loop inverter designed specifically
for the fan/pump applications market, with a tailored quad-
ratic (square-law) volts to frequency curve. Its general
appearance and mode of operation are very similar to those
of the Commander GP.
Unidrive VTC covers the range 0.75 up to l l 0 k W (1 to
125 HP). At higher powers up to 1 MW, standard Unidrive
can be applied.

Most commercially available open-loop inverters use a

Features and Options
common design strategy in respect of the power conversion The Commander SE and the Unidrive VTC incorporate the
circuit, but there are many variants of control strategy. following features:
Control Techniques' open-loop drives use an open-loop
vector control strategy, which maintains almost constant fully compliant with EU EMC regulations
flux in the motor by dynamically adjusting the motor voltage optional external EMC filter
according to the load on the motor. plug-in control signal connectors
full digital control
Control Techniques' open-loop inverter range includes the programmable preset speeds
Commander SE, and the Unidrive VTC. These products automatic resynchronisation to a spinning motor
provide a cohesive range from 0.25 kW, 220 V up to 1 MW, coast to stop, deceleration ramp and D.C. injection
480 V. braking stopping modes
dynamic braking
Specifications and Ratings control terminal, keypad or serial communications control
voltage or current speed reference signals
COMMANDERSE selectable PWM switching frequencies
Commander SE has been designed as an easy to use (indeed, option module for easy upload/download of parameters
WindowsTM-based commissioning software package
SE stands for simple and easy), ultra-reliable, rugged open-
loop A.C. inverter. It covers the range 0.25 to 15 kW (0.35 to The drives also contain a more advanced set of features
20 HP). which can be used by the system designer or the more
experienced user. These include:
The design philosophy incorporates a three-level software
parameter set. The first level contains only ten parameters speed control
which allow quick drive-to-motor set up and access to the adjustable precision speed reference
next level. In simple applications this may be all that is adjustable skip frequencies with three adjustable skip
required. Level two contains a further 37 parameters which bands
allow the user to configure the drive for the majority of adjustable preset speeds
open-loop applications. Level three can only be accessed ramps
by using the drive's serial communications port, and preset acceleration ramps
contains a multitude of parameters which allow the drive preset deceleration ramps
to be configured for almost any conceivable open loop separate acceleration and deceleration ramps for each
application. preset speed
separate acceleration and deceleration ramps for
Specification jogging
frequency accuracy: 0.01% adjustable S ramp
resolution: 0.1 Hz torque control
starts per hour: by using the electronic control stopping
terminals, unlimited; by switching adjustable D.C. injection braking current level and time
of the supply, 20 starts per hour programming I/O
maximum (three minute intervals fully programmable analogue and digital I/O for alter-
between starts) native functions
power-up delay: one second maximum (allow at least motor protection
one second before monitoring the current limiting (short-term overload)
state of the status relay contacts etc.) motor thermistor protection (long-term overload)
switching protection trips with trip log
frequencies: 3, 6, and 12 kHz are available monitoring
154 A.C. DRIVES:Open-Loop Inverters

Figure 6.16 Commander SE family

Figure 6.17 Unidrive VTC family

programmable drive status logic auto reset

status and diagnostic information PID controller
k w h meter undedicated programmable logic
run time log undedicated programmable threshold comparitor
adjustable speed sensing levels motorised potentiometer
running costs second motor selection with second motor map
auxiliary functions parameters
 Chapter 6.3 155

Access to the advanced parameters is via easy access serial
communications:
The Commander SE has an easy access serial communica-
tions port which enables one or more drives to be used in
systems controlled by a host unit such as a PLC (program-
mable logic controller) or computer. The communications
link for the drive uses the EIA RS-485 standard for the
hardware interface.
The drive has a standard two-wire RS-485 half-duplex
interface that enables all drive set up, operation and mon-
itoring to be accomplished if required. Therefore, it is pos-
sible to control the drive entirely by the RS-485 interface
without the need for other control cabling.
The host controller can operate up to thirty-two EIA RS-
485 devices with the use of one line buffer. Further buf-
fers will increase this number if necessary. Each transmitter/
receiver within a drive (with the internal termination and
external pull-up and pull-down resistors disconnected)
loads the RS-485 lines by one unit load. This means that up
to 15 drives can be connected in a single group to one line
buffer. However, with the serial addresses available,
it is convenient to only have up to nine drives in a single
group.
When additional line buffers are used, up to 81 drives can
be operated by the host controller. In this case the drives
are organised in a maximum of nine groups of nine drives
each. A particular drive or group of drives can be given
commands without affecting other drives or groups of
drives, respectively.
The serial communications port of the drive is situated at the
RJ45 connector. The EIA RS-485 two-wire port is isolated
from the power stage but not isolated from the other control
terminals. The EIA RS-422 hardware interface is also
supported.
As can be seen, the flexibility contained within a modern
commercial drive is considerable. In addition a compre-
hensive range of options is available to provide more flex-
ibility to application or ease of use.
(iii) Serial communications converter- the EIA RS-232
hardware interface cannot be used with a two-wire
EIA RS-485 interface. Therefore, a suitable adapter
for connection to a computer RS-232 interface port is
essential. A purpose-designed 485 to 232 converter is
available as an option that simply has a D-type
connector on one end for connection to the host PC
and an RJ45 plug on the other for quick connection to
the drive. The converter is built into the lead for
simplicity.
(iv) SE S o f t - SE Soft is a software package designed to
aid set up and commissioning of Commander SE
drives. It connects to the drive via the drive's two-
wire RS-485 link.
(v) Bipolar reference option - this is a bipolar analogue
input card, which offers the user the possibility
of inputting a + 10 to - 10 V speed reference signal
into the drive. The option is mechanically mounted
under the drive's terminal cover and is then directly
connected to the drive's control terminals.
(vi) Profibus DP option c a r d - allows communication
with the Profibus DP high-speed fieldbus system.
(vii) DeviceNet option card- allows communication with
the DeviceNet high-speed fieldbus system.
(viii) CANopen option c a r d - allows communication with
the CANopen high-speed fieldbus system.
(ix) Interbus S option card- allows communication with
the Interbus S high-speed fieldbus system.
(x) Cable screening- a set of cable screening brackets
and screening clamps is available for the drive to
provide a convenient way of connecting supply,
motor and control cable screens to ground.
(xi) A C input reactors - a specifically designed set of
input line reactors is available allowing the drive to
operate on problematic industrial supplies containing
large amounts of disturbance, such as voltage spikes,
notching etc.
(xii) Braking resistors - a purpose designed set of exter-
nally mounted braking resistors is available with a

COMMANDERSE DRIVEOPTIONS

(i) QUICKEY- this is a small, plug-in, key-like device that

allows the user to extract a parameter set from one SE
drive and implant the same parameters very quickly and
efficiently into one or more SE drives. The key plugs
into a small header located under the drives terminal
cover.
(ii) Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) f i l t e r - there are
three EMC filter options available for Commander SE,
these are:

a footprint filter that mounts under the drive and will

only increase the depth dimension of the drive and
not require additional panel space in an enclosure;
this filter can be mounted by the side of the drive if
required
a filter as above but with low earth leakage
a low-cost panel-mounted filter suitable for limited Figure 6.18 Commander SE together with a variety of
inverter-motor cable lengths options
156 A.C. DRIVES: O p e n - L o o p Inverters

tailor-made mounting kit, making optimum use of motor rating plate:

the drive's overall space envelope.
Unidrive VTC has a similar set of options available, where
required, tailored to its specific application requirements.
Methods of Control
The drive can be controlled by any of the following
methods:
terminal mode, applying signals from electrical contacts,
a controller, or PLC, to digital inputs on the drive
keypad mode; manual operation of the keypad on the
front panel of the drive; apart from an overriding safety
switch to be connected to the control terminals, no
external signal connections are made to the drive
serial communications
using a system controller or PLC connected to the
drive by a two-wire RS-485 serial communications link
(can be used in conjunction with terminal or keypad
mode)
Performance of the Commander
SE Open-loop Drive
The Commander SE drive uses an open-loop vector
control strategy, which maintains almost constant flux in the
motor by dynamically adjusting the motor voltage according
to the load on the motor. This strategy does require the
user to match the drive to the particular motor or type of
motor being used if high performance is required. The
parameters that need setting are all available from the
rated motor current in amps
rated motor speed in min- 1
rated motor voltage in volts
motor power factor
The drive has the ability to perform a current-loop autotune,
which is parameter selectable.
There are two levels of autotune:
1 The first level carries out tests without spinning the
motor. Stator resistance and voltage offset measurements
of the motor are taken.
2 The second level carries out the static tests and a test
where the motor is rotated. In addition to the above test,
the total leakage inductance and the rated magnetising
current are measured.
Once these parameters have been set up the performance
of the Commander SE, as can be seen in Figure 6.19, is
extremely good.
(i) Low-speed t o r q u e - Figures 6.19 and 6.20 show a
typical torque/speed curve for a Commander SE drive
when used with a standard off-the-shelf induction
machine. The drive motor used was rated 2.2kW
(3 HP). As can be seen, 150 per cent motor-rated torque
was available down at just less than 2 Hz operation.
(ii) S t a r t i n g t o r q u e - starting torque is defined as the
amount of torque that can be applied to the motor shaft
under test, with the drive still able to perform a motor
start. The starting torque of Commander SE with a
standard induction motor equates to approximately
170 per cent of the rated motor torque.

25
150% torque
20
zEla
~10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
speed, Hz

Figure 6.19 Commander SE low-speed torque performance (150 % full load, 2.2 kW, 3 p.h.)

16
14 100% load
12
zElo
~8
~ 6
~ 4

2
0
o i ~ 9 10
speed, Hz

Figure 6.20 Commander SE low-speed torque performance (100 % full load, 2.2 kW, 3 p.h.)
 C h a p t e r 6.3 157

(iii) Full torque speed range - the speed range is defined THE UNIVERSAL A.C. DRIVE
as the controllable speed range over which 100 per
cent motor-rated torque can be achieved. The speed The Concept of a Universal Drive
range of Commander SE is approximately 1 to 55. In
tests, a 50 Hz machine achieved speed control with As A.C. drives have developed over the past decade, there
100 per cent rated torque from 0.9 to 50 Hz. It should have been parallel advances in power-stage design and in the
be noted that the above definition of controllable control methodologies used.
speed range is not universally accepted within the Essentially, the power stage (including all the power devi-
industry so care needs to be taken when making ces, current and voltage feedback systems etc.) remains very
comparisons. similar in all A.C. drives - whether used for the open-loop
(iv) S p e e d a c c u r a c y - speed accuracy is defined as the vector control, closed-loop vector control or for the control
percentage speed error between the displayed speed of brushless A.C. servomotors. The advances in A.C. drive
and actual measured speed when controlling a machine control strategies as described in Chapter 4 have also led to
at base speed and 100 per cent load. Speed accuracy of a uniform approach which makes the implementation of
the Commander SE is + 0.6 per cent. a universal drive intuitively logical.
(v) S p e e d r e s p o n s e - the speed response is defined as
Operation of a standard drive as a regenerative converter
the ability of the drive to follow a small signal sine
is not such an obvious extension to this development.
wave applied as a speed reference. The speed response
However, reference to the control strategy described in
of Commander SE is 10 Hz, as shown in Figure 6.21.
Chapter 4 shows that this can be readily incorporated. The
The tests were performed on a 3000min -1 4 k W
Control Techniques Unidrive is therefore able to operate in
machine coupled to a two to one inertia. Above
the following modes:
10Hz the speed feedback waveform reduced in
amplitude below the - 3 dB point. (Speed feedback 1 Open-loop V/F for the control of parallel induction
was provided on the test rig by a 60V/1000min --1 motors (or other loads).
tachogenerator.) 2 Open-loop vector for the control of single induction
motors.
Typical Applications 3 Closed-loop vector for the control of single induction
motors.
fans and pumps 4 Closed-loop servo for the control of brushless PM
conveyors motors.
cranes and hoists (hoisting and traverse control)
5 Regenerative operation to provide a sinusoidal A.C.
simple winders
supply front end to an inverter system and also to
mixers and agitators
allow power flow, both to and from the A.C. supply.
grinders
spinning machinery (textile industry)
circular saws
cutting and slicing (meat industry)
flow control valves
spindle control (lathes)
simple engine test rigs

tek run" 5ks/s sample 0000 VAC

. . . . !
.... , . . . .
[ . . T! .. ... .. .. . . !. .. ... .. .. . . ~. .. ... .. .. . .!. .. ... .. .. . .!. ,. ., .- 1.
, , ? . . . . ! . . . .

. . . . . .

,
.
RB freq
10.02 Hz
low signal
. . . . .
amplitude
. . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .

. .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . .

. . . . . .
. .

. . . . , . . . . J . . . . i . . . . i . . . . t . . . . i . . . . i . . . . i . . . . t . . . .

- 50 ms chl ," 2.24 V

1 V 50 ms

Figure 6.21 Low-speed torque capability~frequency char-

acteristic is 1.9 Hz at 150 per cent rated motor
torque and 0.9 Hz at 100 per cent rated motor
torque Figure 6.22 The Unidrive family (0.75 kW to 1MW)
158 A.C. DRIVES:The Universal A.C. Drive

Having a single product to meet the requirements of all A.C.

motor control applications offers key advantages to users in
respect of ease of use, common interfaces and programming,
single product training etc. for operating personnel, simpli-
fied/rationalised spares requirements. Considerable flex-
ibility is inherent in a product which meets such a diverse
number of requirements. Such flexibility and universality
does imply and involve some compromises. These can be
summarised as follows:
A common product footprint where servo products tend
to a slim book form and open-loop drives tend to a shoe
box form.
Simple general-purpose drives do not require the accu-
racy of, for example, current measurement needed for
high-performance drives. Further, the necessary flex-
ibility of a systems product does result in additional
components. These issues have some cost impact which
is significant at lower powers.
Great efforts have been made to ensure that flexibility
and performance does not mean complexity and diffi-
culty in use. However, compared with the ten parameters
found in menu 1 of Commander SE, Unidrive is
feature rich!

Unidrive Option Modules

The operation of the drive can be easily upgraded and Figure 6.23 Unidrive small option module
adapted to different applications with the use of a number of
option modules. When an option module is plugged into the
drive, it is automatically recognised and the relevant param-
eter sets become visible.
The option modules are of two different types.

SMALL OPTION MODULES

A number of option modules are available in a small format

as follows:
additional inputs and outputs
a second encoder input for use for example in a digital
lock application
alternative speed/position feedback inputs: resolver and
sine/cosine encoder
cloning module for selecting/storing/transferring/copy-
ing up to eight full drive parameter sets

LARGEOPTION MODULES

A number of option modules are available in large format as

follows:

standard serial communications (RS-232/RS-485)

applications module - this provides a very powerful
parallel processing capacity, which can be programmed
in an IEC 61131-3 language; this can be considered as a
PLC within the drive and when supplemented with
directly connecting remote I/O modules provides a very
powerful tool for system designers
fieldbus interfaces: Profibus DP, Interbus-S, DeviceNet, Figure 6.24 Unidrive large option module
CAN open, Modbus P l u s . . .
CT Net module - CT Net is a communications module UNISOFT
for Control Techniques' own fieldbus system and allows
the drive to function as a master or a slave on the bus The Unidrive has its own, Windows T M PC-based, commis-
system. sioning and set-up software called Unisoft. The use and
 C h a p t e r 6.3 159

application of this type of software package has already been signal

described in a previous section. connector
status relay
drive healthy
MACROS
analoque
frequency/speed
The Unidrive has a set of eight built-in user set ups which are reference 1
targeted at specific applications. These allow a very fast and (remote) 0-10 V
simple method of setting up the drive for these applications.
The available macros are:
0 V common
motor thermistor
macro 1 easy mode
macro 2 motorised potentiometer (frequency/speed con-
trol by up and down contacts)
macro 3 four preset speeds (selected by digital control 0 V common
signals)
speed
macro 4 torque control
macro 5 PID (set point) control
torque
macro 6 axis limit control
macro 7 brake control up
macro 8 digital lock reset and
MOT. POT. reset
Setting up the drive in any particular macro mode not
only sets the terminals to the appropriate configuration but down
also customises the easy access menu 0 to contain the
run forward
parameters specific to this mode of operation in one
simple step. run reverse

MOT. POT. enable analogue RP

For example, on the Unidrive if the drive is required to be set
up in the motorised potentiometer mode (where two, user-
MOT. POT.
fitted, push buttons can be used to increase or decrease the OL> external trip
CL> drive enable
speed), enabling macro 2 will automatically reconfigure the 0 v common
terminal set up to be suitable for such a use. This is shown in
Figure 6.25. Figure 6.25 Terminal configuration of drive when macro 2
(motorised potentiometer function) is enabled
As can be seen, the digital inputs are automatically config-
ured to be appropriate for taking inputs from the user-fitted
push buttons.

Open-loop Operation C~sed-loop Operation

The operation and performance of the Unidrive in open-loop
mode remains essentially similar to that of the Commander
SE described earlier in section 6.3. The parameter set of the
Commander SE has also been harmonised with that of the
Unidrive to a large extent minimising confusion/conflict
within the overall family.
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
The Unidrive in open loop would be preferred over the
Commander SE in applications where:
there is a requirement to have a common product for
different parts (open loop, closed loop and/or servo) of
the same application
the application is complex enough to require the parallel
processing capability available via the UD70 second
processor option module
additional I/O capability is required
high-power ratings are required
Closed-loop control of induction motors is now sufficiently
advanced so as to become increasingly used in applications
where in the past D.C. drive + motor combinations would
have been the natural choice. It is often said that closed-loop
induction motor drives match the performance of a D.C.
drive. This is not true, the A.C. drive is far superior.
With the addition of a feedback device to the motor, the
performance of the drive + motor combination significantly
increases as compared with the open-loop drive:
the drive can generate full torque from standstill up to the
base speed of the motor
the speed can be very precisely regulated due to the
feedback now available
the dynamic performance is greatly improved
the magnetising and torque-producing components of
the current are now more precisely controlled - accurate
torque control operation is now possible
applications which require accurate positioning, now
become possible

PERFORMANCE FEATURES OF CLOSED-LOOP OPERATION

The performance of the Unidrive in open-loop mode is The closed-loop mode of operation has various advanced
similar to that of the Commander SE. features.
160 A.C. DRIVES: The Universal A.C. Drive

(i) Autotuning PERFORMANCE

Once the motor name-plate data has been entered into the The following examples give an indication of the level of
drive, the user can enable an autotune function which mea- performance that can be obtained using Unidrive in closed-
sures some of the other key parameters of the motor, such as: loop vector mode. If the drive is set up correctly it should be
power factor (the real value rather than the name-plate possible to obtain at least 175 per cent rated torque at
figure) standstill (assuming that the drive and motor are matched).
machine inductance
Figure 6.26 shows the drive operating under speed control,
the magnetic saturation characteristic of the machine
with a step of torque to 100 per cent applied and then
In addition, the drive can tune itself accurately to the slip of removed. The rotor position changes linearly (constant
the motor during normal operation. It can thus adapt itself to speed) until the torque is applied when the position changes
changes in slip owing to changes in stator resistance due to to wind up the integral term to obtain the necessary torque.
heating effects in the motor. This function is also of parti- Higher settings of the integral term reduce the step change of
cular advantage owing to the fact that in most cases the slip position. Although there is a step in the position (which
stated on the motor name plate is a batch or a design value occurs with any PI-type speed controller) the speed on and
and not one derived for that particular machine. off load is the same.

(ii) Alternative types of speed/position feedback device In Figure 6.27, the drive is operating in torque control. The
speed of rotation is defined by another motor connected to
The Unidrive can operate with a number of different types of the test motor shaft. The Unidrive is enabled, applies 100 per
feedback device in closed-loop vector mode: cent torque and then is disabled. The transient change of
position is due to the limited speed holding ability of the
standard encoders with A, A\, B, B\ quadrature channels
drive controlling the other motor.
and Z, Z\ marker pulse (optional) outputs
resolvers Typical applications include:
sincos encoders of up to 1024 sine and cosine waves per
cranes and hoists
revolution - the drive can then interpolate to 2048 parts
lifts
of each sine wave and hence have a total resolution of up
winders and unwinders
to 1024 2048 = 2 097 152 counts per revolution
wire drawing
(iii) Application features extruders
plastic production
The drive has built-in capabilities for application set ups paper-making machines
such as: rolling mills
metal forming
digital lock to another motor/a master encoder
mechanical cam replacement applications
orientation on stop e.g. for tool changes on a machine-
applications requiring digital slaving
tool application the motor shaft must stop in a specific
CNC machine spindle drives
orientation
cable laying from ships
torque - control modes specifically suited to winder,
unwinder applications
torque control with dancer feedback, using the built-in, Servo Operation
standalone PID control loop
The basic control algorithm used for the closed-loop vector
More advanced applications can be easily performed using operation is very similar to that used for the servo mode of
the large applications module. operation. The main differences are that the magnetising

i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 , i l l 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 i , i i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ~
i

rotor position

itorq

torque
. / / / /-

i r " r
! -_

C H 2 14 A
CH440Nn CHPMTB500s
, , , , i , , , , | , , | , i , i | , I , , , , , i | , , , , , , , , , , , , ,"

Figure 6.26 Application and removal of 100 per cent load at 5 m i n - 1 (speed-controlled mode)
 Chapter 6.3 161

i n , | t n i n u , , , , , , | , , | , i u n n , , | | n ] | u n n , , , ,

rotor p o s i t i o n .
i

Itorq . .I"

torque \
\
/
:
:
,
/.,
"
.'r
V
,
j .
/l/
,~, ~

L .

. : ~ , w , , ~ - ~ ' ~ . , ~ . ~ ~,~,~-0- "~"~. .

~ . .

- ..., J ........................ -.
- .

* .
- .

" 5 . ~ '
- C H 2 14 A
- C H 4 ~.0 N rl ~C H P M T B 5 30 s Z
!'. | | | , | , . | , , , , , , | , | n n | n | , | , , , n , | , | , , , n , , , ~

Figure 6.27 Application and removal of 100 per cent load at 5 min- 1 (torque-controlled mode)

current of a servomotor is controlled at a value of 0 and it, rotor when the drive powers up. Suitable devices are:
of course, has no slip. However, this should not affect the
bandwidth of operation. If the drive is set up correctly for encoders with A, A\, B, B\ quadrature channels and Z, Z\
closed-loop operation i.e. it has the correct value of slip, marker pulse (optional) outputs. In addition, U, U\, V, V\
power factor and all the other motor parameters, then there and W, W\ commutation signals are also required to
should be no essential difference in performance from the indicate the segment position of the rotor magnets at
drive point of view. power up
resolvers
The key differences between closed-loop vector and servo sin-cos encoders of up to 1024 sine and cosine
modes of operation are: waves per revolution - the drive can then interpolate to
2048 parts of each sine wave and hence have a total
Motor shaft performance - the most significant differ-
resolution of up to 1024 2048 = 2 097 152 counts per
ence occurs in this area. Servomotors are often specifi-
cally designed with low rotor inertia to facilitate very revolution
good dynamic performance.
P o w e r d e n s i t y - for a given power rating, the physical APPLICATION FEATURES
size of an induction motor would be larger than that of a
Application set ups similar to those for the closed-loop
servomotor.
vector mode are also possible in the servo mode of opera-
H i g h e r p o w e r r a t i n g s - for applications that need more
tion. For example:
than relatively low power ratings (a few kWs), servo-
motors are not commonly available and tend to be digital lock to another motor/a master encoder
expensive. orientate on stop e.g. for tool changes on a machine tool
C o s t - for a given power rating, a servomotor would
application
tend to be more expensive than an induction machine. torque control modes specifically suited to winder,
Note, however, for closed-loop operation an induction unwinder applications
motor would need to have a feedback device fitted and torque control with dancer feedback, using the built-in,
this must be considered in any cost comparison. standalone PID loop
M o t o r d e g r e e o f p r o t e c t i o n ( I P r a t i n g ) - servomotors are
generally available as standard to IP65. Induction motors
tend to be available as standard to IP54. PERFORMANCE
O v e r l o a d r a t i n g s - servomotors are generally designed
for very short overloads. Induction motors can, in gen- The performance of a servo controller is commonly descri-
eral, handle overloads above their nominal currents, for bed in terms of bandwidth. The bandwidth of a servo speed
longer time periods. controller is important because it defines the dynamic per-
Operation above base speed- an induction motor can formance of the controller. If it is assumed that a 10:1 band-
be operated with ease in the field-weakening region width ratio is required in a position controller with inner
i.e. up to several times above base speed. In theory, speed controller, then the speed-loop bandwidth limits the
PM servomotors can also be operated in the field- maximum bandwidth of the position controller. A very
weakening range, however it is difficult to protect good position controller has a gain of 50 and a position
against high overvoltages should control be lost above loop bandwidth of 50rads-1 (8 Hz). Therefore the speed
base speed and consequently such operation is rarely controller needs to be able to achieve a bandwidth of
considered. 500 rad s- 1 (80 Hz).

The servo mode of operation requires feedback devices The speed-loop bandwidth can be measured by using a sine
which can provide indication of the absolute position of the wave excitation signal as the input to the servo controller
162 A.C. DRIVES: The Universal A.C. Drive

and monitoring the actual response to this demand. If this TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
test is done using a benchmarked set of gains in the servo
controller, standardised Bode gain and phase plots for the robotics
servo controller can then be plotted. As described in Chapter dynamic pick and place applications
4.1 and 4.4, the phase plot is more critical and represents the axes drives in all types of CNC machine
impact of the delay created by the speed controller which has woodworking machines
the effect of: embroidery machines
cut to length lines
limiting the possible bandwidth of an outer controller, or
producing a delay between the required speed at any
point and the actual speed at any point; a system with a Regeneration Mode
position controller with speed feed forward will follow
the profile transiently due to the speed feedforward term PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
and any lag in the speed controller results in transient
position errors (i.e. following error) The input stage of a nonregenerative A.C. drive is usually an
uncontrolled diode rectifier, therefore power cannot be fed
The speed-loop Bode plots for Unidrive, Figures 6.28 and back into the A.C. mains supply. In the case of a Unidrive
6.29, show that the bandwidth, i.e. the point at which the operating in regenerative mode, the IGBT bridge can be used
phase lag is 60 , is approximately 100 Hz. as a sinusoidal rectifier, which converts the A.C. supply to a

5o

o
oo
-5o

-lOO
L__

"0 -150
.=_-
t-
-200
o~
~-
Q . -250

-300

-350

-400
frequency, Hz

Figure 6.28 Bode phase plot

15.00000

10.00000

5.0O000
rn
-o

~ 0.00000 O0

ooooo
I--I-T
_,o,ooooo

- 15.00000

frequency, Hz

Figure 6.29 Bode gain plot

- 0 - 20% overshoot

controlled D.C. voltage. This D.C. voltage can then supply
one or more Unidrives, which control the motor/s.
An explanation of the theory behind this mode of operation
is given in Chapter 4.2.
Some additional, external components are required to build
up a Unidrive regeneration system. These are:
main regeneration inductors
start-up circuit (for a controlled charge up of the D.C.
bus of the regenerative system)
switching frequency filter
A regenerative system using the Unidrive, is typically
connected as shown in Figure 6.30.
The main advantages for an A.C. regenerative system are:
energy saving
the input current waveform is a sinusoid
the input current has a near unity power factor
the output voltage for the motor can be higher than the
available A.C. mains voltage
the regenerative unit will synchronise to any frequency
between 30 and 100Hz, provided that the supply
voltage is between 380 V - lOper cent and 480 V + 10
per cent
under conditions of A.C. mains instability, a Unidrive
regenerative system can continue to function down to
approximately 270 V A.C. supply voltage without any
effect on the D.C. bus voltage and hence on the operation
of the motor drives
the regenerative and motor drives are identical
PERFORMANCE
Many sine wave regenerative drive systems have been
supplied with ratings from a few kilowatts to several
hundred kilowatts. System complexity varies from single
motor drives to systems with many motor drives connected
to a common D.C. link and PWM rectifier.
Waveforms in Figure 6.32 show the system response to a
transient when using a 37 kW drive as a PWM rectifier to
supply another 37kW drive supplying an induction motor
operated under vector control. The motor was reversed from
"neh
Y -t
R filter
- ~
switching ~ s t a r t - u
frequency t----~- '-t---" . . . .
| ana I I filter I I circuitl
4 i
supply
control signals
Figure 6.30 A regenerative system configuration
Chapter 6.3 163
base speed in one direction to base speed in the other
direction without speed ramps. Results show that the control
system is fast enough to limit the change in D.C. link voltage
to approximately 25 V (0.03 p.u.) with very rapid changes
(less than 5 ms) in power flow of over 60 kW. Should load
changes exceed the tracking capability of the controller, or
the D.C. link power exceed the maximum A.C. power, then
the PWM rectifier will be forced into current limit.
Figure 6.33 shows transient overload operation where the
PWM rectifier goes into current limit but the system remains
stable and line synchronisation is maintained. During the
overload the D.C. link voltage deviates by approximately
80 V from the set point and does not recover until the D.C.
terminal power decreases. If the D.C. link power exceeds the
PWM rectifier capability and these conditions are sustained
then depending on the direction of power flow the D.C. link
voltage will either rise until an overvoltage trip occurs or the
voltage collapses to the point where the antiparallel diodes in
the PWM converter act as a simple uncontrolled diode rec-
tifier. Loss of one supply phase or all three is detected by
monitoring the D.C. link voltage, input terminal voltage and
x-axis current. In the event of phase failure the converter is
inhibited before allowing the D.C. bus voltage to stabilise
and attempting resynchronisation.
Synchronisation and running has been proved to be satis-
factory even with the high levels of supply distortion and
notching found in some industrial applications as demon-
strated in Figure 6.34. The supply notches were produced by
a D.C. motor drive connected directly to the PWM rectifier
supply without line chokes or filter capacitors. Note that
although the supply voltage notching is almost 100 per cent,
and the rectifier line current slightly distorted, line syn-
chronisation is maintained.
HIGH-PERFORMANCE SERVODRIVES
The performance of high-end servodrives is restricted by
the physical limits imposed by high-resolution position
acquisition. These limits are currently set by the use of
analogue (sin-cos) position feedback signals and the
resulting feedback signal degradation resulting from typical
system applications where varying cable lengths between
power flow during regenerative
operation
U
V
unidrive
operating
unidrive
operating
in
D.C. bus open-loop ;hin
.... in
W
regen vector
J
or servo
contactor
drive enable
control signal
power flow during motoring
operation
164 A.C. DRIVES: High-Performance Servodrives

the controller and the position feedback device are a prac- and position/velocity control, local to the position feedback
tical reality. device i.e. within the motor housing. Control Techniques
has utilised this approach and combined the latest tech-
Significant advances for overcoming this limitation have nology in high-resolution position acquisition (sin-cos
been achieved by the integration of position acquisition encoders) and DSP technology to achieve a very substantial,

Figure 6.31 450 kW sine wave regenerative drive system for engine test rig

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

OA d

OV

OA
- .......................... V. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "''" ....................................................... /y
I i i i i i I I I I I I I I I a i I I I I I I I i I I I I I I I i i i i i i i |

Figure 6.32 Input converter currents during high-speed motor reversal; D.C. link voltage VD.C. 180 V/div, input currents Ix
85 Aldiv, ly 85 A/div, time 200 ms/div
 Chapter 6.3 165

l i l t

=
..................,
ii i 1 ..........
0A q ~ vT','v Ivy

700 V Vo.c.

OA r ' V lV V I r .| Ivl ' v

l l I I I I l l l l I l I I l l l l

Figure 6.33 Input converter currents and D.C. link voltage during transient overload; phase current l OOA/div, D.C. link
voltage VD.C. 100 V/div, input current Ix 85 A/div, time 20 ms/div

f, r

OV, OA

I , I
"~",

Figure 6.34 Effect of supply voltage disturbances on input converter line current

application-invariant increase in position feedback resolu-
tion and the capability for active torque compensation. This
new concept in servo system design eliminates the need to
transport noise-sensitive analogue feedback signals by pro-
viding a dedicated high-speed two-wire data link, thereby
drastically reducing the number of signals. It should be noted
that digital encoder signals are subject to edge degradation,
and noise pick up when transmitted via cable in an industrial
environment. Indeed, encoder cable hygiene, made the more
problematic by the existence of typically 10 to 14 wires per
encoder, is the primary cause of site problems with con-
ventional servodrives. The reduction of the wires per enco-
der to four (data link plus power supply) is in itself a very
significant practical benefit of the system.
The simplified structure reduces the maintenance and com-
missioning cost drastically. In other words, it is a higher
performance servo which is easier to use and carries no cost
penalty. The combination of high-resolution feedback
techniques and new drive topology provides a quantum
improvement in servo performance.
Typical position/speed feedback devices used in today's
servodrives tend to use either resolver or digital incremental
encoder technology. The former of these has limited
accuracy and linearity due to distortion introduced by the
magnetic elements used in resolvers. The signal-processing
mechanisms which typically comprise a resolver-to-digital
converter also set a limit on resolution and dynamic accu-
racy leading to an overall system performance which,
although satisfactory for many applications, falls short
of that required in many others. On the other hand, there is
a practical limit on the number of lines per turn for
incrementa encoders, a limit which does not allow the
166 A.C. DRIVES: High-Performance Servodrives
Figure 6.35 M'Ax Servodrive family
a M'Ax, standalone servodrive and Unimotor SL
b MultiAx, three drives in one package for direct SLM interface to motion controllers
resolutions required by today's high-end servos to be
achieved. Interpolation techniques can be used to improve
the effective resolution, but under dynamic operating con-
ditions interpolation is another source of distortion.
The sin-cos encoder provides high-resolution analogue
position information which has a greatly reduced level of
linearity distortion. The availability of small outline signal-
processing components provides the opportunity to process
the information at source, i.e. directly behind the motor-
mounted encoder. This eliminates the opportunity for noise
injection.
This philosophy of the speed loop motor or SLM Techno-
logyT M of servo control has been incorporated into Control
Techniques' M'Ax drives which include:
M'Ax - a standalone single-axis drive which offers the
high performance and ease of use and commissioning
offered by the SLM Technology in a very compact
package.
MultiAx - a drive which has three power stages built in,
which in conjunction with an SLM-equipped controller
forms a very compact and cost competitive three axes
servo system.
The M'Ax drive is described in detail in the following
sections.
The following features are key in considering the M'Ax
product:
200 per cent overload rating
internal braking resistor
high-precision synchronisation of axis position within
50ns
high-precision synchronisation of speed loop within
50ns
eight million counts per revolution position resolution
high-speed drive status line responding within 1 las
automatic recognition of the motor (motor data is held in
the encoder EEPROM and read by the M'Ax at power up)
internal, basic, programmable logic controller
24 V auxiliary back-up supply
Performance
Servodrives fall into two main categories of application,
each with somewhat different requirements. First, point-to-
point positioning where what is important is the speed of
getting from point A to point B. In such cases it is the
accuracy of positioning and the dynamic performance that is
key. In the second category where the precision of the
trajectory of the motion is important, there is an additional
requirement for smooth and controlled motion between
points. For example, the quality of typical machining,
robotics and high-performance process applications depends
largely on the smooth running of the motor and on a stable,
dynamic response during system disturbances.
In the following subsections we put some typical figures on
these subjective statements.
POSITIONING ACCURACY
The positioning accuracy, and as important the repeatability
of positioning, is affected by a number of issues, but
primarily the mechanics of the machine and the position
feedback device. Figure 6.36 shows a M'Ax servo-
drive performing speed reversals between - 6 0 0 0 and
+ 6000 min-1. During the period of steady speed the error
between demanded position and actual was measured. To
give a practical feel to the data, it is convenient to consider
such measures when reflected into a linear movement with
typically one revolution being equivalent to 10 mm of travel.
On that basis, the measured position error at 6000 min- 1 was
< 1 ~tm. During the deceleration/acceleration the maximum
position error was <2 mm which is impressive when the
time base of the oscillogram reveals that the 12 000min-1
speed change is achieved in 120ms. It is even more
impressive when it is revealed that the load inertia was
seventy-eight times the motor inertia.
 Chapter 6.3 167

speed

nk __j J i
MSPEE0 ...."............. I

iz l
.,ONE j ..........................................
!
~i~i~:~:ii~:~;~i;i~s~:iis~iii)~i~:ii;i~i~;F#;ii~:~i~F;::iis:::
ii~s:~s;;:i;;;~ili::sii:;ii::si@:;i::::iii::s
@:~i::il!::iii::ii
!~
.......... Nsi
I::: i

NiON~ ~i"ii. "

iii
- +.~r~..---f: ..........................................

...............

......... i . ~, 'i
:~. . . . . . 1 . I ..................

i i

Figure 6.36 Rapid speed reversal (+6000 min- 1 in 120 ms) with M'Ax; second trace is following error

FOLLOWING ERROR figure shows that at a feed rate of 1 m min- 1 the maximum
deviation from the ideal is within 8.1 pm. Tests at feed rates
The following error in a control system is in effect the lag in of 3 m min- 1 and 5 m min- 1 gave a maximum deviation
the system, the ability of a drive system to follow a demand from the ideal within 9.3 lam and 10.4 pm, respectively. It is
signal without delay/lag. The key to minimising following also interesting to note that for the out-of-box performance,
error is to have the ability to operate with the highest pos- i.e. when the user has not made any adjustments to the drive
sible gains in the control loops while retaining stability. The parameters, the maximum deviation from the ideal was
SLM system provides the opportunity to operate with gains within 11.6 pm at 3 m m i n - 1.
up to five times higher than conventional technology, pri-
marily as a result of the high-quality position information
DYNAMIC RESPONSE
upon which its control is based. The above data is for
position accuracy during the rapid deceleration/acceleration What is important to the user is the ability of a drive to
(~ 175 rad s-2).
withstand and recover from an external disturbance, or
change in demand - how big the deviation from the ideal
SMOOTH RUNNING
trajectory is, how quickly it recovers back onto the trajectory
Here we are talking about the speed variation during a and the area described by these actions. This is often referred
revolution of the motor. In a positioning servodrive system to as the stiffness of the system.
this is not critical but in an application requiring contouring Unfortunately drives engineers, or more specifically control
or smooth motion a variation of <<0.1% is required. engineers, complicate life by talking about the bandwidth of
In machine tool applications, the smoothness of a drive the drive. The bandwidth is the ability of the drive to respond
system is measured by performing a ballbar test. This type of in a controlled/stable manner to a small signal reference or
test is undertaken by feeding two axis drives with a sine demand signal. Often the torque bandwidth is discussed and
wave and cosine wave position reference, respectively. often engineers can end up 'comparing apples with oranges'.
When the two drives are controlling the linear quadrature As discussed in Chapter 4, what is critical in a digital system
axes of an X - Y table then the resulting motion should be a is the closed-loop phase delay of the torque/current con-
perfect circle. The ballbar test measures the deviation from troller rather than the closed-loop gain ( - 3 dB point) which
the ideal. The deviation is not purely attributable to may be used in classical stability theory. There can be a
drive performance as mechanical and motion controller factor of more than 2:1 between these measures because of
imperfections impact also, however it is a good basis for the digital nature of the control loops (note that even an
comparison. analogue drive with a digital PWM generator should be
measured in this way). A servodrive with a torque bandwidth
Figure 6.37 shows the results of a ballbar test carried out on of 1000 a z is more than adequate for most applications. It
a machining centre equipped with M'Ax servodrives. The is interesting to note that the resonant frequency for
168 A.C. DRIVES: H i g h - P e r f o r m a n c e Servodrives

high-quality encoder mounting systems is of the order of compensation data are stored in the motor. Once the
1.5... 2 kHz and this needs to be well away from the torque motor is connected to the drive the drive default set up is
loop bandwidth of the drive if interesting performance is to automatically updated, and for up to 80 per cent of
be avoided. In terms of the speed loop bandwidth this is a applications no further tuning is necessary.
factor of ten below the torque loop and the position loop b Minimum connections/cabling.
bandwidth is typically a factor of four below that of the c SLM performance - positioning accuracy, smooth rota-
speed loop. tion, dynamic performance.
d Matched motor range.
Summary of Practical Advantages of e SLM flexibility - ability to down load parameter chan-
SLM Technology ges or complete control-loop structure changes.
f Lower installation costs.
Ease of set-up - M'Ax offers easy start technology g Higher system reliability.
where the motor parameters and encoder accuracy error h Direct connection to industrial 380-480 V supply.

Figure 6.37 Ballbar test results for machining centre equipped with M'Ax servodrives

21 -Jun-00 HARDCOPY
15:52:55
i-output to m
~?M1 . . . . . . ~rinter
20 ms
2.00 V |GPIB
|RS232
I Centronics
Page feed--
ffl
2r protocol -"1
"|HP 7470 /
220 ms |HP 7550 |
2.00 V ITIFF /

/ BMP /
....... p ...... .,. ...... ,, . . . . . . . , ....... , ....... , ....... , . ~ .

without torque
compensation
20 ms BWL T
1 .1 V D.C. X0
100 kS/s
2 .2 V D.C. ,oX _.j-- 1 HFREJ 1.34 V
n STOPPED

Figure 6.38 Position deviation of a M'Ax drive system subject to 100 per cent load impact; effect with and without torque
compensation is shown, vertical scale is 3.2 per division position error
 Chapter 6.4 169

an. ref +
mmm power
supply-----'~
power 1 H
I mtr 1 I
enable + gnd.~ power lencoder I
~k
motor
4 wires
v

4 wires Drivelink 1 }'1 SLM I

M'Ax
drive
power 2 H
power supply
4 wires Drivelink
encoder

SLM module
multiAx
drive
-~1motor
2I
.A

4 wires lencoerI
Drivelink 2 *1 SLM I
Figure 6.39 Single-axis (analogue reference); total cables:
8 power + 8 control (c. f. traditional 8 power + power 3 [-'[
30 control) ~lmtr3 I
i Up to 16-bit analogue reference with very good linearity Drivelink 3 I encder ]
and low zero position offset and deadband (< 150 ItV). V"qL
*1 SLM I
j Touch trigger response within 50 Its. 4 wire
~

4 wire
V

k All-pluggable terminals.
l Control terminals standard D type. Figure 6.40 Three-axis (digital SLM reference); total
m Comprehensive cable management system for power and cables: 16 power + 24 control (c.f. traditional
motor cables ensuring good earth bonding. 24 power + 90 control)
n Excellent EMC characteristics, e.g. immunity tested to:
+ 4 kV ESD contact axes drives in all types of CNC machine
+ 8 kV ESD discharge woodworking machines
+ 5 kV fast transient burst (5 ns rise time) embroidery machines
+ 10 V 80 per cent AM RF immunity. cut-to-length lines
o Very compact size in book format.
p Matched to motion controller, CNC and motor products.

Applications
robotics
dynamic pick and place applications

4 SOFT-START A.C. MOTOR CONTROL

CONVENTIONAL STARTING
In terms of energy efficiency, standard A.C. induction
motors are good at full speed and full load, but at standstill
they offer low impedance to the supply and thus, at full
voltage, draw a high current. Starting current remains sub-
stantially constant at this high level, falling only slightly,
until the motor is close to full speed. Power consumption
during starting is therefore high.
The condition is made worse by power factor. At the instant
of starting, power factor is very low, usually less than 0.2,
and rises slowly in relation to speed. This can incur a high
energy cost, as the low power-factor tariff on industrial
applications is high.
Another consequence of the excessive current is the sudden
application of torque to the driven load, imposing undesir-
able stresses on the motor and driven load. The losses in the
motor are also high and the starting duty needs to be care-
fully controlled and limited.
Direct-On-Line Starting (DOL)
Connecting the windings directly to the supply voltage
when the motor is at standstill means that the flow of cur-
rent is only limited by the system impedance. Starting
current is usually of the order of five or six times the rated
full-load current of the motor, Figure 6.41a, and may
be more for larger machines. Inevitably there is a sudden
high and undesirable surge of torque at the instant of
switching on.
Star-Delta Starting
To limit the effect of full-line voltage at standstill, the
windings are initially connected to the supply in a star
170 SOFT-START A.C. MOTOR CONTROL: C o n v e n t i o n a l S t a r t i n g

600 configuration; after a delay they are open circuited and

reconnected in a delta configuration. Using this method the
500 starting current is typically limited to twice the full load
current. However, at the moment of reconnection in delta, a
400
current surge occurs which may be as high as twenty times
the motor full-load current, Figure 6.42.
(5 300
_.1
1.1..

2O0
This peak is due to the residual back e.m.f, of the windings
and its phase relationship to the supply voltage at the instant
100 of reconnection. The duration of the peak is short, but the
l
I amplitude may be very high causing an impact torque in
I
the mechanical system and a transient reduction of supply
20 40 60 80 100 voltage.
n,%

300

Auto-Transformer Starting
200
Starting voltage can be controlled by using an auto-trans-
former and a series of tappings chosen to raise the voltage in
100 stages during the run-up period. However, although starting
current, at standstill, can be limited to the value of full-load
current, the method still suffers from the disadvantage that
r~ the windings are open circuited several times during the run
20 40 60 80 100 up, each time with a potentially high current and torque
n,% peak during reconnection, Figure 6.43.
Figure 6.41 Typical direct-on-line (DOL) starting
characteristics
a current Disadvantages of Conventional Starting
b torque
There are two main disadvantages with the above-mentioned
forms of motor starting; first, the current peaks, particularly
600 .... & up to
those associated with star-delta and auto-transformer start-
"""" "- I 20x FLC ing. When these current peaks occur, the supply system
500 ~"~
should be able to withstand them without any noticeable
decrease in voltage. It is because of this that many electricity
400 supply authorities limit DOL-started motors to a maximum
of around 5.5 kW.
300
I!
In island installations where power is generated on site and
200 there is no connection to a main power supply (a typical
example being an offshore or desert-location oil or gas
100 ~ production installation) voltage regulation may be a serious
I problem. Such sites are extensively equipped with induction
I
0 , ,
motors and starting of the very big motors has to be coor-
a
20 40 60 80 100 dinated with generator availability. This is not usually a
n,% problem, given that procedures are effective and observed.
300 The diverse duty cycles of the many medium-sized and
/
i /
smaller motors may, however, be capable of causing
unpredictable system voltage regulation, all such motors
commonly being DOL started.
200
The second problem is that of mechanical shock due to the
sudden torque stresses, caused by the current surges, which
100 have to be absorbed by gearboxes, belts, drive shafts and
driven equipment. Such stresses inevitably tend to reduce
the serviceable life of these components.

20 40 60 80 100 Difficulties can also be experienced with particular types of

n, % load such as cranes, where load oscillation can be started by
the initial shock. Similarly, shock waves can be transmitted
Figure 6.42 Star-delta starting along hydraulic pipework, weakening joints in pumping
a current systems. In conveyor systems, loads may be displaced or
b torque damaged on start up. What is needed, therefore, is a system
 Chapter 6.4 171

600
" " " " " " ""' ~ "~' ~ ~ ~ % % % %
O ,,.

500
%

400 0
%%
04
d 300
._J
LI- 0
200

A A A A

100

0 I
] I I i v
] control

20 40 60 80 100 Figure 6.44 Electronic soft start

n,%

300 / %
/ %
I \

200 - ~ . . . . ...--~'~
\
04 \
\
G2 1 O
l
100 ._.r
phase
angle
u i i i v
R
20 40 60 80 100 LI-
n,%

Figure 6.43 Autotransformer starting ,,,'" "[N~

a current
b torque
GC

that increases the voltage smoothly, so eliminating transient

current and torque surges.

ELECTRONIC SOFT START b

A commercial soft start consists of a power circuit con-

taining six thyristors arranged in antiparallel pairs, and a
"11 u
control circuit which sequences the firing of these thyristors,
Figure 6.44. The basic principle of operation is as follows.
When power is applied to the thyristor bridge and a run t s S S ~

command is given to the control circuit, the gate-pulse phase

angle to each of the thyristors is gradually reduced at a rate
set by the ramp time of the control circuit. The gate pulses
allow the thyristors to conduct, and the decreasing phase Figure 6.45 Output voltage control
angle smoothly increases the voltage to the motor windings a 25 per cent
as shown for a single phase in Figure 6.45. Because the b 50 per cent
voltage across the motor windings ramps up smoothly there c 75 per cent
are no current transients or torque surges.

fans
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS circular saws
stamping and cutting presses
mixers grinders
screw and piston compressors gyrating crushers
centrifugal and piston pumps conveyors
172 APPLICATION BOARDS AND SOFTWARE: A p p l i c a t i o n s M o d u l e

5 APPLICATION BOARDS A N D SOFTWARE

APPLICATIONS MODULE performance and cost. It is often possible to undertake entire

Modern variable-speed drives commonly have the facility
for the addition of option boards to bring extra functionality
to the product. Many of these options have been described
earlier in association with the particular products. One,
however, deserves specific attention, as it not only has the
power to transform the functionality of the drive product
itself, but opens up the possibility of transforming the
approach to designing an entire system. Control Techniques
pioneered the use of applications boards in the 1980s
allowing the user to program their own functions within the
drive itself and with access to all drive parameters and inputs
and outputs. The power and capability has advanced over the
years and today users have the opportunity to realise com-
plex algorithms using industry standard programming lan-
guages. Libraries of standard functions and applications are
available, and connectivity to other field devices and factory
automation systems has been enhanced by the development
of fieldbus systems.
Local intelligence of this form makes possible the realisation
of powerful and dynamic distributed control architectures.
Fully featured motion controllers, winders, indexers and
many more functions can be realised, although the key
benefit is that the power may be placed in the hands of
the user. Drives engineers may think that they know the
requirements of all applications but this is not true. The
OEM or end user is the person who understands the ap-
plication best, and is being provided with the tools to realise
the optimum control strategy - optimum in terms of control
machine control using this distributed architecture, elim-
inating local PLCs.
The Unidrive applications module is centred around an Intel
960, 32-bit RISC processor. There is 96 kB of flash memory
available for user programs, and 8kB of user RAM.
The interface with the drive main processor is via dual-
port RAM providing bidirectional communications. The
applications module can therefore not only read any of the
drive's parameters, but can also write to those parameters
allowing the set up/dynamics of the drive to be changed
on the fly.
As well as fieldbus interfaces, the unit has a fully config-
urable RS-485 port supporting:
ANSI protocol as a slave or master controller, in two-
wire or four-wire mode at data rates from 300 bits/s to
19 200 bits/s
MODBUS protocol (ASCII and RTU modes) as a slave
only, at the above data rates
the remote input-output unit high speed protocol at
38 400 bits/s
There is single character read/write access to the RS-485
port which allows other protocols to be simply implemented
using the easy to use Control Techniques IEC 61131-3
ladder/function block programming tool. The tool is called
SYPT (system programming tool), Figure 6.46.
The external input-output unit, Figure 6.47, with modular
analogue inputs, analogue outputs, digital inputs, digital

.............. ii

,| -.~~ |
Alarm%

Figure 6.46 SYPTprogramming tool

 Chapter 6.5 173

clutch-brake-based system. Eliminates overfilling to

meet minimum weight requirements.
Gap control - tail to head spacing, maintaining a con-
stant gap between items on a conveyor regardless of
product length. Photocells trigger monitoring of encoder
input for product position, length and height. The
applications module performs all the calculations
required to deliver the product to the merge conveyor at
the user-defined parameters. R e s u l t - easy configuration
and control of product tail to head or head to head spa-
cing onto a merge conveyor.
Rotary cut o f f - to cut material to user-specified length
and maintain cut on the registration marks. The appli-
cations module monitors the encoder position and pro-
duct registration sensor to ensure that the product is cut
in the correct position. Any changes to the drive para-
Figure 6.47 Remote input-output module meters can be made on the fly. Result - a synchronised
system providing fast and accurate cut lengths exactly
placed on the registration marks.
Positioning - proximity switches are placed at the
outputs etc. provides the system builder with a highly
desired position. The drive is configured to stop at an
efficient interface.
exact and consistent deceleration rate. Result - fast and
An RS-232 port is provided for programming and debugging accurate positioning of work piece with system cost
programs using the SYPT programming tool. minimisation.

High-speed, 345 ps or 460 ItS read/write access to the speed More complex systems can be realised. Some further
and torque reference within the drive allows highly dynamic examples are given in Chapter 12.
control algorithms to be realised. Further, an internal single-
axis position controller is included which can be synchro-
nised to the speed or encoder tasks. Full marker pulse SOFTWARE COMMISSIONING TOOLS
and freeze support is implemented. Position control,
speed control, digital lock and CAM profiling are all As more and more capability is embedded into variable-
supported. speed drive products, it becomes necessary to provide soft-
ware tools to allow the power to be utilised by users and not
400 internal signed 32-bit registers are available for use with
the SYPT programme, of which 200 are nonvolatile. only the drives engineers.
Control Techniques has developed a range of software tools
Typical applications realised on an applications module
for each range of digital drive products called Drivesoft.
include:
These software packages are again all very similar, but are
High-speed label printing (digital lock) - the applications
tailored to each individual drive's needs. Drivesoft is a
module performs a complex CAM-type profile to ensure
collection of WindowsXM-based set-up programs which
the placing arm and product are always at the same
allow the complete control and display of all parameters
speed. The applications module compensates for small
within a Control Techniques drive.
product registration shifts by using a product sensor on
the master axis. R e s u l t - increased accuracy because
placement follows product regardless of conveyor speed. Communications Modes
Constant web speed unwind control with tension input -
Drivesoft operates in two basic communication modes:
the applications module controls the web speed and
position based upon an encoder signal input. As the online and offiine.
diameter of the take-up roll increases, the drive slows the In online mode the PC is connected via a serial cable to the
speed of the motor. R e s u l t - precise speed regulation serial port of the drive. Data from the drive may then be
and the exact amount of material is wound onto the take displayed, parameters written or read. All read/write para-
up roll. meters are available for alteration.
Flying cut off, inline - when the correct product length
In offiine mode Drivesoft requires no connection to the
passes, the cut bar is accelerated to match the speed of
drive. Each parameter may be displayed and changed.
the product. When speed is matched, an output is acti-
vated sending the cutter head down. The operator is able
to set the length using a Control Techniques CTIU Drive Set-up Wizard
operator interface. Result - easy data entry with fast and
A drive set-up wizard guides the novice user in entering
accurate cut cycles.
motor and application data.
Auger filler for dry material - the drive indexes exact
revolutions for specific volume. The operator only needs Help is provided for each step in the set-up wizard and, after
to enter user units into the Control Techniques CTIU the data is downloaded to the drive, a quick motor test can be
operator interface. Result - increased accuracy over a performed.
174 APPLICATION BOARDSAND SOFTWARE:Software Commissioning Tools

Commissioning Screen
All operations within the commissioning screen are under-
taken in the offline mode. To read the current status of a
drive a read operation is required; to make any changes take
effect within the drive a program operation has to be
undertaken.
The commissioning screen enables the simplistic setting of
ramp data, for instance maximum and minimum operational
frequencies, acceleration and deceleration rates together
with autotuning.
start, stop, reverse, jog, reset and speed reference. The status
of the inputs and motor parameters is displayed on panel
meters for quick reference.
Parameter List
The parameter list allows the displaying of the complete list
of parameters available within the drive.
These tools make it possible for the nonspecialist to get the
most out of even the most powerful drive. They also provide
software management tools for version control etc.

Monitoring Screen
The monitoring screen allows control of the drive using
computer control via serial communications. Controls are
 CHAPTER 7
Position and M o t i o n - C o n t r o l Systems
1 GENERAL
@ 2 BASICS OF MOTION CONTROL
3 TYPICAL MOTION FUNCTIONS
~ 4 PROGRAMMABILITY
~ 5 SUMMARY
1 GENERAL
The origins of motion controllers were closely related to
textile machine developments. In the very early history of
such machines the control of position and velocity was
accomplished by elaborate, expensive and time-consuming
solutions comprising cams, gears and shuttles.
The automotive and machine tool industries were among
those which saw the control of motion as a means of pro-
viding complex shapes and integrating complex operations.
Being able to move heavy materials and process them in a
repeatable and continuous manner added value and increased
the productivity of their operations.
175
177
180
187
188
With the emergence of computers and microprocessor tech-
nology, other options became possible and modern motion
controllers were born.
A position or motion controller can be considered as a
system for providing an outer position or path control at the
front end of a drive which traditionally may be considered to
be a speed controller. This can be represented as shown in
Figure 7.1.
Although position control is frequently used in single
axes, the generic motion-control system is most frequently
176 GENERAL

A.C. supply

....................................................................................................................................
convet ona0rve 1......[.....I...............
position
controller s0ee0 current' 'vo a0e' I 0over
con,,o,,er "1 con,ro,,er I "1 con,ro,,er I " conver,e,
measured current
L
......................................................................................................

measured speed
(
measured position

Figure 7.1 Control loops within a position-control system

speed
.......................................................

i drive 1
i.:~i.i.~l~~'.~ i
demand

p,-,

.... i

measured speed
.~..
measured position

motion
controller
A.C[ supply
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i..1.......
speed drive 2
demand

reasure0spee0
measured position

Figure 7.2 Two-axis system with a motion controller

associated with multiaxis applications. In such systems, the digital) which are fed to a drive (often referred to as an
motion controller is often, but not always, used to coordinate amplifier in motion applications) for controlling some type
the position or velocity of a number of drives. This form of of actuator.
application has been illustrated for a two-axis system in
Sometimes the controllers are designed for specialised
Figure 7.2.
applications such as:
A more precise definition of a motion controller would be -
the application of programmable hardware and software (in machine tools - computerised numerical controls (CNC)
conjunction with input sensory devices, actuators and other industrial robots
feedback devices)for the control of one or more linear or transfer lines
rotary motions. coordinate measuring systems
laser welding and cutting
The controller clearly includes a means of entering a set of
instructions or code into its memory. These instructions are In the 1990s general purpose standalone controllers became
translated into a series of electrical signals (analogue and/or popular. This type of controller is typically more flexible
 Chapter 7.2 177

than a dedicated controller and is adaptable to many dif-

ferent applications. The Control Techniques MC204 shown
in Figure 7.3 is in this category.
General-purpose motion controllers are used in a wide
variety of applications, including such generic requirements
as X-Y positioning, palletising etc.
As well as being available as standalone units, motion
controllers are also available as board-level components or
can be integrated into a larger system. Various computer-
based devices, such as programmable controllers, PCs,
standalone industrial computers or remote mainframe com-
puters serve to link and coordinate the motion-control
function with other functions. In addition, an operator
interface is present to input control logic, change existing
programs or provide real-time modifications, such as system
shut down or schedule changes.
Increasingly, it is possible to incorporate position control
into standalone drive products either through option modules
or, for some simple motion functions, this may be built into
the core product.

Figure 7.3 General-purpose motion controller- Control

Techniques MC204

2 BASICS OF M O T I O N CONTROL

The requirement for a motion controller is essentially deter- acceleration (a) - velocity/time
mined by the need to control a system or process beyond the
capability of a single device. The control invariably requires = dv/dt (rate of change of velocity)
the profiling of one or more axes within a machine. The
properties to be profiled are usually either velocity (speed)
or position.
j "~. dt (integral of jerk x time)

Before considering the applications further it is helpful to jerk (-y) - acceleration/time

understand a few of the basic relationships associated with
machine control, and how motion controllers can be used.
First consider the relationships between the key motion
parameters"
distance (0) - velocity x time
- d a / d t (rate of change of acceleration)
Consider a motion profile, Figure 7.4, in which constant
acceleration and deceleration is assumed; the position pro-
file is also shown.

If we analyse this simple motion in terms of acceleration and

= /v. dt (integral of velocity x time)
velocity (v) - distance/time
= dO/dt (rate of change of distance)
jerk, the latter being very important for the smooth transport
of many items, including people in elevators, the results are
seen in Figure 7.5. Figure 7.5 also includes the return motion
to the original position.

- [ ~. dt (integral of acceleration x time) The high levels of jerk can be attenuated by changing
J the velocity/time profile. The implementation of a simple
 178 BASICS OF MOTION CONTROL

~~......~ typical linear

velocity
(1)
E
o
.9o.o_=

I< acceleration ,ll< steady

state ,..I..,Vl.., deceleration >1

(1)

or,=
o-.

(/} .~
o
o.o
G)
>

Figure 7.4 Motion profile showing constant acceleration and deceleration

position
if)

e-

0
e-
return
................. ~ ~I position
if)
o~
"o
~.z,-- t
maximum
.m ............................................................................. velocity
l-

o ~- t

maximum
acceleration
t-

(1)
0
(.}

i !ilil

]ii i l

ii v t
t_
(1)

Figure 7.5 Analysis of the motion profile of Figure 7.4

S-ramp function impacts the performance characteristics

as shown in Figure 7.6.
Further reductions in the jerk can be achieved by more com-
plex speed ramps. Figure 7.7 shows the effect of a sine ramp.
Motion/position controllers are applied to many diverse
applications. There does, however, exist a small number of
functions which are common to many applications. A
number of these are illustrated below.
 C h a p t e r 7.2 179

I
target position
t-

O
t-
return
"0
position

maximum
velocity
4-,
t-

J ................
"~t
O

>

%
t-
~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
maximum
acceleration

v ,L t

(D

O
0

.. maximum
. . . . . . . ~ . . . . . . I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
jerk
e~

~t
L

Figure 7.6 Simple motion profile incorporating S-ramp on velocity

I
let position
t-
:3

o
-

. D

"0
return
position
(!)
~j.- t
. m

c- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~. . . . . .
maximum
,

velocity

>

%
maximum
acceleration

~t
o
O
kj kj
maximum jerk

....~

Figure 7. 7 Simple motion profile incorporating sine ramp on velocity

180 TYPICALMOTION FUNCTIONS" Position L o c k - E l e c t r o n i c G e a r b o x

3 TYPICAL MOTION FUNCTIONS

POSITION LOCK-ELECTRONIC GEARBOX speed. In other words, during the acceleration period it is not
important to maintain lock. Figure 7.9 illustrates the speed
This function is often used to provide a ratio between dif- profile of such an application as well as showing the period
ferent drives. It can be used on machines which historically when digital lock is applied.
had a line shaft providing coordination.
A typical implementation of such a system could be as
Three basic forms exist. shown in Figure 7.10.

Direct Positional Lock

Ramped Rigid Lock
In applications such as screw tapping (Figure 7.8), it is
essential that two axes are directly locked in position. A third digital lock option is to allow the slave drive to lose
This lock, between spindle motion and the up/down motion, synchronism with the master during acceleration, but to re-
must be maintained at all times including acceleration and cover the position error when at the target speed. Figure 7.11
deceleration. illustrates the speed profile of such an application as well as
showing the period when digital lock is applied.

Ramped Nonrigid Lock A flying shear (rotary knife) is a good example of a system
requiring this type of control. In this application only after
In applications such as a take-off conveyor, it is only synchronous lock is achieved can the shear, knife or punch
important to maintain lock once the drive has accelerated to be fired. When the shear, knife or punch is withdrawn the

screw tapping

spindle up~down
motion

'~i i i i i i!i i i i i i i i~i i !i!ilili~!ii i ~i!~:~ii i~ ~ili!i!i i i!i!i i i!i i !ili!i!i!i i!i i i!i!i i i!i!i!i!i~'
iiiiiii!iii!ili!iiiiiiiiiiiTii!iii!iiii;!;ii!: i :i i i i i!i i i i i!i i i!!ili!i i i!i i !i !!ii i il
:~i!iiiii!iiiiiiii!iiiiii!!iiiiiii!71i:ii ~ ~!i~;iiii~!ii~ii~i,li~i!i~ii!i!~iii~;ili~!:
:i!i!i!iii!ii:i!i!i!i!..............................................
ii!iil!:il t
:~i~iil;ii~i;i!i!i!i~i:
......................... ~:i !~
:~i~i:iii}!!i!ii~!!!~!i!~!i!i!~!?

up~down spindle
motion

:~ili i i~ ~iii)iiiTiiiil}iiiililiiiiiiilili;iTiil
~:
:~iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii~'
t
iilii.......
iii!iiiiiiiiiiili iiiii::i::ii::i~ii::::=:::i
..........................................................
~:~

Figure 7.8 Screw tapping

master speed

-(3
/
Q.

slave speed profile (x ratio)

system position locked

1 .

Figure 7.9 Ramped nonrigid lock speed profile

 Chapter 7.3 181

master conveyor
A pick and place

slave conveyor

fast
slow

line
speed

motion controller .J~

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "'1
I
'

master position reference I

!
!
peed reference,
2:1
. . . . . . . j

slave position feedback

Figure 7.10 Take-off conveyor- a ramped nonrigid lock system

master speed recovery speed

"0

slave speed profile (x ratio)

system position locked

1

Figure 7.11 Ramped rigid lock speed profile

|
|
.......... conveyorspeed
| a

"13

c~

~' J, time

sta

trigger
point

.~ system
locked

Figure 7.12 Flying-shear speed profile

182 T Y P I C A LMOTION FUNCTIONS: P o s i t i o n L o c k - E l e c t r o n i c Gearbox

digital lock can be deselected and the position ramped back In all these examples of single-axis positioning the essence
to the original datum. Figure 7.12 illustrates the speed pro- of the control system is the counting of pulses derived
file of such an application as well as showing the period from the motor-mounted encoder or process-line-mounted
when digital lock is applied. feedback.

SIMPLE SINGLE-AXIS POSITIONING CAM FUNCTIONS

Single-axis positioning systems are characterised by the
need to move from one position to another, usually in as
short a time as possible and as accurately as possible. Further
enhancements are often included to allow for position refe-
rencing, or homing. Figure 7.13 shows a typical system
where the rotary motion of the motor shaft is translated into a
linear motion v i a a ball screw.
Alternatively in the case of an indexing application, a
repetitive action is undertaken after a prescribed duration or
travel, as in the example shown in Figure 7.14.
In many applications a slave-drive motion is required to
follow the master in a nonlinear relationship. To illustrate
this, consider the relationship between the slave and
master in the following example of a packaging application
(Figure 7.15).
Such a profile has historically been achieved using a
mechanical CAM, but has been substituted using electronic
controls with the master-slave function embedded in look-up
tables. The relationships between such tables and mechan-
ical CAMs are of the form shown in Figure 7.16.

position control used once datum has been established

any index position can be achieved within the full travel length

speed control for searching

for home datum position

~+++i+++++++

I proximity switch i
for home reference
. _ .

software and hardware

!i:i:~,i!! limits can be implemented
--+ :+.)~
v v

t
position and profile reference

Figure 7.13 Simple positioning system

pneumatic
knife
unwind
feed rolls
take-off-conveyor

unwind -- --
software index
position
software

Figure 7.14 Simple indexing system


reference
proximity
sensor
IP V (slave)
!
! I
_ _
O
constant speed conveyor
Figure 7.15 Packaging application showing nonlinear master-slave relationship
I
i
I
Figure 7.16 Mechanical CAM- master-slave relationship
The more CAM coordinates in the table, the smoother the
motion between master and slave. This relationship is illu-
strated in Figure 7.17.
The granularity/smoothness of motion can be improved
by the use of interpolation techniques within the controller.
In essence, interpolation calculates intermediate points
between the data given in the table. The simplest form of
interpolation is linear interpolation. Figure 7.18 shows the
principle. As the name suggests, a linear motion between
datum points is assumed.
More complex interpolation algorithms can be found in
many motion controllers including square interpolation
(Figure 7.19), cosine interpolation (Figure 7.20) through to
more complex helical and spline interpolation which will
not be considered here.
It is possible to combine different forms of interpolation to
create very specific profiles. This flexibility allows complex
CAM profiles to be effected with relatively small numbers
of data points.
C h a p t e r 7.3 183
(master)
180
225
270 -I
315
slave axis
45
90
135
180
MULTIAXIS POSITIONING
The power of motion controllers becomes of critical
importance in multiaxis applications. It is all too easy to
consider all multiaxis applications as highly demanding.
This is not the case, indeed perhaps as many as 90 per cent of
multiaxis systems demand little more than loose coordina-
tion of their respective motion. In such systems single-axis
controllers can perform admirably with simple referencing
between drives. It is in applications with precise contouring,
such as axis drives on a machine tool, that true multiaxis
control is demanded. In these applications it is not adequate
to simply ensure that motion commands are accurately
synchronised, but also that the motion of all drives is
closely monitored; the actual position of each drive influ-
ences the trajectory of every drive. It is truly control of a
point in space, and that space can have more than three
dimensions!
Multiaxis positioning systems also bring a requirement for
multiaxis interpolation, which will not be discussed here.
184 TYPICAL MOTION FUNCTIONS" Multiaxis Positioning

reduced
number of
coordinates required
.
c
0
m
profile
(/)
0
Q.

> increased
(/) number of
coordinates

master position

>,,
.
,.i-,
m

o
m
0
>
(1)
> J
...4j
m

(/)

J
J
..i J

J time

Figure 7.17 Effect o f granularity on master-slave motion smoothness

Y2 / ','1

y. J y.

Y~ Y2

I
Xl X' x2 x~ X
!

x2

~X
dY/dX v

dY/dX
"-X

Figure 7.18 Linear interpolation

 Chapter 7.3 185

Y2
.---......
y,
/ y,

Y2

l
X1 X, x2
~X

Xl X' X2
~X

~X
v

~,X
-y

Y2 m

t m f

----~ X ~X
I
x~ X, x2 x~ x' x2

I v

X -y

Figure 7.19 Square interpolation

a linear acceleration ramp in velocity
b linear deceleration ramp in velocity
186 TYPICAL MOTION FUNCTIONS: Multiaxis Positioning

Y2 Y1

y,

y l
/
Y1 Y2

~X ~X

x~ x' x2 x~ x' x2

~X

X -y

f
y,

Y2

m
---~ X ~X
I
X 1 X' x2 X, X2

I ~X

X -y

Figure 7.20 Cosine interpolation

a sine acceleration ramp in velocity
b sine deceleration ramp in velocity
 Chapter 7.4 187

4 PROGRAMMABILITY

The power and flexibility of motion controllers demands used listing of codes are G codes. Examples of G codes for
powerful, easy to use programming tools. Today many various functions are given in Table 7.1.
proprietary programming tools are available. For general-
purpose controllers WindowsTM-based systems pre-
dominate. IEC 61131-3 provides a standard framework Table 7.1 Examples of G codes for
around which many systems have been successfully devel- CNC controllers
oped.
G 00 rapidtraverse
Many standalone systems include the ability to import data G 01 linearinterpolation
from mechanical CAD packages providing a direct CAD/ G 02 circularinterpolation (clockwise)
CAM link. helical interpolation (clockwise)
G 04 dwell
Text editors are incorporated to ensure good documentation G 06 splineinterpolation
and version control of all software. Further, performance can G 17 planeselect XY
be monitored using features such as oscilloscope functions. G 21 metricprogramming
G 45 tool offset increase
CNC controllers tend to be programmed utilising broadly
G 94 feed per minute
recognised codes for specific functions. The most widely

iii! ii i!i ii i i i!

i!i!iiiiiiiiii!ililili
iiiiiiiiiilili~i~ili~i J

ili!iiiiiiiiiii
i
iliiii!::!i]ililiiiiiii
iiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii
]i!i i!i !i i i :i i
i !i i i i i i i i i i i~

~3[ ~ :,Oh: ~m.tO ,~

ii;i
iliiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiii
iLii!i!iiiii!ii!ilili
~
iiliiiiiii~iiii!ii!ii
!iiiiiiiiiii
iiiililliliiiiii!iiiii!iiiiii!!iiiiiiiiiiiii
i

iit! Jiiii iiiii iiiiii iii

Figure 7.21 CAD to motion screen with automatic motion code generation
188 SUMMARY

5 SUMMARY

Position and motion-control systems are not necessarily
complex. Most applications, when considered carefully, will
involve the requirement for motion coordination rather than
a rigid link. The recognition of this can greatly simplify the
control system required and introduce the possibility of
radical fully distributed control topologies. The growth of
PC-based programming tools provides great scope for future
development relating to both centralised and distributed
solutions.
 CHAPTER 8

Communications Systems

iiiiiii~'iiiiiiiiI
INTRODUCTION 189

~!ii~i 2 NETWORK BASICS 191

iiiiiii
!iiii!!ii!ii!iiiii 3 SIMPLE FIELDBUS SYSTEMS 196

'~'~'~='~=~' 4 FIELDBUS SYSTEMS 197

INTRODUCTION

In a modem digital drive, adjustments such as PID gains
and acceleration ramp times are software settings rather than
the potentiometers and DIP switches found in their ana-
logue predecessors. To permit adjustment of these software
parameters, most drives provide a human-machine interface
(HMI) consisting of an onboard display and buttons. Users
manipulate the buttons to scroll to the parameter of interest
and to alter its value. The problem is that many sophisticated
drives may have several hundred parameters and the built-in
HMI system can be cumbersome to use. Compounding this
problem is the fact that modem automation applications
usually involve multiple drives working in unison with each
other. A field engineer may be faced with the daunting task
of setting up the parameters for thirty drives, each one
having over four-hundred parameters.
To address this challenge, most modem digital drives have a
built-in communications port using the RS-232 or RS-485
serial standard. There are two principal reasons for the
inclusion of a communications port on a digital drive: set up
of the drive's parameters and real-time control of a number
of drives in an automation application.
190 INTRODUCTION: Drive Set Up

Figure 8.1 Screen of typical drive set-up program

PLC drives

~ ~ :~::~ ~:~i~ ~

IIIIIIII lit referenCerun

reference
run
sT6
reverse
reference
run
stop__
reverse
direct wiring of signals

Figure 8.2 Traditional discrete interconnection wiring of a drive system

DRIVE SET UP
Many drive manufacturers provide WindowsTM-based set up
and maintenance programs to acquire and alter the drive's
parameters. These configuration programs can operate on a
laptop computer and attach to the drive via the serial com-
munications port. The standard PC COM port uses RS-232
which permits a single drive to be connected; if an RS-485
converter is used then multiple drives can be connected
through a multidrop cable. Control Techniques' drives can
be configured and maintained by PC applications such as
Unisoft (for the Unidrive product range) which supports
single and multidrop connections (Figure 8.1).

PLC
serial network
Figure 8.3 Serial network interconnection of a drive system
DRIVE CONTROL
Many applications require a number of drives to be inte-
grated with I/O and PLC devices. The traditional approach is
to use discrete wiring for the interconnections (Figure 8.2).
Replacing the unwieldy wiring looms with a single digital
serial network is an attractive alternative, as it will result in
a dramatic reduction in the wiring and cost of installation
(Figure 8.3). Provided that installation guidelines are met
(i.e. maximum number nodes, trunk length and correct ter-
minations etc.) reliability will be improved simply due to
the reduced number of connections. The data remains in the
digital domain with many analogue components and their
associated conversion, repeatability and drift errors being
eliminated. The flexibility offered by a serial network also
allows applications to be configured for specific end user
needs without adding extra cable connections. Internal
parameters of remote nodes can easily be accessed for
remote supervision and data logging.
The speed of standard PC serial communications may be
adequate for set up and configuration activities, but is
usually too slow for this purpose. Consequently, a number of
high-speed industrial networks have evolved to meet this
need. They are generally known as fieldbus systems.
2 NETWORK BASICS
Communications networks have so much in common that it
has become standard practice to relate their features and
design elements to an internationally agreed model. The
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model,
developed by the International Standards Organisation (ISO),
Chapter 8.2 191
drives
SUMMARY
In conclusion, simple serial communication portals built
into drives greatly enhance the task of set up and maintenance
of the drive's adjustment parameters. For real-time control of
the drive in an industrial process, a fieldbus offers the
advantages of higher speed, simplified installation and
enhanced reliability. The benefits in replacing discrete
interconnections with a fieldbus are summarised below:
wiring costs are dramatically reduced especially if dis-
tributed I/O is utilised
data remains in the digital domain and most analogue
components can be eliminated; no conversion errors,
no repeatability and drift errors and substantial cost
savings
provided that the communication system is suitably
robust the overall system becomes less susceptible to
EM noise and ground-loop problems
remote supervision and set up of the drives over the
network
if the selected factory network is one that has wide
industry support, many sensors, actuators, HMI systems
and controllers can be directly connected to it without
special interfacing.
is used as a framework for organising the various data com-
munications functions occurring between disparate devices
which communicate. The complete OSI model defines seven
component parts or layers; however only three of these layers
are usually developed for industrial communications.
192 NETWORKBASICS

Fieldbus systems often include special features related to required for the nodes to be connected in a logical bus
device interoperability and the real-time nature of industrial structure.
automation applications. The device profile defines device
interoperability features such as electronic data sheets which Interface Circuits
allow devices from different manufacturers to interoperate
without complex configuration or custom software. Cyclic All PCs support the RS-232 data transmission system. The
data is network data that bypasses parts of the software for signal appears as a single-ended voltage with reference to a
efficiency. signal ground. The voltage swing of the RS-232 circuit
shown in Figure 8.5 is -+-12 volts ( - 1 2 V for logic one,
+ 12 V for logic zero). When not transmitting the signal is
PHYSICAL LAYER held at logic one ( - 1 2 V).

Starting at the lowest layer in the OSI model (Figure 8.4), the Observing that the logic zero/one detection thresholds are
physical layer is concerned with the actual transmission of typically +3 and - 3 volts in most implementations, it is
raw bits. In a factory network, analogue quantities, switches, clear that a modest spike could trick the receiver into making
command codes and textual data are all converted into a false bit determination, as shown below in Figure 8.6. For
numeric information and transmitted as a stream of binary this reason, RS-232 signalling circuits are almost never used
bits from the source node to the destination node. Typically, in modern factory communications systems.
the bit stream is logically grouped into octets (or bytes). Adoption of differential signalling solves most of the
The following sections describe the key facets of the phy- problems inherent in single-ended RS-232 communica-
sical layer. tions. In the RS-485 standard, two conductors are used to
represent the bit: one carrying the original bit and the other
Network Cables and Connectors carrying its logical inverse. The differential receiver at
the receiving end subtracts the two signals to recover the
The physical layer requires a transmission medium for the original data. Any noise induced into one conductor is
data signals to flow. The principal transmission medium of induced in the other conductor and the subtraction operation
factory networks today is either copper cable or fibre-optic will thus cancel out the common-mode noise. Note: the
cable. signal levels are 0 V and 5 V.
Twisted-pair copper cable is preferred for cost and ease of RS-485 also supports operation with multiple nodes on the
installation. Fibre-optic cables are less susceptible to EM same cable. When a transmitter is not actually transmitting it
fields and offer higher bandwidths; however they are more is disabled and presents a high impedance to the bus.
expensive and difficult to install. Also, an expensive hub is Typically, all receivers are enabled and see every message,
but the protocol allows them to discard messages not
intended for them.

Data Encoding
The differential signalling described in the previous section
I~~................~Ye~i
layer .7:i..~i..i.application
.........~.......... layer
~.:.~..:.~..i~~iP~P:,l:,i~~~i
~i~~~i ....~.i.....~..........~...~...~...........
...~..i~..ila..ye: cyclic
data
allows us to reliably send a single bit down a network cable.
Since the network is typically used for numeric data or
characters, multiple bits are used to convey the information.
layer 2: data link layer These multiple bits must be encoded either asynchronously
or synchronously.
In asynchronous encoding it is up to the receiver to properly
sample and detect the multiple bits. The standard PC COM
Figure 8.4 Open Systems Interconnection port uses a method of encoding called NRZ (non return to
zero). In NRZ encoding, the voltage level determines the bit

RS-232 + 12 volts
__~~/interface >~/ ] ~ logic zero
................ + 3 volts
)> >> Ovolts
m m

m n

3 volts

idle
\ logic one

- 12volts
Figure 8.5 RS-232 interface
 Chapter 8.2 193

................... ................... + 25 volts

logic zero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + 3 volts

0 volts
~ detection!

''cne 1"l"--t
......... v'*s

........................................ 25 volts

Figure 8.6 RS-232- effect of noise

+5
,,, >> Rx ~tr data
ansmitted
data data

!]'Tx >> >> ~x

+s
STx' I-I

m B

+5

note: the spike has been cancelled by the differential

amplifier
kS )
+5

f 0a*areceived

Figure 8. 7 RS-485

value (one or zero). In Figure 8.8, the character Hex 1C is Manchester encoding, there is always a transition in the
transmitted. The receiving electronics must detect the middle of a bit period. Logical zero is a downward transition
change from line idle state to the start of a bit pattern (called and logic one is an upward transition. Since there is always a
the start bit). Once the start bit has been detected, each data transition, a phased-lock loop circuit can be used to extract
bit must be sampled in the middle of its respective bit period the clock signal. This makes it easy for the receiver circuit to
(Figure 8.9). This assumes that the receiver has its own sample and detect the bits.
sample clock to do this and that the incoming bit rate (baud
rate) is known.
The disadvantages of NRZ encoding is that the timing of the Network Topology
sampling is independent of the transmitted signal. Also, the
start bit and stop bit carry no information and thus waste The topology of a network describes how the nodes are con-
throughput. nected together. The main topologies are the bus topology
where all nodes connect together onto a common medium,
Another encoding method called NRZI (nonreturn to zero
and a ring topology where nodes are interconnected in
inverted) uses transitions to determine the bit values (zero is
a unidirectional loop. Some networks are wired in a star
no transitions, one is a transition).
topology which requires the use of a multioutput repeater
Finally, the Manchester encoding system allows the called a hub. Ethernet 10baseT is an example of this
clock signal to be recovered from the transmitted data. In approach.
194 NETWORKBASICS:Data-link Layer
logic 1 0 0 1 1
start bit bit bit
bit 0 1 2 3
Figure 8.8 Transmission of Hex 1C
0 0 1 0
Figure 8.9 Receiving Hex 1C
DATA-LINK LAYER
The data-link layer is responsible for encapsulating the
digital information into message frames and for the reliable
transfer of frames over the network.
Framing
An example of a data-link frame is shown in Figure 8.10.
Data Model
All industrial fieldbuses work by connecting devices onto
a shared medium and multiplexing data onto this medium
in a serial fashion. The data model describes how messages
or data are routed and identified on the network.
SOURCE-DESTINATION MODEL
Messages are identified by a single node destination address.
Most source/destination protocols also have the possibility
for global addressing so that all nodes receive the message.
However, it is not possible to select a group of nodes to
receive the message (called multicast).
PRODUCER-CONSUMERMODEL
A message produced by a node is identified by its content
(i.e. data identification) rather than a specific node desti-
nation. Any node may consume this message if it detects
that the data is required. Clearly, this is very powerful and
makes best use of available bandwidth but does require a
complex configuration phase when data identifications
are allocated. CAN, FIP and ControlNet can successfully
operate a producer-consumer model although CAN only
provides for a maximum of 2047 data objects.
Media Access Control
The media access control protocol defines how access to the
shared medium is arbitrated so that reliable data exchange
can occur.
1 0 0 0
bit bit bit bit bit stop
4 5 6 7 bit
1 1 0
CARRIER-SENSEMULTIPLEACCESS/COLLISION
DETECT(CSMA/CD)
A node waits until the bus is idle and then transmits its
message. While transmitting, the node senses its own
transmission to determine whether a collision with another
node occurs. If a collision is detected then several schemes
can be employed to arbitrate. Ethernet specifies that the node
jams the network and then backs off for a random time
interval before trying again. As network loading increases
the probability of collisions increases and the network
ceases to operate efficiently. This stochastic behaviour is not
suitable for the majority of automation applications.
CAN is also CSMA but the collision is resolved using
bitwise arbitration according to the priority of the mes-
sage. Significantly, this arbitration is accomplished on the
physical layer itself using dominant bit signalling and
does not result in wasted bandwidth. This signalling does
have a bit rate and trunk length limitation of 4 0 m at
1 Mbit/s due to the finite propagation speed of the signal
down the wire.
CAN is deterministic for the highest priority message with
a worst-case delay time of 130 gs (time for the maximum
eight-byte message at 1Mbit/s). Performance can be
improved further by using the hardware transmission time-
stamp to measure the delay and then transmitting this value to
the slaves so that they can compensate for the jitter.
TOKEN RING
A node may only transmit a message if it is in possession of
the token. Once the node has sent the message it must
relinquish the token to its neighbour. This fair-share scheme
provides a very flexible protocol for peer-to-peer commu-
nication without the need for a master or arbiter node.
However, the worst-case time window for a node to receive
the token and transmit a message is large and occurs when, in
one token pass, every node transmits a message of maximum
length. ARCNET is the best example of an industrial net-
work which uses token ring.

i/ preamble
I this is the data we want to transfer I
identifies the
preamble is a
node that is to
burst of ones
receive the
and zeros to message
enable phase-
lock loops at the start of frame
receiver to lock in bit pattern helps
receiver circuits detect
start of valid message
Figure 8.10 A data-link frame
MASTER-SLAVE
As the name suggests one node is designated the master
usually, this is a unique node and also corresponds to the
central logic controller of the system. The master controls all
communication activity and the slaves only respond to a
request from the master. This leads to deterministic beha-
viour but without any peer-to-peer communications. Much
of the fieldbus installed base is PLC systems with a cen-
tralised architecture and a master-slave protocol. The two
dominant networks in Europe are Profibus-DP followed by
Interbus S, both firmly entrenched in the PLC-distributed
slave architecture.
TIME-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
Each node is allocated a time slot on the network when it is
permitted to initiate a transaction with a peer node. In the
WorldFIP system the time slots are controlled by the bus
arbiter node, which stores a predefined list of data objects to
be produced (note: FIP uses a producer-consumer model).
The bus arbiter cycles through the list and broadcasts the
data identification onto the network - the node that is set up
to produce this data object recognises the ID and then pro-
duces the value on the network- any number of nodes then
consume this data. At the time of producing data the node
may request a slot for a noncyclic request. Once all the
cyclic transmissions are complete the arbiter then cycles
through all the cached noncyclic requests. ControlNet uses
similar media access control.
Error Handling
In a factory environment, nearby lightning strikes, contact
closures, power dips and other events may cause a trans-
mitted message to be corrupted. A CRC polynomial inserted
at the end of the message is used at the receiving end to
determine if the message was corrupted. The data-link layer
detects this and schedules the packet for retransmission. If
C h a p t e r 8.2 195
data
cyclic redundancy check
bits help receiver verify that
the message was received
without error
number of bytes end of frame
in the data field bit pattern helps
to follow receiver circuits detect
end of message
the retransmission is attempted too many times, then the
message is discarded.
Conclusions
The producer-consumer model is very efficient if more
than one node requires an item of data. However, in many
automation applications the source-destination model with
broadcast is adequate. Producer-consumer networks also
need complex set up to allocate data IDs although if tools are
provided by the vendor this can be relatively painless.
Master-slave protocols only support centralised structures
although slower peer-to-peer connections for nonreal-time
data are possible on some networks. The producer-consumer
capabilities of CAN without using a master arbiter make it
an attractive solution for small networks. Token ring is the
most flexible protocol for peer-to-peer communications
but the deterministic behaviour is not as controllable.
APPLICATION LAYER
The application layer defines and implements the services that
the network offers each device. The most common services
are read and write. The flexibility of the application layer
generally incurs large overheads and consequently slower
execution. Indeed, if the dynamic performance is critical then
many networks bypass this layer for real-time data. Network
data handled in this way is often called cyclic data.
DEVICE PROFILE
The communication system, layers 1 through 7, manages
the transfer of data between nodes. The profile or com-
panion standard is a detailed specification of how this
data is interpreted or mapped onto device functions. A
common misconception is to assume that, with compatible
communications, devices are interoperable: interoperability
is only truly achieved if the profile layers are implemented.
196 SIMPLE FIELDBUSSYSTEMS:Modbus

3 SIMPLE FIELDBUS SYSTEMS

There are a number of protocols designed for RS-232 or RS- CONTROL TECHNIQUES' PROTOCOL
485 communications which are still widespread in automa-
tion applications. All Control Techniques' products offer a simple ASCII-based
protocol which allows parameters to be read and written
(Figure 8.3).
MODBUS The response is a single character A C K (hex code 06) or
N A K (hex code 15).
The Modbus serial communications protocol is a de facto
Table 8.1 Query
standard designed to integrate PLCs, computers, terminals,
sensors and actuators. Modbus is a master-slave system Field name RTU (hex) ASCII characters
meaning that one device, the master node, controls all serial
Header none :(colon)
activity by selectively polling the slave devices. Modbus
Slave address 06 06
supports one master device and up to 247 slave devices. Function 03 03
Each device is assigned a unique node address. Starting address hi 00 00
Starting address lo 6B 6B
There are two variants of Modbus: ASCII and RTU. ASCII
No. of registers hi 00 00
mode uses a message format that is printable, messages start
No. of registers lo 03 03
with a colon and end with a carriage return. Error check CRC (2 bytes) LRC (2 characters)
RTU mode uses binary and is therefore not printable. Eight- Trailer none CRLF
bit characters are sent as a continuous burst and the end of Total bytes 8 17
the message is denoted by three and a half character times of
silence. RTU mode messages use half the characters of an Table 8.2 Response
equivalent ASCII message. Field name RTU (hex) ASCII characters
Only the master initiates a transaction. The master is usually Header none :(colon)
a host PC or HMI device since most Modicon PLCs are Slave address 06 06
slaves and cannot initiate a Modbus transaction (the new Function 03 03
Quantum PLCs can act as a Modbus master). Typically, the Byte count 06 06
host master will read or write registers to a slave. In each Data hi 02 02
case, the slave will retum a response message. For a read Data lo 2B 2B
Data hi 00 00
operation, the response will carry the requested data. For a
Data lo 00 00
write operation, the response is used to verify acceptance of
Data hi 00 00
the write command. A special case is the broadcast operation Data lo 63 63
where a write operation can be directed to all slaves. In this Error check CRC (2 bytes) LRC (2 characters)
case, no response message is forthcoming. Trailer none none

The eight-bit address field is the first element of the message Total bytes 11 23
(one byte for RTU, or two characters for ASCII). This field Table 8.3 Query
indicates the address of the destination slave device that
should respond to the message - all slaves receive the mes- Field name Example (hex) ASCII
sage but only the addressed slave will actually act upon it. EOT 04
Slave address 31 1
The function code field tells the addressed slave which
31 1
function to perform. Modbus function codes are specifically
34 4
designed for interacting with a PLC on the Modbus indus- 34 4
trial communications system. STX 02
Parameter 31 1
Two error check bytes are added to the end of each message:
38 8
ASCII mode uses a longitudinal redundancy check (LRC) 32 2
and RTU mode uses a 16-bit CRC check. 33 3
In the example in Tables 8.1 and 8.2, the host PC is initiating Value 33 3
32 2
a read request of three parameters starting with 1.08 from
2E
drive address 06. The starting holding register is 40108 but
37 7
the 4 is dropped in the message string and the rest of the 39 9
register address is entered as one less (0108 becomes 0107, ETX 3
0107 is entered as 006B in hexadecimal). The response Checksum 1 char
repeats the address and function code, but includes the Total bytes 17
values read from the drive.

4 FIELDBUS SYSTEMS
REQUIREMENTS FOR DRIVE APPLICATIONS
Drive applications dictate specific fieldbus requirements.
The following section reviews these requirements.
Physical Layer
Contactors, power switching devices and switch gear all
contribute to a high level of ambient EM noise. The trans-
mission media must be immune to this and also be mechani-
cally robust enough to survive the rigours of installation.
The type of media and signalling method will dictate the
limits for the maximum number of nodes on a network and
the distance between them (Table 8.4). This should be
checked against the application requirements.
Screened twisted pair is generally preferred for cost reasons
and ease of installation.
Error Detection
The consequence of accepting corrupted data will be cata-
strophic in any application and a reliable error-detection
algorithm must be implemented, which will discard cor-
rupted data. Error-recovery schemes are generally too
complex for small embedded systems and would also require
redundant data to be transmitted.
Many systems include built-in, high-level error-handling
schemes which call for retries ifa frame is corrupted. However,
for real-time data, which has a limited lifetime, the system is
best waiting for the next available sampled data.
Dynamic Performance
The bandwidth of a drive varies according to the motor and
drive technology used. A servodrive system may have a
bandwidth of 1 or 2 kHz. At the other extreme, an open-loop
drive coupled to a large fan or pump may have a system time
constant measured in seconds.
To accommodate the high-performance servo applica-
tions the data will need to be delivered every 1 ms or less.
Only a small set of real-time data items needs to be trans-
ferred at this rate, e.g. speed and torque, control and status.
Moreover, the updates must be periodic and deterministic;
in other words the data must arrive at regular guaranteed
time intervals. Ideally the period or cycle of the updates
should be synchronised with the digital control loops in the
drives and controller to eliminate any undesirable beating
Table 8.4 Typical data rates for transmission media
Medium Typical data rate
Screened twisted pair <_5 Mbit/s
Coaxial < 10 Mbit/s
Optical fibre _< 100 Mbit/s
Chapter 8.4 197
effects. Some applications will require close coordination of
a number of drives (e.g. each axis in a CNC machine). In
these applications set points and measured values in all
drives must be consumed and sampled synchronously across
the network.
To achieve these dynamic requirements the real-time or
cyclic data is usually handled differently, bypassing the
cumbersome application layer, and presented directly to the
drive. Moreover the transactions and mapping of the data is
generally predetermined during system initialisation to
avoid the overhead of sending addressing information.
General Message Services
Other general nontime-critical access to the network must be
supported. For example, operator interaction, drive set up
(PID gains, ramp times etc.), downloading application
software, general diagnostics and data logging. These mes-
sages are often referred to as noncyclic communication.
Centralised v e r s u s Distributed
Intelligence
If a communication system with the above dynamic char-
acteristics is available it may seem desirable to locate all the
system control functions in the central controller and simply
transfer demands and feedback cyclically with the drives
over the network. However, if the drive is capable of
executing some application functions locally then an alter-
native approach is to use a distributed architecture.
In this scenario some control loops are implemented
locally utilising feedback available from the local I/O on the
drive. This reduces the load on the network, which is then
only called upon to transfer slower outer-loop references
which are less sensitive to variations in the deterministic
response. Although the dynamic requirements of the net-
work are less, flexible peer-to-peer communication is
needed to allow data to be shared easily between distributed
processes.
A distributed architecture has some advantages over a cen-
tralised structure: a powerful controller necessary to cope
with large levels of computation for the whole system is
expensive and the software will invariably be unwieldy and
difficult to maintain. Also, the standard I/O which most
drives provide can be utilised very efficiently by a local
process without loading the network. Clearly, it may be
difficult to partition and distribute some systems and a
centralised approach is best (e.g. the interpolation functions
of a multiaxis CNC machine).
PROFIBUS DP
Profibus DP is a mature fieldbus system that is primarily
used to connect distributed slave devices (I/O, drives, sen-
sors, actuators etc.) to a PLC. Profibus DP is optimised for
198 FIELDBUS
SYSTEMS: Profibus DP
this master-slave architecture and can provide high perfor-
mance updates when used at the maximum 12 Mbit/s data
rate. The dominant physical layer is a multidrop RS-485 bus
using shielded twisted-pair cable.
Secondary masters (class 2) can be added to the network and
can be used for SCADA-type functions only. A master token
is used to control the master accesses.
There is a wide range of manufacturers in the Profibus user
group and a number of device profiles (including a drive
profile) have been defined.
Development work on DP to address the synchronisation and
peer-to-peer limitations is ongoing. These enhancements are
both needed for motion control applications. To synchronise
the slave drives, the master broadcasts a cyclic and equidi-
stant clock telegram which all slaves use to synchronise
internal clocks. The peer-to-peer data is realised using a
producer-consumer data model.
INTERBUS-S
Interbus S is a master-slave fieldbus system optimised for
connecting slave devices to a central controller (typically a
PLC). Although the data rate is a modest 500 kbit/s, the
useful data throughput is high due to the low protocol
overhead. Slave devices typically provide between four and
ten cyclic transmit and receive data words in conjunction
with a noncyclic channel (PCP).
The network uses a ring topology with the master coordi-
nating all network activity. There are two physical-layer
options: the remote bus variant uses RS-485 twisted pair
with a maximum range of 400m between each node; the
lower cost local bus uses TTL levels for short spurs.
CAN
CAN was originally developed by Intel and Bosch for
automotive applications. Its performance, simplicity and low
cost have led to its adoption in many industrial automation
applications. The main CAN-based standards are DeviceNet
and CANopen.
The CAN physical layer is typically very robust but does
have a baud rate v e r s u s distance trade off due to the bit-wise
arbitration scheme.
DeviceNet
Originally a Rockwell system, this is now a standard man-
aged by the ODVA. Most DeviceNet systems operate under
a master-slave scheme with a master PLC scanner. How-
ever, this structure does not fully leverage the peer-to-peer
capability of CAN. A number of device profiles have been
defined including the A.C./D.C. drives profile.
Assembly objects - cyclic control data is efficiently
packed into the eight-byte CAN data frame without any
protocol information. Assembly objects are usually
configured for synchronous exchange with the master
synchronisation telegram.
Explicit messaging - this noncyclic service allows a
single object attribute to be read or written. The CAN
message carries the protocol information necessary to
identify the object attribute and the value.
CANopen
This is an open-system standard developed by a multivendor
working group. A number of device profiles have been
defined including the drive speed and position profile.
Process data objects (PDOs) - control data is efficiently
packed into the eight-byte CAN data frame without
any protocol information- the 11-bit COB ID (CAN
object identifier) is used to identify the data. The COB
IDs must be allocated during system initialisation.
PDOs can be transmitted cyclically in response to the
synchronisation telegram, or as unsolicited event-based
transmission.
Service data objects (SDOs) - discrete messaging to read
or write an object.
CTNET
Control Techniques developed CTNet as part of the dis-
tributed control product strategy. The objectives for CTNet
were low cost, easy to install and set up, peer-to-peer
exchanges to allow data to be shared between drives, and
high performance.
CTNet leverages proven token-ring data-link technology
with a unique protocol stack having dual cyclic data chan-
nels to provide efficient synchronous transfers for real-time
control data. In addition, the general-purpose channel pro-
vides occasional or event-driven transactions suitable for
data logging, diagnostics and set up.
A bus topology is used which, with the use of repeaters, can
support up to a maximum of 255 nodes. The network uses a
transformer isolated physical layer, which improves noise
immunity and makes installation simpler. The default data
rate is 2.5 Mbit/s.
When equipped with CTNet, the drive application modules
can be used to build distributed control systems which offer
many performance and cost benefits over an equivalent
PLC-based system.
 CHAPTER 9

Supply Harmonics due to Drives

1 OVERVIEW 199

@ 2 REGULATIONS 200
~:~:.i " '..".~

N HARMONIC GENERATION WITHIN VARIABLE-SPEED DRIVES 201

4 THE EFFECTS OF HARMONICS 203

@ 5 CALCULATION OF HARMONICS 204

@ 6 REMEDIAL TECHNIQUES 206

1 OVERVIEW

Supply harmonics are caused by the A.C. input current to
load equipment departing from the ideal sinusoidal wave-
shape. They are produced by any nonlinear circuit, but most
commonly by rectifiers.
The supply current waveform is generally measured in
terms of the harmonics of the supply frequency which
it contains. The harmonic current causes harmonic voltage
to be experienced by other equipment connected to the
same supply. Because harmonic voltage can cause dis-
turbance or stress to other electrical equipment connected
to the same supply system, it is controlled by regula-
tions applying to public supply systems. If installations
contain a high proportion of variable-speed drives and/
or other power electronic equipment such as UPS, then
they may have to be shown to satisfy the supply authori-
ties' harmonic guidelines before permission to connect is
granted.
200 OVERVIEW
As well as obeying regulations, users of drives need to ensure
that the harmonic levels within their own plant are not
excessive.
Some of the practical problems which may arise from
excessive harmonic levels are:
poor power factor, i.e. high current for a given power
interference to equipment which is sensitive to voltage
waveform
excessive heating of neutral conductors (single-phase
loads only)
excessive heating of induction motors
high acoustic noise from transformers, busbars, switch-
gear etc.
abnormal heating of transformers and associated
equipment
damage to power-factor correction capacitors
2 REGULATIONS
There are two kinds of regulation which may need to be
considered.
REGULATIONS FOR INSTALLATIONS
Installation regulations are imposed by the electricity supply
authority to protect other electricity consumers from the
effects of excessive harmonics. They are usually based on
an agreed level of voltage distortion which can be tolerated
by correctly designed equipment. This is specified in terms
of a total harmonic distortion (THD) (see definitions). The
internationally accepted maximum THD compatibility level
in a low-voltage system is 8 per cent, and to achieve this with
a high degree of confidence it is usual to aim for a rather
lower level as the planning level, typically 5 per cent.
Individual harmonics are also subject to limits.
Some relevant standards and regulations are given in the
Appendices.
From the point of view of the supply authority, the relevant
harmonic voltage is at the point of common coupling (PCC)
with other power consumers. The harmonic levels within the
consumer's premises may be higher because of the impe-
dance of cables and transformers. In large installations
measures may be necessary to prevent harmonic problems
within a site. Since there are no statutory requirements, a
relaxed version of the authority limits can be applied
internally. It is not advisable to allow the 8 per cent THD
compatibility level to be exceeded, because the majority of
equipment will have been designed to be immune only up to
this level.
Calculating the voltage distortion can be an expensive
undertaking, because it requires existing harmonics to be
An important property of harmonics is that they tend to be
cumulative on a power system, i.e. the contributions of the
various harmonic sources add up to some degree. It is worth
emphasising this difference from high-frequency electro-
magnetic compatibility (EMC) effects, which may cause
interference in sensitive data and measuring circuits through
stray coupling paths. High-frequency effects tend to be
localised and not significantly cumulative. It is important to
be clear that, with few exceptions, if harmonics cause dis-
turbance it is through direct electrical connection and not
through stray paths. Screening is rarely a remedial measure
for harmonic problems (telephone interference is a possible
exception).
measured over a period of time, the system parameters such
as source impedances to be derived and the effect of the
planned new load to be estimated. For a large installation
with a high proportion of the load comprising electronic
equipment, it is cost effective to complete this exercise in
order to avoid the application of unnecessary remedial
measures. For simpler cases a full analysis would be
burdensome.
Regulations such as the UK G5/3 (to be replaced by G5/4,
probably during 2001) provide simplified staged procedures
to permit connection based only on harmonic current data,
which can be obtained readily from the manufacturers'
technical data. This involves making simplifying assump-
tions which are biased in a cautious direction. If the sim-
plified stage does not permit connection, the full calculation
procedure has to be applied.
REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS
FOR EQUIPMENT
A further simplification of the guidelines can be made if a
product conforms to a relevant harmonic standard, when it
can be connected without reference to the supply authority.
The international standard for equipment rated at less than
16 A is IEC61000-3-2, the corresponding CENELEC stan-
dard being EN61000-3-2. These are applied to consumer
products and similar equipment used in very large numbers,
where individual permission to connect would not be prac-
tical. In the EU, EN61000-3-2 is mandatory for equipment
within its scope from 2001. Small variable-speed drives
rated at less than about 650 W shaft power fall within the
scope of this standard, and can be made to conform to it by

the application of suitable measures. However, where they
are used in large quantities in a single installation it may be
more cost effective to assess their total current and obtain
permission to connect from the supply authority.
3 H A R M O N I C GENERATION WITHIN
VARIABLE-SPEED DRIVES
A.C. DRIVES
Harmonic current is generated by the input rectifier of an
A.C. drive. The only exception is for an active input stage,
where PWM is used to create a sinusoidal back e.m.f., and
there is, in principle, no harmonic current. The only
unwanted current is at the PWM carrier frequency, which is
high enough to be relatively easy to filter. This arrangement
is discussed later.
The essential circuit for a typical A.C. VSD is shown in
Figure 9.1. The input is rectified by the diode bridge, and the
resulting D.C. is smoothed by the capacitor and, for drives
rated typically at over 2.2kW, the inductor. It is then
chopped up in the inverter stage which uses PWM to create a
sinusoidal output voltage of adjustable voltage and fre-
quency. Supply harmonics do not, however, originate in the
inverter stage or its controller, but in the input rectifier.
The input can be single or three phase. For simplicity the
single-phase case is covered first.
Current flows into the rectifier in pulses at the peaks of the
supply voltage as shown in Figure 9.2.
Figure 9.3 shows the Fourier analysis of the waveform in
Figure 9.2. (Note: all currents shown in spectra are in peak
values, i.e. x/2 times their r.m.s, values.) The figure com-
prises lines at multiples of 50 Hz, and because the waveform
is symmetrical in the positive and negative half cycles, apart
from imperfections, even-order harmonics are present only
at a very low level. The odd-order harmonics are quite high,
L
1 or 3 ~supply
t
0 ..........................
Figure 9.1 Essential features of A.C. variable-speed drive
C h a p t e r 9.3 201
In the future there will be a further standard, IEC61000-3-12
(EN61000-3-12) covering equipment rated up to 75 A (see
IEC61000-3-4).
but they diminish with increasing harmonic order. By the
25th harmonic the level is negligible. The frequency of this
harmonic for a 50 Hz supply is 1250 Hz which is in the audio
frequency part of the electromagnetic spectrum and well
below radio frequency, which is generally considered to
begin at 150 kHz. This is important, because it shows that
supply harmonics are low-frequency effects, which are quite
different from radio frequency EMC effects. They are not
sensitive to fine details of layout and screening of circuits,
and any remedial measures required use conventional elec-
trical power techniques such as tuned power-factor capaci-
tors and phase-shifting transformers. These should not be
confused with the various techniques used to control elec-
trical interference from fast switching devices, sparking
electrical contacts etc.
Three-phase drives cause less harmonic current for a given
power than do single-phase drives. Figure 9.4 shows the
input current waveform for a 1.5 kW three-phase drive. The
line current is less in any case, and there are two peaks in
each mains cycle each of about 20 per cent of the peaks in
the single-phase drive.
Figure 9.5 shows the corresponding spectrum. Compared
with the single-phase case the levels are generally lower, and
the triplens (multiples of three) are absent.
The actual magnitudes of the current harmonics depend on
the detailed design of the drive, specifically the values of
D.C. link capacitance and inductance. Therefore the supplier
must be relied on to provide harmonic data.
-(
202 HARMONIC GENERATION WITHIN VARIABLE-SPEED DRIVES: A . C . D r i v e s

400 80 . . .

. supply . .

~oo , / ~ v'tae ' / ~ .

> 0 <

-200 -40

> > ' , ,

-400 -80

Figure 9.2 Typical input current waveform for a 1.5 kW single-phase drive (with supply voltage)

2 . .
I o ,

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

<

o ~.. ~ / 1 A 1 A ~ , , , ,
0 0.4 0.8 ~.? 1;6 2.0
frequency, kHz

Figure 9.3 Corresponding spectrum for Figure 9.2

2 0 , ,

<10' , . . . . . . . . . . . . .

go
,_ bme ms
"

~ .

-10 "

-20

Figure 9.4 Typical input current waveform for a 1.5 kW three-phase drive

O o
0 O
<2
II
.
t-
o ~
0.4 08
frequency kHz
Figure 9.5 Spectrum corresponding to Figure 9.4
D.C. DRIVES
There is no difference in principle between the harmonic
behaviour of A.C. and D.C. drives, but the following aspects
of D.C. drives are relevant:
The current waveform is not affected by the choice of
design parameters (inductance and capacitance) in the
drive. It does not therefore vary between drive manu-
facturers and can be calculated from knowledge of the
motor armature inductance, source inductance and pulse
number.
The phase angles of all harmonics change with the rec-
tifier firing angle, so the harmonics from multiple drives
do not add up arithmetically.
D.C. drives tend to be most often used at high power
levels, and often a dedicated transformer is provided, so
12-pulse and higher pulse numbers are more readily
provided.
4 THE EFFECTS OF H A R M O N I C S
Some of the effects of harmonics were summarised in
Chapter 9.1.
Figure 9.6 shows a voltage waveform where a distribution
transformer is loaded to 50 per cent of its capacity with
single-phase rectifiers. It shows the characteristic flat-top
effect.
Although this waveform looks alarming, in fact it would not
affect most modem electronic equipment. However, the
Chapter 9.4 203
O
A A J
12 1.6 2.0
Effect of Loading
In the case of an A.C. drive, the input current is proportional
to the load. As the load falls, all of the main harmonics also
fall, but not as rapidly as does the fundamental. In other
words, the THD deteriorates as the load falls. This applies
whether the power reduction is through reduced speed or
torque or both.
In the case of a D.C. drive, the above applies for output
current, and hence motor shaft torque. However, the current
does not fall significantly as the speed falls. At light load the
waveform may improve somewhat at low speed if the cur-
rent becomes continuous, but at full torque low speed the
harmonic structure is much the same as at maximum speed.
The highest harmonic current for a given drive invariably
occurs at maximum load, but in a system with multiple
drives it may be necessary to look in detail at the effect of
load combinations.
harmonic content can cause excessive stress in components,
especially capacitors, connected directly to the supply.
The diode bridge input circuit in a single-phase A.C. drive is
the same as that used in a very wide range of electronic
equipment such as personal computers and domestic appli-
ances. All of these cause similar current harmonics. Their
effect is cumulative if they are all connected at the same low-
voltage (e.g. 400V) supply system. This means that to
204 THE EFFECTS OF HARMONICS
400
e o
200
>
o
>
-200
-400 J . .
Figure 9.6 Supply voltage waveform with single-phase loads of 50 per cent supply capacity
estimate the total harmonic current in an installation of
single-phase units, the harmonics have to be added directly.
Phase-controlled equipment such as lamp dimmers and
regulated battery chargers cause phase-shifted harmonics
which can be added by root-sum-squares to allow for their
diverse phase angles.
In a mixture of single and three-phase loads, some of the
important harmonics such as the fifth and seventh are 180
out of phase and actually mutually cancel. Sometimes this
information can be very helpful even if there is no certainty
that the loads will be operated simultaneously- for example,
in an office building which is near to its limit for fifth and
5 CALCULATION OF HARMONICS
INDIVIDUAL DRIVES- D.C.
The calculation of input current for a controlled rectifier is
covered in most of the standard textbooks on power elec-
tronics. A particularly clear and comprehensive account is
given in IEEE Standard 519-1992. The following is a sum-
mary of the technique and the results.
The basic theory of the controlled rectifier assumes an
infinite inductance load. Then for a p-pulse rectifier the
input current has a stepped waveshape with p regularly
spaced steps in each cycle. This can readily be shown to
contain no even harmonics, and only odd harmonics of the
order n = kp 4- 1 where k is any integer.
o
.
seventh harmonic because of the large number of single-
phase computer loads, the installation of three-phase
variable-speed drives will certainly not worsen the fifth and
seventh harmonics and may well reduce them.
Overloading of neutral conductors is a serious concern in
buildings containing a high density of PCs and similar IT
equipment. It is caused by the summation of triplen har-
monics in the neutral conductor-the neutral current can
equal or even exceed the individual phase currents, whereas
it is common for the conductor to be of reduced area. Single-
phase A.C. drives would have a similar effect, but it is
unusual for them to be used at such a high density.
The amplitudes of the harmonics follow the simple rule for a
rectangular wave:
I1
In z -
fl
For some purposes this simple calculation is sufficient, but
the influence of finite inductance on the D.C. side should be
taken into account, and the A.C. side inductance may also
have a significant effect.
Figure 9.7 shows the effect of D.C. current ripple on the four
dominant harmonics of a six-pulse drive. The fifth harmonic
increases steadily with increasing ripple, whereas for mod-
erate ripple levels the other harmonics fall.
 C h a p t e r 9.5 205

, typical practical values With large drives the IEC61800-3 fault level is unrealistic,
50 ',/ and a fault level such as 16 kA, which corresponds with the
-I
' 5th
I capability of widely available switchgear, may be used.
I
. I
40 I
!
!

t-
eD
I
I SYSTEMS
- I
-'- 3 0 I
0
0
.m The impact of a harmonic current on the power system can
t-
/
O
~ 2o 7th
be estimated by calculating the resulting harmonic voltage at
-
I
a point in the supply system shared with other equipment.
The power supply companies have a duty to control the
10 11th
quality of the power delivered to consumers, so their interest
lath is at the point where the supply is shared with another
i i i i .'~

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

consumer- the point of common coupling (PCC). The basic
peak to peak current, % of IPc (av.) equivalent circuit for this calculation is shown in Figure 9.9.
For the study of harmonics, the principle of superposition is
Figure 9.7 Six-pulse converter-variation of line-current
used which means that the mains source is turned off and the
harmonic content with ripple current
consumer being studied is considered as a source of har-
monic current, as shown in Figure 9.10.
Each harmonic is considered in turn. The voltage is simply
the product of the current and the impedance of the supply
o~ 2 0 _
system upstream of the PCC. The impedance at 50 Hz (or
t-
other mains frequency) can be found from the declared fault
O

5th level of the supply, which should be available from the

=
0 15 - supply company. If it is expressed in MVA then the impe-
0
-

o
dance in ohms at mains frequency can be calculated as
g
~ 10 - follows:

V2
5 Zs = MVA x 106

11th where V is the voltage between lines, and Zs is the fault

0
o ~ ~o 1'5
line impedance, %
Figure 9.8 Variation of line harmonic content with line
impedance
Figure 9.8 shows the effect of supply inductance on these
harmonics, all of which fall with increasing inductance,
particularly the l lth and 13th. However, the benefit is
reduced at large firing angles, so for operation at high torque
and low speed (low voltage) the benefit of supply inductance
may be minimal. Further information is given in IEEE 519.
I N D I V I D U A L D R I V E S - A.C.
It is not usually practical for the user to calculate the har-
monic current for an A.C. drive, since the circuit parameters
will be unknown, and in any case the values of D.C.
inductance and capacitance used are such that a full non-
linear circuit analysis is required. The drive manufacturer
should at least provide the harmonic current values at full
load, and preferably at part load also. Linear interpolation of
the harmonic currents as a proportion of the fundamental can
then be used to estimate other loadings.
For small A.C. drives with D.C. inductance, the supply
impedance has a considerable influence. IEC61800-3
recommends that the fault level be assumed to be 250 times
the drive input current rating. Data should also be provided
for where line reactors are fitted.
impedance of one line.
ko a'5
The impedance is assumed to be predominantly inductive, as
is the case with high-power circuits, so that for a harmonic of
order n the impedance is nZs.
This calculation is required for assessment against stage 3 of
the UK Electricity Association recommendation G5/3. It is
widely accepted as giving a reliable basis for assessment of
harmonic penetration. The presence of power-factor cor-
rection capacitors causes a more complex situation where
resonance causes the impedance to rise at certain fre-
quencies. If these coincide with odd harmonics where sub-
stantial currents exist, a higher harmonic voltage than
estimated can occur. Fortunately this is an unusual situation,
as it can be expensive to cure.
Note that in Figure 9.10 the harmonic voltage within the
premises of consumer 1 will be higher than that at the PCC,
because of the voltage drop in Zc~. Meeting G5/3 at the PCC
is no guarantee of tolerable harmonic levels within the
system of the consumer generating the harmonics.
In order to analyse a practical system, the known harmonic
data for all the rectifiers and other distorting loads must be
combined to predict a total current. In general, each har-
monic from each unit is a vector quantity which can only be
added to the others through vector addition. Usually the
phase angle is unknown, and in the case of phase-angle
controllers it varies with the operating condition.
For uncontrolled rectifiers, the phase angles of the dominant
harmonics will be similar, and the amplitudes add directly.
206 CALCULATION OF HARMONICS: Systems

z~ cl
iI i i i consumer 1
Zc2
1
consumer 2
fault level at Zc3
PCC
determined t i consumer 3
by Zs
point of common
coupling (PCC)

Figure 9.9 Supply system, showing point of common coupling with fault level

z~ Zcl ~ harmonic current

i i I I consumer 1

Zc~
"! I
..... consumer 2
harmonic Zc~
voltage at
PCC I I consumer 3

Figure 9.10 Supply system arranged for harmonic analysis

G5/3 permits the application of a coincidence factor of 0.9 to ISOLATED GENERATORS

reflect the fact that perfect addition is not possible.

Where phase-angle-controlled loads are added to one
another or to a group of uncontrolled loads, the random
phase angles mean that addition by square root of sum of
squares is appropriate, whereas G5/3 suggests a coincidence
factor of 0.75.
Diversity of loading is also an important issue. In some
installations only a small part of the possible load on each
drive can occur simultaneously. This must be considered to
avoid an over estimate of the harmonic loading.
If the system is supplied by isolated generators not con-
nected to a grid, the impedance of the generators must be
determined. The relevant parameter is the direct-axis sub-
transient reactance, x~ (strictly the quadrature-axis impe-
dance should also be considered, depending on the load
angle; in practice they are usually similar). Typical values
are between 14 and 20 per cent, compared with the 5 per cent
of a typical distribution transformer, so generators are less
able to tolerate harmonic current than the public supply
network.

6 REMEDIAL TECHNIQUES

The first point to make is that harmonics problems are
unusual, although with the steady increase in the use of
electronic equipment problems may be more common in
future. The situations where problems have occurred most
frequently are in office buildings with a very high density of
personal computers, and in cases where most of the supply
capacity is used by electronic equipment such as drives,
converters and UPS.
As a general rule, if the total rectifier loading (i.e. variable-
speed drives, UPS, PCs etc.) on a power system comprises less
than 20 per cent of its current capacity then harmonics are
unlikely to be a limiting factor. In many industrial installations
the capacity of the supply considerably exceeds the installed
load, and a large proportion of the load is not a significant
generator of harmonics - uncontrolled A.C. induction motors
and resistive heating elements generate minimal harmonics.
If rectifier loading exceeds 20 per cent then a harmonic
control plan should be in place. This requires that existing
levels be assessed, and a harmonic budget allocated to new
equipment.

Calculations using the techniques described in Chapter 9.5
may be required to predict the effect on harmonic voltage
from connecting additional equipment.
The following measures can be used to reduce the harmonic
level.
CONNECT THE EQUIPMENT TO A POINT
WITH A HIGH FAULT LEVEL (LOW
IMPEDANCE)
When planning a new installation, there is often a choice
of connection point. The harmonic voltage caused by a
given harmonic current is proportional to the system source
impedance (inversely proportional to fault level). For
example, distorting loads can be connected to main busbars
rather than downstream of long cables shared with other
equipment.
USE THREE-PHASE DRIVES WHERE
POSSIBLE
As shown above, harmonic current for a three-phase drive of
given power rating is about 30 per cent of that for a single-
phase drive; and there is no neutral current. If the existing
harmonics are primarily caused by single-phase loads, the
dominant fifth and seventh harmonics are also reduced by
three-phase drives.
USE ADDITIONAL INDUCTANCE
Series inductance at the drive input gives a useful reduction
in harmonic current. The benefit is greatest for small drives
where there is no D.C. inductance internally, but useful
reductions can also be obtained with large drives.
Additional A.C. Supply-line Inductance
The addition of A.C. input inductance to the single-phase
drive improves the current waveform and spectrum from
40 400 ' '
, ,
20 200
c- 10
-20
-40 ' '
Figure 9.11 Input current waveform as Figure 9.2 but with 2 per cent input inductor
Chapter 9.6 207
those shown in Figures 9.2 and 9.3 to those shown in Figures
9.11 and 9.12. It is particularly beneficial for the higher-
order harmonics, but the fifth and seventh are reduced by a
useful degree. Only the third harmonic is little improved.
Since the three-phase rectifier has no third-harmonic current,
the A.C. inductor is even more beneficial, as shown in
Figures 9.13 and 9.14.
In these examples the value of the A.C. inductor is 2 per cent
(i.e. 0.02 p.u.). This is the highest value recommended where
full torque at base speed is required, since the drive output
voltage at full load begins to be reduced significantly for
higher values.
Additional D.C. Inductance
Drives rated at 4 kW or more usually have three-phase input
and include inductance in the D.C. link. This gives the
improved waveform and spectrum shown in Figures 9.15
and 9.16, which are for a hypothetical 1.5 kW drive for ease
of comparison with the previous illustrations.
Further improvement is possible by adding A.C. inductance
as well as D.C., as shown in Figures 9.17 and 9.18. This
represents the limit of what can be practically achieved by
very simple low-cost measures.
USE A HIGHER PULSE NUMBER
(12 PULSE OR HIGHER)
Standard three-phase drives rated up to about 200 kW use
six-pulse rectifiers. A 12-pulse rectifier eliminates the cru-
cial fifth and seventh harmonics (except for a small residue
caused by imperfect balance of the rectifier groups). Higher
pulse numbers are possible if necessary, the lowest harmonic
for a pulse number p being ( p - 1).
Individual A.C. drives may be supplied with D.C. from a
single bulk 12-pulse rectifier, or where the loading on drives
is known to be reasonably well balanced individual six-pulse
drives may be supplied from the two phase-shifted supplies.
'
" " "
20 30
,.
208 REMEDIAL
TECHNIQUES: Use a Higher Pulse Number (12 Pulse or Higher)

12

<
-

4
i

o o

. ~....._..~ ~

0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0

frequency, kHz

Figure 9.12 Input current spectrum for Figure 9.11

p o l
4

,~o
0 I 20
. time ms

-4 _ _ .

-8

Figure 9.13 Input current waveform as Figure 9.4 but with 2 per cent input inductors

4,~

0 0

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0 O 0

<
0

"=
c 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

i,-

e .

1 .

0 j
o., o.~ ~.~ ~.o ~.o
frequency, kHz

Figure 9.14 Input current spectrum for Figure 9.13

 Chapter 9.6 209

8T !
o o

4 . . . . . . . .-
.

<
0 I

lo I 2o 30 I time, ms I
o o o

J o .

-4
i i

-8

Figure 9.15 Input current waveform for 1.5 kW drive with D. C. inductance

4 . , o .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

<~
g~

0 014 018 1'.2 1.6 2.0

frequency, kHz

Figure 9.16 Spectrum for Figure 9.15

o o

.,...;

"i.o-1
c-
OD

l'
s..

o 0

o O

o o

-5 o

Figure 9.17 Input current waveform for 1.5 kW drive with D.C. and input inductors
210 REMEDIAL TECHNIQUES" Use a H i g h e r Pulse N u m b e r ( 1 2 Pulse o r H i g h e r )

<
III

~- 2
i- I I l
i_

o , ,

o , ,
I
, , ,

, ,

0 . A ~- ..~ , ^ _~ , ~ , . . . .

0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0

frequency, kHz
Figure 9.18 Spectrum for Figure 9.17

phase-shifting
transformer

output I

Figure 9.19 Basic twelve-pulse rectifier arrangement

400 . . .

200 . . . . . .

<
>
~.= o . . .

.
. . .

-200

--400 ' . .

Figure 9.20 Input current waveform for 150 kW drive with 12-pulse rectifier

400
300
< O
~- 200
t'--
L_
100
.~
o 0.4 0.8
frequency, kHz
Figure 9.21 Spectrum for Figure 9.20
If the transformer rating matches the total drive rating rea-
sonably closely then its inductance gives a very useful
additional reduction of the higher-order harmonics. For
ratings up to about 1 MW it is unusual to require pulse
numbers greater than 12.
The 12-pulse system is illustrated in Figure 9.19. The star
and delta windings (or zig-zag windings) have a relative 30
phase shift, which translates to 180 at the fifth and seventh
harmonics (as well as 17, 19, 29, 31 etc.), so that current at
these harmonics cancels in the transformer.
The transformer input current waveform and spectrum are
shown in Figures 9.20 and 9.21, respectively.
USE A DRIVE WITH AN ACTIVE INPUT
STAGE
The Control Techniques regenerative Unidrive has an active
input stage which generates negligible harmonic current, as
well as permitting the return of braking power to the supply.
The input current for an active input stage contains negli-
gible harmonic current if the supply voltage is sinusoidal.
There are two side effects which must be considered:
The input stage PWM frequency causes input current,
which may have to be filtered. This is an optional extra in
addition to the radio frequency filter.
Existing voltage harmonics in the supply will cause
some harmonic current to flow in to the drive. This
should not be mistaken for harmonic emission.
Chapter 9.6 211
O
O O
0
I
o O o
0
1 -
1.2 1.6 2.0
USE A HARMONIC FILTER
Harmonic filters are available to attenuate specific harmo-
nics. Most commonly they are passive circuits based on the
tuning of power-factor compensation capacitors by series
inductors. They can be very effective but there are potential
difficulties and a specialist supplier should be consulted.
Active harmonic filters are also available and avoid many of
the difficulties of passive filters. These are generally rather
expensive, but their increased use can be expected to lead to
a price reduction in future.
The simplest harmonic filter is a power-factor correction
capacitor tuned by series inductance to the harmonic of
interest so that the impedance is a minimum at that frequency.
There are potential disadvantages to this arrangement:
The filter will absorb harmonics existing on the power
system, and must be rated for this duty. If inadequately
rated it will trip and refuse to operate.
The filter has a leading phase angle. With D.C. and
similar thyristor drives this provides useful displace-
ment-factor compensation, but with A.C. drives having
negligible phase angle the leading current may have to
be cancelled by a parallel inductance.
The filter will have at least one resonant frequency
where it magnifies harmonics. This has to be adjusted to
avoid any odd harmonic frequencies. Multiple filters on
a single supply system may interact and cause trouble-
some resonances.
For these reasons advice should be taken from an experi-
enced supplier.
 CHAPTER 10

Electromagnetic C o m p a t i b i l i t y (EMC)

@ 1 INTRODUCTION 213

@ 2 REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS 214

@ 3 EMC BEHAVIOUR OF VARIABLE-SPEED DRIVES 215

@ 4 INSTALLATION RULES 217

@ 5 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 220

iN 6 ADDITIONAL GUIDANCE ON CABLE SCREENING

FOR SENSITIVE CIRCUITS 223

INTRODUCTION

GENERAL electromagnetic interference, and in compliance with rele-

The purpose of this Chapter is to set out the necessary con-
siderations for system designers and others when incor-
porating electronic variable-speed drives into complete
machines and systems without encountering problems with
vant regulations. Of necessity, only general guidelines have
been provided, but since real installations have a wide
variety of detailed requirements, explanation of the under-
lying principles is given to allow the designer to cope with
specific situations.
214 General
INTRODUCTION:
PRINCIPLES OF EMC
All electrical equipment generates some degree of electro-
magnetic emission as a side effect of its operation. It also
has the potential to be affected by incident electromagnetic
energy. Equipment using radiocommunication contains
intentional emitters and sensitive receivers.
The basic principle of EMC is that electromagnetic emission
of electrical equipment, whether intentional or unintentional,
must not exceed the immunity of associated equipment. This
means that controls must be in place on both emission and
immunity. Given the variety and uncertainty of effects and
situations, some margin of safety must be provided between
these two factors.
Although all equipment exhibits some degree of emission
and susceptibility, the limiting factors in most common
environments tend to be related to radio equipment, with its
powerful transmitters and sensitive receivers. Therefore, the
majority of EMC standards are related to the requirements of
radiocommunications systems.
In principle, EMC covers phenomena over an unlimited
range of frequencies and wavelengths. The EU EMC
directive limits itself to a range of 0 to 400 GHz. This range
is so wide that a perplexing number of different effects can
occur, and there is a risk that all electrical phenomena
become included in the scope of EMC. This is unhelpful.
With current industrial electronic techniques, no significant
effects occur above 2 GHz. Below 2 GHz, it is convenient to
separate out effects very crudely into high-frequency effects,
2 REGULATIONS A N D STANDARDS
REGULATIONS
The underlying principle of all EMC regulations is
that equipment should not cause interference to other
equipment, and especially to communications systems. In
addition, in many countries there is a requirement that
equipment must be certified in some way to show that it
meets specific technical standards, which are generally
accepted as being sufficient to show that it is unlikely to
cause interference.
Equipment standards are primarily written to specify test
methods and emission limits for self-contained products
such as electrical consumer goods and office equipment
which are basically free-standing units, even if they have the
capability to interconnect with peripherals and networks.
The EU EMC directive currently applies to 'a product with
an intrinsic function intended for the end user' (UK EMC
which correspond to radiofrequencies beginning at about
100 kHz, and low-frequency effects. Broadly speaking, low-
frequency effects operate only by electrical conduction,
whereas high-frequency effects may be induced and operate
at a distance without a physical connection. Of course there
is no precise dividing line between the two, and the larger the
geometry of the system, the lower the frequency at which
induction becomes effective. However, this division is
helpful in understanding the principles.
EMC REGULATIONS
Regulations exist throughout the world to control intentional
and unintentional electromagnetic emission, in order to pre-
vent interference with communications services. The author-
ities generally have the power to close down any equipment
which interferes with such services.
Many countries have regulations requiring consumer and
other equipment to be tested or certified to meet these
requirements - for example, the FCC rules in the USA and
the C-tick system in Australia. The EMC directive of the
European Union is unusual in requiting immunity as well as
emission to be certified.
It is not possible in a short section to explain all of these
regulations. Most emission regulations are based on inter-
national standards produced by CISPR, and the three basic
standards CISPR11, CISPR14 and CISPR22 underlie most
other emission standards.
regulations 1992 no. 2372). Precise interpretation of this in
the realm of industrial products such as variable-speed drive
modules has caused difficulty, since it is clear that some
drive modules are used as virtually self-contained units,
whereas others are built in to other end-user equipment. The
module cannot meaningfully be tested without its associated
motor, cables and other peripherals. Large fixed installations
may contain numerous drives and other electronic products,
and cannot practically be tested against standards which
were primarily intended for compact freestanding consumer
products.
The European Commission published further guidelines
to the application of the EMC directive in 1997, which
clarify the intention for CE marking under the EMC direc-
tive. It applies to complete equipment and also to sub-
assemblies which are intended for direct use or installation
by the end user, but not to equipment which is exclusively

for incorporation by a manufacturer into another product.
These guidelines have no formal legal impact, although they
are influential. The EMC directive is being revised during
2000-2001 under the SLIM initiative, and will in future
incorporate the main thrust of the guidelines.
Most drive manufacturers have chosen to test their prod-
ucts in representative arrangements, against harmonised
European standards, and to apply the CE mark. It is, how-
ever, equally valid to offer a drive module without CE
marking under the EMC directive (although it will normally
carry the CE mark under the low-voltage directive - elec-
trical safety), provided it is stipulated that it is intended
solely for incorporation into other equipment, and that the
installer takes responsibility for the EMC compliance of the
end product. The purchaser should expect to be provided
with comprehensive EMC data on the module, and clear
guidelines on how it should be installed. The EMC com-
pliance of the end product cannot be taken for granted even
where all of the constituent parts are CE marked under the
EMC directive or otherwise shown to meet relevant stan-
dards. There is always the possibility of summation of
emissions, or other kinds of interaction. However, it may be
possible to obtain certification for the end product through
the technical construction file route on the basis of con-
formity of the subassemblies to specific standards. In prac-
tical terms, if the end product is a fixed installation where the
legal requirement is no more than to meet the essential
requirements of the EMC directive, that the equipment
should neither cause nor suffer from electromagnetic inter-
ference, then a combination of compliant subassemblies is
most unlikely to cause interference and therefore very likely
to meet the requirements.
STANDARDS
Standards with worldwide acceptance are produced by the
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). Standards
for application under the EU EMC Directive are European
harmonised standards (EN) produced by CENELEC. Every
effort is made to keep these two families of standards in line,
and most of them have the same number and identical
technical requirements. There are some exceptions.
3 EMC BEHAVlOUR OF VARIABLE-SPEED DRIVES
IMMUNITY
Most drives can be expected to meet the immunity require-
ments of the CENELEC generic standard EN50082-2.
Chapter 10.3 215
Emission standards work by specifying a limit curve for the
emission as a function of frequency. A measuring receiver
is used with a coupling unit and antenna to measure voltage
or electric field. The receiver is a standardised calibrated
device, which simulates a conventional radio receiver.
Immunity standards are rather diverse because of the many
different electromagnetic phenomena which can cause inter-
ference. The main phenomena tested for are:
electrostatic discharge (human body discharge)
radiofrequency field (radio transmitter)
fast transient burst (electric spark effect)
surge (lightning induced)
There are very many more tests available; those listed are the
required tests under the CENELEC generic standards.
The most important standards for drive applications are the
following:
IEC61800-3 and
EN61800-3 - power drive systems(contains emission and
immunity requirements)
EN50081-2 - generic emission standard for the
industrial environment
EN50082-2 - Genetic immunity standard for the
industrial environment (to be replaced by
IEC and EN61000-6-2)
The product standard IEC61800-3 applies in principle to
variable-speed drive modules where they are sold as end
products. There are however many cases where the drive
will be incorporated into an end product which is not in itself
a power drive system and is more likely to fall into the scope
of the generic standards. In this case it is the generic stan-
dards which are of interest. The permitted levels are gen-
erally similar, except that IEC61800-3 defines a special
environment where the low-voltage supply network is
dedicated to nonresidential power users, in which case
relaxed emission limits apply. This can permit useful
economies in input filters.
Control Techniques' drives meet them without any special
precautions such as screened signal wires or filters except for
particularly fast-responding inputs such as data links and
incremental encoder ports.
216 EMC BEHAVIOUROF VARIABLE-SPEEDDRIVES: Immunity
Table 10.1 Interference effects of extreme circumstances
Situation Effect
Very inductive D.C. loads such as spurious drive trip
electromagnetic brakes, without when brake released
suppression, and with wiring or applied
running parallel to drive control wiring
High radiofrequency field from drive malfunction when
powerful radio transmitter transmitter operates
(e.g. adjacent to aircraft nose)
Severe lightning surges due to drive trip or damage from
exposed low-voltage power lines overvoltage
The standard sets levels corresponding to a reasonably harsh
industrial environment. However, there are some occasions
where actual levels exceed the standard levels, and inter-
ference may result. Specific situations that have been
encountered are given in Table 10.1.
LOW-FREQUENCY EMISSION
Drives generate supply frequency harmonics in the same
way as any equipment with a rectifier input stage. Supply
harmonics are discussed in detail in Chapter 9. Harmonics
generated by an individual drive are most unlikely to cause
interference, but they are cumulative so that an installa-
tion containing a high proportion of drive loads may cause
difficulties.
Apart from supply harmonics, emission also occurs as
a result of the switching of the power output stage over
a wide range of frequencies which are harmonics of the
basic switching f r e q u e n c y - that is, size times the supply
frequency for a six-pulse D.C. drive, and the PWM carrier
frequency for a PWM drive. This covers a range extend-
ing from 300 Hz, for D.C. drives, up to many MHz for A.C.
drives. Unwanted electromagnetic coupling is relatively
unusual at frequencies below about 100 kHz. Few stand-
ards set limits in that range, and interference problems are
unusual.
HIGH-FREQUENCY EMISSION
The power stage of a variable-speed drive is a potentially
powerful source of electromagnetic emission (noise)
because of the high voltage and current which is subject to
rapid switching. Thyristors are relatively slow switching
devices, and this limits the extent of the emission spectrum
to about 1 MHz; with IGBTs the spectrum may extend to
about 50 MHz; If attention is not paid to installation guide-
lines then interference is likely to occur in the 100 kHz to
10 MHz range where emission is strongest.
This frequency range is lower than that associated with
personal computers and other IT equipment, which tend
to cause direct radiated emission associated with the inter-
nal microprocessor clock and fast digital logic circuits.
Cure
fit suppression to brake coil, or
move wiring away from drive wiring
provide RF screening, or move
to a location further from the
transmitter antenna
provide additional high-level surge
suppression upstream of drive
The drive itself is not an important source of direct emis-
sion, because its dimensions are much less than a half
wavelength over the relevant frequency range. There may be
strong electric and magnetic fields close to the drive hous-
ing, but they diminish rapidly, by an inverse cube law, with
increased distance from the drive. However, the wiring
connected to the drive can be widespread and is likely to be
long enough to form an effective antenna for the frequencies
generated by the drive.
The power output connections of a drive carry the highest
level of high-frequency voltage. They can be a powerful
source of electromagnetic emission. Since the cable con-
necting the drive to the motor is a dedicated part of the
installation, its route can be controlled to avoid sensitive
circuits, and it can be screened. Provided the screen is
connected correctly at both ends, emission from this route is
then minimised.
The power input connections of a drive carry a high-
frequency potential which is mainly caused by the current
flowing from the drive output terminals to earth through
the capacitance of the motor cable and motor windings to
earth. Although the voltage level here is rather lower than at
the output, control measures may be needed because these
terminals are connected to the widespread mains supply
network. Most commonly a radiofrequency filter of some
kind is installed here.
The control terminals of the drive carry some high-
frequency potential because of stray capacitance coupling
within the drive. This is usually of no consequence, but
screening of control wires may be required for conformity
with some emission standards.
Figure 10.1 summarises the main emission routes for high-
frequency emission. Note that the current paths are in the
common mode, i.e. the current flows in the power con-
ductors and returns through the earth. Series-mode paths are
relatively unimportant in high-frequency EMC.
Since the return currents in the common mode all flow in the
earth wiring, earthing details are particularly important for
good EMC. Much of the installation detail is involved with
controlling the earth return paths and minimising mutual
inductances in the earth system, which cause unwanted
coupling.
 C h a p t e r 10.4 217

direct emission

I,.
power line
current
TIT motor

/, I

power line potential

!
!
zapacl[anc;e
earth current earth current of windings
to frame

parasitic earth potential

,..n
Vl

stray earth
current

Figure 10.1 High-frequency emission routes

4 INSTALLATION RULES

EMC RISK ASSESSMENT Proximity sensors using high-frequency techniques, such

When a drive is to be installed, a cost-effective approach to
EMC is to initially assess the risk of interference problems
arising. This is in addition to considering any legal constraints
on emission levels. Most industrial electronic instrumenta-
tion and data-processing equipment has good immunity, and
can operate with drives with only modest precautions to
control emission. Some specific types of equipment have
been found to be susceptible to interference from drives. The
list shows some product families which call for special
attention:
Any equipment which uses radiocommunication at fre-
quencies up to about 30 MHz. (Note that this includes
AM broadcast and short-wave radio, but not FM, TV or
modern communications services which operate at much
higher frequencies.)
Analogue instrumentation using very low signal levels,
such as thermocouples, resistance sensors, strain gauges
and pH sensors.
Other analogue instrumentation using higher levels (e.g.
0-10 V or 4 - 2 0 m A ) - only if very high resolution is
required or cable runs are long.
Wideband/fast-responding analogue circuits such as
audio or video systems (most industrial control systems
are intentionally slow acting and therefore less suscep-
tible to high-frequency disturbance).
Digital data links, only if the screening is impaired, or
not correctly terminated, or if there are unscreened runs
such as rail pick-up systems.
as capacitance proximity sensors.
BASIC RULES
For installations where it is known that no particularly
sensitive equipment is located nearby, and where no specific
emission limits are in force, some simple rules can be
applied to minimise the risk of interference caused by a
drive. The aspects requiring attention are as follows.
Segregation
The drive supply and output cables must be segregated
from cables carrying small signals. Crossing at right angles
is permitted, but no significant parallel runs should be
allowed and cables should not share cable trays, trunking or
conduits unless they are screened and the screens correctly
terminated.
A practical rule of thumb has been found to be" no parallel
run to exceed 1 m in length if spacing is less than 300 mm.
Control of Return Paths, Minimising
Loop Areas
The power cables should include their corresponding earth
wire, which should be connected at both ends. This mini-
mises the area of the loop comprising power conductors
and earth return, which is primarily responsible for high-
frequency emission.
218 INSTALLATIONRULES: Basic Rules

Earthing installation, then more attention must be given to the

The main drive power circuit earth loop carries a high level
of radiofrequency current. As well as minimising its area as
described above, these earth wires should not be shared with
any signal-carrying functions. There are two possible
methods for minimising shared earthing problems, depend-
ing on the nature of the installation:
(i) Multiple earthing to a g r o u n d p l a n e - if the installa-
tion comprises a large mass of metallic structure then
this can be used to provide a ground plane. All circuit
items requiring earth are connected immediately to the
metal structure by short conductors with large cross-
sectional area, preferably fiat, or by direct metal-to-
metal assembly. Screened cables have their screens
clamped directly to the structure at both ends. Safety
earth connections are still provided by copper wire
where required by safety regulations, but this is in
addition to the EMC ground plane.
(ii) Dedicated earth points, earth segregation - if no
earthed metallic structure exists throughout the
allocation and arrangement of earth connections. The
concept of separate power earth and signal earth has
been discredited in EMC circles recently, but is valid in
widely spread installations where a good equipotential
earth structure is not available.
Figure 10.2 illustrates how two earthed circuits in a system
may have different noise potentials. Local circuits earthed to
either point will work correctly (circuits 1 and 2), but if a
single circuit is earthed at both points then it will experience
a noise potential which might cause disturbance (circuit 3).
The solution is to nominate one earth point as the signal
earth and use it as the sole reference point for shared signal
circuits, as illustrated in Figure 10.3. This prevents the
creation of loops for the noise current. The disadvantage is
that this situation is difficult to manage in a large complex
installation, and sneak paths can easily arise which cause
problems and are difficult to trace. Alternatively, circuit 3
must be designed to be able to accept a high earth potential
difference, for example by using optical isolation between
the circuits associated with the motor and the drive.

motor

earth potential

earth current

--"--local local"
earth 1 stray earth earth 2
current

circuit 1 circuit 2
| L,,, ,,
!

Figure 10.2 Earth potentials and their effect on signal circuits

motor

earth potential
,,

earth current

signal local
earth earth
.... ,. . . . .

circuit 1
iu ........

!
t
,~,circuit 3
,,, ! ~
i circuit2
- ! ' '']
J
Figure 10.3 Use of single signal earth

SIMPLE PRECAUTIONS AND FIXES
There are some simple techniques, which can be used to
reduce high-frequency emission from a drive at modest
cost. These techniques should preferably be applied in
conjunction with the basic rules given above, but they may
also be useful as a retrospective cure for an interference
problem.
The single most effective measure that can be taken is to fit
capacitors between the power input lines and earth, as illu-
strated in Figure 10.4. This forms a simple RFI filter, giving
a reduction of typically 30 dB in overall emission into the
supply network, sufficient to cure most practical problems
unless exceptionally sensitive equipment is involved.
Emission from the motor cable is not affected by this mea-
sure, so strict cable segregation must still be observed. The
capacitors must be safety types with voltage rating suited to
the supply voltage with respect to earth. Earth leakage cur-
rent will be high, so a fixed earth connection must be pro-
vided. The values shown represent a compromise between
effectiveness at lower frequencies and earth leakage current.
Values in the range 100 nF to 2.2 laF can be used.
The length of the motor cable affects emission into the
power line, because of its capacitance to earth. If the motor
cable length exceeds about 50 m then it is strongly recom-
mended that these capacitors are fitted as a minimum
precaution.
A further measure, which reduces emission into both supply
and motor circuits, is to fit a ferrite ring around the output
cable power conductors, also illustrated in Figure 10.4. The
ring fits around the power cores but not the earth, and is
most effective if the conductors pass through the ring three
times (a single pass is shown, for clarity). The ferrite should
be a manganese-zinc power grade. Care must be taken to
allow for the temperature rise of the ferrite, which is a
function of motor cable length; the surface temperature can
reach 100C.
FULL PRECAUTIONS
If there is known sensitive equipment in the vicinity of
the drive or its connections (see list in Chapter 10.4), or if
it is necessary to meet specific emission standards, then
A L1
T A
L2 drive
I T _
l i T
T _1- T
a x 4 7 0 nF
capacitors
Figure 10.4 Some low-cost emission reduction measures
Chapter 10.4 219
full precautions must be observed. The drive installation
guide should give these precautions in full detail
for specific drives. The following outlines the essential
principles:
(i) A suitable input filter must be fitted. The filter spe-
cified by the drive manufacturer should be used, and
any limits on motor cable length or capacitance and on
PWM switching frequency adhered to. Many filters
which are not specifically designed for this application
have very little benefit when used with a drive.
(ii) The filter must be mounted on the same metal plate as
the drive, and make direct metal-to-metal contact, to
minimise stray inductance. Any paint or passivation
coating must be removed to ensure contact. A back
plate of galvanised steel, or other corrosion-resistant
bare metal, is strongly recommended.
(iii) The motor cable must be screened. A copper braid
screen with 100 per cent coverage works best, but steel
wire armour is also very effective, and steel braid is
adequate.
(iv) The motor cable screen must be terminated to the
drive heat sink or mounting plate, and to the motor
frame, by a very low inductance arrangement. A gland
giving 360 contact is ideal, a clamp is also effective
and a very short pigtail is usually tolerable but the
drive instructions must be adhered to.
(v) The input connections to the filter must be segregated
from the drive itself, the motor cable and any other
power connections to the drive.
(vi) Interruptions to the motor cable should be avoided if
possible. If they are unavoidable then the screen
connections should be made with glands or clamps to
an earthed metal plate or bar to give a minimum
inductance between screens. The unscreened wires
should be kept as short as possible, and run close to the
earthed plate. Figure 10.5 illustrates an example where
an isolator switch has been incorporated.
With some drives, the control wiring needs to be screened
with the screen clamped to the heat sink or back plate. The
installation instructions should be adhered to in this res-
pect. Omitting this is unlikely to cause interference prob-
lems, but may cause standard limits for radiated emission to
be exceeded.
ferrite / 3 turns
rin-" f (1 shown
.....u for clarity)
vv !iii!ii
220 THEORETICALBACKGROUND" Emission M o d e s
isolator
from the
drive
coupling bar or plate
Figure 10.5 Managing interruptions to motor cable
5 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
EMISSION MODES
Although the digital control circuits, switch-mode power
supplies and other fast switching circuits in a modern digital
drive can all contribute to radiofrequency emission, their
suppression is a matter for the drive designer and suitable
internal measures can keep such emission under control. It is
the main power stage, especially the inverter of a PWM
drive, which is an exceptionally strong source of emission
because the fast changing PWM output is connected directly
to the external environment (i.e. the motor and motor cable).
This is also the reason for the installation details having a
major effect on the overall EMC behaviour.
Figure 10.6 shows the main circuit elements of an A.C.
inverter variable-speed drive. The output PWM waveform
has fast changing pulse edges with typical rise times of the
order of 50-100ns, containing significant energy up to
about 30 MHz. This voltage is present both between output
phases and also as a common-mode voltage between phases
and earth. It is the common-mode voltage which is pri-
marily responsible for emission effects, because it results
in high-frequency current flowing to earth through the
stray capacitances of the motor windings to the motor
flame, and the motor cable power cores to the earth core
and/or screen.
High-frequency current causes unexpected voltage drops in
wiring because of the wiring self inductance. The sig-
nificance of this can be illustrated by a simple example. A
1 m length of wire has a typical inductance of about 0.8 laH.
The output current from a drive to charge the stray capaci-
tance of a motor winding would be typically 2 A peak with a
rise time of 100 ns. This current would cause a voltage pulse
to the
motor
m
(if required)
of 16 V with duration lOOns in the 1 m of wire. Whether
this causes interference with associated circuits depends on
their design, but certainly a 16 V, 100 ns pulse is sufficient to
cause a serious error in a digital circuit or a fast acting
analogue one.
Figure 10.1 shows the main emission paths. Because of its
high voltage, the motor cable is the main potential source of
emission and will be an effective transmitting aerial at a
frequency where its length is an odd number of quarter
wavelengths. For example, a 20 m cable will be particularly
effective at about 3.75MHz and also at 11.25MHz and
18.75 MHz. This will be modified somewhat by the presence
of the motor and by the distance of the cable from sur-
rounding earthed objects. In order to prevent this emission,
the cable is usually screened.
Figure 10.1 also shows how the high-frequency voltage in
the motor and cable causes current to flow into the earth,
because of their capacitance. The capacitance of a motor
winding to its flame may be in the range 1 nF to 100nF,
depending on its rating, and the capacitance from the
cable power cores to earth is generally between 100pF
and 500pF per metre. These values are insignificant
in normal sinusoidal supply applications, but cause sig-
nificant current pulses at the edges of the PWM voltage
wave. The current returns through a variety of paths,
which are difficult to control. In particular, current may
find its way from the motor flame back to the supply
through any part of the machinery, and if it passes through
earth wires in sensitive measuring circuits it may disturb
them. Also, a major return route to the drive is through the
supply wiring, so any equipment sharing the supply may be
disturbed.
 Chapter 10.5 221

from to
supply motor
L1 U
L2 v
L3 w

)...s
I
I
I
I
I

/ E

!
I
I
I
,
'/
s
/ %
~j
\
I

I
!
I
l/

i I

" rise time /

Figure 10.6 Main elements of an A.C. inverter drive

return current
circulates in filter
no emission from
screened cable
screened /
cable ~/ _/ "N~

\
power line
current returns /.--.,J J
current alongscr~~ _. L
minimised
stray earth
current minimised
Figure 10.7 The effect of an RFI filter and screened motor cable

Figure 10.7 shows the effect of using a screened motor cable
and an input filter. Fields emitted from the motor cable are
suppressed by the screen. It is essential that both ends of the
screen are correctly connected to earth at the motor and the
drive, in order that the magnetic field cancellation property
of the cable gives its benefit. The screened cable also mini-
mises the earth current flowing from the motor frame into
the machinery structure, because of its mutual inductance
effect. This subject is generally not well understood outside
the EMC profession, and the reader is referred to Chapter
10.6 for a fuller explanation.
The input filter provides a low-impedance path from the
earth to the drive input lines, so that the high-frequency
current returning from the motor cable screen has an easy
local return route and does not flow into the power network.
The primary role of the filter is to suppress common-mode
high-frequency emission from the drive. There is also some
series-mode emission because of the nonzero impedance of
the D.C. smoothing capacitor in the drive. The filter provides
some series-mode attenuation to control this.
PRINCIPLES OF INPUT FILTERS
Figure 10.8 shows the circuit of a typical input filter. The
capacitors between lines provide the series-mode atte-
nuation, and the capacitors to earth and the inductance
provide the common-mode attenuation. The inductance is
constructed as a common-mode component, which is not
magnetised by the main power current, therefore minimising
its physical dimensions. It uses a high permeability core,
which can accept only a very limited unbalance (common-
mode) current.
Filters for drives are carefully optimised for the applica-
tion. The drive presents an exceptionally low impedance
source to the filter, which means that conventional general-
purpose filters may have little benefit. The usual method of
222 THEORETICALBACKGROUND"Principles of Input Filters
O
L1
L2
i .o
supply O drive
L3
TT T
w
T !
E 71.
Figure 10.8 Basic input filter
specifying a filter is in terms of its insertion loss in a test
set up with 50 f~ source and load impedance. An alternative
test attempts to be more realistic by using 0.1 f~ source and
100 f~ load. Neither of these tests correctly represents a drive
application, and neither can be used as any more than a very
rough guide to the suitability of a filter.
SCREENED MOTOR CABLES
The screening capability of screened cable is generally
measured by the parameter ZT, the transfer impedance per
unit length. In an ideal cable, any current flowing in the
internal circuit produces no voltage between the ends of the
cable screen, and conversely current flowing in the screen
from an external source produces no voltage in the inner
circuit. These two aspects minimise the emission from the
cable and the immunity of inner signal circuits to external
disturbance, respectively. In practice, the resistance of the
screen, its imperfect coverage and other details cause a
departure from the ideal and a nonzero value of ZT.
The transfer impedance is not however the only factor
involved. The cable exhibits strong internal resonances,
which cause high currents to flow internally. The current is
limited by the natural damping caused by electrical losses in
the cable. Steel sheaths have a higher resistance and there-
fore give better damping than copper sheaths. Steel gives an
inferior transfer impedance to copper, but the two factors
largely cancel so that a steel wire armoured cable gives no
greater emission with a drive than a good quality copper
braided screened cable.
FERRITE RING SUPPRESSORS
The use of a ferrite ring as an output suppressor was intro-
duced in Chapter 10.4. The ferrite ring introduces impe-
dance at radiofrequencies into the circuit which it surrounds,
thereby reducing the current. Because of its high perme-
ability the ring will not work if it surrounds a conductor
carrying power current, due to magnetic saturation, but if it
LI'
A
w
i L2'
L3'
TT T1
E
!
surrounds a three-phase set then the magnetic field is only
caused by the common-mode current, and saturation is
avoided. The manganese-zinc ferrite exhibits high loss in the
1-10 MHz frequency range where motor cable resonance
occurs, and this gives useful damping of the resonance and a
substantial reduction in the peak current. The loss in the
ferrite does cause a temperature rise, and with long motor
cables the temperature of the ferrite rises until its losses
stabilise, close to the Curie temperature.
FILTER EARTH LEAKAGE CURRENT
Because of the low source impedance presented by the drive,
suitable filters generally have unusually high values of
capacitance between lines and earth. This results in a leak-
age current to earth exceeding the 3.5 mA which is generally
accepted as permissible for equipment which derives its
safety earth through a flexible connection and/or plug/
socket. Most filters require the provision of a permanent
fixed earth connection with sufficient dimensions to make
the risk of fracture negligible. Alternative versions with low
leakage current may be available, which will have more
severe restrictions on the permissible motor cable length.
FILTER MAGNETIC SATURATION
With long motor cables the common-mode current in the
filter rises to a level where the high-permeability core of the
filter inductance becomes magnetically saturated. The filter
then becomes largely ineffective. Filters for drive applica-
tions therefore have limits on motor cable length.
The capacitance of the cable determines the additional cur-
rent loading on the drive and the filter. Screened cables
with an insulating jacket between the inner cores and
the screen present a tolerable capacitance. Some cables
have the screen directly wrapped around the inner cores,
which causes abnormally high capacitance and therefore
reduces the permissible cable length. This also applies to
mineral insulated copper-clad cables.
 Chapter 10.6 223

6 A D D I T I O N A L GUIDANCE ON CABLE
SCREENING FOR SENSITIVE CIRCUITS

The subject of signal circuit cable screening is often mis-

understood and it is quite common for such circuits to be E (inner and outer)
-.q

incorrectly installed. This applies to critical signal circuits

for drives, such as analogue speed references and posi-
tion feedback encoders, and also to circuits in other equip-
ment in the same installation as the drive. This section
outlines the principles, in order to assist readers in avoid-
ing and troubleshooting EMC problems in complete
installations. magnetic field

Figure 10.9 Magnetic-field induction in screened cable

CABLE SCREENING ACTION

Correctly used, a cable screen provides protection against

E + IR (outer)
both electric and magnetic fields, i.e. against disturbance ....

from both induced current and induced voltage. E (inner)

Electric-field screening is relatively easy to understand. The
screen forms an equipotential surface connected to earth,
which drains away incident charge and prevents current
from being induced in the inner conductor. / R

Magnetic-field screening is more subtle. An incident alter- Figure 10.10 Resistance coupling in screened cable
nating magnetic field, which corresponds to a potential
difference between the cable ends, causes EMF to be
induced in both the screen and the inner conductor. Because
the screen totally surrounds the inner conductor, any mag-
netic field linking the screen also links the inner conductor,
so an identical EMF is induced in the inner. The voltage ,
I
,
I
_L_
differential between the inner and the screen is then zero. OV(1) I I 0 V (2)
I I
This is illustrated in Figure 10.9. I I
optional ~,
....
~ , optional
earth -- earth
In order for this benefit to be realised, it is essential that the
screen be connected at both ends. Although high-frequency Figure 10.11 Correct screened cable connection for high-
engineers routinely observe this practice, it is common in frequency screening effect
industrial control applications for the screen to be left
unconnected at one end. The reason for this is to prevent the
screen from creating an earth loop, or an altemative earth
path for power-frequency current.
frequencies exceed the cable cut-off frequency, the screen
The problem of the earth loop is specifically a low- should be connected at both ends.
frequency effect. If the impedance of the cable screen is
predominantly resistance, as is the case at low frequencies,
then any unwanted current flowing in the screen causes a CABLE SCREEN CONNECTIONS
voltage drop which appears in series with the wanted signal.
This is illustrated in Figure 10.10. The conclusion of this is that for all but low-frequency
interference, the screen should be used as the return path for
At higher frequencies the cable screen impedance is pre- data, as shown in Figure 10.11. Whether the screen is con-
dominantly inductive. Then the mutual inductance effect nected to earth at each end, or to the equipment metalwork,
takes over from resistance, and the voltage induced in the is less important than that it be connected to the circuit
internal circuit falls. Further, the skin effect in the screen common terminals. The recommendations of the equipment
causes the extemal current to flow in the outer surface so manufacturer should be followed. It is usual to clamp the
that the mutual resistance between inner and outer circuits screen to a metallic structural part because this gives the
falls. The net result is that at high frequencies the cable least parasitic common inductance in the connection. A
screen is highly effective. A cut-off frequency is defined at pigtail causes a loss of screening benefit, but a short-tail (up
the point where the injected voltage is 3 dB less than at D.C., to 20 ram) may be acceptable for drive applications where
and is typically in the order of 1-10 kHz. Where disturbing screening is not critical.
224 ADDITIONAL GUIDANCE ON CABLE SCREENING" C a b l e S c r e e n C o n n e c t i o n s

The screened cable should ideally not be interrupted

throughout its run. If intermediate terminal arrangements are
included with pigtails for the screen connections, every
pigtail will contribute an additional injection of electrical
noise into the signal circuit. If interruptions are inevitable, earth 1 _.
i capacitor
+ beed resistor

either a suitable connector with surrounding screening shell

should be used or a low-inductance bar or plate should be I earth 2
used for the screen connection as in Figure 10.5. Suitable Figure 10.13 Use of capacitor for high-frequency earthing
hardware is available from suppliers of terminal blocks. while blocking power-fault current

Low-frequency interference associated with earth loops is

not important for digital data networks, digital encoder
signals or similar arrangements using large, coarsely quan-
tised signals. It is an issue with analogue circuits if the
bandwidth is wide enough for errors to be significant at
the relevant frequencies, which are primarily the 50/60 Hz signal
I
power-line frequency. Many industrial control systems
have much lower bandwidths than this and are not affected =OV
I
by power frequency disturbance. Servodrives however do I
respond at power-line frequency, and can suffer from noise 0 V to other circuits
I
I
and vibration as a result of power frequency pick up. The I

cable screen should not be used as the signal return con- I optional
-- earth
ductor in this case. The correct solution for wideband sys-
tems is to use a differential input. Analogue differential
inputs give very good rejection of moderate levels of
common-mode voltage at power-line frequency. This signal
rejection falls off with increasing frequency, but then the
I ~OV
screening effect of the cable takes over. The combination of I I
I I
differential connection and correct cable screening gives I I
good immunity over the entire frequency range. A typical optional
I
i
I
I
arrangement is illustrated in Figure 10.12. earth optional
"- earth
There are electrical safety issues associated with earthing (note-multiple earthing may cause
disturbance at power frequency)
decisions. A galvanically isolated port with the screen con-
nected only to the isolated common rail prevents low-
frequency circulating current, but carries the risk that a fault
elsewhere might make it electrically live and a hazard to +- signal
maintenance staff. Cable screens should be earthed in at least
I ~ov
one place for every disconnectable length, to prevent a I !
length becoming isolated and live. This approach is used in I I
I !
the Interbus industrial data network, where each link is !
optional , !
earthed at one end and isolated at the other. earth ' , optional
-- earth
Earthing at both ends carries the risk that an electrical fault
might cause excessive power current to flow in the cable
screen and overheat the cable. This is only a realistic risk in
large-scale plant where earth impedances limit power-fault D /
current levels. The correct solution is to provide a parallel I
power earth cable rated for the prospective fault current. An 5\
alternative is to provide galvanic isolation, although this
OV

differential optional I , optional

. amplifier earth --" --" earth
input
Figure 10.14 Preferred connection methods
_1__ ' ' _L
I I a l o w - s p e e d d i g i t a l c i r c u i t - no special
0 V (1) i i 0 V (2)
I I precautions, o p e n w i r i n g
I I b low-bandwidth l o w - p r e c i s i o n analogue
optional , , optional
earth
. . . .

-- earth c i r c u i t - screened
c wide bandwidth and/or high-precision
Figure 10.12 Correct screened cable connection for analogue c i r c u i t - screened, differential
high-frequency screening and d w i d e b a n d w i d t h d i g i t a l data
low-frequency interference rejection c i r c u i t - screened, differential
 Chapter 10.6 225

carries the risk of a transiently high touch potential at the
isolated end during a fault.
Some galvanically isolated inputs include a capacitor to
earth, which provides a high-frequency return but blocks
power-frequency fault current. This is actually a require-
ment of certain bus systems. In principle such a capacitor
should not be necessary, but it may be required to ensure
immunity of the isolated input to very fast transients, or to
suppress radiofrequency emission from microprocessors
etc. The capacitor must be rated at the mains voltage. It is
usual to provide a parallel bleed resistor to prevent accu-
mulated static charge. Figure 10.13 illustrates this capacitor
arrangement.
RECOMMENDED CABLE ARRANGEMENTS
Figure 10.14 summarises the recommended connection
methods for several cases.
 C H A P T E R 11

Systems Design

@ GENERAL 228

@ DESIGN MATRIX 228

@ DYNAMIC/RESISTIVE BRAKING 228

@ 4 FUSING 233

@ MOTOR OVERTEMPERATURE PROTECTION 234

@ 6 A.C. DRIVE MOTOR CABLING 236

@ 7 POWER SUPPLY CONSIDERATIONS 243

@ 8 THERMAL DESIGN OF ENCLOSURES 244

@ 9 INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE OF STANDARD MOTORS

AND ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT 246

@ 10 COMMON D.C. BUS CONFIGURATION OF A.C. DRIVES 250

@ 11 MECHANICAL VIBRATION, CRITICAL SPEED AND

TORSIONAL DYNAMICS 255
228 GENERAL
1 GENERAL
The successful integration of electronic variable-speed
drives into a system depends upon knowledge of a number of
key characteristics of the application and the site where the
system will be used. This chapter contains basic considera-
tions, which can help a user or system designer to avoid
2 DESIGN M A T R I X
A design matrix for electronic variable-speed drives is given
in Table 11.1.
3 D Y N A M I C / R E S I S T I V E BRAKING
GENERAL
Electric motors of most kinds have the ability to behave as
generators, i.e. they will deliver current if the shaft is rotated
(and excitation is present), thus it is possible to obtain a
braking effect by delivering the generated current to a load.
In many applications, the use of the motor for braking
enables separate braking apparatus to be dispensed with
altogether.
By controlling the generated current, the braking effort can
be varied; with an appropriate choice of motor and control
strategy, precisely profiled deceleration curves can be
achieved.
Limitations upon braking performance are imposed by the
type of motor, type of electronic drive and selected means of
absorbing the braking energy; for the latter there are two
choices - a fixed resistor or a back feed into the supply
system. These two alternatives are known, respectively, as
dynamic and regenerative braking.
Regenerative braking always means the return of power to
the supply system; dynamic braking involves the use of a
resistor to absorb the energy, and for that reason the term
resistive braking is preferable and is used in this book.
some of the most common problems. First, advice is given
on selecting the most appropriate drive type. Then guidance
is provided on basic requirements of the installation to help
ensure trouble-free operation.
Useful economic advantages may be gained by regeneration
into the main power supply. Also, given that braking loads
are large enough and that the duty cycle is appropriate,
resistive braking may be exploited for energy recovery in the
form of heat.
From the point of view of the motor, there is no fundamental
difference between resistive and regenerative braking: the
motor delivers electrical energy, which is absorbed by one
means or the other. But there are important implications for
the configuration of the electronic drive equipment. Certain
types only can accommodate full braking facility; others
have inherent limitations, which are noted as appropriate in
the following discussion. General capabilities are pictorially
summarised in Figure 11.1.
D.C. MOTOR BRAKING
The principles of single (1Q) and four-quadrant (4Q) D.C.
motor operation have been discussed earlier; however, it is
useful to refer to that explanation as a preliminary to the
discussion here.
As indicated in Figure 11.1, a 1Q drive has limited braking
capability; for braking both forward and in reverse a 4Q
 Chapter 11.3 229
O
O
o o
o~.~ 0
o-, ~ nul
"-' Ob
n~ "~o ~
o o
o" 0 ~
o r.~
o o ~ ~.~
o o o o
xl
A
~
A
O
O
c~
l=l
0
O O
O "~
O ~~ o
o 0
n~
O
o
2~
o
o~-~
o
o
o 0
~ r~ = ~ ~ ~ ~ o
o
!
n~
o "7~2~ o o o
o
~oo
o ~b
o
0~.~ o~-~
O
o
l=l o~-~
n~
.~ o ~ o
o
o
!
o~~~~ O

T~2 ~ xlo ~~ o o~
0 ~ ",1
O
.o
o o o
o ~.~
-t--
~'F:: ,-u
~~.~ ~ ~oo ~
~ ~ ~.~
o
o t~ E
!
~ ~~
O O

o o o
O
O
V'~
0
o
~ +
~ .~ o .~ '~ 0
x ~ T ~ g ~ o~ "~ 0
o~ ~
~" ~ ~ n~.~
O
O ~ ~
v ~. o~.~
~ ~
~ ' ~~
~.~
o~ ~. ~~ ~~ ~ ~~ .~
~
o
t~
O
~0 O
Q
0~ O O O
i o~-~
230 DYNAMIC/RESISTIVEBRAKING" D.C. Motor Braking

K1
,z
0
? ~ M

resistive yes l I I DBR

regenerative reverse only
0

0 )
? 0

resistive yes [ I I _k
regenerative yes

rN,-
t I T I@ G
/

w w /- 1
Figure 11.2 Typical arrangement for dynamic braking
resistive yes i
regenerative no

[H' - ,~ dynamicbraking
' i ~ here
"0
(D
d.)
3L
resistive yes I I---1
regenerative yes
tdttoedetials~rWS
Figure 11.1 Summary of the main A.C and D.C drive
configurations and braking capability
time actual stopping time is
reduced due to friction
drive is essential. Nevertheless, the 1Q drive offers useful
braking performance for certain applications. Figure 11.3 Speed versus time during dynamic braking
As regenerative braking depends on the return of power from
the motor to the power supply, it cannot operate if the mains
supply fails due to a blown fuse or a power cut. Resistive The motor CEMF, Eo, is calculated as follows"
braking of 4Q drives is sometimes encountered as a fail-safe
means of stopping the motor and its load, and as the only Ea - Va-laRa
means of braking single-ended drives.
where V a - rated armature voltage, I a - rated armature cur-
A rotating motor can act as a generator and, if it delivers rent and R a - armature circuit resistance.
current, torque is produced which opposes the rotation of the
machine. The principle of resistive braking is to connect a The total resistance in the motor circuit during dynamic
resistive load across the motor. Current flowing through the braking is given by:
resistance creates braking torque, and the kinetic energy
Rb -- RDBR q- Ra
extracted from the rotating machine is dissipated as heat in
the braking resistor. Therefore, the initial or peak braking current (typically
Figure 11.2 shows a typical arrangement for resistive brak- chosen to be 150 or 200 per cent of IA) can be calculated
ing of a D.C. motor. A single contactor is used for both the using the following equation, derived from Ohm's law:
armature and the dynamic braking resistor (DBR), ensuring
correct sequencing and fail-safe operation. Ip -- g a / R b -- ( Va - IaRa ) / (RDBR + Ra)

The rotating motor generates a voltage, or counter electro-

motive force (CEMF) as it is sometimes called, the value of
which is proportional to the speed of rotation so long as field
flux remains constant.
It is this voltage, applied to the braking resistance, which
causes (braking) current to flow. Therefore the braking
current (and hence braking torque) is proportional to speed
or, expressed in a different way, the braking torque reduces
as the motor decelerates, giving an exponential deceleration
curve as shown in Figure 11.3.
whence:
RDBR -- ((Va - IaRa)//Ip) - Ra
Braking resistors of small ratings are often of wire-wound
construction on a ceramic former, and those of higher ratings
are usually fabricated steel stampings, coiled or convoluted
strip, expanded metal, cast iron, or liquid, all these giving
large surface areas for dissipation of the heat produced
during braking.
 Chapter 11.3 231

Since the kinetic energy of the motor and its load is con-
verted into heat by the braking resistor, it is important to rate
the resistor correctly for the duty it is expected to perform,
taking account of load inertia and the number of stops
per hour.
Example Calculation of a Brake Resistor
of a D.C. Motor
APPLICATION DATA
7.5 kW motor, efficiency 85 per cent, armature voltage
420 V, armature current 21 A
maximum armature current during braking = twice full-
load current
brake operation time, ten seconds
repetition time is intermittent, therefore allow 30
minutes
assume motor is working into the field-weakening range
The nearest standard value is 12 ohms. In this case the value
is slightly above the calculated minimum value because
there may be commutation problems if the current is allowed
to grow too large and there is no switching device to control
the average current.
The resistor overload factor, which relates overload time,
cooling time to an overload factor is provided by power
resistor manufacturers. Figure 11.4 shows typical char-
acteristics. If this type of information is not available, and
quite often only the 20 or 30-minute cooling time informa-
tion is published, then either the resistor manufacturer must
be contacted, or a generous safety factor must be allowed.
The resistor itself will not be a significant factor in the
overall system cost.
For an overload time of ten seconds and a cooling time of 30
minutes the overload factor derived from Figure 11.4 is 6.0.
resistor continuous power rating
- regenerated power/overload factor

CALCULATIONS AND NOTES = 15/6 - 2.5 kW

The kinetic energy contained in the rotating motor and

load is
0.5Jcd 2
where J = moment of inertia and a; - angular velocity.
As most of the energy is concentrated above base speed, the
resistor does most of its work above this speed. As this is
the constant-power region, for most of the braking cycle the
braking resistor also operates with constant power.
With a twice full-load braking current the peak motor
regenerated power is:
7.52-15kW
for a short period of time.
A.C. REGENERATION AND BRAKING
The principle of four-quadrant operation of an A.C. drive has
been discussed earlier. It is important here to consider
dynamic/resistor braking only. The basic arrangement is
shown in Figure 11.5.
The key difference between the A.C. braking circuit and the
D.C. circuit of Figure 11.1 is the inclusion of a transistor in
series with the braking resistor. This braking transistor is
capable of controlling the current into the resistor. In fact,
the transistor is controlled to limit the voltage in the D.C.
link as, when the transistor is switched off, energy can still
be fed into the D.C. link and results in increasing the D.C.
link (capacitor) voltage.

As the motor is 85 per cent efficient, its losses will be: The upper switching level for the brake transistor is typically
chosen to lie between the bus level when the mains supply is
(15 kW/0.85 - 15 kW) - 2.65 kW

Therefore, the peak braking power at the shaft is: 15 sec

-30 sec cooling time
15 + 2.65 - 17.65 kW 1 min
-5 min
; 30 min
10~
This means that it should be possible to decelerate the motor
and load faster than it is possible to accelerate it, and this 9 I i
without taking into account any load losses.
\\
RESISTOR VALUE

o
L--

6
\
For a resistor: o

-o 5
\\\ \\
power P -- V 2/ R
0 \
or: > 4
0

1~ - v=/P \'\\, \ \ .
In the example, V is the D.C. armature voltage - 420 V. P is
.,<% -, .,
1
the calculated maximum power r e g e n e r a t e d - 1 5 kW, so
0.5 1 2 5 10 20 50 100200 500 1000
that: overload time, s

R- 4202/(15 103 ) - 11.76f~ Figure 11.4 Typical power-resistor overload factors

232 DYNAMIC/RESISTIVEBRAKING:A.C. Regeneration and Braking
C
d
Figure 11.5 Typical PWM A.C. drive with dynamic braking resistor Rb
on top tolerance, and the maximum safe continuous oper-
ating voltage of the devices in the inverter bridge. It is
common that this switching level is determined during
operation or initialisation through monitoring of the mains
supply (directly or indirectly via the D.C. link voltage). The
hysteresis between the upper and lower switching levels will
be about 20 or 30 V.
Example Calculation of a Brake Resistor
of a PWM A.C. Induction Motor
Drive System
APPLICATION DATA
7.5 kW motor, efficiency 83 per cent, 400 V
400 V, three-phase PWM inverter with a dynamic brake
operating voltage of 750 V and 150 per cent overload
rating
brake operation time five seconds
repetition time: one minute minimum
maximum speed = twice base speed
CALCULATIONS AND NOTES
With a 150 per cent overload rating the 7.5 kW inverter can
absorb:
7.5 1.5=11.25kW
for a short period of time.
As the motor is 83 per cent efficient, its losses will be
2.3 kW. In fact, with the increase in D.C. bus voltage from a
nominal 565 V to 750 V, and with more than full load cur-
rent, the motor losses will probably be even more than
2.3 kW. However, the actual braking power available at the
motor shaft is:
11.25 + 2.3 = 13.55 k W
This means that it should be possible to decelerate the motor
and load faster than it is possible to accelerate it, and this
without taking into account any load losses.
RESISTORVALUE
For a resistor, as for the D.C. example:
R = v:/P
I
~
I
v
T
In the example, V is the value of the D.C. bus voltage when
regeneration is taking place, i.e. 750 V. P is the calculated
maximum power regenerated back to the D.C. bus,
11.25 kW, so that:
R- (750)2/(11.25 x 103 ) - 5 0 ~
This is the maximum value that the braking resistor can have.
If the resistor is given a slightly lower value then the braking
transistor controls the power by switching on and off.
For this example the next lowest standard value would be
chosen, which is 47 ohms.
RESISTOR POWER RATING
As the braking resistor is used only intermittently, it is
normal to use a resistor of lower continuous power rating
than the calculated average power regenerated back to the
D.C. bus and to rely on the overload rating of the resistor.
Refer again to the power resistor overload factor character-
istic, a typical example of which is given in Figure 11.4. In
this example, the five-second overload time/one-minute
cooling time curve applies, and this gives an overload factor
of 3.8. The power rating of the 47 ohm resistor is given by:
resistor continuous power rating = 11.25/3.8 = 2.96 kW
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
The resistor value should not be chosen to be much smaller
than the value calculated from R = vZ/P, otherwise the
braking transistor has to handle a high peak current and has
to switch more frequently; both factors cause high power
dissipation in the transistor. Also, there is a high peak-power
dissipation in the resistor, which it may not be able to accept.
A resistor of the rating calculated will probably be a bank
made up of individual resistors, and if there is to be no
additional derating the individual resistors should not be
mounted too close to each other. Typically, a spacing of at
least twice their diameter is sufficient when the resistors are
mounted vertically in a free flow of air. The resistor data
sheet should be consulted for specific recommendations.
Pulse-rated resistors should be used. These are often wound
from corrugated tape or resistance strip on a helical former
for higher powers.
The rating of a resistor may be increased by forced cooling.
 Chapter 11.4 233

4 FUSING

GENERAL Table 11.2 Fuse recommendations for Control

Techniques, Unidrive, type gG HRC industrial
Fuses are the most common, but perhaps one of the least fuses to IEC 269, or RK1 600 V A. C.
understood forms of, protective device. In a variable-speed
drive installation, fuses are principally used to protect the Drive rating Recommended A . C . Recommended
supply & motor cable fuse rating (A)
mains-to-converter cable and the converter-to-motor cable
under fault conditions only. Fuses may also be used to Power Rated mm2 AWG
protect components within the drive or, in the event of a (kW) current (A)
failure within the drive converter, fusing may be used to
0.75 2.1 1.5 16 6
limit the energy fed into the fault. Fuses are not required to
1.1 2.8 2.5 14 10
protect for overload conditions as this is undertaken by the 1.5 3.8 2.5 14 10
drive converter protection. 2.2 5.6 2.5 14 10
It is important to retain focus on the specific purpose of each 2 9.5 2.5 14 16
5.5 12 2.5 14 16
fuse in the circuit if the correct fuse type and the correct
7.5 16 4 10 20
positioning of the fuse is to be assured. It is also critical to 11 25 4 10 35
consider the protection circuit as a whole to ensure that the 15 34 6 8 40
correct discrimination between protective devices exists. For 18.5 40 10 6 50
example, when two fuses are connected in series, and the 22 46 10 6 60
upstream fuse is feeding the downstream fuse and other 30 60 16 4 70
loads, then it is important that, in the event of a fault in the 37 70 25 4 80
circuit of the downstream fuse, the downstream fuse oper- 45 96 35 2 100
ates rather than the upstream fuse. In this way the other loads 55 124 35 2 125
are unaffected. Discrimination is achieved by ensuring that 75 156 50 2/0 160
the total I2t let through by the downstream fuse is less than 90 180 70 2/0 200
110 202 95 3/0 250
the pre-arcing IZt of the upstream fuse, and the time/current
160 300 95 3/0 450
characteristic of the upstream fuse should lie to the right of
that of the downstream fuse.

It is not practicable to provide comprehensive details of fuse

technology here. For this reference should be made to specia-
lised books (See Appendix E). We will consider fusing with
reference to the specific functions within a drive system.
PROTECTION OF MAINS-DRIVE AND
DRIVE-MOTOR CABLING
As the drive controller regulates current flowing in the
system, the fusing needs to be designed to cater for a cata-
strophic failure within the drive or, more likely, a short
circuit between cables. High rupturing capacity (HRC) fuses
act as cleating devices for sustained high currents and are
consequently well suited to this type of duty, and are com-
monly recommended by most drive manufacturers.
It is important to note that drive products listed by UL
(Underwriters Laboratories Inc.) are often tested together
with their recommended fuses. Protection against fire and
unacceptable earth currents must be proven under all con-
ceivable failure modes. Drive manufacturers should make
clear recommendations relating to fuse selection.
Typical fuse recommendations for three-phase A.C. drives
are given in Table 11.2.
It can be seen that the fuse rating is not simply related to the
cable rating but is influenced also by the drive rating.
PROTECTION OF DRIVE COMPONENTS
In an A.C. drive the failure of the input diode bridge is
associated with either high transient or continuous supply
voltages or with a primary failure within the drive. Fuse
protection of input components within an A.C. drive is very
difficult to achieve and is rarely recommended.
A D.C. drive is very different and fuse protection of internal
converter components against a range of internal and
external faults is possible and advantageous. The positioning
of fuses within a D.C. drive system is of interest:
a in the A.C. supply lines
b in series with the thyristors within the bridge
c in the D.C. motor armature lines
For unity D.C. current, the relative r.m.s, currents are
a - 0.82, b = 0.58 and c = 1.0. Fuse and thyristor coordina-
tion can be achieved by ensuring that the let-through IZt of
the fuse in each of the above referenced positions is less than
the device IZt. Semiconductor fuses must be used in all
positions to afford protection.
Fuses (b) within the converter bridge, have the advantage
of protecting D.C./load faults as well as removing failed
devices, which have failed to block. The disadvantage is that
the location of these fuses in the power circuit is difficult to
facilitate in a compact design which allows for easy fuse
replacement.
234 FUSING: Protection of Drive Components

It is more common, therefore, for drive manufacturers to Table 11.3 Control Techniques, Mentor II, type: semi-
conductor; for 400 V supply rated 500 V D.C.,
specify A.C. line and, in the case of four-quadrant drives
for 480 V supply rated 700 V D.C.
where the load can feed energy into a converter fault, D.C.
line fuses. Drive Recommended Recommended Recommended
rated A.C. supply and A.C. fuse rating D.C. fuse rating
Fuses in the A.C. line remove the entire arm from the circuit current (A) D.C. motor cable (A) (A)
if one thyristor fails to block voltage. If both series-
mm2 AWG
connected devices in an arm fail, then the motor armature is
short circuited and the D.C. line fuses are relied upon to clear 25 4 10 35 40
the fault current. 45 6 6 60 70
75 25 2 100 125
Fuses in the D.C. circuit must be rated for that duty, D.C. 105 35 1/0 125 175
fault current in an inductive circuit being difficult to clear. It 155 50 3/0 175 250
is important to use fuses in the positive as well as the 210 95 300MCM 250 300
negative line as they then share the duty, although it is 350 150 400 550
unwise to assume a better than 80/20 sharing of voltage. 420 185 500 700
550 300 700 900
Typical fuse recommendations for three-phase D.C. drives 700 2 x 185 900 1000
are given in Table 11.3. 825 2 x 240 1000 1200
900 2 x 240 1200 2 x 700
These guidelines are typical data only. Local regulations 1200 2 x 400 2 x 700 2 x 900
must of course be complied with in full. 1850 3 x 400 2 x 1200 2 x 1000

5 MOTOR OVERTEMPERATURE PROTECTION

GENERAL current in the supply line is no greater than the rated

Whether operating directly on the mains supply or under the
control of a variable-speed drive, a motor can be thermally
overloaded by any of the following:
1 increased ambient temperature
2 obstruction of the coolant flow
3 increased losses in the machine
d Variations in air-gap flux (supply voltage/frequency
Considering the causes of increased losses in the machine
further, and for the moment only looking at fixed-speed
(direct-on-line) A.C. induction motors:
a Overloading in continuous operation-this condition is
largely self explanatory, and is often associated with
changes to the working conditions. This may be due to
the user unwittingly overloading the machine, or a
blockage or failure in the system increasing the load.
b Excessive starting/braking duty c y c l e - a s a.
c Single phasing on A.C. machines-this condition is
invariably due to a break in the wire, unreliable contacts
or one of the supply fuses operating.
f Stalling the motor - if a motor is stalled, the current rises
For induction motors of smaller ratings, it is important to
note that losses are generally lower than during normal
three-phase operation providing the current in the supply
line is no greater than the rated value. Torque is of course
reduced.
For larger induction motors, stator winding losses are
lower with single-phase operation providing that the
value. The losses in the rotor are however considerably
higher than during normal three-phase operation.
The change in the balance of losses in larger motors
needs to be considered and advice is available from
motor manufacturers on this matter.
variations in fixed-speed motors)- variations in air-gap
flux, which are a result of voltage or frequency varia-
tions, can, over prolonged periods, increase both iron and
copper losses in A.C. motors. Again, the impact is
dependent upon the distribution of these losses within
the motor.
e Starting into a mechanically-locked load - if a motor is
started into a mechanically-locked load, the starting
current of the motor (typically of the order of six-times
rated current) would flow continuously and the motor
would reach its temperature limit, typically, within a few
seconds.
to approximately the starting current, and again the motor
would reach its temperature limit, typically, within a few
seconds.
g Control faults - a control fault, such as a star-delta
changeover switch failing to operate leaving a fixed-
speed motor in star configuration, would clearly cause
overloads.
 Chapter 11.5 235

It is interesting to review these conditions when the motor
is fed from an electrical variable-speed drive controller,
Table 11.4.
Additional motor losses associated with the nonideal supply
waveforms of variable-speed drives have been discussed
earlier.
OVERTEMPERATURE PROTECTION OF A
CONVERTER-FED MOTOR
as the converter itself. They also contain inputs to which
motor-embedded thermistors may be connected. This direct
monitoring of motor temperature provides back-up protec-
tion, and is to be recommended where possible.
What Cannot be Used
It is important to recognise that the nonsinusoidal wave-
forms, and variable frequency, associated with variable-
speed drives, invalidate the basis for protection afforded by
most electronic overload relays.

The use of such devices on the mains supply of a drive is also

What Can be Used invalid.

M o d e m electrical variable-speed drive controllers contain Any such devices should only be used after clear and
comprehensive thermal protection for the motor as well detailed discussion and approval with the manufacturer.

Table 11.4 Motor overtemperature protection

Fault D.C. drive A.C. open-loop induction A.C. closed-loop induction/

Overloading in
continuous operation
Excessive starting/
braking duty cycle
Single phasing on A.C.
machines
Variations in air-gap
flux (supply voltage/frequency
variations in fixed-speed motors) by means of a field controller the actual flux is estimated and flux variations in supply voltage
Starting into a
mechanically-locked load
Stalling the motor
Control faults
motor drive PM servomotor drive
as the drive is inherently monitoring and controlling the current fed to the motor, the protection of
the motor against constant overload is invariably built into the design of the drive
starting in a variable-speed drive does not result in excess losses in the motor; the basis
for limiting starts necessary for fixed-speed motors does not therefore apply
there may be a need to limit starts for a variable-speed A.C. drive controller if the d.c. link is
charged via a resistor, such a resistor will have a maximum starting duty, which will be specified
by the manufacturer, if frequent start/stop duty is required then electronic control only should
be used i.e. do not remove the mains supply from the drive, in this way the starting resistor,
if present, will not be stressed
not applicable unless a drive-motor cable becomes detached or broken, it
is unusual for a motor phase supply to be lost; some drives
are able to detect imbalance in the motor phase current and
offer protection
it is not recommended to use contactors in between the drive and
motor as a means of control; they may be used as part of an
isolation or bypass strategy
air-gap flux is controlled many open loop-drives do not a flux controller in the drive
by field current control incorporate a flux controller; controls air-gap flux;
control is dependent upon have no impact, other than
the quality of the flux estimation; defining the maximum
as the user is primarily interested in operating speed at which
torque quality, drive manufacturers full flux can be
usually provide data on torque provided
linearity rather than flux
as the drive is inherently monitoring and controlling the current fed to the motor,
the protection of the motor against overload at start is invariably built into the design
of the drive; closed-loop drives detect and many open-loop drives estimate speed and
can therefore protect against a locked rotor condition
the thermal motor model within drive controllers can simulate hot spots in the motor,
but does not always take account of reduced cooling effect, it is possible however for drives to
detect a stall condition; in closed-loop drives this is automatic; for open loop this can be
seen as a due to high current/low speed condition
control faults of the type described above (e.g. star/delta changeover failures)
are either not possible or inherently monitored and protected against in variable-speed drives
236 A.C. DRIVE MOTOR CABLING: General

6 A.C. DRIVE MOTOR CABLING

GENERAL Cable length-the length of the pulses increases with

When an A.C. drive and machine are connected via long
cables the performance of the drive system is affected by the
cable resistance and the current pulses due to high rates of
change of voltage applied to the cable when the inverter
IGBTs switch. This rate of change of voltage results in
pulses of current to charge the capacitance of the cable. The
effects of operation with long cables are described below,
and are different for different forms of control/motor used.
The following descriptions, and performance figures, relate
to the Control Techniques Unidrive A.C. drive, operating in
the following modes:
closed l o o p - induction motor
closed l o o p - PM servomotor
open loop-induction motor
CLOSED LOOP-INDUCTION MOTOR
Cable Resistance
cable length.
The drive overcurrent protection system trips the drive if
the current from the drive exceeds the trip level. Some
filtering is provided in the trip system, but it cannot remove
all of the cable-charging current effects and still provide
adequate drive protection. As the current pulses increase in
magnitude and length they have more effect on the over-
current protection system. Therefore, as the D.C. link vol-
tage and cable length are increased the likelihood of
unwanted overcurrent trips is greater. As the cable-charging
currents are not related to the size of the drive, the problem
of unwanted trips due to these currents becomes less as the
drive rating increases.
In the following discussion the rated current level from the
drive, IR, is referred to as a proportion of the trip level cur-
rent, ITmp, of the drive in the form (IR = 0.83 Ire, lp). The
trip level is the motor phase current magnitude that would
cause the drive to trip. The drive current demand can be up to
0.83 x Ire, iP. The 0.17 IrmP margin allows for current-loop
overshoot and cable-charging currents.

Cable resistance results in a voltage drop between the drive Table 11.5 0.75 kW Control Techniques Unidrive
output and the machine terminals, which depends on the
level of current flowing in the cable. If a drive is operated in Supply voltage Cable length Measured charging current
closed-loop flux vector mode the cable resistance does not
420 V 50 m O.18 x ITme
affect the performance because the closed-loop current 528 V 50 m 0.22 Ire,i,,
controllers will automatically compensate for the voltage
drop until the drive output voltage approaches its maximum
limit. This limit, which is normally at a level approaching
that of the supply voltage, will be reduced by the cable Table 11.6 1.5 kW Control Techniques Unidrive
voltage drop. In closed-loop vector mode the maximum
voltage applied to the machine cannot be higher than 95 per Supply voltage Cable length Measured charging current
cent of available drive output voltage under steady-state
420 V 50 m 0.14 Irlcle
conditions (although this may be further limited if the rated 528 V 50m 0.16 x IrRIp
voltage parameter of the drive is set at a lower level). Once 420 V 100 m 0.22 x Irmp
the drive output has reached this limit the flux in the machine 528 V 100 m 0.30 x Irme
is reduced (field-weakening or constant-power range) and
more current is required to produce a given amount of
torque. Therefore the cable resistance reduces the speed at Table 11.7 2.2 kW Control Techniques Unidrive
which field weakening occurs, and in this range limits the
maximum torque available and increases the drive and motor Supply voltage Cable length Measured charging current
current.
420 V 100 m 0.16 x ITRIP
528 V 100 m 0.22 x I7-1~12,
Cable-Charging Currents 420 V 150 m 0.26 Irmp
528 V 150 m 0.30 IrRiP
The current pulses due to the switching action of the inverter
IGBTs vary in magnitude and length depending on the
following:
Table 11.8 4 kW Control Techniques Unidrive
1 Type of c a b l e - t h e pulses with armoured or screened
cable are higher than those for cable without a con- Supply voltage Cable length Measured charging current
ductive sheath. Only armoured cable has been used in
producing test results, but results with screened cable 420 V 150m 0.12 x Irmp
528 V 150m 0.16 x Irmp
would be similar.
420 V 200m 0.18 Irme
2 D.C. link voltage - the magnitude of the pulses increases
528 V 200 m 0.22 x Ivmp
with drive D.C. link voltage.

Tables 11.5 to 11.8 show measured values of the maximum
percentage of the trip-level current produced within the
overcurrent trip system by cable-charging currents alone
when all three output phases switch together. This is the
worst case seen by the overcurrent protection system. If
long cables are used, the current limits should be set at a
level which allows for current controller overshoot and the
charging currents within the maximum current magnitude
available from the drive. It is possible for a Unidrive to
produce more than 175 per cent torque-producing current in
a machine, and so even when the controller overhead and
an allowance for cable-charging currents are taken into
account, it may still be possible for the machine to produce
175 per cent torque.
The following example illustrates typical calculations:
A 2.2 kW Unidrive operating with 150 m of armoured cable
with a 420 V A.C. supply.
over current trip level - 20.2 A r.m.s.
assume current controller overshoot - 0.1 ITmp
cable-charging current - 0.26 Ire,/p
total current magnitude < (1 - 0.26 - 0.1) ITe, i e -
0.64 x Ire,/p
.'. maximum current m a g n i t u d e - 20.2 x 0 . 6 4 - 12.9
A r.m.s.
If machine-rated c u r r e n t - 9 . 5 A and power factor-0.9,
then rated magnetising current-4.1 A and rated torque-
producing c u r r e n t - 8.6 A.
At current limit the machine c u r r e n t - v / ( 4 . 1 2 + ( 8 . 6 x
overload)2)= 12.9 A, ". overload-1.42 (i.e. the machine
can produce approximately 1.42 x rated torque).
Practical tests with a 528 V A.C. supply (480V + 10 %)
have shown that the drive will operate without tripping using
cables longer than would be expected based on the above
information with the current limits set at 175 per cent. The
reason is because all three phases did not switch at the
same time when the drive output currents were at their
peak values.
CLOSED LOOP-PM SERVOMOTOR
Cable Resistance
The drive again operates with closed-loop current control,
which automatically compensates for cable voltage drop up
to the drive output voltage limit. In servo mode the
machine-rated voltage is usually lower than the drive limit
because the machine is not to be operated in the field-
weakening mode (unlike a drive in closed-loop induction
motor mode). Some headroom between the machine and
drive voltages must be allowed for the drive current con-
trollers to operate. This headroom will be reduced by the
cable voltage drop.
Cable-Charging Currents
The cable-charging currents have the same effect as in
closed-loop induction motor mode. Again, the current limits
should be reduced if necessary. Because the machine current
Chapter 11.6 237
is all torque-producing current any reduction in current limit
reduces the machine torque below 175 per cent of rated with
a matched drive and machine.
OPEN-LOOP CURRENT CONTROL-
INDUCTION MOTOR
Cable Resistance
For open-loop drives which do not use closed-loop current
control, it is common for voltage-drop compensation to be
included in the control strategy. This compensation is for
both machine stator and cable resistance. The compensation,
however, does not always remove the entire voltage drop.
The graphs in Figures 11.6 to 11.11 show some typical
results giving the level of torque produced for various sizes
of Control Techniques Unidrive with standard Leroy Somer
400 V machines of the same current rating. In each case the
current limits are set to 150 per cent and the torque taken for
a level just before the current limit causes the frequency to
fold back.
Cable-Charging Currents
The cable-charging currents have the same effect as in
closed-loop induction motor mode. Again, the current limits
should be reduced if necessary.
As well as the normal frequency-controlling current limits
the open-loop drive has a voltage-based peak limit designed
to provide fast current limitation during transients. The peak
limit should hold the current magnitude to 0.75 x I r R i P . The
margin allowed for overshoot and cable-charging currents is
higher than for the closed-loop modes; however the control
system is much slower and so a larger overshoot could occur
during transients.
LIMITS TO CABLE LENGTH
Because of charging current, long motor cable runs can
cause a reduction in the torque available from the drive, and
in extreme cases the drive may even trip due to excessive
current (OIAC). The effect is more marked with the smaller
drive ratings.
The following guidelines give suggested limits for standard
shielded cables. The capacitance of the cable is approxi-
mately 300pF/m measured from the three phases together
to the sheath (and ground core if fitted). This is typical of
steel wire armoured cable (SWA), steel braid sheathed cable
(SY) and similar, where the individual phase conductors are
surrounded by a further insulating medium before being
covered by the screen. For other values of capacitance the
length limits are approximately in inverse proportion to the
capacitance.
Note that individual separate phase conductors give lower
capacitance, but may not be acceptable for EMC reasons.
Cables where the screen is laid directly over the phase
conductors and mineral insulated cables are known to
have much higher capacitance and should be treated with
caution.
238 A . C . DRIVE MOTOR CABLING: L i m i t s t o C a b l e L e n g t h

30

25
.:,.,~ ..,~., ~ "~~~ ~ _--.=-_= . _ ~ _
~ ~ . . . ~ ~ ~ "--- - -.~ ~ . . ~
~ . . . ~
E 20
Z

=
o-1 5 0m
o
100 m
10 150 m
- - - 200 m
ideal

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
frequency, Hz

Figure 11.6 0.75kW Unidrive-maximum torque production versus cable length (3kHz switching frequency, 2.5mm 2
armoured cable)

30

25

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .jp._'~,=,.~

E 20
Z

=15
E 0m
o
100 m
10 150 m
200 m
ideal

| | u | u | n n n l

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
frequency, Hz

Figure 11.7 0.75kW Unidrive-maximum torque production versus cable length (12kHz switching frequency, 2.5mm 2
armoured cable)

30

25

E 2O
Z

=15
E 0m
o
100 m
10 150 m
- - - 200 m
ideal

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
frequency, Hz

Figure 11.8 4kW Unidrive-maximum torque production versus cable length (3kHz switching frequency, 2.5mm 2
armoured cable)
 Chapter 11.6 239

30

25

E 20
Z

=15
o-
1- 0m
o
100 m
10 150 m
200 m
ideal

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
frequency, Hz

Figure 11.9 4kW Unidrive-maximum torque production versus cable length (12kHz switching frequency, 2.5mm 2
armoured cable)

80

70
~ ~ __.----

60

E 50
Z

= 40
E
o
0m
30
150 m
20 200 m

10 ideal

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
frequency demand, Hz

Figure 11.10 7.5kW Unidrive-maximum torque production versus cable length (3kHz switching frequency, 4mm 2
armoured cable)

80

70

60

E 50
Z

= 40
E
o
0m
30
150 m
20 200 m

10 ideal

0 | | | | I | | | | |

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
frequency demand, Hz

Figure 11.11 Z5 kW Unidrive- maximum torque production versus cable length (12 kHz switching frequency, 2.5 mm 2
armoured cable)
Note 1: the compensation system in Unidrive is designed to operate fully only at frequencies below 1/4 rated frequency. This
causes the droop in torque between 12.5 and 25 Hz. At higher frequencies the cable and machine resistance effects are
proportionally less compared with the machine terminal voltage, and so the torque rises again as the frequency increases.
Note 2: the ideal torque level shown is 150 per cent of the rated torque of the machine.
240 A.C. DRIVE MOTOR CABLING" Limits to Cable Length

Table 11.9 Maximum cable lengths at low and high which are affected by the high-frequency current in the cable
supply voltage
capacitance.
Drive rating Cable length (m) at A.C. supply
voltage and 3 kHz switching frequency Calculations
400 V 528 V Step 1 Estimate cable capacitance, from one line to all
0.75 kW 65 50 others.
1.1 kW 100 75 Typical values:
1.5 kW 130 100
2.2 kW 200 150 multicore cables, and screened/armoured cables where
4 kW 300 250 there is a plastic sheath between the phases and the screen:
5.5 kW-11 kW 300 300 130pF/m
15 kW-90kW 200 124
160 kW 300 300 screened cables with no plastic sheath between cores and
screen, mineral insulated cables" 300 pF/m

Table 11.9 shows the maximum recommended cable lengths Add an allowance for the motor capacitance. This depends
for Control Techniques Unidrive at low and high supply on the motor size, but a value of 1 nF per motor is a rea-
voltage. Select the lowest rated drive, which is shown in the sonable estimate. This will usually be rather smaller than the
table for the cable length, and supply voltage required. cable capacitance.

For other switching frequencies: Step 2 Decide on the available charging current from the
drive. This depends to some extent on the application and the
maximum cable length = maximum cable length at 3 kHz drive; here is a typical procedure for Control Techniques
(3 kHz/switching frequency) Unidrive:

Example Ich - 1.4 lln (2.1 - k)

15 kW Unidrive at 400 V, 9 kHz:
maximum cable length - 200 (3/9) - 67 metres
OUTPUT CHOKES FOR LONG MOTOR
CABLE APPLICATIONS
General
The use of output chokes to facilitate the application of long
motor cables is rare. It is usually simpler and more elegant to
use a larger drive rating.
Using output chokes allows drives to operate with long
motor cables and/or multiple parallel cables. Calculation of
the necessary inductance of the choke is complex, but the
following guidelines are helpful. However, these are
guidelines only and there is scope for error so wherever
possible confirmation tests should be carried out in advance
of installation.
where" In is the nominal rated r.m.s, drive output current and
k is the acceptable short-term overload factor. The drive is
rated for 150 per cent, i.e. k - 1 . 5 , but increased cable-
driving capability is achieved if this can be reduced. For
many applications 1.25 is acceptable and for pump/fan
applications 1.1 may be acceptable.
In the case where the drive has been derated to allow for the
long cable, i.e. a larger than normal drive is used, a lower
value of k will be appropriate; it should be the ratio of the
expected maximum short-term torque to the (theoretical)
rated torque capability of the drive.
The factor 2.1 in the expression is the ratio of drive instant
trip current to nominal output current, for Unidrive. The
correct factor must be applied for the drive being used.
Step 3 Decide the maximum D.C. link voltage, VD.c., where
the drive is required to produce full torque. This will nor-
mally be 1.41 times the highest r.m.s.A.C, supply voltage.
Step 4 The minimum value of inductance (per phase) is
given by the expression"

Principles
With single lengths of cable the current is limited by the self
inductance of the cable, and the cable behaves as a trans-
mission line with a Z0 typically in the range 15 f~ to 50 Q.
The charging-current pulse magnitude is the D.C. link vol-
tage divided by Zo; the duration is proportional to the cable
length and is approximately 12 ns per metre of cable. For
example, with 150 m of screened cable having Zo of 45 f~ and
a D.C. link of 540 V the current is 12 A with a duration of
1.8 ~ts. For very long cables it is necessary to limit the current
for drives in the lower power range (typically up to 11 kW).
For multimotor applications where there are several cables
in parallel, the effective Zo is very low and output inductors
must be used. They also help with other problems such as the
premature operation of thermal motor protection relays,
Lmin = T L Ich J
If using standard iron-cored chokes, the inductance at the
high frequencies involved will be rather lower than the
specified 50/60 Hz inductance. A good rule of thumb is to
specify an inductance of twice that determined by this cal-
culation, i.e. 2Lmin.
Step 5 The maximum value of inductance is determined
by the acceptable voltage drop at the working frequency.
Calculate this from the expression:
X VA.c.
Lmax =
2 71L V/3In
where x - a c c e p t a b l e voltage drop fraction, e.g. for 5 per
cent use 0.05, VA.c.--motor voltage rating (line-to-line,
r.m.s.) and f o - maximum drive output frequency.

Since the voltage drop is inductive, it does not subtract
directly from the motor terminal voltage. A value of x of
0.05 is generally acceptable. If the application is very critical
with regard to obtaining full rated torque at full speed then it
may be advisable to apply a lower value of x, e.g. 0.02.
Step 6 If 2Lmin <Lmax then any value between these
limits can be used.
If there is a need to minimise the high-frequency current, for
example to prevent premature operation of thermal relays,
then the highest value should be used.
If 2Lmin > Zmax then the drive cannot operate with this length
of cable and a higher rated drive must be used.
Choose the value of L.
Step 7 Consideration must now be given to the high-
frequency losses in the chokes. The loss in each choke can
be estimated from the following expression:
P = o.8f cv
where fs is the drive switching frequency.
The factor 0.8 is a rough estimate of the fraction of the total
losses dissipated in the choke. Note that the loss is propor-
tional to the switching frequency so the lowest acceptable
frequency should be selected.
Step 8 It is now necessary to decide whether the choke is able
to tolerate this loss. This is a difficult judgement. As a crude
rule, the loss should not exceed 0.1 of the VA in the choke at
maximum speed, i.e.:
P ~ 0.27rfo(max)Zl2
where L(max) is the maximum output frequency.
If the loss exceeds this limit, and it is not possible to reduce
the switching frequency, then a resistor should be connected
in parallel with each choke to extract some of the power.
The resistor value is given by:
R
The value is not critical and variations of +50 per cent are
acceptable.
The power rating of the resistor should be at least 0.8 P.
Provision must be made for the resistor to dissipate this
power without overheating itself or nearby equipment.
Values of 100 W per phase are not uncommon.
Example
A Control Techniques 7.5 kW Unidrive with eight motors of
0.75 kW each connected by 140 m of multicore cable. 400 V
A.C. supply, maximum output frequency 50 Hz, switching
frequency 6 kHz. Thermal relays in all motor circuits.
Step 1
cable capacitance - 130 pF 140 8 - 0.146 laF
motor capacitance -- 1 nF x 8 -- 0.008 l.tF
C = 0.154 gF
Chapter 11.6 241.
Step 2 Using k - 1.25, as motor power is only 6 kW on a
7.5 kW drive, In - 16 A:
I c h - 1.41 1 6 ( 2 . 1 - 1.25)
= 19.2A
Step 3
Vo.c.- 1.41 400 x 1.1
= 622 V
Step 4
Lmin - ( 2 0.541 x 10-6/3) (622/19.2) 2
= 378 gH
Step 5 Allowing 5 per cent voltage drop, x - 0.05
Lmax - (0.05 400)/(2 7r 50 x v/3 16)
= 2.3mH
Step 6 2 378 gH < 2.3 mH so any value between these
limits can be used.
Use 2 mH to minimise the high frequency current, to prevent
premature operation of thermal relays.
Step 7
P- 0.8 6 103 0.154 10 .6 6222
= 286 W
This is excessive, so reduce the switching frequency to
3 kHz
P- 0.8 3 103 0.154 10 -6 6222
= 143W
Step 8 This loss will be acceptable if:
P<0.2XTrX50X2X
I
10 -3 1 6 2 - 16.1W
The calculated loss exceeds this limit, so a resistor should be
connected in parallel with each choke. The resistor value is
given by:
R - v/[2 x 2 x 10-3/(0.154 x 1 0 - 6 ) ] - 161 f~
The value is not critical so choose 150 f~ or 180 f~ with a
power rating of 100 W.
Position of Chokes in Multiple Motor
Configurations
Note that these guidelines apply to single continuous or
multiple contiguous runs of cable. Multiple parallel runs - as
might be used where several motors are driven from a single
drive - cause much higher charging current than the
equivalent contiguous run and should be avoided. This is
because the inductance of the cable reduces the effect of the
capacitance, but this benefit is lost for multiple parallel
sections. If multiple cables are unavoidable then output line
inductors should be used (Refer to Figure 11.12).
It is not recommended that any drive be operated with more
than 300m of cable. If this is necessary then it is recom-
mended that an output filter be used to remove the switching
frequency component of the output-sometimes referred to
as a sinusoidal filter. These are available from specialist
filter suppliers.
242 A.C. DRIVE MOTOR CABLING: O u t p u t Chokes for Long M o t o r Cable Applications

a ~ b

Output
Line
Inductor

\
incorrect wiring for correct wiringfor
multipleparallelcable ~~" multipleparallelcable
run V run

o o

__L

v/ preferred wiring for

multiple motor
connection

Figure 11.12 Position of chokes in multiple motor configurations. (Individual motor protection relays are also
required- not shown)

TYPICAL RECOMMENDED CABLE SIZE Table 11.10 Cable cross-section recommendations

Drive current mm 2 AWG

The cross-sectional area of the cable conductors determines rating
the resistance. The recommendations given in drive
instruction manuals are minimum sizes based on ensuring 2.1 1.5 16
2.8-12 2.5 14
safe operation without unacceptable heating of the cable.
16-25 4.0 10
Where long cable runs are used it is advisable to check the
34 6.0 8
voltage drop. 40-46 10.0 6
Typical cable cross-section recommendations are as given in 6O 16.0 4
Table 11.10 for both A.C. supply cables and A.C. motor 70 25.0 4
96-124 35.0 2
cables for three-phase applications.
156 50.0 2/0
Standard codes of practice can be applied to ensure accep- 180 7O.0 2/0
table voltage drop. In most cases the current used for the 202-300 95.0 3/0
voltage-drop calculation will be the maximum continuous
motor current, but if in a particular application the overload
capability is needed at or above base speed then the overload
current should be used (e.g. 150 per cent of full load current).

7 POWER SUPPLY CONSIDERATIONS
The A.C. power source can have a critical impact on the
performance and reliability of any power conversion
equipment including drives.
Most variable-speed drives, from leading suppliers, are
designed to operate from typical A.C. power sources found
in industrial plants and commercial installations throughout
the world. Nonetheless it is vitally important that care is
taken with all installations to ensure that the supply is
understood and, should any abnormal conditions exist, that
steps are taken to overcome possible difficulties.
Three possible abnormal conditions need consideration.
HIGH OR LOW LINE VOLTAGE
Drive products are now available to cater for wide, but
clearly defined, spreads of supply voltage. Operation outside
the defined voltage range is not permitted. Supplies, which
fluctuate greatly outside these boundaries may well cause
damage to the drives.
If high or low-voltage conditions are suspected, it is
recommended to take a chart recording of the line voltage to
determine the extent of the problem. Ensure that this is done
over a worst-case period which may for example be when
large loads elsewhere in the installation are running. A
transformer (isolation or auto) with taps will usually correct
a high or low supply voltage condition.
SUPPLY FREQUENCY VARIATIONS
For almost every application served by an electricity supply
utility, supply frequency variation will never be a problem.
Care should be taken, however, if variable-speed drive
equipment is operated from a generator set. In this case, for
most A.C. drives, with an uncontrolled (diode) supply con-
verter, there is no cause for concern. For D.C. drives, where
the control has to synchronise to the supply, it is important
that the supply frequency remains within the defined
range (for the Control Techniques Mentor/Quantum this is
48-62 Hz) and the rate of change of frequency is below 5 Hz
per second.
SUPPLY IMPEDANCE/FAULT LEVEL
Low Supply Impedance
High-quality commercial variable-speed drives are designed
to operate from typical industrial power distribution systems
with a maximum fault level of ten to twenty times the drive
rated power. Problems can also occur if a drive system is
installed very close to the main power supply or power-
factor correction capacitors, both of which present low
supply impedance to the drive.
A.C. drives with D.C. link chokes are in general unaffected
by low supply impedance.
Chapter 11.7 243
A.C. drive systems without a D.C. link choke can have prob-
lems if the r.m.s, fault current is not limited to approximately
16 kA. This could result in damage to the drive.
D.C. drives could be damaged if operated on low-impedance
supplies. In such a case failure of the power semiconductors
could occur due to excessive rate of change of current
(di/dt). This characteristic is not unique to specific drive
products but a limitation of the available power semi-
conductors.
In cases where the supply impedance is too low, addi-
tional reactance (inductance) needs to be added in series in
the line feeding the drive. This reactance may be in different
forms:
a iron-cored, nonsaturating reactor/choke
b air-cored reactor/choke
c isolating transformer
Note: autotransformers are not recommended as they present
very low inductance.
A good rule of thumb is to ensure a total supply impedance
of approximately 4 per cent reactance. As a rule of thumb, or
where information about the supply is not known, it is good
practice to fit line reactors of 2 per cent.
Typical calculation:
line voltage - 400 V
line frequency = 50 Hz
supply impedance = 1%
drive rating = 100 kW
To calculate required inductance for total impedance of
4 per cent:
1 per unit impedance - (v/3 x (400)2)/100 x 103
= 2.77 ft
1 per unit inductace - 2.77/(2 x 7r 50)
= 8.8mH
required line r e a c t a n c e - 3% x 8.8 mH
= 264 ~tH
A suitable choice would be a 265 ~tH/200 A three-phase
reactor/choke.
High Supply Impedance
In cases where long power lines are feeding a drive, the
supply can have a high impedance. Such installations are
often prone to interruption and switching effects which
require consideration in relation to supply voltage, as dis-
cussed earlier.
Another very important effect of high supply impedance is
associated with multiple drive installations. All power
electronic drives comprise power semiconductor switches,
which sequentially switch the supply lines to a load. As one
244 POWERSUPPLYCONSIDERATIONS:Supply Impedance/Fault Level
drive switches its load onto the line, the voltage at the
terminals of the drive dips as the current drawn flows
through the high line impedance. This voltage dip, or notch,
is not only seen by the instigating drive but by other drives as
well. This notch may be so severe as to cause power semi-
conductors of an adjacent drive to falsely turn on by a pro-
cess known as the Miller effect (high dV/dt charging internal
parasitic capacitance within the power semiconductor
itself). This notching effect is sometimes described by users
as 'the drives talk to one another', or 'one drive interferes
with another especially during periods of high acceleration
or heavy load demands'.
This is not so much of a problem with A.C. drives where
controlled rectifiers are less common on the supply, but can
be critical for many D.C. drive systems.
High-quality drives contain snubber networks (resistor/
capacitor bypass networks) and transient voltage suppressors
(MOVs-metal oxide varistors), which protect the power
devices and ensure reliable operation in typical industrial
8 THERMAL DESIGN OF ENCLOSURES
GENERAL
The reliable trouble-free operation of all industrial equip-
ment is dependent upon operation in an environment for
which that product was designed. The single most significant
reason for the premature failure of a variable-speed drive
controller is operation in excessive ambient temperature.
The design of the enclosure in which the drive is housed is
therefore of critical importance.
The following guidance covers the basic calculations
necessary to ensure that heat generated by a drive can be
satisfactorily transferred to the air surrounding the cubicle.
When making the calculation remember to take account of
all power dissipated in the cubicle not simply that generated
by the drive. Further, in the internal layout of the cubicle,
where possible, avoid placing electronic components at
the top (hot air rises!), and where possible provide fans
to circulate internal air. Remember, as a rule of thumb, an
electronic product's lifetime halves for every 7C
temperature rise!
CALCULATING THE SIZE OF A
SEALED ENCLOSURE
The enclosure itself transfers the internally generated heat
into the surrounding air by natural convection, or external
forced airflow. The greater the surface area of the enclosure
walls, the better is the dissipation capability. Remember also
situations. Sites with high impedance supplies may require
additional measures for reliable operation.
There is no easy solution to overcome this situation. Power
lines carrying drive current need to be oversized, as do any
transformers used in order to minimise the impedance. This
oversizing may need to be as high as five times that normally
considered adequate.
Multiple Drive Installations
The cross coupling of drives discussed above can be a very
serious problem. It is good practice that drives which form
part of multidrive systems should be fitted with independent
line reactors. IEC 146 recommends the fitting of line reac-
tors approximately equal to the supply reactance. This limits
the notches seen by other drives to approximately 50 per
cent of the magnitude seen without the reactors. This would
normally only be a problem in cases with high-reactance
supplies.
that only walls which are not obstructed (not in contact with
walls, floor or another hot enclosure) can dissipate heat to
the air.
Calculate the minimum required unobstructed surface area
Ae for the enclosure as follows:
Ae = P/[k(Ti - Tamb)]
where Ae = unobstructed surface area (m2), P = power dis-
sipated by all heat sources in the enclosure (W),
Tamb = maximum expected ambient temperature outside the
enclosure (C), Ti=maximum permissible ambient tem-
perature inside the enclosure (C) and k = heat transmission
coefficient of the enclosure material (Wm -2 c - l ) .
Example
To calculate the size of an enclosure to accommodate the
following:
two Control Techniques 4 kW Unidrive drives
EMC filter for each drive
braking resistors mounted outside the enclosure
maximum ambient temperature inside the enclosure
40C
maximum ambient temperature outside the enclosure
30C
maximum dissipation of each drive = 190 W
maximum dissipation of each EMC filter = 25 W
total dissipation = 2 (190 + 25) = 430W
 Chapter 11.8 245

The enclosure is to be made from painted 2 mm (3/32 inch)

sheet steel having a heat transmission coefficient of
5.5 Wm-2C -1. Only the top, the front and two sides of the
iiiii!iiiiiiiiiiii
enclosure are free to dissipate heat.
The minimum required unobstructed surface area Ae for the
enclosure is as follows:
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii
Ae - P/[k(Ti - Tamb)] H
= 4 3 0 / [ 5 . 5 ( 4 0 - 30)]
= 7.8m 2

If we select an enclosure with a height (H) of 2 m, a depth

(D) of 0.6 m, and minimum width Wmin"

dissipating surfaces > 7.8 m 2

top + front + (2 sides) > 7.8 m 2
(Wmin x 0.6)+(Wmin X 2)+(2 X 0.6 2 ) > 7.8m 2
Wmin > ( 7 . 8 - 2.4)/2.6
>2.1m
If the enclosure is too large for the available space it can be
made smaller only by:
reducing the power dissipation in the enclosure
reducing the ambient temperature outside the enclosure
increasing the permissible ambient temperature inside
the cubicle if possible by derating equipment in line with
manufacturer's recommendations
increasing the number of unobstructed surfaces of the
cubicle
CALCULATING THE AIR FLOW IN
A VENTILATED ENCLOSURE
In this case the dimensions of the enclosure are determined
only by the requirements to accommodate the equipment
making sure to provide any recommended clearances. The
equipment is cooled by forced air flow. This being the case it
is important in such an arrangement to ensure that the air
flows over the heat-generating components to avoid loca-
lised hot spots.
The minimum required volume of ventilating air is given by:
V -- 3kP/(Ti - Tamb)m 3 hr -1
where V - cooling air flow (m3hr-1), P - - power dissipated
by all heat sources in the enclosure (W), Tamb = maximum
expected ambient temperature outside the enclosure (C),
Figure 11.13 Enclosure having front, sides and top pane/
free to dissipate heat
Ti = maximum permissible ambient temperature inside the
enclosure (C) and k = r a t i o of Po/Pi where Po is the air
pressure at sea level and pi is the air pressure at the instal-
lation. Typically, a factor of 1.2 to 1.3 can be used to allow
for pressure drops in dirty air filters.
Example
To calculate the size of an enclosure to accommodate the
following"
three Control Techniques 15 kW Unidrive drives
EMC filter for each drive
braking resistors mounted outside the enclosure
maximum ambient temperature inside the enclosure
40C
maximum ambient temperature outside the enclosure
30C
maximum dissipation of each d r i v e - 570 W
maximum dissipation of each EMC f i l t e r - 60 W
total dissipation- 3 x (570 + 6 0 ) - 1890 W
Then the minimum required volume of ventilating air is
given by:
v- 3 k P / ( V , - Ta,.b)
= (3 1.3 1890)/(40 - 30)
= 737 m 3 hr -1
246 INSTALLATIONAND MAINTENANCE: Motors
9 INSTALLATION A N D M A I N T E N A N C E OF STANDARD
MOTORS A N D ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT
MOTORS
General
The installation, commissioning and maintenance of indus-
trial power drive equipment requires continuous regard to
the statutory requirements of safety in industry. Industrial
power-supply voltages and high-speed high-torque drive
systems, unless handled properly, can represent great
danger.
All equipment must be used in accordance with the duty,
rating and conditions for which it is designed, and particu-
larly the power supply must be in accordance with that
shown on rating plates, subject to standard tolerances.
The loading and speed of the driving motors must not exceed
those of their rating plates or any overload ratings agreed
formally with the makers.
No attempt should be made to open inspection apertures or
similar openings unless the drive is known to be fully iso-
lated from the power supply and the motor cannot be rotated
from the load side.
All safety and protection guards and covers should be in
place before motors are started.
Power and control cables associated with the drive must be
of adequate current-carrying capacity and voltage grade for
the duty, and properly mounted and secured.
The power supply system to which the drive is connected
must have an adequate short-circuit fault clearance level.
Motors must not be operated under ambient conditions for
which they were not designed. Ambient air temperature
should not exceed 40C or the temperature agreed nor should
cooling air be contaminated in any way injurious to the
machine, nor restricted in flow into ventilating inlet apertures.
Storage
If motors are stored prior to installation, storage conditions
should be such as to avoid deterioration; otherwise the
manufacturer's guarantees could be invalidated. Motors,
either cased or not, should never be stored out of doors.
Packing cases are invariably not weatherproof.
Storage should be clean, dry and free of vibration which can
cause brinelling damage to motor beatings. Extremes of
temperature and humidity can cause injurious condensation.
Installation
Motors should be mounted on rigid, level foundations or
flange mountings, which are horizontal or vertical or as
specified. Mounting rigidity is important, particularly with
brush gear machines, since motor frame vibration can cause
excessive brush wear. Any deflection of the motor flame by
bolting down upon an out-of-true base must be avoided by
the use of shim washers.
It is wise to blank off any open motor apertures during
installation to avoid foreign material entering the motor. If
wide temperature and humidity variations are possible, heat
should be carefully applied to ensure that the motor is dry
internally before starting up.
A check of the insulation values of the windings to earth by
the Megger test should indicate not less than 20 Mf~. If
below, refer to the supplier who will advise suitable action. It
is strongly recommended that during such insulation tests
any electronic apparatus associated with the motor should
first be disconnected, otherwise damage may occur.
With brush gear machines, both D.C. and A.C., check that all
brushes are in position, can be moved freely in their holders,
press on to their running surface with equal pressure; that
they are fully bedded on to this running surface, and that all
connections are tight.
If practicable, rotate the shaft by hand to check freedom and
smoothness.
If a speed/position feedback device is fitted, check any
coupling for security and accuracy of fitting. If the feedback
device is stub-shaft mounted, check for concentric running
(0.05 mm or 0.002 in eccentricity at the stub shaft end may
be regarded as maximum) and for correct axial positioning,
with the brushes in the centre of the commutator width in the
case of a D.C. tachogenerator.
Ensure that there is no obstruction to the cooling air flow to the
motor, and that the body/fin casing of a totally-enclosed fan-
cooled machine is clean, free from debris and that the air inlet
to the fan cowl is unobstructed. With screen-protected motors
ensure that inlet and outlet ventilating apertures are clear.
Check that the motor is not in the direct path of hot air flow
from other machines or equipment, and that all guards and
covers are in position.
If the motor has a forced vent fan unit, ensure that the fan
impeller rotates in the correct direction. This needs to be
done by careful inspection, since the wrong direction of
running does not necessarily reverse the airflow but can
reduce the air volume below 60 per cent flow, with a risk of
winding burnout. An arrow normally indicates the correct
direction. If in doubt refer to the manufacturer. If this is not
convenient, a good indication can be obtained by checking
the airflow in both directions of impeller rotation. The lar-
gest volume and the highest air velocity usually indicate the
correct direction of rotation.
The fitting of pulleys and couplings to motor shafts calls
for care if these are of interference fit, since excessive
axial pressure or impact force can easily damage modem
precision bearings. Heating the pulley or coupling prior to

mounting is good practice, as is supporting the motor shaft at
the nondrive end before pressing on. The use of a tapped
hole in the motor shaft end, now a standard with many
manufacturers, to pull on a pulley or coupling is obviously
a sound technique.
For motors fitted with brush gear especially, it is good
practice to specify a balanced pulley. Most manufacturers
balance rotors to good standards; a seriously out-of-balance
pulley can adversely affect brush gear performance, and in
any case imposes excess load on bearings.
Correct belt alignment and tensioning is required for best
belt life as for best motor beating life. Correct coupling
alignment is important in avoiding excessive radial and axial
loading on the motor bearings.
Perhaps the most common coupling between the motor and
its load is the vee belt, which often allows the use of higher
speed, more efficient, more economically priced driving
motors. It also acts as a buffer against mechanical shock
loading between the motor and load. The wedge action of the
vee belt gives increased friction between belt and pulley for
a given belt tension. This reduces belt slip, thus extending
belt life and, by reducing motor bearing side loading by
comparison with the equivalent fiat belt, extends beating
life also.
Another advantage of the vee belt is that wide drive ratios of
up to four or five to one are practical, as are short centre
drives when space is limited. The shortest spacing between
centres approximates to the diameter of the larger vee
pulley.
Modem belts stretch in service initially, before stabilising.
It is therefore most important to check vee belt tension
after a few days' running and to readjust the tension to
recommended values.
Maintenance Guide
Maintenance involves much that is self evident yet is of
increasing importance where emphasis is upon minimum
downtime and production loss. Regular inspections ensure
that motors remain clean and dry externally and internally.
Oil particularly must not be allowed to accumulate on motor
brush gear, commutator and slip tings. Ventilating grills and
air filters should not be allowed to become obstructed.
Compressed air for cleaning should be used with care, so that
contaminants are not driven inside the motor or between
winding coils. Hand bellows or a small centrifugal blower
are more appropriate.
The majority of motors below 100 kW rating have sealed
bearings, which are capable of good performance over many
years of service. In fact, many such bearings are shielded
rather than sealed, for true seals at modem motor shaft
speeds would produce significant additional bearing heating.
Where after several years' running a motor is taken out for
a service overhaul, it is customary to replace the bearings, or
at least melt out the existing grease, clean up and replace
with the correct specification of heated grease ensuring its
penetration onto the bearing running tracks.
Motors with provision for bearing regreasing should be
given four or five strokes from a grease gun filled with the
Chapter 11.9 247
correct grease for the bearing type and speed, at intervals of
approximately 2/4000 hours determined by running speed.
Some large machines incorporate grease escape valves on
the beating housings; these bearings should be relubricated
in accordance with the lubrication plate fitted to such
machines.
Overlubrication is the most common cause of bearing fail-
ure. An overgreased beating can overheat, seriously dama-
ging the beating and changing the lubricating properties of
the grease, which in turn does further damage.
Ball and roller beatings require little attention other than
a periodic check while running for unusual noise, or signs of
overheating. Whistling noises are usually caused by defec-
tive lubrication, and rumblings by contaminated grease or
damaged surfaces. Bearing running temperature depends
upon loading, speed, motor and ambient temperatures.
Modem motors run quite warm and it is expected that
bearing temperature will be slightly above that of the motor
frame for typical speeds. For high-speed motors, beating
temperature can be expected to be somewhat higher and
bearings will operate quite satisfactorily at temperatures up
to 100C, although this would be high for current designs.
Any significant change in running temperature requires
investigation, and if there are any signs of bearing damage -
heavy black staining or blueing, surface cracking, brinelling,
track indentation or excessive w e a r - t h e beating should be
replaced.
Detailed lubrication instructions are generally provided by
the manufacturer, and these should of course be followed.
Brush Gear Maintenance
For safety, isolate the drive from the electric power supply
before attempting any work within the motor.
The covers should be removed at regular intervals so that
brush gear can be inspected and cleaned. Experience with
the installation will suggest the frequency, determined by
motor use, speed, vibration level and general cleanliness.
After initial commissioning, it is wise to check brush gear at
weekly intervals to obtain an appreciation of brush gear
behaviour. When this is confirmed to be good, the intervals
can be increased with confidence.
In general, brush wear, after an initial bedding period of
a month or so, should not be less than 8/10 000 hours per
inch of brush length. Total permissible wear is to about
50 per cent of the original length. If upon examination the
brushes have not worn excessively, have an even glaze (but
not a polished shine) on the running face, are not scored or
chipped or broken, slide freely in the brush boxes, are not
discoloured and have flexible conductors correctly attached,
then they can be returned to service.
Any dust accumulation on the brush gear can be removed by
a stiff brush or an air blower, and in replacing the brush
ensure that the flexible connection is securely fixed and free
of any obstruction.
Brush contact pressure is fixed by the manufacturer in the
case of tensator clock spring-type tensioning. Both this and
spring-arm-type tensioning can be checked with a spring
248 INSTALLATION
AND MAINTENANCE: Motors
balance. As a general rule, brush pressure should be around
0.2 kgcm -2 of brush area for speeds up to 2500min-1
0.25 kgcm -2 for higher speeds and for traction machines
subject to high vibration levels, 0.3 kgcm -2.
With spring-arm brush tensioning, adjustment can be made
by using alternative slots on the arms. However, changes
from those set by the manufacturer should only be made for
good reason.
In fitting new brushes, it is important that brushes of the
originally fitted grade are used and carefully bedded in, one
brush at a time. Lift each brush in the holder and place a long
strip of grade 0 glass paper, abrasive side to the brush,
between the brush and the running surface. Draw the glass
paper backwards and forwards following the curved surface
of the commutator or slip ring to ensure that the whole face
of the brush is shaped to the correct curve. Repeat for each
brush in turn, ensuring that carbon and glass dust is kept out
of the motor. Never use carborundum paper, the particles of
which can embed permanently in the brush face and there-
after score the commutator surface.
Any disturbance of the brush box mounting arm holding ring
position (rocker ring), requires that the ring be returned to
the previous position precisely and clamped. Its position is
determined for the best commutation during the manu-
facturer's testing and marked with paint or a stamped mark
on the rocker ring.
Brushes are reaching the end of their useful life when worn
down to about 50 per cent of their new length. All brushes
should be changed together as a set, even though some are
less worn.
If a commutator or slip-ring surface is marked, blackened
or grooved, it can be corrected by the careful application of
a commutator stone (glass/epoxy commstone). The stone
should rest on a convenient brush arm, be kept in firm
contact with the commutator or slip-ring surface and moved
axially to ensure that the whole working surface is cleaned as
the motor shaft is rotated briskly by hand. Never attempt to
clean a commutator with power on the motor.
Serious marking or scoring requires the commutator or slip
tings to be skimmed on a lathe, to maintain concentricity.
Thereafter the skimmed surface has to be lightly polished.
Skimming will sometimes require commutator mica insu-
lation between segments to be undercut, that is, cut back to
avoid abrasive contact with the brush face. At the time of
undercutting the segment, slot edges should be given a slight
chamfer to ensure that carbon does not accumulate in the
slot. This is skilled work and requires proper training.
The running surfaces of commutators and slip rings should
have a smooth chocolate-brown appearance after a few
weeks of use. This patina indicates low friction and good
electrical performance and should not be disturbed. Slight
pinpoint white sparking at the brushes is generally non-
injurious and in fact appears to assist in the early estab-
lishment of a good patina.
In the event of marked sparking, blackening or scoring of the
running surface, inspect for rough areas, eccentricity or flats
developing. With commutators, inspect also for protruding
or recessed copper segments or high-slot micas. Depending
upon the severity of the cause, the damaged surface may be
cleaned with a strip of glass paper or a commutator stone.
Again it is stressed that these operations should only be
carried out by a skilled operator. If this correction proves
unsuccessful, skimming between lathe centres, and mica
undercutting in the case of the commutator, will be
necessary.
A common cause of poor commutation, excessive brush
wear rates and commutator scoring or blackening is low
brush current density for prolonged periods. Driving a D.C.
motor mechanically with no current flow through the bru-
shes would result in very high brush wear rates and damage
to the commutator surface. Current flow through the brush/
commutator contact area and also the presence of some
water vapour in the atmosphere are essential to good brush
gear performance. It appears that a state of ionisation in this
contact area, with carbon and water molecules present,
provides the lubrication necessary and, as previously men-
tioned, a little pinpoint white sparking helps.
In general, at least 60 per cent of the nameplate current
should, on average duty, flow through the brushes. This is
easy to assess in terms of current density, knowing that half
the total number of brushes are connected to the positive and
half to the negative armature terminals. By measuring the
cross section of each brush and multiplying that area by half
the brush number, the total brush area per terminal is known.
The current density for standard motor designs should not be
less than 77 mA/mm 2 (50 A/in2). Where the current density
is below 60 per cent of full-load current continuously, it can
be raised by removing one brush per brush arm from the
commutator track, leaving an equal number of brushes on
each brush arm. If in doubt, the motor manufacturer should
be consulted.
ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT
General
It is essential that electrical equipment is isolated from the
incoming supply and that sufficient time is allowed for any
internal supplies to discharge fully before any work or
internal adjustment is started.
In general terms there is little need, if any, for routine
maintenance of modern power electronic equipment since
the solid-state technology involved simply has no compo-
nents, beyond power fuse gear, which require planned
replacement. However, there are occasions when work is
required; for example, where an electronic control fault is
suspected it may be useful to monitor important supply
voltages within the equipment or to substitute a spare printed
circuit board. The following points are pertinent.
Siting of Equipment
In both A.C. and D.C. applications, important considerations
apply to the siting of the drive module. A primary consid-
eration is ventilation, which is essential to allow the drive to
perform to its full specification.
Other vital considerations are ambient temperatures,
humidity and purity of the cooling air. This is especially
important in locations where carbon black or flammable

solvents are present. Therefore the siting of the drive has to
be carefully planned and in severe cases ducting may have to
be arranged to carry air from outside the area or building.
The ambient temperature of the air drawn into the ducting
should also be taken into account, to ensure that the heatsink
is able to dissipate the heat generated by the output devices.
Normal limits of ambient temperature for electronic drive
modules are - 1 0 C to +40C before alternative methods of
cooling have to be considered. If ambient temperature falls
below -10C, controlled heating may be necessary.
Drive cubicles typically have separate cooling-path venti-
lation built into the panels. When siting these cubicles, care
must be taken to ensure that the inlet and outlet vents are not
obstructed in any way by other equipment (which in itself
may generate heat) or by any other structure.
Ventilator Systems and Filters
Low power electronic equipment is often cooled by
natural convection via an arrangement of electrically iso-
lated heatsinks which themselves form part of the equipment
structure.
Higher power equipment is most often housed in wall-
mounting or freestanding cubicles and frequently has
a ventilation system consistent with the environmental rating
of the enclosure itself. This may in its simplest form be a
totally enclosed cubicle of sufficient volume to ensure that
the dissipation over the surface area of the exposed sides is
adequate for the heat generation within. Next would be a
simple louvre system which, beyond ensuring that the
louvres are not restricted in any way, would present no
reason for concern.
Forced-air arrangements, utilising an air input and exhaust
route, are very common and normally include air filtering of
a conventional paper or fibre type. It is unusual, however, to
have a system which warns of filter contamination, apart
from for filters normally guarding the power electronics
themselves against overtemperature, and consequently it
is important to check such filters regularly. This service
period is normally defined by experience of the actual
environment.
Filters are most commonly of the disposable or nonreusable
kind. However, some may be reused and the recommenda-
tions of the supplier should be followed.
Do not, ever, risk operating the equipment without the filter
element; the atmosphere may carry electrically conductive
particles, which will eventually cause malfunctioning if
Chapter 11.9 249
allowed to settle on the electronic equipment where high
voltages are nearly always present.
Condensation and Humidity
Generally, equipment intended for use in areas of high
humidity or condensation is designed to minimise the pos-
sible generation of water vapour and water droplets since the
presence of water in any form is definitely undesirable in
equipment of this type. Anticondensation heaters are com-
monly used and should be regularly checked for correct
functioning.
Early in the service of any installation it is advisable to
watch for the formation of any unexpected condensation, es-
pecially in situations where the equipment is not powered-up
continuously and where temperature cycling may be a con-
tributory factor. In such cases anticondensation heaters
should be retrofitted.
Fuses
Fuses have a finite life and may be expected to fail due to
fuse-element ageing, especially if the normal current lies
towards the upper end of the fuse rating. Many fuse-gear
manufacturers quote life expectancy under stipulated con-
ditions, but the operating conditions of most installed sys-
tems are seldom known and only an average life can be
rightfully expected from any fuse.
Consequently, when encountering an open-circuit fuse it is
important not to immediately assume that there is a specific
reason for failure other than ageing. However it must be
stressed that, before a fuse is replaced without further
question, it is most important that appropriate electrical tests
are made to ensure that there are no obvious short circuits or
overloads in the protected circuit. Extensive supplementary
damage can be caused to both electronic equipment and
associated electrical equipment by replacing fuses or reset-
ting circuit breakers before conclusive tests.
Modern fuse technology is extremely complex, with many
special-purpose fuses being specified, especially so in the
protection of semiconductor devices. It is not acceptable to
simply fit a replacement fuse of the same current rating. The
replacement fuse must be either a direct replacement of
the original or an exactly comparable type of approved and
listed characteristic demonstrating equivalent current, vol-
tage and rupturing capability. If necessary, the fuse supplier
or manufacturer should be asked for verification. Replace-
ment of any fuse by one of a greater value is rarely necessary
and any such decision should be carefully considered.
250 COMMOND.C. Bus CONFIGURATIONOF A.C. DRIVES: General
10 C O M M O N D.C. BUS CONFIGURATION OF A.C. DRIVES
GENERAL
Connecting the D.C. links of several drives together allows
regenerated/braking energy from one drive to be reused by
another motoring drive. This improves the efficiency of the
system, since the regenerated energy is not wasted in braking
resistors and the motoring drive draws substantially less
power from the mains. This can be particularly advanta-
geous where one or more drives may be holding back a line
to provide tension. It is also often applied in high-perfor-
mance servodrive applications where substantial amounts of
energy are used in accelerating and braking drives.
As well as offering advantages in terms of simplifying
energy management, a common D.C. bus system also has the
potential to simplify the mains connection and protection, as
usually only a single mains feed is needed.
There are disadvantages, however, and care needs to be
taken in the implementation of such a system. Direct con-
nection of the D.C. links of A.C. drives usually entails the
direct connection of the D.C. link capacitor banks of all
inverters. These capacitors store substantial amounts of
energy. Further, these electrolytic capacitors are subject to
ageing, and failure can be rapid, unpredicted and usually to
short circuit. In such an event, all the stored energy in all the
D.C. link capacitors of the group of drives will be fed into
the fault, causing substantial damage to the original failed
drive as well as to others. Protection can be afforded through
the provision of fusing between the linking D.C. busbar and
the individual drives in both lines.
Care needs also to be taken in respect of any requirement for
isolation of individual drives, which would now need to be
undertaken at the D.C. link. The availability of D.C.
switchgear (and fuses) is much less than for A.C. equiva-
lents. D.C. fuses do have to be rated at higher voltage levels
than the standard ratings used for A.C. protection.
The subject of fusing in common D.C. bus systems is
somewhat confusing only in respect of the policy of some
drive manufacturers which do not recommend fusing.
Although in some cases the fuses are integral to the con-
verter package and are therefore present but not discussed, in
others reliance is clearly placed upon electronic monitoring
and control to protect the drive. The merits of such a phi-
losophy are unclear and it must be assumed are based upon
a reliance on the integrity of the D.C. link components,
notably the D.C. link capacitors. Control Techniques
recommends suitably rated fuses in each D.C. connection.
Having decided upon a common D.C. bus system, it is
necessary to decide upon the form of power-supply conec-
tion. This is dependent upon many factors including:
requirement to regenerate energy back into the mains
supply
fail-safe braking requirement
supply harmonic limitations
use of standard/commercial components
whether all the drives to be connected to the bus are, or
can be, of the same rating
the peak current to be drawn from the system in relation
to the individual ratings of the drives
the location of the D.C. bus soft-start/charging circuit
within individual drives
A number of mains supply converter configurations are
possible including:
a simple bulk uncontrolled rectifier
utilising the mains supply converter in one of the drives
to supply all drives
feed mains supply converter of all drives and connect the
D.C. buses of all drives; effectively hard paralleling of
all drive input rectifiers
a bulk four-quadrant controlled rectifier
a bulk four-quadrant PWM converter
A simple chart showing linkage between requirements and
the alternative solutions may be helpful in making the initial
selection, Table 11.11.
A SIMPLE BULK UNCONTROLLED
RECTIFIER
The use of a bulk input converter is strongly preferred if the
installation requires drives of different ratings to be con-
nected together. The D.C. link chokes of standard drives
tend not to be in circuit if the drive is supplied with D.C., and
hence it is necessary to supply an external choke the speci-
fication of which depends on the total rating of the drives
connected to the D.C. link. Splitting the inductance equally
between the positive and negative D.C. link can provide
some impedance to limit fault current if an earth fault occurs
in either the positive or negative D.C. link.
It is also necessary to provide an external rectifier module.
Inrush current limiting is not required when the individual
drives have their soft-start circuits (inrush resistors and
relays/contactors) in circuit until the D.C. link is at the
correct level.
A high-voltage polypropylene capacitor should be fitted
across the D.C. terminals of the rectifier module. This helps
to reduce the reverse recovery voltage spikes, and can also
help provide a path for RFI currents in applications where
long motor cables are used.
The varistor network on the input phases provides protection
against line-line and line-earth voltage surges. This is re-
quired as the A.C. input stages of the drives are not being
used.
Such a configuration is shown in Figure 11.14.
The D.C. link inductance should be selected to keep the D.C.
link time reasonably constant. As the D.C. link capacitance
is the arithmetic sum of the capacitance of all connected
drives, the required D.C. link inductance can be calculated as
 Chapter 1 1 . 1 0 251

Table 11.11 Linkage between requirements and alternative solutions

A simple bulk Supply converter in Hard paralleling A bulk four-quadrant A bulk four-quadrant
uncontrolled one drive to supply of all drive input controlled rectifier PWM converter
rectifier all drives rectifiers
Regenerate energy no no no yes yes
back into the
mains supply

Fail-safe braking if braking if braking if braking if braking if braking

requirement resistor fitted resistor fitted resistor fitted resistor fitted resistor fitted
Supply harmonic 6 pulse 6 pulse
limitations
12 pulse 12 pulse

Use of standard/ 6 pulse 6 pulse

commercial
components 12 pulse 12 pulse

All drives to be unimportant unimportant unimportant to unimportant unimportant

connected to the but unlikely ensure good
bus are, or can current sharing
be, of the same rating

The peak current determines the only possible if as current sharing determines the determines the
drawn from the rating of the peak rating < rating will not be perfect rating of the rating of the
system in relation rectifier of an individual even in this balanced rectifier rectifier
to the individual drive rating system safety margins
ratings of the drives are needed
The location of the needs to be between the D.C. bus connection and the D.C. link capacitor in the drive
D.C. bus soft start/
charging circuit
within individual drives

Note: where used, the more the better

+ --

Lb. C. + D. C. link

drive A
dk
Ii | n - D. C. link

fuses ,r----!, + D. C. link

drive B
0.47 IJF
a!
'I V--!, - D. C. link
polypropylene

Z (typical)

n n + D. C. link

drive C
lib m - D . C. link
'I , l |

varistor
network Loot.

D.C. bus

Figure 11.14 Common D.C. bus fed from a simple bulk uncontrolled rectifier for drives with internal current limits
252 COMMOND.C. Bus CONFIGURATIONOF A.C. DRIVES: Uncontrolled Rectifier

follows: current sharing is good. However, a 10 per cent derating is

strongly recommended to allow for small imbalances which
1/LD.c. -- 1/Ldrive 1 + 1/Ldrive2 -Jr-''' will exist.

where Ldrivel, Ldrive2 etc. are the design values of the chokes Such a configuration is shown in Figure 11.16.
fitted in the standard drives.
In the design of such systems a number of further issues need
to be considered including:

USING THE MAINS SUPPLY CONVERTER
IN ONE DRIVE TO SUPPLY ALL DRIVES
FROM ITS D.C. LINK
This arrangement is possible only where the peak current
drawn from the system/group of drives is lower than the
rated current of the largest drive. This can be the case in
applications such an unwinder-winder, or a machine tool
where there is a large spindle and small axis drives.
In applications where this condition is only marginally
satisfied, use an overrated drive to facilitate this solution.
In this case no additional D.C. inductance is required as that
within the large drive is being utilised.
Such a configuration is shown in Figure 11.15.
EFFECTIVELY HARD PARALLELING OF
ALL DRIVE INPUT RECTIFIERS
If A.C. supply and D.C. link connections of drives with
different ratings are connected, unequal and disproportionate
current sharing in the input diode bridges will result, due
mainly to the different choke sizes presenting different
impedances. If drives without a D.C. link choke are to be
connected in this way then individual A.C. supply reactors
are required.
If the drives of equal rating are similarly connected, the
impedances seen on the input stages are very similar and
A.C. and D.C. power wiring should be of a star form and
not daisy chain with efforts made to equalise cable
length
drives should be located close to each other
the resistance of the A.C. fuses may help in sharing
current so it is important to use the same fuse types in
corresponding positions
deliberately adding some external resistance could help
with sharing
A.C. line chokes can be used to help sharing
as the brake threshold will be slightly different for each
drive there should be only one main brake resistor for all
the paralleled drives
A BULK FOUR-QUADRANT CONTROLLED
RECTIFIER FEEDING THE D.C. BUS
The attraction of such a system is that it can, in principle, be
realised using a standard, four-quadrant, D.C. drive con-
verter such as the Control Techniques Mentor. There are
however limitations.
First, standard D.C. drives can typically only regenerate up
to 1.15 times the r.m.s, supply voltage, making this the upper
limit for the D.C. link voltage. This link voltage is lower than
the standard rectified supply voltage of v/2 times the r.m.s.
supply voltage, and consequently the available base speed is
reduced to 1.15/v/2 = 81% of normal. This can be addressed
by feeding the converter from a step-up transformer.

braking resistor and

thermal overload

I largedriveA I
4-

J I DBR d IL
+D.C.
[--I I + w
J rq I dlL
J -D.C.
Fq I { I r

m m ~

i d a
+D.C.

I
h

r----!
I I
-D.C.

~ d h ,r'--] +D.C.

II h
'ql i~1 -D.C.

Figure 11.15 The mains converter in one drive (A) supplying all drives (B, C etc.) from its D.C. link
 C h a p t e r 11.10 253

il
I I I i t,

!--I I drive A I
J !---]

J \
J

il
I--! I i
I drive B I
m

J
\ I I

il
I--I i i t,
I drive C [
!---i n

\
I I

Figure 11.16 Hard paralleling of all drive input rectifiers

IGBT bridge V+
precharge
resistor ~
internal D.C.

[ link
capacitor
connected
via +/-
terminals to
Lf Lin D. C. bus
7 i, l
I -
-4 I v_
Cf

Figure 11.17 A four-quadrant PWM converter feeding the D.C. bus (standard Unidrive parts are enclosed by the dotted
line)

Selection of the required D.C. line inductance is important in
order to ensure that the time constant of the D.C. link is
within the control capability of the drive 'speed loop' and
ensures stable operation under light load conditions.
As the D.C. link capacitor current ripple is directly related to
the lifetime of that capacitor, it is important to keep it within
its design limits.
It is easy to see that, what sounded like one of the simplest
forms of implementing a common D.C. bus solution,
requires a significant amount of detailed engineering with
intimate knowledge of both the A.C. and D.C. drive designs.
Such a solution must therefore be undertaken in collabora-
tion with the drive manufacturer.
A BULK FOUR-QUADRANT PWM
CONVERTER FEEDING THE D.C. BUS
arrangement. The mains supply is connected to what would
normally be the motor terminals (UVW) through the input
inductors, L;,, and filter, LUand CU,as shown. The D.C. bus
connections are made to the +V and - V terminals. Another
single inverter drive, or multiple inverter drives, can be
connected across +V and - V to produce a four-quadrant
drive system with control of one or more motors. Input
inductors must be provided to give a known minimum
amount of source impedance, to allow the inverter to operate
as a boost converter and to limit the PWM switching fre-
quency related currents to an acceptable level for the con-
verter. Increasing the value of inductance will reduce the
PWM ripple current but will also have the undesirable effect
of reducing the current-loop bandwidth and the power factor.
A supply filter (formed by LUand Cf) may be required to
further attenuate switching-frequency-related distortion so
as to meet any applicable standards on mains supply har-
monics, or to prevent other equipment connected to the same
supply from being affected by high-order harmonics.

Figure 11.17 shows a PWM converter suitable for feeding a When A.C. power is first applied the D.C. link capacitance is
common D.C. bus (or a single drive). The standard Control charged through the inverter antiparallel diodes and pre-
Techniques Unidrive has been designed to operate in such an charge resistor. The resistor prevents excessive charging
254 COMMON D.C. Bus CONFIGURATION OF A . C . DRIVES: Four-Quadrant PWM Converter

current which could damage the diodes and potentially trip link voltage deviates from the set point until the load is
any input protection. Once the D.C. link capacitor is charged reduced.
the contactor is closed to short circuit the resistor for normal
As well as offering a very well regulated D.C. bus, which
operation. Note that this contactor is for precharging and is
will provide long D.C. bus capacitor life, the PWM is an
needed in addition to standard control switchgear.
elegant solution for applications requiring regeneration of
energy back into the supply. It benefits from low harmonic
This form of supply gives excellent regulation of the D.C.
distortion on the mains, although careful system design is
bus even in the event of a transient condition such as a high-
necessary to ensure that high (switching) frequency har-
speed motor reversal, as shown in Figure 11.18.
monics do not cause interference to other equipment.
The control system is seen to limit the change in D.C. link
voltage to less than 5 per cent with very rapid changes in NOTE ON EMC FILTERS FOR COMMON
power flow. In overload conditions where the D.C. link D.C. BUS SYSTEMS
power exceeds the maximum A.C. power, the PWM rectifier
will be forced into current limit. Figure 11.19 shows transient If one EMC filter is used for the complete system it is
overload operation where the PWM rectifier goes into cur- important to note that it needs to be rated for the total drive-
rent limit; however, the system remains stable and the D.C. motor cable length.

. . , , , , , . . . . , , . , . , , , . , . . , , . , . , . . . , . . . . . .

.,, , ., Voc

OA .., Ix

ov ,.~

OA ..................................... . . , . ,~ ................. ....... ,................l............... , ...... -

..................... t ............................... '...... ........................................................ ly
, . . . . . . i . . , . i . . , i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Figure 11.18 D.C. voltage regulation during a high-speed motor reversal; VD.c. (D.C. link voltage) = 180 Vldiv, time
= 200 msldiv

~ l l l l i i l l l i i l l , l l i i l i l l l l l l i | l l l i l i l i

OA l, i
r
I

t / =

i"'..... 1,./lift., t.,f '

700 V _: .........
....

OA
'1" I r ~,,.ix
# "

..... ,%. , . i i , . , , | | , , i i i i
.

Figure 11.19 D.C link voltage during transient overload; I/D.c. (D.C. link voltage)= 100 V/div, time = 20 ms/div
 Chapter 11.11 255

11 MECHANICAL VIBRATION, CRITICAL SPEED A N D

TORSIONAL DYNAMICS

GENERAL

Many mechanical drive trains, both fixed speed and variable

speed, experience vibration. As operating speeds and con-
troller performance continue to increase and motor mass and
inertia fall, the danger of resonance problems increases. This
subject area is complex and this description will be limited
to an overview of the principles, and identification of the key
sources of excitation of mechanical resonances.
The vibration level of a mechanical drive train (motor,
coupling, load etc.) is the result of imposed cyclic forces
either from residual imbalance of the rotor, or from some
other cyclic force and the response of the system to these
Figure 11.20 Two-mass torsional system
forces.
Problems tend to exist in one of three categories of appli-
where a;,,tf=torsional natural frequency (rad -1) and
cation:
fntf= torsional natural frequency (Hz), and:
(i) High-power, high-speed applications, where operation
above the first critical speed is required. K - torsional stiffness
(ii) Applications where torque tipple excites a resonance = aJp/L
in the mechanical system.
(iii) High-performance closed-loop applications, where where G - shear modulus of elasticity, J p - polar moment
the change of motor torque can be very high, the shaft of inertia of the shaft = r4/2 for a circular shaft of radius r
linking the mechanical parts twists and the control and L - length of shaft being twisted.
loop sustains the vibration.
Example
Although the torque tipple produced from modem variable-
speed drives is small, in comparison with earlier technology An A.C. motor of inertia 0.5 kgm 2 is coupled to a load of
harmonic torques are produced. It is natural, therefore, to inertia (0.4 kgm 2) via a shaft with a torsional spring constant
initially conclude that, in a system employing an electrical of 60 x 103 Nm rad- 1:
variable-speed drive, torque ripple is the problem- this is in
practice rarely the case. f~tf = (1/27r)v/[kt(J1 + Jz)/(J1 x J2)]
It is important to recognise that any system in which masses = (1/27r)v/[60 x 103(0.5 + 0.4)/(0.5 x 0.4)]
(or inertias) are coupled together via flexible elements is = 82.7 Hz
capable of vibrating. Even a simple motor and load can be
seen to be a two-mass torsional system. The system designer needs to be able to calculate the source
and expected level of the forces in the system, and design
Consider the following completely general case.
each component accordingly. Some of the important prin-
For the two inertias shown in Figure 11.20 the equations of ciples and factors to be considered are detailed below.
motion, if zero damping is assumed, are:
CAUSES OF SHAFT VIBRATIONS
.i, ( d 2 0 , / d ? ) + x(O, - = 0
INDEPENDENT OF VARIABLE-SPEED
J2(d20:/dt 2) + X(O - 0,) = 0 DRIVES
Eliminating 02 or 01 gives the general solution: Consider first the causes of vibration that are entirely inde-
pendent of a variable-speed drive. It is helpful to consider
0 -- A + Bt + C COS(03ntf -J- (/)) these in the following categories"
subsynchronous vibrations (vibration frequency below
where: the shaft rotational frequency)
synchronous vibrations (vibration frequency at the shaft
(.tintf -- 4 [ g ( J 1 --~ J2)/(J1 x J2)]
rotational frequency)
or super-synchronous vibrations (vibration frequency
above the shaft rotational frequency)
fntf = (1/27r)v/[K(J1 + J2)/(J1 J2)] critical speeds
256 MECHANICAL
VIBRATION, CRITICALSPEEDAND TORSIONAL DYNAMICS: Causes of Shaft Vibrations
Subsynchronous Vibrations
The most common cause of subsynchronous vibration is in
induction motor systems where beating at slip frequency, or
multiples thereof, can occur. This is due to the fact that all
electromagnetic forces in an induction motor occur at fre-
quencies equal to or a multiple of the supply frequency. The
rotational speed, however, is slightly less and mechanical
imbalance forces will be cyclic at this reduced frequency.
This is a classic example of two cyclic forces at relatively
close frequencies combining to give a low-frequency beat.
In the fault condition of an induction motor with a broken
rotor bar, the vibration at slip frequency will dramatically
increase.
Synchronous Vibrations
The most likely cause of vibrations at the shaft rotational
frequency is mechanical imbalance or shaft misalignment.
Mechanical imbalance may be simply a specification/manu-
facturing quality issue. It is surprising how common it is for
confusion as to whether the motor is balanced with the shaft
key fit or not or a half key. ISO 8821 has led to a broad
acceptance of the half-key convention. The definition of a
half key recognises that a key profiled to fill the whole
volume of the keyway is often impractical and allows a full-
length rectangular key of half height or a half-length key of
full height, the latter to be centred axially in the keyway.
Imbalance may also be due, in larger motors, to shaft
bending owing to unequal cooling or heating of the rotor.
Thermal problems are usually time dependent, and are
characterised by a gradual change in vibration with time and/
or load.
Offset rotor or an elliptical stator bore will both result in
cyclic magnetic forces at shaft rotational frequency. If the
system inertia is sufficient and it is possible to disconnect the
motor supply, this problem will suddenly disappear.
Super-Synchronous Vibrations
Super-synchronous vibrations tend to be associated with out-
of-roundness bearings or shaft asymmetry along its length
due, for example, to a single large keyway. It is unusual for
either of these issues to present a practical problem.
Wear or damage to roller bearings could be a problem and
should be considered. Initial bearing problems will result in
only a small increase in bearing vibration, but as wear
increases sudden catastrophic failure of the bearing would
occur leading possibly to shaft or even stator core damage.
Critical Speeds
As the physical ratings and, through the use of variable-
speed drive systems, operating speeds increase, motors are
being designed for application above their first (and in some
cases even their second) critical speed. Such applications
Table 11.12 Maximum motor speeds for the Leroy Somer MV induction motor (two, four and six pole)
Frame size 80 90 100/112
Maximum speed (min-1) 15 000 12 000 10000
require careful consideration and detailed analysis to avoid
problems.
The critical speed of a shaft is not solely dependent upon the
characteristics of the shaft alone, but is greatly affected by
the stiffness of the bearing supports.
The actual magnitude of the shaft and bearing housing
vibration is dependent upon the resonance curve for the
shaft; the closer it is running to the critical speed the higher
the vibration level.
Reference to the motor manufacturer must be made if there
is any concern about operating near the critical speed of the
motor. It is not common for manufacturers to publish critical
speed data. It is common for maximum motor speeds to be
published, and they provide comfort for the vast majority of
applications (Table 11.12).
APPLICATIONS WHERE TORQUE RIPPLE
EXCITES A RESONANCE IN THE
MECHANICAL SYSTEM
Torque ripple is inherent in almost all electrical variable-
speed drives. The frequency and magnitude is dependent
upon the type of converter and control applied.
Consider first the D.C. motor fed from a six-pulse converter
(so named because the resultant motor armature current has
ripple comprising six peaks for every cycle of mains fre-
quency). On a 50 Hz mains supply this ripple has a funda-
mental frequency of 300Hz (60Hz=~360Hz). In a
separately excited D.C. machine the torque is proportional to
armature current, the torque ripple has a frequency of six-
times mains frequency. The magnitude of this ripple is
typically in the range 10-20 per cent rated torque. The fre-
quency of the torque ripple is a function of the mains fre-
quency and is independent of operating speed, so provided
300 Hz (360 Hz) is not close to the natural resonant fre-
quency of the mechanical system no problems should result.
Torque ripple due to the commutation process in the motor is
also important where a small number of commutator seg-
ments are used. This component of torque ripple has a fre-
quency which is proportional to speed.
Consider now the situation with a PMW inverter system.
Although the theory of torque ripple calculation is complex,
torque ripple at six and twelve times the output frequency of
the drive are of most practical importance. The magnitude of
the torque ripple is dependent upon the magnitude of the
current harmonics which is in turn very dependent upon the
drive and control type and the demands of the application. It
is not possible to give exact calculations of torque ripple but
a general comparison by drive type is helpful.
It is interesting but of limited value to consider the mathe-
matics behind this form of resonance.
Consider again the equations of motion for a two-mass
system described in the introduction to this section; as we are
132 160 160LU/180 200 225/250 280 315
7500 6000 5600 4500 4100 3600 3000

Table 11.13 Comparison of torque ripple by drive type
Drive/motor type Torque ripple Source of ripple
level
D.C. drive a high a armature
current ripple
b very low b commutator
PWM-fed induction/PM motors very low interaction of flux harmonics
with fundamental current
SR/stepper high torque waveform inherently pulsed
considering torsional vibrations considering the relative
displacement of one body to the other, we obtain:
J(dZO/dt 2) + KO = 0
where J is the total inertia of the system.
If we have a driving force r(t), i.e. a force which is time
variant, we can obtain the differential equation of the new
system by adding the driving force to the above equation:
J(dZO/dt2) + klO = r(t)
If we consider the simple case r(t)= F cos a;t, then:
O(t) - k2 cos(a;ot - 6) + {FIk~ [1 - (co/COo)2]}cos cot
The key issue to note is that this represents a superposition of
two harmonic oscillations. The frequency of the first is the
natural frequency of the system a;o/27r, the second a;, the
frequency of the driving force.
By inspection the amplitude, p, of the oscillation at the
driving frequency depends upon a; and COo.As a; ~ aJo the
amplitude, p, tends to infinity. This is as expected because,
when the forcing frequency is the same as the natural fre-
quency of the system, resonance occurs.
HIGH-PERFORMANCE CLOSED-LOOP
APPLICATIONS
Limits to Dynamic Performance
A rule of thumb which is contained in EN 61800-2:1998/IEC
61800-2:1998 is that to avoid vibration during operation, the
speed controller of a drive must be tuned to a value such that:
fn >> 10/rR
where TR is the requested response time of the speed con-
troller i.e. the time required following the initiation of
a change in demand for an output going in the correct
direction.
This is a very global, somewhat imprecise and certainly
conservative rule of thumb, and in that context it is rea-
sonable to assume that TR is the time to reach 80 per cent of
the demanded speed following a step change in demand.
Chapter 11.11 257
Frequency of ripple
a 6 mains
b speed segments rev - 1
subharmonics of synchronous speed
harmonics of number of steps
per revolution
System Control-Loop Instability
Instability of this type is where the change of motor torque
can be very high, the shaft linking the mechanical parts
twists and the control loop sustains the vibration i.e. the
control loop acts as a positive feedback to the vibration
rather than negative, damping feedback.
As a further complication in high-performance closed-loop
systems, it needs to be remembered that the speed/position
feedback device constitutes a further third mass in the
drive train. This is practically important in some applica-
tions and can limit torque bandwidth performance to
below 1 kHz.
This form of instability is highly complex in nature and,
although practically important, is beyond the scope of
this book.
MEASURES FOR REDUCING VIBRATION
Some vibration of a motor drive train is inevitable, and
provided that resonances, critical speeds etc. are avoided, it
can be tolerated. In such systems steps can be taken to reduce
vibration and the resulting noise. The primary measures fall
into four categories:
a Improve balancing and stiffening to reduce the amount
of vibration generated and ensure proper alignment of all
rotating parts. Resonance may also occur at certain
oscillation frequencies in the surfaces of speed-con-
trolled machines. An example of this may be a tie bar
used to link the end frames of a motor. Simple measures
of applying an intermediate node would resolve any
possible problems.
b Use isolation to prevent vibrations being transmitted. A
wide variety of isolators is available including simple
rubber mats and custom machine shoes through to spe-
cialised dampers offering specific stiffness in various
directions.
c Use of appropriate nonlinear, detuner-type torsional
couplings
d Build robust foundations. The dimensioning of founda-
tions is critical to ensuring that vibrations from the
machine are not transmitted to the structure and that no
resulting damage occurs. It is not possible to include the
detailed design calculations for foundations here. It is
important to recognise the vital nature of foundations to
a successful installation.
 CHAPTER 12

Applications

m 1 TYPICAL LOAD CHARACTERISTICS AND RATINGS 259

m 2 TECHNIQUES COMMON TO MANY APPLICATIONS 264

/ 3 APPLICATION PRINCIPLES/EXAMPLES 288

It is not practical to describe all possible applications and/or
characteristics for electrical variable-speed drives. This
chapter aims to provide an insight into some of the possi-
bilities/opportunities. Typical characteristics are covered
and techniques applied in many different applications are
described. Then, a large number of examples of actual
applications are covered in varying degrees of technical
depth. This chapter is not intended as a summary of what is
possible, rather a sample of what has been done and the
fundamental applications techniques which have been
applied.

TYPICAL LOAD CHARACTERISTICS AND RATINGS

In order to successfully select and apply the optimum drive driven. The following listings of common loads could prove
system, it is necessary to understand the essential features of useful when selecting a drive.
both the alternative drive technologies and the load to be
260 TYPICALLOAD CHARACTERISTICSAND RATINGS: Metals Industries

METALS INDUSTRIES
See Table 12.1.

Table 12.1 Typical load characteristics and ratings for the metals industry

Drive duty Rating range Comments/drive type

Rolling mill up to 1000s of kW high-impact torque loading, constant kW speed range, steel works specification and
difficult environment; closed loop induction motor drives and D.C. drives.
Strip mill up to 100s of kW normal torque loading (150% maximum) constant kW speed range, steel works
specification and difficult environment; closed loop induction motor drives and D.C. drives.
Slitters and 50 to 150 kW in metal finishers' plant, environment and specification easier - normally IP23 enclosure,
perforators forced ventilation with filter is acceptable; drive often integrated with wind/unwind
stand drives; closed loop induction motor drives and D.C. drives.
Wind/unwind up to 200 kW constant kW rating over build-up range; regenerative braking with four-quadrant
operation; steel works specification and difficult environment; in metal finishers' plant
easier conditions apply as above; closed loop induction motor drives and D.C. drives.
Tube mill up to 300 kW constant kW rating over pipe diameter range; usually four-quadrant with regenerative
braking; environment can be difficult with oil spray present; closed loop induction motor
drives and D.C. drives.
Cast tube 20 to 50 kW high values of acceleration and deceleration torque required; four-quadrant
spinner regenerative, typically four to six speeds required: clean, spray, fill, spin 1,
spin 2; difficult environment; single pipe vent or box-enclosed motor with filtered
air supply; closed loop induction motor drives and D.C. drives.
Machine tool up to 150 kW mostly flange mounting and timer belt drive to 30 kW gearbox coupled above; always field
spindle 5 to 30 kW typical range control, reversible, four-quadrant drive; often with encoder for spindle orientation;
forced-vent with filter; often coaxial fan unit to 60 kW; closed loop induction motor drives;
at low powers permanent magnet servo drives and at very high powers D.C. drives are used.
Machine tool up to 200 kW foot or flange-mounting gearbox otherwise as above; permanent magnet servo drives;
table 20 to 75 kW at higher powers closed loop induction motor drives and D.C. drives are used.
typical
Wire drawing 5 to 75 kW constant kW speed range with individual motor field control on multiblock drives with
single controller; progressive speed increase between heads as wire diameter reduces and
speed increases; dancer arm tension control between heads and tension-controlled winder
take off; forced-vent motors require filter against wire end entry; four-quadrant acceleration/
deceleration; closed loop induction motor drives or at higher powers D.C. drives.

PLASTICS
See Table 12.2.

Table 12.2 Typical load characteristics and ratings for plastics

Drive duty Rating range Comments/drive type

Extruder 5 to 400 kW constant torque drive with high torque required to start a stiff extruder screw; environment
can be difficult with plastic particle and fume risk; single pipe vent of motor is advisable;
closed loop induction motor drives and D.C. drives; open loop induction motor drives may
be used in some applications.
Sheet line reeler 1.5 to 15 kW constant kW drive over reel build-up ratio but often sized as constant torque drive;
braking usually mechanical; environment can be difficult; TEFC IP55 used for
low kW ratings; closed loop induction motor drives and D.C. drives.

RUBBER
See Table 12.3.

Table 12.3 Typical load characteristics and ratings for rubber

Drive duty Rating range Comments/drive type

Banbury mixer up to 1000 kW very heavy peak duty, duty cycle rated typically: 250% full load torque for 10 s,
150% for 20 s, 100% for 120 s, 10% for 30 s repeating continuously; difficult environment
with particle rubber and carbon black, single and double pipe vent is usual with some CACA
and CACW motors used; check through Banbury manufacturers' drive specification - safety
environment; D.C. drives predominate but closed loop induction motor drives growing in use.
Callender up to 500 kW environment as above, with easy duty, constant torque, but 200% dynamic braking; check
through manufacturers' drive specification - safety involvement; closed loop induction
motor drives and D.C. drives.
 Chapter 12.1 261

CHEMICAL
See Table 12.4.

Table 12.4 Typical load characteristics and rating for chemical industries

Drive duty Rating range Comments/drive type

Mixer up to 150 kW generally constant torque but could be rising torque requirement with increasing mix stiffness;
often explosion proof or hazardous location enclosure requirement; environment can be
difficult; closed loop induction motor drives and D.C. drives.
Extruder up to 100 kW usually constant torque often explosion proof or hazardous location enclosure requirement;
environment can be difficult; closed loop induction motor drives and D.C. drives.
Stirrers and agitators up to 400 kW high reliability requirement to avoid loss of mix through drive shutdown; often rising torque with
mix stiffness; energy saving of importance as process can occupy many days; drive often outdoor
mounting with CACA weatherproof enclosed motor; in particularly exposed positions motor and
gearbox should have additional protection; closed loop induction motor drives and D.C. drives.

MATERIALS HANDLING
See Table 12.5.

Table 12.5 Typical load characteristics and ratings for materials handling

Drive duty Rating range Comments/drive type

Conveyor 0.5 to 20 kW cascading of multiple drives can be a requirement with progressive speed increase or
synchronised drives; constant torque application with dynamic or regenerative braking;
open loop induction motor drives predominate unless synchronisation/close coordination
required where closed loop induction motor drives are used.
Automated as above usually three-axis systems, constant torque four-quadrant 150% full-load torque at
warehousing starting to duty cycle rating; closed loop induction motor drives predominate; D.C. drives
can be used and in less demanding applications open loop A.C. is used.

LIFT, HOIST AND CRANE

See Table 12.6.

Table 12.6 Typical load characteristics and ratings for lifts, hoists and cranes

Drive duty Rating range Comments/drive type

Lift and hoist 30 to 100 kW four-quadrant with 200% full-load torque at starting; starting duty 90-200 starts/hour;
smooth, quiet response very important; closed loop induction motor drives are widely used;
D.C. drives are used; open loop drives are applied to non safety critical applications and
installations where smooth ride quality is not critical.
Crane 3 to 75 kW four-quadrant high torque requirement; sometimes weatherproof enclosure; operating
duty cycle requires evaluation; as for Lift and Hoist.

CONCRETE PIPE MANUFACTURE

See Table 12.7.

Table 12.7 Typical load characteristics and ratings for concrete pipe manufacture

Drive duty Rating range Comments/drive type

Pipe spinner 10 to 100 kW D.C. motor needs particular protection against water, cement and vibration; four-quadrant
multispeed drive requirement with regenerative braking; duty cycle requires evaluation;
closed loop induction motor drives can also be used.
262 TYPICALLOAD CHARACTERISTICSAND RATINGS: Fans and Blowers

FANS AND BLOWERS

See Table 12.8.

Table 12.8 Typical load characteristics and ratings for fans and blowers

Drive duty Rating range Comments/drive type

Axial flow fan 0.5 to 40 kW as cage motors specially adapted for air stream use with impeller on motor shaft;
existing motors will be retained under inverter control and may require slight derating or
slightly reduced maximum speed; inverse cube law relationship between fan kW load and
speed; noise falls as the fifth power of fan speed; open loop induction motor drives are
most widely used.
Centrifugal fan 0.5 to 500 kW cube law kW/speed relationship extends acceleration time on large fans to moderate
starting current requirement; power saving important on large fans as is top speed fan
noise; open loop induction motor drives are most widely used.
Rootes-type blowers 3 to 200 kW positive displacement blowers are constant torque and kW loading is linear with speed into
a fixed system resistance; load pulsates heavily; Rootes blowers are noisy but easily
started; power saving can be important; D.C. drives and closed loop induction motor
drives predominate; open loop induction motor drives can be used with care.

PUMPS
See Table 12.9.

Table 12.9 Typical load characteristics and ratings for pumps

Drive duty Rating range Comments/drive type

Centrifugal pumps 0.5 to >500 kW early cage motors with A and E class insulation require care over winding temperature
under inverter control; power saving on large drives important; open loop induction
motor drives predominate.

PAPER AND TISSUE

See Table 12.10.

Table 12.10 Typical load characteristics and ratings for paper and tissue manufacture

Drive duty Rating range Comments/drive type

Paper machine up to 500 kW environment difficult with water, steam and paper pulp present; pipe vent motors
and pumps common; often nonstandard A.C. and D.C. motors; usually closely coordinated drives
in a paper line; closed loop induction motor drives and D.C. drives.
Winders and reelers 5 to 100 kW constant kW range over build-up range; four-quadrant operation with regenerative
braking; IP23 motor enclosure with filter is common; closed loop induction motor
drives and D.C. drives.

PRINTING
See Table 12.11

Table 12.11 Typical load characteristics and ratings for printing

Drive duty Rating range Comments/drive type

Printing press up to 200 kW some special coaxial motor designs for series connection on line; field weakening for
wide speed range; four-quadrant with slow ramp acceleration and inch/crawl control
plus emergency stop; pipe vent where ink fumes may be a hazard; closed loop
induction motor drives and D.C. drives.
Folders, unwind and up to 100 kW often integrated in printing line drive with press drive and unwind stand drive under
rewind stands master control; otherwise as above; closed loop induction motor drives and
D.C. drives.
 Chapter 12.1 263

PACKAGING
See Table 12.12.

Table 12.12 Typical load characteristics and ratings for the packaging industry
Drive duty Rating range Comments/drive type

Boxing, stamping, up to 75 kW mostly four-quadrant with slow ramp acceleration with inch/crawl and E/stop; often
folding, wrapping integrated line control; P.M. servo drives are widely used in precision packaging
machines; closed loop induction motor drives and some D.C. drives are also used.

ENGINEERING INDUSTRIES
See Table 12.13.

Table 12.13 Typical load characteristics and ratings for engineering industries

Drive duty Rating range Comments/drive type

Test rigs of many types up to > 15 MW test rig drives require careful engineering; often high speed with fast response,
accurate speed and torque measurement, usually four-quadrant with field weakening
control; engine test rigs require special knowledge of throttle control drive/absorb
changeover and power measurement; drive control/monitoring particularly important;
closed loop induction motor drives and D.C. drives; P.M. servo drives are also used for
precision applications.

WIRE AND CABLE

See Table 12.14.

Table 12.14 Typical load characteristics and ratings for wire and cable industries

Drive duty Rating range Comments/drive type

Bunchers and stranders 10 to 150 kW generally multiple drives with cage or bow, capstan plus take-up drives under
integrated control; constant torque except take up with four-quadrant acceleration/
deceleration with inch/crawl/E-stop controls; motors require filter protection
against metal dust entry; closed loop induction motor drives and D.C. drives.
Capstan 5 to 100 kW as above.
Take-up and unwind stands 5 to 50 kW as above but constant kW over build-up ratio.
Extruders 5 to 150 kW see extruders under plastics industry but control is often integrated in cable line drives.
Armourers 10 to 150 kW as buncher/strander drive above.
Caterpillars 1.5 to 30 kW constant torque duty and low kW rating in view of low haul-off cable speeds; often
integrated in cable line drives; motor protection generally no problem; closed loop
induction motor drives and D.C. drives.

HYDRAULICS
See Table 12.15.

Table 12.15 Typical load characteristics and ratings for hydraulics

Drive duty Rating range Comments/drive type

Pump and motor test rigs
up to 250 kW hydraulic fluid is a contamination risk; pipe vent often used; generally
constant torque to medium/high speeds with four-quadrant drive; speed
torque and power measurement often required with full drive
monitoring on endurance rigs; closed loop induction motor drives
and D.C. drives.
264 TYPICALLOAD CHARACTERISTICSAND RATINGS: Electric Motors and Alternators

ELECTRIC MOTORS AND ALTERNATORS

See Table 12.16.

Table 12.16 Typical load characteristics and ratings for electric motors and alternators

Drive duty Rating range Comments/drive type

A.C. and D.C. motors/generators/ up to 15 > MW all rotating electrical machine manufacturers have elaborate test-bed
alternators test-bed rigs rigs, supplying their own rotating machines and obtaining control
systems from the drives industry to their own requirements; closed loop
induction motor drives and D.C. drives.

TEXTILES
See Table 12.17.

Table 12.17 Typical load characteristics and ratings for textiles

Drive duty Rating range Comments/drive type

Ring frame machines, up to 150 kW difficult environment in which IP55 enclosure has become a standard; ring frame
carding machines, Schrage and D.C. thyristor drive; use pipe ventilation; all drives constant torque
looms four-quadrant for speed modulation (ring frame) or best speed-holding accuracy
with slow ramp acceleration/deceleration on carding drives; special A.C. cage loom
motors are high-torque, high-slip designs; today A.C. inverter drives predominate
since their characteristics are particularly suitable.

FOODS, BISCUITS AND CONFECTION

See Table 12.18.

Table 12.18 Typical load characteristics and ratings for foods, biscuits and confection

Drive duty Rating range Comments/drive type

Extruder 5 to 400 kW hose-proof motors for plant cleaning; continuous production requiring high
levels of reliability, control and monitoring; otherwise as plastics industry extruders.
Mixer 5 to 150 kW as above and see chemical industry mixer drive.
Conveyors 0.5 to 120 kW as above and see materials handling industry conveyor drive.

2 TECHNIQUES C O M M O N TO M A N Y APPLICATIONS

SPECIAL D.C. LOADS Traction Motor Field Control

The following are a few applications of D.C. thyristor drives
in which the connected load is not the armature of a D.C.
motor. The Mentor drive is used in the following examples,
since its ease of configuration makes it very suitable for
unorthodox applications.
Traction motors, such as those used in railway locomotives,
are invariably of series-wound construction. This gives high
starting torque, since the armature current passes through the
field windings resulting in maximum flux under heavy load
conditions.

It is possible to duplicate this characteristic in a separately-
excited motor by controlling its field current by a thyristor
drive configured as a current regulator, the reference being
derived from the motor's armature current through either
a shunt or a D.C. current transformer (DCCT).
The advantages of this technique include increased motor
output (since the resistance of the field windings is not
connected in series with the armature) and the facility to set
maximum and minimum limits of field current, thus pre-
venting saturation of the magnetic circuit and improving
performance under light and overhauling load conditions,
e.g. downhill running.
The speed amplifier needs to be used as a buffer amplifier by
reducing its gain to unity. This allows the ramps, speed limits
and lower current limits to be used to control rate of change,
minimum and maximum current, respectively. A flywheel
diode needs to be connected across the output terminals to
provide a path for circulation of current (the load being in-
ductive) although sometimes this is omitted in order to enable
the drive to force field current down rapidly. The omission of
the flywheel diode also makes field reversal possible without
the use of contactors, should this requirement exist.
Battery Charging
The charging of secondary cells (e.g. lead-acid or nickel-iron
accumulator batteries) is an application which calls for the
control of current. The charging current is proportional to the
area of the plates within a cell, multiplied by the number
of cells connected in parallel. The Mentor drive range is
suitable for charging currents up to 1850 A, covering the
majority of secondary standby power-supply systems.
The voltage required for charging is proportional to the
number of cells connected in series, the charging voltage per
cell reaching a maximum when fully charged.
For this application a D.C. drive needs to be configured as a
simple current regulator, the reference input being config-
ured to control the current reference.
The current limit protects both drive and battery against
overcurrent if a fully discharged battery is connected.
If a contactor is used the charge contact might be an early-
break auxiliary, ensuring that the contactor is not required to
break current when it opens.
A more refined battery charging system might use special
application software to reduce the charging current when a
predetermined voltage is reached or, after a period of time,
give a trickle charge facility suited to such applications as
uninterruptible power supplies and standby supplies for
communications or medical equipment. Such an application
programme might be written by the user, or purchased as a
package. The programme could combine battery terminal
voltage sensing with an adjustable delay before switching or
ramping between two (preset) current levels, protecting the
battery against overcharging which could result in damage
through loss of electrolyte or overheating.
Electrolytic Processes
Examples of electrolytic processes include electroplating,
refining of copper and other metals, and chlorination cells in
Chapter 12.2 265
which sodium hypochlorite is manufactured from brine.
Deposition in such processes takes place at a rate which
is proportional to current, and therefore the converter is
configured as a current controller.
Electric Heating and Temperature
Control
A thyristor drive may be used for heating applications either
in open-loop or closed-loop control configuration, and the
application suits a D.C. drive and certain A.C. soft starts,
which are phase controlled.
Most heating elements consist of wire-wound or grid-type
resistances supported on ceramic formers. When cold, the
resistance of such elements is low in comparison with that at
normal operating temperatures, and if connected directly to
the mains supply a heavy current would flow, possibly
causing localised overheating, or hot spots, which may
reduce the life of the element. Therefore, the current limit is
used to set an upper limit to the output current of the con-
verter to give controlled warm up from the cold condition.
Actual current, and therefore the rate at which heat is pro-
duced, is set by a potentiometer and adjustments are made by
the operator according to the final temperatures to be
attained. Open-loop control would use an instrument con-
nected to a thermocouple in contact with the process
material to indicate actual temperature to the operator.
Such a system gives poor control of temperature, since it
relies on the operator to monitor actual temperature and
make the necessary adjustments. Better control can be
obtained by controlling the heater-on contact by a thermo-
stat. In this case, the current reference potentiometer deter-
mines the rate of rise of temperature, but the actual
temperature reached is controlled by the thermostat, which
opens at the set temperature and switches off the drive,
switching it on again as the temperature falls below the set
point, Figure 12.1.
True closed-loop control of temperature requires a feedback
signal proportional to temperature. This might be provided
F-
(D
c~
E
>
time, t
time, t
Figure 12.1 Thermostat control showing temperature
and current with respect to time
266 TECHNIQUES COMMON TO MANY APPLICATIONS:Special D.C. Loads
by a thermocouple amplifier or other temperature sensor
giving a linear 0-10 V output over the operating range. Other
signal ranges can be accommodated, using programmable
offsets and scale factors, but linearity is important. In such a
case, the outer control loop is configured as a temperature
loop. By comparison with the thermostat control described
above, which controls temperature by regulating the on/off
time or duty cycle of the heaters at a constant current setting,
the closed-loop system continuously regulates the current
supplied to the heaters, sensing actual temperature and
giving smoother and more precise control.
DIGITAL SLAVING
General
Modem manufacturing industry depends on high efficiency,
high accuracy and high output. This has prompted a positive
move towards continuous process production in many
industries. Where continuous processes already exist, com-
panies are looking for additional benefit from their invest-
ment by exploiting capital equipment to optimum effect and
by minimising running costs.
A continuous process can range from two machines operating
together to several hundred in an integrated process system,
as in the case of steel mills. Simple or complex, strict coor-
dination between workstations of a system is essential to
ensure optimum throughput and quality, and to reduce online
storage requirements. As the speed of the process increases
and the quality of product becomes paramount the need to
match process speeds accurately becomes obvious.
Many industries today have a requirement to run a variety of
materials of different characteristics on a single process line.
Such process lines must be configured or adjusted to accom-
modate each change of material, sometimes on a regular
basis. The ease of adjustment is a major consideration in
continuous process design.
Standards of precision in the control of speed, and in the
following of speed or position of one motor by another, have
been dramatically raised by the introduction of digital con-
trol. Such precision offers new opportunities for the process
engineer seeking throughput and quality. Digital control has
opened up wider opportunities still. The compatibility of
digital controls with programmable controllers and compu-
ters, and the convenience of communication, has made
possible centralised control, remote control, reconfiguration
by menu, data logging and even simulation of process
changes for verification before implementation.
Drive Slaving Techniques
The principle of drives following each other is not new -
many systems are available to achieve this. Possibly the
oldest method of controlling many machines with fixed
relative speeds is the line shaft. This method has been used
since the days of the steam engine to transmit power,
occasionally to whole factories, along a single axle and to
distribute it to process machines by belts or gearboxes.
The major disadvantage of this method is the physical size
of the mechanisms, associated losses and maintenance
problems. The exact speed ratios must be designed into the
mechanism as speed changing online is difficult, although it
can be achieved using taper pulleys or variable-ratio gear-
boxes. This is a physical operation, not to be achieved at the
flick of a switch or under computer control.
The introduction of electronic variable-speed drives has
permitted the removal of gearboxes and mechanical speed
variators in many applications. The speed-holding capability
of the modem motor drive system is such that in some
applications the units can simply be run in tandem, with
manual speed trimming. This does demand, unavoidably, the
constant attention of an operator to monitor material build up
or starvation between sections of a process.
To enable more accurate speed following, the speed refer-
ence for a follower can be derived from the previous section
in the system. This can be done either by using a common
speed reference or a tachometer-derived signal, Figure 12.2.
This system works well for noncritical processes but suffers
from the same problems as any analogue system, i.e. drift
and poor accuracy and repeatability. Position following is
not possible with this technique.
To enable position following, a digital system is normally
required although resolvers can be used and such systems
have been designed for retrofitting to analogue drives. The
principle is simple. An encoder is placed on the master drive
shaft with a second encoder on the slave shaft. While the two
encoders are rotating in unison there is no difference in the
counts and therefore zero position error and no adjustment is
made. If a position error appears, the speed of the slave
drive is adjusted accordingly to bring the slave back into
position.
The principle is similar in the fully digital slaving system.
Principle of Digital Speed/Position
Following
In any following system, there are always at least two
components: the master and the slave(s).
The master is the component to be followed. This can be a
motor shaft, axle, spindle or a wheel rotating, or a linearly
moving material or track.
The slave is the component that will follow the movement of
the master. This can either be positional or speed following
by a selected ratio.
1
w
master
reference
II
speed trim
Figure 12.2 Analogue master-slave control

The movement of the master component is monitored using
an incremental encoder, as shown in Figure 12.3. The
incremental encoder produces a square-wave output at a
frequency proportional to the speed of rotation. The number
of pulses per revolution (p.p.r.) is determined by the level
of accuracy required, the speed of rotation and the fre-
quency response of the input circuitry of the following
system.
For bidirectional applications a second output channel is
required. This again is a square wave but phase shifted by
90 from the first, often described as being in quadrature. By
utilising a decoding circuit to detect the rising and falling
edges of each waveform, the direction of rotation can be
determined.
This master encoder signal now becomes the speed reference
(for a single or multiple slave drive) in the case of nonrigid
lock, and a position reference in the case of rigid lock. The
encoder is obviously a vital item in the system, therefore
the choice of encoder and coupling is extremely important.
The following points should be considered when making a
choice:
1 The degree of protection (IP rating) of the encoder
should be at least the same as that of the motor.
2 Encoders are relatively delicate instruments and there-
fore should be housed either within the motor or in a
robust housing.
3 For hazardous environments, intrinsically safe or other
Ex-protected and certified encoders only should be
used.
In common with most rotary transducers, care must be
observed in the choice of coupling to ensure that the encoder
accurately follows the master. A coupling which allows
slack movement, or which twists or oscillates at high speed,
can cause severe instability in the system.
The Digital Speed/Position Controller
The control function for digital slaving is incorporated in the
slave drive. To enable the slave drive to carry out the digital
lock function, appropriate hardware and software is
required; this may be standard in the drive (e.g. Unidrive and
Mentor).
Digital slaving can take two forms: nonrigid and rigid lock,
Figure 12.4.
Qr.p.m.
I nQr.p.m.
master ~ b
slave
Figure 12.3 Digital master-slave control
Chapter 12.2 267
Nonrigid lock is the mode usually termed as true speed
following. The master encoder is used as the speed refer-
ence, which the second drive will follow. A ratio of speeds
can be set very precisely. If the slave drive speed should vary
for any reason (due to load influence, for example) the
controller will compensate by bringing the slave drive
precisely back to the master speed.
This form of speed following is similar to the use of
a nontoothed belt system, where the speeds are synchronous
although the relative positions may vary.
Rigid lock is true position following. The master encoder is
used as the position reference for the slave drive. As the
master moves the slave will maintain a relative angular
position with a precisely adjustable ratio. In the case of the
slave drive varying in speed, the controller will adjust the
speed to bring the shafts back to the same relative positions.
This form of control is analogous to a mechanically locked
system with, for example, timing belts, chains or gearboxes.
It must be borne in mind that under normal circumstances a
mechanically locked system will never lose synchronism
whereas an electronically locked system may momentarily
lose synchronism if step changes of load occur.
A typical digital-lock control scheme is shown in Figure 12.5.
The principle of the control is as follows. Both the master
and slave encoder signals are fed directly into hardware
counters to give maximum frequency capability. The two
signals can be digitally scaled to allow for maximum
speed calibration. A fixed multiplier can also be introduced
to increase the count value when using a low-resolution
encoder.
As a rule, the greater the number of pulses per revolution the
smoother the operation of the control loop, since the loop
variable will more closely approximate to a continuous
function. This theoretically means that the input frequency
should be as high as possible. In practice, this is limited by
"0
{3.
(/)
a time, t
time, t
Figure 12.4 Digital slaving characteristics
a nonrigid lock
b rigid lock
268 TECHNIQUESCOMMONTO MANY APPLICATIONS"Digital Slaving

selectfixed
speed master control signals
master reference slaveratio to slavedrive
encoder~ ---~ ~.I X - - % ~-I x "-~~T
(reference)"" J' f l , velocity
I I masterencoder ' feed
scaling 'forward
precision i
i

velocity [ fixedreference [ i

reference
enable position position
Ithumbwheelswitchesl ) position error error
loop register
t / li~nit
relative . ,lP gainl .
inch :position
reference ',control
enable digit 'velocity
slave feedback 'correction
x 10000
feedback 0 - [
encoder "~~1 -IXl ;I ' 4 '~ enable digital velocity
"12621
slave
I
slave encodercount
encoder
scaling
slaving feedback

Figure 12.5 Simplified position-loop diagram

the response of the encoder photodetectors and of the
transmission-line buffers.
The master encoder count is then scaled by the desired
speed ratio. This can typically be done by either serial
communications or thumb wheels. The resultant signal is the
speed reference for the slave drive, termed the velocity
feedforward reference. This would give some degree of
speed following, but not of sufficient accuracy for position
following.
The velocity feedforward signal from the master encoder is
compared with the velocity feedback signal from the slave
encoder to give a position error. This error appears as a
count, which is accumulated in the position-error register.
The register value is multiplied by a proportional term and
limited before being added into the slave drive speed
reference as an unramped speed trim. The position loop is
constantly active in the case of position following (rigid
lock). In speed following (nonrigid lock) the position loop
only becomes active when the slave drive is typically within
0.8 per cent of the correct speed. This gives high-accuracy
speed following.
By adding or subtracting from the master encoder derived
velocity signal it is possible to adjust the relative position
of the master to the slave. This is commonly termed the
relative-inch function, which can be used to create or relieve
tension in a locked system. By feeding the relative inch from
a dancer arm or tension transducer it is possible to maintain
exact values of tension within the system.
Digital slaving of drives offers the following advantages:
1 Accuracy and repeatability- long-term speedholding
accuracy is better than 0.01 per cent. Digital setting of
parameters gives absolute repeatability.
2 Low maintenance - the elimination of mechanical cou-
plings and gearboxes significantly reduces maintenance
requirements.
3 Programmability and flexibility - the ratios and
characteristics of the system are held as software
programmable parameters, therefore the system can be
easily set up or controlled from a remote source such as a
computer or programmable controller.
LOAD SHARING
General
There are many instances in industrial variable-speed drive
applications where multiple motors sharing load provide the
optimum or only solution.
For example, in high-power, high-speed test-rig applica-
tions, two coaxial-coupled D.C. motors often provide the
best solution. In such cases mechanical considerations may
prohibit the manufacture of a single, large, high-power,
high-speed motor. However, two motors of half the power,
mechanically coupled together and arranged to share the
load precisely, gives the same result in terms of torque,
speed and power but without the manufacturing, operational
or even financial considerations presented by a single
motor.
Similarly in mines and quarries, huge conveyor systems used
for conveying the raw material from the mine to the pro-
cessing plant can extend for thousands of metres, and a
distributed multiple motor drive system arranged to share the
load equally is the only practical solution. In this instance,
because of the environment, inverter-controlled A.C. induc-
tion motors are usually chosen for their robust construction
and low maintenance requirements.
Mechanical arrangements can vary considerably. In princi-
ple the motors are physically coupled together and therefore
compelled to rotate at the same speed, so it is normally only
necessary to control the speed of one motor (the master) and
ensure by connection or other control strategy that the other
motors share the electrical load equally.
The following discussion covers various methods of load
sharing in D.C. and A.C. drive systems.
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270 TECHNIQUES COMMON TO MANY APPLICATIONS: Load Sharing
D.C. MOTORS CONNECTED IN SERIES
Figure 12.8 shows a typical arrangement for load sharing
between motors connected in series. The master motor M is
arranged in a conventional speed control loop with feedback
from a shaft-mounted tachogenerator. Any deviation from
the set speed will result in the motor armature voltage and
current being adjusted to restore the control loop to a state of
equilibrium. The slave motor S, which is connected in series
with the master motor, inherently shares the same armature
current and is also compelled by the mechanical coupling to
rotate at the exact speed of the master.
Both master and slave motor fields are also connected in
series so that the field currents, which determine the mag-
netic field strength, are always the same independent of
supply fluctuations and field temperature change during
warm up.
Assuming identical motors, the load is shared equally when
the product of armature voltage and armature current of each
motor is the same, as before:
V,nL, = V,I,
But for series-connected motors, Im= Is, so the measure of
how closely the motors are sharing the load is determined by
the degree of balance of the individual armature voltages. If
the motor characteristics are closely matched, a close degree
of balance will be achieved.
Advantages are:
1 It is not so important to have closely-matched char-
acteristics. (However, the closer the match the better the
degree of load sharing.)
2 Simple to set up and maintain balance.
3 Multiple motors are easily accommodated.
4 All motors can be overload-protected by the converter.
The disadvantage is that motor armature and field voltages
are determined by the number of motors in series. Motors
may have to be specially designed, increasing delivery lead
times.
. r - -
Ac ( [
supp,y - Ac
//J
, (
field rectifier
set speed .C. supply
Figure 12.8 Load sharing by mechanically-coupled D.C.
motors connected in series and fed from a
common converter
CURRENT-SLAVED CONVERTERS
Figure 12.9 shows a typical load-sharing arrangement using
two current-slaved converters. Each motor is independently
fed from its own converter. The master motor M is arranged
in a conventional speed control loop with feedback from a
shaft-mounted tachogenerator. Any deviation from the set
speed results in the motor armature voltage and current
being adjusted to correct the speed and restore the loop to
a state of equilibrium. The slave converter operates in
current control from the same current demand signal as the
master converter, and so inherently shares the current.
Assuming identical motors, the load will be shared exactly
when Vmlm = Vsls. By careful setting up of the slave con-
verter it is possible to ensure that V m - Vs and perfect load
balance is achieved. Any imbalance of armature voltage can
be trimmed out by resistors connected in each motor field
circuit.
This method of load sharing between motors is the most
flexible arrangement, in that different characteristics can
easily be accommodated. In fact motors of quite different
design and output rating can be slaved in this way and
arranged to share the load in proportion to their respective
ratings. The load currents can be trimmed proportionally by
adjustment of the individual converter burden resistors, and
the armature voltages trimmed by field current adjustment.
Its advantages are:
1 Very flexible and simple to set up.
2 Multiple motor schemes can easily be accommodated.
3 Each motor is individually overload protected by its own
converter.
4 Motors of quite different design and output can easily be
accommodated.
5 In a multiple motor system, the loss of a single converter
or motor does not necessarily mean that production stops.
The sole disadvantage is the cost, which tends to be high, but
may in some applications be acceptable.
A
I
I
supp,y
~i" [] --T
/ k--J-
\ S-field
rectifier
M-field
i, rectifier
A.C. supply
set speed
Figure 12.9 Load sharing by current slaving of converters
 Chapter 12.2 271

A.C. Inverter-fed Systems
PARALLEL-CONNECTED A.C. CAGE MOTORS
Figure 12.10 shows a typical arrangement of two A.C.
induction motors fed from a single variable-frequency
inverter. For accurate load sharing the motors must be
identical, with identical torque v e r s u s speed characteristics.
Since the motors are mechanically coupled they are com-
pelled to turn at identical speeds and of course are both fed
from a common three-phase supply. In the zero to full-load
torque range, the torque developed by each motor is
approximately proportional to the slip.
Since both motors have identical characteristics and are
operating with identical slip then load sharing is exact. In
practice slight differences in torque v e r s u s slip character-
istics which occur even between identical motors introduce
errors, but these are usually quite small - less than 1 per cent.
This method of load sharing is not suitable between motors
of different manufacture as the torque-speed characteristics
will differ too widely to produce accurate load sharing.
The advantages:
1 Simple to apply, as load sharing is inherent in the motor
characteristic.
2 Suited to multimotor installations.
Disadvantages are:
1 In the event of loss of the inverter or motor, the process
stops.
2 Motor characteristics must be closely matched for
good load sharing. Cannot use motors from different
circulating between the two motors. Also the system can be
designed so that in the event of the loss of an inverter or
motor, the process can continue, albeit at a reduced output.
The advantages are:
1 Simple to apply, as load sharing is inherent in the motor
characteristics.
2 In the event of the loss of an inverter or motor the process
can continue.
3 Suited to multimotor installations.
4 Motors can be overload protected from their respective
inverters.
Disadvantages are:
1 Motor characteristics must be closely matched for
good load sharing. Cannot use motors from different
manufacturers.
2 System cost.
CURRENT-SLAVED INVERTERS
Figure 12.12 shows a typical arrangement of two A.C.
induction motors mechanically coupled and fed from inde-
pendent variable-frequency inverters. The slave inverter
operates in current control, current slaved from the master
inverter in order to load share. A signal proportional to load
on the master drive is fed to the current control input of the
variable-
frequency
inverters

!/;/I
manufacturers. III
/// "f
3 Motors must have individual overload protection.
freq. ref

FREQUENCY-SLAVED INVERTERS

Figure 12.11 shows a typical arrangement of two A.C.

induction motors mechanically coupled and fed from inde-
pendent variable-frequency inverters. The slave inverter is
frequency slaved from the master in order to load share. The
set speed
frequency of the master drive is fed to the frequency control
input on the slave drive. In this way both inverters operate at Figure 12.11 Load sharing by frequency slaving of
identical frequencies. Electrically, this is the same as oper- inverters
ating two motors in parallel from a common supply, but
has the advantage of excluding the possibility of currents
variable-
frequency
variable- inverters
frequency
II/ ..
inverter III

///
/// y-/ /// _
/// .
O/L1

current ref
n ref

I
set speed
set speed
Figure 12.10 Load sharing by mechanically-coupled A.C.
cage motors fed from a common converter Figure 12.12 Load sharing by current slaving of inverters
272 TECHNIQUESCOMMONTO MANY APPLICATIONS:Load Sharing
slave inverter. In this way both motors operate with the same
current and share the load. Where motor characteristics
differ, as they do between motors with the same number of
poles and power output rating but from different manufac-
turers, this is the only practical solution. Load-sharing
accuracy would be in the order of 10 per cent, so the motors
should be derated by about the same amount. For example,
two 50 kW motors would be a suitable choice for a total
load requirement of 90 kW.
Advantages are:
1 Simple to apply.
2 Motors do not need to be closely matched; similarly-
rated motors from different manufacturers can be used.
3 Suited to multimotor installations.
4 In the event of the loss of an inverter or motor the process
can continue.
5 Motors can be overload protected by their respective
inverters.
Disadvantages are the system cost, and slightly less accurate
load sharing.
HIGH-FREQUENCY INVERTERS
General
International pressure of competition is forcing welcome
developments among designers and builders of production
machines of all types. This is leading inevitably to faster
processing and machining of many materials. Additionally,
adoption of high-speed machining techniques often gives a
surface finish far superior to traditional rough-cut and second-
finish techniques, to the point where further machining and
polishing is rendered unnecessary.
Machines for processing man-made fibres, for example, are
classed by their throughput speed, usually measured in
metres/minute, with the faster machine producing the higher
figure of merit.
Indeed, many processes are essentially impractical unless
high surface cutting speeds are available. Typical amongst
these would be"
glass engraving up to 12 000 min- 1
diamond polishing up to 12 000 min -1
internal grinding (barazon/diamond) up to 90 000 min -1
semiconductor wafer slitting saw up to 60 000 min -1
Traditional approaches to attainment of high speed have
been appropriate to a limited range of applications and
would include the use of universal motors, usually of small
power, air-powered motors and step-up belt and pulley
arrangements.
The A.C. induction cage motor, with its simple construction
and freedom from running contact parts (other than bear-
ings), such as brushes and commutators, offers itself as an
ideal solution to this problem if suitably designed for the
rotational duty, and if a cost-effective source of variable
frequency and voltage can be provided.
Frequency Control of A.C. Induction
Motors
The operational speed of the classical A.C. induction motor
is restricted primarily by the frequency of the connected
supply voltage.
This is shown by the relationship:
n = ( f x 60)/p
where n - speed in min-1, f = frequency of supply in Hz
and p - number of pairs of poles.
For a two-pole machine connected to a 400 Hz supply this
would result in a synchronous running speed of:
n- (400 x 60)/1
= 24 000 min-1
Varying the frequency of motor supply voltage is therefore
the essential process to obtain control of motor speed. It
should be noted that both increases and decreases of motor
speed are achievable in this way. Where speed increases are
required, the major constraints are mechanical and arise
from motor design, construction and degree of balance.
In addition to variation of frequency, the motor supply
voltage must also be controlled in order to achieve and
maintain the correct magnitude of flux within the magnetic
circuit of the motor.
Normally, the voltage is linearly increased with frequency
and this leads to a term commonly used in the design of
high-frequency motors and their control inverters known as
volts per Hertz (V/Hz or V/f) ratio. V/Hz ratio defines, for a
specific motor, the per-unit value of supply voltage for the
per-unit value of supply frequency.
For example, a 400 V motor designed to run on a 200 Hz
supply has a V/Hz ratio of."
400/200 - 2 V/Hz
The motor designer will have chosen a suitable ratio at an
early point in the magnetic design of the machine and both
the magnetic calculations and the final performance of the
machine will depend greatly on the availability of the correct
V/Hz supply source.
The control inverter must be configured to comply with the
motor V/Hz ratio, since any deviation will affect the general
system performance.
Increasing the V/Hz ratio (overvolting) will give a higher
motor torque availability but at the cost of much higher
motor operating temperatures, acoustic noise and possibly
torque pulsations which can be superimposed on the rota-
tional moment of the motor shaft and eventually show as
patterning on the workpiece.
Conversely, a lower than design point V/Hz ratio (under-
volting) will result in reduced torque availability (motor
torque is proportional to the square of the terminal voltage)
which may result in inadequate torque for the duty. It must
be said that the motor will run both cooler and quieter in this
condition.

> 400
0
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50 100
motor frequency, Hz
power
torque
0 sb0 3o'00 >
motor speed, min-1
Figure 12.13 Characteristics of standard A.C motors up to
and above standard frequency
a V/Hz characteristic for high-speed
operation
b motor torque and power characteristic
A consequence of the theoretical V/Hz motor requirement is
that two approaches to operation in the high-speed region are
available.
Figure 12.13 illustrates how a 50 Hz motor can be operated
at higher speeds without electrical modification, and shows
the resultant torque and kW characteristic that may be
expected.
As the speed demand to the controlling inverter is increased
from zero, both the voltage and frequency are increased on a
linear basis until the output frequency reaches approxi-
mately 50 Hz. At this point a normally configured inverter
will reach an output voltage approximately equal to that of
the incoming line supply, Figure 12.13a.
Increasing the speed demand to the inverter further will
continue to raise the output frequency although the voltage
supplied to the motor cannot increase, being limited to the
level of the incoming line supply. The motor will increase in
speed responding to the rising frequency. However, the
available shaft torque will fall away as the square of the
effective voltage reduction. For example, a 10 per cent
increase in frequency above 50 Hz would normally require
a motor supply voltage increase of 10 per cent to maintain
design torque; this 10 per cent deficiency in voltage will
result in a 19 per cent shortfall in torque.
In this region the motor is essentially a constant-kW device,
since reducing torque while increasing speed results in a
constant-power characteristic, Figure 12.13b.
Clearly, mechanical limitations such as bearing perfor-
mance, must be borne in mind when operating a standard
induction motor above its rated speed.
Standard induction motors of 7.5 kW or less commonly have
windings arranged in a six-wire configuration to allow
connection for dual voltages such as 220 V in delta config-
uration and 400 V in star configuration. This makes it pos-
sible to develop extra kW above the nameplate rating of the
motor by a combination of voltage and frequency control.
C h a p t e r 12.2 273
>
~ .~ e 0 0 -
J
50 87
motor frequency, Hz
2.6-/
1.5-
0
0
0
E J
1480 2560
motor speed, min-1
Figure 12.14 Use of motor star and delta configuration to
operate at increased frequency and power
a voltage supply to 200 V, four-pole, 1.5 kW
motor from inverter
b additional kW operating 50Hz motor at
87Hz
The use of a standard inverter operating from a 380/415 V
supply allows, by suitable V/Hz configuration within the
control electronics, the maximum output voltage to be
reached at a frequency somewhat above the normal 50 Hz.
The voltage supplied to the motor at 50 Hz will be 220 V,
which is correct for the chosen motor connection and will
allow the motor to develop rated torque and kW at the rated
speed.
As the frequency is increased above 50 Hz the voltage will
also increase until the line supply value is reached; this
happens at approximately 87 Hz on a 400 V supply. Speci-
fically, the motor is now running at 74 per cent above its
rated speed, the V/Hz ratio has been maintained and so full
rated torque is available. Overall then, the motor is capable
of delivering 74 per cent more power than the 50Hz
nameplate figure by virtue of the higher achieved running
speed. Figure 12.14 illustrates this point.
For example, in the case of a 1.5kW, 50Hz, four-pole
machine with a rated speed of 1480 min,- 1 the power would
increase to a theoretical 1.5 x N3 = 2 . 6 k W developed at
1 4 8 0 x N 3 - - 2 5 6 0 m i n -1. In practice, frictional losses,
magnetic losses and additional power absorbed by the
cooling fan would detract from this level, but a substantial
benefit can be obtained by this method nevertheless.
It is important that the mechanical constraints of the motor
and the driven system must not be overlooked.
High-frequency Purpose-Designed
Motors
The vast majority of motors used in true high-frequency
applications are specifically designed for the purpose.
Motors rated up to > 180 000 min-1 are available, along with
appropriate inverters with a >3000 Hz capability.
274 TECHNIQUES COMMON TO MANY APPLICATIONS: High-Frequency Inverters
Motors designed for such speeds are normally of a slim
construction in order to minimise the centrifugal forces and
rotor inertia, offering a better dynamic response. Special
bearings are invariably employed and range from fairly
standard deep-groove type up to 12000min -1, oil-mist
lubrication types up to 60 000 min -1 and air-beating or gas-
type beatings for even higher rotational speeds.
Thermal considerations are also significant to the motor
design, since the motor generally has a small physical size
for its power rating and may run hot. Depending on the
thermal reserve in the design, cooling may be surface only or
extend to systems where air is drawn through the body of the
motor; this, however, can invade the protection integrity of
the motor. In the extreme, motors may be water cooled and
fitted with elaborate water jackets and feed systems.
High-frequency motors are most often designed to offer a
constant torque characteristic across the full operational
speed range and to avoid the constant kW/field-weakening
region referred to earlier. Consequently, the motor winding
is designed and wound for the highest operating voltage to
coincide with the maximum design frequency. In other
words, a constant V/Hz ratio is used across the speed range,
Figure 12.15.
High-Frequency Inverters
The need for inverters to operate with very high-speed
motors affects the design of the inverter in most cases and
this has led to the introduction of specialised inverters;
however it must be said that general-purpose inverters of
more recent design are extremely versatile in their V/Hz
adjustment range.
For applications where full output voltage is to be achieved
at 50 Hz, followed by constant output voltage as the fre-
quency continues to rise, additional inverter design con-
siderations are minimal, although control stability may be an
issue with some loads. However, as mentioned previously,
most true high frequency motors operate with a constant
Vmaxz
I : ~ L_"
>
0 "-
f Inverters lend themselves readily to control by NC, and by
"6E
Eo
300
motor frequency, Hz
(1)~'-"kWma
O
{3.
L these would include such functions as grooving cutters,
0 facing drills and a circular saw for parting and slotting.
E
18000
b motor speed, min-1
Figure 12.15 Characteristics of high-frequency purpose-
designed motors
a high-frequency VIHz characteristic
b high-frequency motor kW characteristic
torque characteristic right across the speed range, i.e. kW
increases with speed.
The inverter must be designed to operate in controlled output
voltage mode (normally employing pulse-width modulation
(PWM) techniques) not just up to 50 Hz or so but to 300 Hz
or even 1000 Hz and beyond, depending on the motor design
detail.
Synthesis of voltage waveforms to ensure good A.C. motor
phase current waveforms is complex and demands high
processing capability and speeds within the control elec-
tronics of the inverter. This difficulty increases as the motor
frequency rises and a compromise is usually made between
the quality of the motor phase current waveforms and
the cost.
This is an important point since any degradation in wave-
form brings with it the risk of modulation patterning on the
workpiece despite the flywheel effect of the rotating mass at
relatively high speeds.
To assist motor braking, and to guard against inverter
nuisance overvoltage tripping when the motor produces
regenerative energy in its decelerating mode, it is normal
practice to equip the inverter with a dynamic braking
system.
High-Frequency Applications
Woodworking machinery is a traditional area where high-
speed cutting and finishing is essential to produce the basis
of a satisfactory final product.
Traditionally, normal induction motors driving through a
step-up belt drive system have been employed. However,
the problems associated with belt maintenance, and the
desire for even higher throughput speeds and improved
surface finish, have led to the adoption of high-frequency
motors. These offer the additional benefit of compactness
in the cutting head area where space is often at a premium.
Normal speeds reached are in the range of 12000-
18 000 min -~.
Modem woodworking machines have to accommodate many
shapes and profiles, and as a consequence employ numeric
control (NC) systems to ensure the flexibility required.
using such techniques as load monitoring the type or quality
of wood can be evaluated automatically in order to set the
optimum cutting speed.
Tool changing is also a feature of these machines, and the
NC can stipulate the speed and the torque available from the
motor to suit the chosen tool.
Profiling and curvature machines are quite common in the
woodworking industry. Multiple tools are also used, and
These are often high speed although they normally run
at differing speeds. For example the grooving cutter may
run at 300Hz (18000min -1) the facing drill at 120Hz
(7200rain -1) and the saw at 75 Hz (4500 min-1). Only one
motor is used at any one time and this offers the possi-
bility of employing just one inverter but incorporating a
suitably interlocked changeover system to connect each
 C h a p t e r 12.2 275

/ )
dancer

I po~er I I power ]
LY~
= r.p.m. integral
(clamped at
low speed)
limit

=diameter
proportional

line
speed
= linear speed

Figure 12.16 Speed-controlled centre wind with dancer

speed

Pi~~P~,
~erlgI e I po~erl
= torque

IA'X'I A
B set
tension

B
I
limit line
speed
=diameter

Figure 12.17 Torque-controlled centre wind (open loop)

motor in turn to the inverter. At the same time the V/Hz
ratio of the inverter is adjusted to preprogrammed values
which suit each individual motor. Clearly, cost and space
savings are attractive. During noncutting periods the con-
nected motor is ramped down under full control into a low-
speed condition, drastically reducing machine noise but
being ready to accelerate back to working speed within
seconds.
CENTRE WINDERS
General
Centre-wind tension control systems fall into two categories;
they can be either speed controlled or torque controlled.
Either way the objective is to maintain material tension
throughout the full diameter range and over the machine
276 TECHNIQUES
COMMONTO MANY APPLICATIONS:Centre Winders
linear speed range at a controlled value commensurate with
obtaining a satisfactory rewound roll of finished product.
The following observations are intended to help in the
choice of control philosophy and drive configuration to be
used for centre-wind applications.
Speed or Torque Control
Speed control systems are only practical where direct
feedback of material tension from a dancing roll mechanism
is available. Load cell tension feedback is not normally
practical for speed-controlled winders as no material storage
is provided to allow for control system span.
Torque control systems can be used with or without direct
tension feedback; the tension feedback for torque control
systems may be derived from either a dancer mechanism or
load cell.
The selection of speed or torque control is usually decided
by the machine manufacturer, who will have had previous
experience of the machine and the material being wound;
however some background information is always useful to
the drive engineer.
Torque control solutions are normally adopted when the
material to be wound is nonextensible, e.g. paper, steel,
nonferrous metals. However, care should be exercised
where no tension feedback is to be used. It is essential that
mechanical transmission losses be kept to the absolute
minimum. Low-tension applications where tension powers
are comparable to transmission losses should not be
attempted without some form of direct tension feedback.
Where tension powers are high compared to transmission
losses simple predictive torque control systems with no
overriding tension feedback can be completely satisfactory.
Extensible materials such as certain types of plastic and
polyester films, or machine configurations where non-
extensible material is to be drawn from a catenary e.g. a
looping pit, should normally be approached with a speed-
control solution in mind. Because speed-controlled systems
always rely on a tension feedback signal they are less sen-
sitive to the problems experienced with predictive torquen
control systems where inertia and transmission losses can
cause tension disturbances; however, the transmission losses
and inertia effects should still be kept to the minimum. The
dancer error operates on the drive in speed mode causing any
tension disturbances due to torque changes within the load
system to be very quickly compensated for by the effect of
the speed regulator. Where large inertias are involved it may
still be necessary to provide some form of compensation in
order to reduce the demands on the tension control loop.
The diagrams below show the basic control configuration for
speed and torque-controlled centre-wind systems.
Taper Tension
Some materials require the tension to be reduced as the
rewound diameter increases; this is termed taper tension.
Taper tension may be implemented on open-loop torque-
controlled systems and closed-loop torque-controlled systems
using load-cell measurement quite simply, by modifying the
system tension set point as the diameter increases.
Systems using dancer feedback whether operating in speed
or torque mode pose a somewhat more difficult problem if
taper is to be achieved. Dancer systems rely on the pre-
loading of the dancer mechanism to set the material tension,
to achieve taper this preloading must be modified according
to diameter changes. Solutions are possible where dancer
loading is pneumatic using, for example, electric to pneu-
matic (E to P) transducers controlled via an analogue output
from the drive diameter calculating software.
Taper may be required to start from the central core diameter
or may be introduced at some diameter threshold. The slope
of the reduction in tension should be adjustable and will
normally be set by the operator. Taper is usually required for
material with a smooth surface where there is a possibility of
the outer layers slipping over the inner layers, usually
resulting in the rewound roll telescoping. Materials needing
high degrees of taper include coated paper and some plastic
films.
Constant Torque and Field Weakening
The decision concerning the use of field weakening
depends to a large extent on the power requirements of the
application. For lower-power applications constant torque
motors used in conjunction with oversized converters are
the normal solution as the control strategy and set up is
simple. D.C. constant-torque solutions have the dis-
advantage that they operate at very poor power factor and
draw comparatively high A.C. currents, as they must pro-
duce maximum torque at minimum speed. This means that
the motor and converter be sized using the build-up ratio
multiplied by the tension power, possibly resulting in an
expensive power converter.
By using the constant-power characteristic of the motor the
converter size can be reduced; on D.C. systems the A.C.
current reduces accordingly and the power factor is improved
as the motor operates at its optimum voltage through the
diameter range. This solution should be considered where
tension powers above about 50 kW are to be provided.
As an example, a system requiring 20 kW of tension power
over a 5:1 diameter range with no taper using a constant
torque motor will require a 100 kW motor and a 100 kW
converter to match. This would be economically acceptable
but for D.C. systems it is important to consider the likely
level of the A.C. currents and the low power factors when the
drive is operating at maximum diameter.
Obviously, if the tension power is increased to 200 kW over
5:1 diameter range the constant torque solution becomes
totally unacceptable as both the motor and controller
wouldeffectively be sized at 1000 kW. A 330 kW controller
with 3:1 field controller would be a far more effective
solution, costing less and reducing the current required at
maximum diameter to one third that of the constant-torque
solution.
Modem D.C. motors can normally only be operated over
3:1 or 3.5:1 range of diameter by field weakening, any
larger ratio must be provided by the constant-torque range of
the motor and the converter oversized accordingly. Some
older motors encountered on refits may have 4:1 or even
5:1 attainable by field weakening.

Constant-power solutions using field weakening on A.C.
systems are also feasible.
When offering constant-power solutions it is always neces-
sary to check with the motor supplier; these are not standard
windings and should be selected by the motor designer.
In the first example above, the motor, A.C. or D.C., would be
specified as 100 kW at 1500 min- 1.
In the second example above, the D.C. motor could be
specified as:
200/200/200kW
300/500/1500 min -1
270/450/450V
The converter would need to be rated for 333 kW, i.e.
(200 x 450)/270.
An A.C. option for the second example above would pos-
sibly be:
200/200/200kW
300/600/1500 min -1
20/40/100 Hz
207/415/415V
The converter would need to be rated for 500kW, i.e.
(200 100)/40.
The speeds and voltages selected are for example only.
Ideally, the motor speed should be as close to the required
spindle speed as is practical; this reduces errors in tension
due to transmission losses and the effect of motor rotor
inertia.
Power Requirements for
Centre-Driven Winders
Winder motors should always be sized from knowledge of
the required winding tension and line speed:
winding tension power (kW) =
line speed (m min -1) x total tension pull (N)
60 000
If constant torque control is to be employed then the motor
and converter should be rated:
motor/converter (kW) =
winding tension power (kW) maximum diameter (m)
minimum diameter (m)
line speed (mmin -1) x gear ratio
motor speed (min -1) =
7r x diameter (m)
This will ensure that the drive can produce the torque
required at maximum diameter and the speed required at
minimum diameter.
Constant-power applications are best specified by stating
the power and speed requirements at both ends of the dia-
meter range. If a combined constant-power/constant-torque
Chapter 12.2 277
application is involved then the speed and power require-
ment at base speed should also be quoted.
Any additional power required to compensate for transmis-
sion losses and peaks for acceleration should be added to the
above result. Winding heavier gauges of metal requires
additional power to form the metal around the periphery of
the coil. Tighter bends occur at smaller diameters and the
bending effort therefore reduces with increasing diameter
unlike the tension torque which increases with diameter.
This means that the drive benefits from a balancing of these
two torques but the control system may need to calculate the
individual torque components in order to achieve accurate
control over the tension.
Inertia Compensation
During line speed changes energy must be supplied to
or removed from the rotating masses of the rewind
mechanism. The amount of energy transferred depends
upon the inertia of the total system and the rate of change
of speed. All rewinds and unwinds can be considered as
having two inertia elements, one of fixed inertia made up
of the motor and transmission components together with
the core or spindle onto which the material is wound. The
other is the inertia of the wound material, which obviously
varies from zero to a maximum value as the diameter
increases.
An estimate of acceleration torque referred to tension torque
at various diameters will give an indication of the degree of
tension disturbance to be expected during speed changes.
Systems with low inertia or slow rates of acceleration,
where the acceleration torque is small compared to the
tension torque will need very little or no compensation.
High-speed winders with rapid acceleration and high inertia,
where acceleration torque can be equal to or greater than
the tension torque will obviously need precise inertia
compensation.
Deriving rate of change signals for use in the inertia com-
pensation calculation can be troublesome. The most satis-
factory system is to use an S-ramp to set the acceleration
characteristic of the line speed controller. The S-ramp
should be configured to provide not only a speed reference
value but also an acceleration rate signal; this can be used in
conjunction with the inertia values to produce a torque
feedforward for the winder drive to compensate for inertia
effects.
Simple systems with acceleration torque, which are rela-
tively constant throughout the diameter range, can use block
compensation, basically switching the compensation torque
in and out on the result of a simple acceleration/deceleration
detection system. More sophisticated arrangements may
need some shaping of the torque related to diameter but can
still rely on an acceleration switch.
High-performance systems should always use S-ramp
acceleration of the line speed controller with accurate speed
and trapezoidal rate of change of speed signals fed forward
to the winder control software. Systems have been installed
and commissioned running up to 2200mmin -1 with
acceleration rates of 20 m min- ~per second using both A.C.
and D.C. drive technology.
278 TECHNIQUES
COMMON TO MANY APPLICATIONS: Centre Winders
Loss Compensation
Transmission systems should be selected to be as loss free
as possible; worm gear boxes should be avoided. Ideally,
motor speeds should match winder spindle speeds with no
requirement for speed reduction but on smaller machines
this is normally not practical. Toothed belt or low-loss
inline gear boxes should be specified. Some discussion with
the machine manufacturer may be necessary here as not all
machine builders realise the effect that the mechanical
transmission system can have on winder drive performance.
Losses are usually considered to split into two components,
basic stiction which is considered to be constant throughout
the speed range and viscous friction where the loss increases
with speed. Small values of both components are relatively
simple to compensate for but often complications arise if the
losses are comparable to the tension component. Any var-
iation in actual loss due to temperature changes in the
lubricants, general running in of machinery etc. can cause
substantial disturbances to the tension. The most satisfactory
solution here is to use direct measurement of tension with
closed-loop tension control.
If this is not possible then some form of autocompensation
should be considered where the machine losses are measured
and stored by the control system and used to provide the
compensation during production runs. These solutions are
hardly ever totally satisfactory. Ideally for satisfactory open-
loop tension control the torque required to overcome trans-
mission losses should be no greater than 10 per cent of the
minimum tension torque.
Flux Compensation
The torque produced by a motor is determined by the pro-
duct of its active current and its flux. When the motor runs
above base speed the relationship between active current and
actual torque changes due to the reduction of flux. High-
performance flux vector A.C. drives such as the Unidrive
have a torque loop which automatically corrects for this
thereby ensuring that the actual torque delivered matches the
torque demanded.
D.C. drives however do not typically provide this facility,
therefore when using D.C. motors in torque-control appli-
cations above base speed it is necessary to modify the
relationship between torque demand and armature current
demand to compensate for the change in motor performance.
This must form an integral part of the winder control soft-
ware package. A simple algorithm to achieve this is: if
speed > base speed then:
torque x speed
current =
base speed
else:
current = torque
Drive Selection- Limiting Parameters
D.C. DRIVE
A D.C. drive has been the traditional solution for all winder
applications for many years. It has the advantage of a linear
motor torque characteristic with the possibility of extending
the operating range by field weakening above the motor
base speed.
Accuracies on simple predictive systems of between 3-5
per cent of maximum tension are attainable with improve-
ment to 1-2 per cent using tension feedback. Due to the
large predictable torque range available from the motor, wide
ranges of tension and diameter range product are practical.
Typical operating parameters for standard packages are:
tension range 1:10
diameter range 1:10
material speed 1:20
Such a system requires a sensitive method of speed feedback
as the overall speed range of the rewind motor is 200:1;
D.C. tachogenerator or a high-pulse count encoder are
essential to ensure performance at the low speed.
The performance can easily be assessed by logging motor
current and voltage throughout the diameter range and
checking for a constant power product, corrections being
made for any changes in line speed or taper tension effects
during the test.
The above performance figures assume minimal transmis-
sion losses.
A.C. FLUX-VECTORDRIVE
It is important to note that centre-wind control with an A.C.
drive is only possible with a high-performance drive, such as
Unidrive, capable of precise control of torque. Operation
above base speed is possible with a suggested limit of
2.5/4: 1; above this torque linearity deteriorates somewhat.
Typical operating parameters for standard packages are:
tension range 1:10
diameter range 1:5
material speed 1:20
Such a system requires a sensitive method of speed feedback,
as the overall speed range of the rewind motor is 100: 1.
The above performance figures assume minimal transmis-
sion losses.
SERVODRIVES
Brushless A.C. motors provide a more accurate means of
controlling torque than do asynchronous counterparts but no
field-weakening range is available.
Typical operating parameters for standard packages are:
tension range 1 : 10
diameter range 1:10
material speed 1:20
SECTIONAL DRIVE SYSTEMS
General
Sectional drive systems may be characterised as a multidrive
application where the operation of a drive is determined by
the process itself or by the drives around it. In other words,

a sectional controller is essentially a speed regulator in a
multidrive coordinated process line. In this type of appli-
cation, typically seen in film or paper production web lines,
a section is usually a roller rotated by a drive and motor. The
term web refers to the material linking the rolls which
constitute the machine. Setting the speed of this roller is not
as simple as it seems. All the rollers in a web machine run at
various ratios of one another; these ratios are dependent on
process temperature, humidity, roller size, gearing, tension,
trim inputs etc. As the machine accelerates from zero line
speed to maximum line speed, the relative ratios of the
sections must be maintained or the web will break. Many
sections will require local fine tuning of the ratio or section
speed to account for tension adjustments (the operator might
observe that the material is wrinkling and reduce the tension,
for example). When a local adjustment is made, the effect of
this adjustment must be propagated to the sections which
follow.
There are two ways to implement a sectional controller. One
way is to use a single computational platform to work out all
the required section speeds and transmit them periodically to
the respective sections. This has the advantage of a single
controller doing all the work. The disadvantage is heavy
network traffic flowing into the single controller, since the
controller has to know what the other sections are doing and
read all the I/O devices used for adjustment.
The second way is to position intelligence at each section so
that the ratio and trim adjustments are done locally and the
results are passed only to the upstream or downstream sec-
tions that need them. In this scenario some control loops are
implemented locally utilising feedback available from the
local I/O on the drives controlling each section. This reduces
the load on the network, which is then only called upon to
transfer slower outer-loop references less sensitive to var-
iations in the deterministic response. Although the dynamic
requirements of the network are less, flexible peer-to-peer
communication is needed to allow data to be shared easily
between distributed processes.
A distributed architecture has some advantages over a cen-
tralised structure: a powerful controller necessary to cope
with large levels of computation for the whole system is
expensive and the software will invariably be unwieldy and
difficult to maintain. Also the I/O, which most drives pro-
vide as standard, can be utilised very efficiently by a local
process without loading the network. Clearly, it may be
difficult to partition and distribute some systems and a
centralised approach is best (e.g. the interpolation functions
of a multiaxis CNC machine).
The method described here, as an example, is completely
distributed. It is based upon each section of the line running
a local application program. The particular program described
has features built in which permit it to act as a line master or
a line slave, selection being via selectable parameters to
configure the operation. Network traffic can be heavy, but it
is node-to-node, not a blizzard of messages going to a single
node as in the star or centralised configuration mentioned
above. It is based upon a system employing Unidrive drives
each with an applications coprocessor and a high-speed
fieldbus interface fitted.
The primary purpose of the sectional controller is to accept
an incoming speed reference, multiply it by a ratio, set its
Chapter 12.2 279
drive speed to the modified reference and pass that modified
reference along to one or more upstream or downstream
sections.
The reference may be optimised by local feedback devices
such as a dancer arm, load cell, or pressure sensor which
indicates tension. The program allows a tension set point to
be compared to the tension feedback and the error signal is
applied to a proportional/integral/derivative (PID) algo-
rithm. The PID error output can be used to modify the ratio
or simply adjust the reference directly. The tension set point
and feedback signals can be any parameter on the section's
drive or in any attached inputs/outputs, or can be any
parameter elsewhere on the network.
The new section reference, based on a ratio and a tension
adjustment, can be propagated to up to six destination sec-
tions. A master section would typically propagate the
reference to the upstream and downstream sections. A slave
section would typically propagate the reference to a single
upstream or downstream section. However, any section
can propagate the reference to six possible destinations,
thus permitting a parallel path topology to be created.
Figure 12.18 shows some of these process line topologies.
Reference passing over the network is handled by a high-
speed fieldbus; in the example CTNet is used. This incor-
porates a cyclic data feature, which is a preprogrammed
transfer scheduled to occur on a periodic basis. A section
expects its incoming reference to arrive via a fast cyclic data
channel and be deposited into PLC register _S00%. A high-
speed clock task within the Unidrive coprocessor reads the
incoming reference, multiplies it by the selected ratio, makes
an adjustment for tension error and creates a final section
reference. This final reference is used to set the local drive
speed and is also deposited into PLC register _R00% for
eventual transmission to other drives via cyclic data. Six
possible destinations can be specified. The references and all
set-up parameters are 32-bit integers in times 1000 format
but the calculations are all done in floating point, so there is
no loss of precision.
In a coordinated process line, all drive ramps should be
disabled. The ramp algorithm in the coprocessor program is
relied upon to protect the drives. One and only one section
(the master) will have its ramp algorithm enabled. All the
other slave sections will have their ramp algorithms dis-
abled. This permits the slaves to follow the master's ramp
exactly, a crucial element of a coordinated process line.
Changes to the ratio are also protected by an onboard ramp
system. This ramp system is normally enabled for all
sections and any abrupt ratio change is slew-rate limited by
the ratio ramp and this effect is propagated to all follower
sections.
The sectional controller also uses a cyclic data channel for
start/stop operations. Usually, the master section will
broadcast the start command: this means that each slave
drive will see the start command at the same instant. How-
ever, to stop the coordinated process line, the master section
first commands all drives to regulate to zero speed, follow-
ing the master's ramp. When the master determines that zero
speed has been attained, only then will the stop command be
broadcast.
280 TECHNIQUESCOMMON TO MANY APPLICATIONS" Sectional Drive Systems

-- Sl S2 S3 S4 S5 S6
I _ tl tl ~I ~1

master slave slave slave slave slave

section # 1 section # 2 section # 3 section # 4 section # 5 section # 6

Sl = line s p e e d * RATIO1

re S2 - Sl * RATIO2
eed S3 = S2 * R A T I O 3
S4 = S3 * R A T I O 4
$ 5 = S4 * R A T I O 5
S6 = S5 * R A T I O 6
PC

Sl S2 S3 S3 S4 S5 S6
il , tl I,I
slave slave master slave slave slave
section # 1 section # 2 section # 3 section # 4 section # 5 section # 6

Sl = S2 * R A T I O 1
line S2 = S3 * R A T I O 2
speed S3 = line s p e e d * R A T I O 3
S4 - S3 * R A T I O 4
S5 - S4 * R A T I O 5
S6 = S5 * R A T I O 6

Sl $2 S3 S4 S5 S6
I ,I,! ~1,, " t i tl t
master slave slave I slave slave slave
section # 1 section # 2 section # 3 I section # 4 section # 5 section # 6
I
Sl = line s p e e d * RATIO1
line S7 S8 S9
S2 = S l * R A T I O 2
speed ~ I tl t
S3 = S2 * R A T I O 3
slave slave slave
S 4 = S3 * R A T I O 4
section # 7 section # 8 section # 9
S5 - S4 * R A T I O 5
S6 - S5 * R A T I O 6

S7 = S 3 * R A T I O 7
Sl0 Sll S12
S8 = S7 * R A T I O 8
I,I ~,1
S9 - S8 * R A T I O 9
slave slave slave
S l 0 = S3 * R A T I O 1 0
section # 10 section # 11 section # 12
Sll - Sl0 * RATIO11
S12 = Sll * RATIO12

Figure 12.18 Coordinated process line topologies

a cascaded line w i t h master at o n e e n d
b cascaded line w i t h master in m i d d l e
c cascaded line w i t h parallel branches

includes a scale and offset, allowing a Unidrive analogue

The sectional controller can also operate in a manual mode
where the reference is not derived from incoming cyclic
data, but rather a number of other sources. In manual mode,
one of six preset speeds can be selected, as well as an
analogue speed, which can be any parameter on the local
drive or any other drive on the network. The analogue speed
input and speed potentiometer to be set up for line speed
control.
Each possible reference input has its own acceleration and
deceleration rate that the user can specify. Two ratios are
provided, switched by a digital bit parameter. The ratios and

the reference are clamped by respective maximum and
minimum limits.
The tension PID adjustment allows any parameter on the
local drive or any drive on the network to be used as the
source of the tension set point and the tension feedback.
Tension set-point and feedback signals have a scale and
offset available to permit use of drive or remote input/output
(I/O) analogue channels. The PID algorithm has a number of
adjustment parameters allowing this system to be tuned to
the customer's requirements.
The tension set point includes an increase/decrease function.
This is a bit parameter which advances or retards the tension
set point much like a motorised potentiometer system. The
longer the tension increase/decrease button is held down, the
faster it increments the set-point value.
A slack take-up/let-out feature allows any bit parameter on
the local drive or any other drive on the network to add or
subtract a fixed value from the reference, as long as the
button is held down. This allows any web material lying on
the floor due to a threading procedure to be quickly taken up.
All parameters configuring the sectional controller are
nonvolatile. They exist in the coprocessor's _Pxx% and
_Qxx% PLC register sets which can be saved to onboard
flash memory at the user's discretion or at power down.
The sectional controller program is programmed to work
with either an A.C. Unidrive or a D.C. Mentor drive. By
reading virtual parameter #90.10 at start up, the type of drive
can be determined. This detection of drive type is used
throughout the program to select the proper precision
reference parameter and start/stop parameter. In fact, the
only line of code that must be changed is the #DRIVE
UNIDRIVE header line.
Theory of Operation
This section provides all the operational details of the sec-
tional controller. The diagrams show the flow of the data
through the system and identify the parameters which the
user can adjust.
AUTOMATIC MODE- THE RATIO OPERATION
The heart of the sectional controller is the ratioing operation.
In this operation, the incoming reference is deposited by the
cyclic data system into PLC register _S00%. This is a 32-bit
integer register, so the reference speed is expressed in times
1000 format. This allows specification of a reference to a
precision of three decimal places.
For example, 1468.015 m i n - 1 would be expressed as the
integer quantity 1468015. It will be converted by the appli-
cations program into floating point and all subsequent cal-
culations will be done in floating point. Only when the final
reference needs to be propagated to another slave drive will
it be reconverted back into the integer times 1000 format.
In the simplest case, the sectional controller does a simple
operation such as:
reference - (float(_S00%)/1000.) ratio
To permit the use of a tension trim adjustment, the above
equation is extended to allow the tension trim component to
Chapter 12.2 281
modify the reference. The equation implemented permits the
tension trim to affect the reference in two ways: adjustment
dependent on line speed and adjustment not dependent on
line speed. The constants kl and k2 permit selection of either
method or a mix of both. In the sectional controller, the
following equation is the heart of the system:
reference -
((float(_SO0%)/lO00.) x ratio)+
((float(_SO0%)/1000.) x ratio
trim error x kl) + (trim error x k2)
As can be seen from the equation above, setting k l and k2 to
zero simplifies the reference calculation to a basic ratio.
Constant kl (_P08%) adds in the tension trim adjustment,
but makes it dependent on line speed; that is, the trim
adjustment has more effect at higher line speeds. Likewise,
constant k2 (_P09%) adds in the trim adjustment but makes
it not dependent on the line speed.
Sometimes a threading procedure will leave slack in the web
material or the operators want to create some slack at a
section to make adjustments; for these situations, a slack
take-up/let-out register (_P39%) is added to the reference
to permit web material to be taken up or let out. This is
controlled by a slack take-up function.
Figure 12.19 illustrates the reference ratio operation.
AUTOMATIC MODE- SELECTINGTHE RATIO
The sectional controller provides two ratios, selectable by a
bit parameter. Since the two ratios are adjustable parameters,
accessible over the network, a SCADA system or network-
compatible keypad can change these ratios at any time.
Each ratio has individual maximum and minimum limits and
these limits can be disabled, if desired.
The ratio is protected by its own ramp system. This prevents
an arbitrary change in ratio from tripping the drive or any
follower drives linked to it. The ratio ramp should always be
enabled.
The ratios and the limits are all programmed in an integer
times 1000 format. For example, a ratio of .98 would be
entered as 980 and a ratio of 1.527 would be entered as 1527.
Figure 12.20 illustrates the ratio selection process.
AUTOMATIC, MANUAL AND
MANUAl/BYPASS OPERATION
Sectional controllers usually operate in three modes: auto-
matic, manual and manual/bypass.
Automatic mode accepts a reference from the fast cyclic data
channel and applies the ratio, tension trim and optionally the
ramping operations before setting the drive speed and pro-
pagating that speed to other destinations.
Manual mode allows the user to supply the reference, from a
variety of sources, and no ratio operations are done. Manual
mode still permits propagation of the references via cyclic
data to other drives. This would typically be used in a master
section where the user wants to employ a speed potenti-
ometer for the line speed.
282 TECHNIQUES
COMMONTO MANY APPLICATIONS:Sectional Drive Systems

!1adjust.,,
elo teP91%
nsiOn trim error k2_ trim error

] multiply
trim error * k2

K1

r+
kl trim error
multiply

reference * ratio * trim error * kl

d

IlincmiCTNet
no pt
reference
_S00%
J multiply
ref_ratio
reference * ratio
i

ratio

post_pid_ref . ~ reference

slack take-up adjust

Figure 12.19 Application of the ratio, tension trim and slack take-up adjustments

Manual/bypass mode applies a simple ratio to the incoming
cyclic data reference and passes it on to the destination
sections, thereby isolating the drive from the line. Manual/
bypass mode would be popular during start up where the
installer wants to rotate a roller for testing purposes.
SLEW RATE CONTROL
Typically, in a coordinated process line, only one agent
controls the slew rate of all drives. Usually, this is the master
section.
The drive's internal ramping system is turned off and we rely
on the master section to ramp the speed up and down. The
slave sections are followers, they follow the master's speed
and thereby follow the master's ramp system. Acceleration
and deceleration rates are tailored to the specific reference
selected. For manual mode, there is usually a separate
acceleration and deceleration rate for each reference source.
The sectional controller also includes a maximum and
minimum clamp; this is engaged on each and every section
to prevent runaway.
DISTRIBUTION OF REFERENCES
The final reference, which is the incoming reference mod-
ified by the ratio, the tension adjustment, the ramping system
 Chapter 12.2 283

ratio selector II]lratil 0] - max

P 0 9lim
%it ] I[ rati_P11%
1 max limit
_P05%
Ilratio 0 Tin limit I1 ratio 1 Tin limit
_P 10% I _P 12% I

ratio #0 ratio 0 ratio limiter

u P03% ratio
v

ratio #1 ratio 1 1
A

_P04% W

Ira,io_P06%
rampenab'ell
II ratioaccel rate
II _P07% ~" ---hi,li'""ratio_p08O
decel rate
o I[
_

ratio accel/decel
target _ratio function
ratio Ib,
w v

-~'0
0

Figure 12.20 Selection of ratio

and the high and low limits, needs to be distributed to this
drive as a speed command and communicated to the other
drives which should follow it.
It is typical to allow the destination of reference data to be
changed by simply a parameter setting. This allows the user
great flexibility in the control of the line which may be
required for different materials or gauges of materials which
are to be processed.
ACQUISITION OF TENSION SET POINT
The reference may be trimmed by a tension error signal. The
tension error is the difference between the tension set point
and the tension feedback.
The tension set point can be assigned to any parameter on
the drive or attached remote I/O or it may be fetched via
CTNet from any parameter on any other drive or I/O on the
network.
ACQUISITION OF TENSION FEEDBACK
The tension feedback normally comes from a load cell or
dancer; these can be connected to an unused Unidrive ana-
logue input or a remote I/O. In any case, any parameter on
this drive may be selected as well as any parameter on any
other drive or I/O on the network.
START/STOP OPERATIONS
method. A broadcast message is one that every node receives
simultaneously; this allows all drives to turn on or shut off
within milliseconds of each other.
Starting and stopping a line is not however as simple as
broadcasting a stop command - this would easily break the
web. In a coordinated process line, the stop command should
actually cause a sequence of events to occur. First, the stop
command must be held in abeyance until the sections have
regulated to zero speed. If the start/stop control is in the
master section, as it should be, the sectional controller's start/
stop sequencer will force a zero line reference. This will
cause the line to begin ramping towards zero. The start/stop
sequencer will monitor the section speed until it reaches zero
and then and only then will the stop command be broadcast.
SYSTEM FAIL-SAFE OPERATION
The sectional controller needs to provide a fail-safe system
to ensure proper shutdown in emergency situations. A
coordinated process line should be shut down if any drive
trips or loses network communications. In this situation, all
remaining drives should be commanded to ramp quickly to
zero and then stop.
Communications loss is detected by the buddy station
method. In a distributed application like this sectional con-
troller, each section may transmit its node ID to a buddy
station via a fast cyclic data channel. If a communications
loss or a trip occurs, the section must do two things:

Start/stop commands are normally propagated over the 1 Ramp quickly to zero speed then stop.
network via a fast cyclic data channel using a broadcast 2 Signal the other drives to ramp quickly to zero then stop.
284 TECHNIQUES COMMON TO MANY APPLICATIONS: Sectional Drive Systems

To fail-safe stop the drive, the normal start-stop logic source node to a contiguous block of _Sxx% registers on
is used to ramp to zero speed then stop. The only differ- the destination node at either the slow or fast cyclic
ence is that special fail-safe acceleration and deceleration update rate.
rates are engaged. The drive must be reset to clear this
For the sectional controller example, we use the cyclic data
condition.
editor to create nine dummy cyclic links for each section.
These links are nonfunctional at system start up. The sec-
Using an IEC61131-3 Programming Tool tional controller program allows an outside agent, such as a
to Configure a Sectional Drive Line SCADA system, to reprogram each cyclic link to do some-
Graphical programming tools such as Control Techniques' thing specific. Figure 12.23 shows the completed dummy
SYPT (system programming tool) are well suited for use on links as set up by the cyclic data editor.
sectional applications. From a single workstation the drive As an example, assume node 12 is the master section that
system engineer can edit, compile, download and debug must transmit its reference to two adjacent nodes (node 11
every section over the CTNet token-ring network. The watch and node 13), broadcast the start/stop command, and send a
window is network cognisant and can display variables and heartbeat to node 13. Using the SYPT watch window's
parameters dynamically from several different sections command area, the following commands would reprogram
simultaneously. the cyclic links to achieve this, illustrated in Figure 12.24.
Figure 12.21 shows a typical SYPT configuration screen for
a six-drive system.
ENERGY SAVING
The configuration screen shows the nodes on the CTNet
network and the cyclic data links that are defined between General
nodes. In offline mode, the insert/cyclic data menu option
The application of variable-speed drives within almost
allows the designer to create cyclic links between one node
any process will provide improved control and thereby
and others. Figure 12.22 shows the dialog box which permits
offers the means to optimise quality, production rate and
specification of a cyclic data link between two nodes.
energy. The detailed calculation of the total energy impact
When a source node and a destination node have been which variable-speed control can have on an entire facility
selected, as shown above, a special cyclic data editor will is complex. It is however helpful to highlight the major
appear (Figure 12.22) that will permit the user to enter the area of energy saving opportunity in respect to the applica-
specifics of the intended transfer. Remember that a cyclic tion of variable-speed drives, namely loads with a variable
link transfers a contiguous block of_Rxx% registers on the torque/speed characteristic. Centrifugal fans and pumps

m ,m ~ I |
................~ ' . ~ ................~......... ~ ...................' ~ " ~ ...................~ - - ~ .....................
~ : ~ " ~ ....................
~............~....................
~'i~ ...................
~.................. i~::,I
i'.
..............................
~ ...................................
~ ...................................
L~L~" .....................................
C~L.~ .........................................
i~ISSI~L~ i ~i~~i ~i

!......!.L
.. ..iii!.................................. !...!-!.!...!.!ii!i!I!...!!.i.!.i!.!.i!t.!!-i!.i.!!i!....!..!!i!.i!.!!!i!i!. i.....!...,i!!!!....!.!i!.!.i!.!i!.,!!i!!!!!!!!L.!i!i!i!iiii
i!.=......!.!.!!!!L~:i

Figure 12.21 SYPT configuration screen

Figure 12.22 Specifying a cyclic link

 Chapter 12.2 285

.................................::::: ......................... :: ........................... ............................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................ ::i

ii

Figure 12.23 Creating nine dummy cyclic/inks

,, ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . ",. : ~ :.: ..: " . . . . . . N ~ ... :~ ...... . . . . . . . . . ~:~y::~%~N~:.. ~. . ". ~ , ~ N .

~iL.Pgl.Y.{MA~ER]I = I 1 # reference p r o p a g a t i o n node ID l o t cy~c|lc channel $| .<OK>

~PCJ2~MASTER]i node ID lor cynic channel ~Z .<:OK) " 1;3 ~t reterence propagation .......
.!_Pg3~MASTEI~! node ID for cyclic channel #3 <:OK> =O tt re:terence propagation iiiiiii!i,
~ii~.IIJ4~MASTER]I =0
r~ode ID for ~ l i c c h ~ n e l #4 <:OK) ~ reference propagation ;iii!i!i!iii:.
iiL~S~MASTER) r~ode I D for cyclic channel ~ <OK:> ~-0 tr reference propagation ii~ii!i~i!i!i!
ii~Pgfi:Y,~MASTER;)--0 tt fete:fence propagatlon r~ode I D tor cyclic channel it5 <OK) iii;iiii!i!!
~.P02/~.MASTEI~) = I tt MASTERISLAVE select for cyclic channel 87 <OK.:> ii!i!i!i!il;i
~i~P9I..~MASTE I~) - 1:3 /t tall-safe node to receive the heart beat for cyclic channel #R (OK) .i.i...!
;i:2:iii::iiiii~
;!I_P00NMASTER) = I tt ~rce re.programming of all cyclic Iin~ OK) ~i!i!i!;Ji;~!

Figure 12.24 Dynamically changing the cyclic links using watch window

typify this category with their cubic characteristic i.e. power characteristic of a real water pump with the following
absorbed (shaft power required) is proportional to the cube specification:
of the speed. Reducing speed by 50 per cent on such a load
therefore reduces the shaft power requirement to rated flow - 10.6 m 3 min- 1
0.53 - 0 . 1 2 5 i.e. an 87.5 per cent reduction. Compare this head = 37.5 m
with mechanical alternatives to flow control which may give
a 20 per cent reduction in shaft power requirement, and it is rated speed - 1480 min- 1
easy to see why so many drive systems are readily justified
on the basis of energy saving-capital expenditure payback Figure 12.25 shows the head/flow relationship for constant
periods of less than six months are not unusual. speed. The curve of efficiency is also included and is seen to
peak at a slightly lower flow than the rated flow of the pump.
In order to fully appreciate how such dramatic energy sav- Efficiency at rated flow is 83 per cent so the pump shaft
ings can be made it is necessary to review the basic operating power requirement is given by:
characteristics of specific loads and compare the effective-
ness of flow control using variable-speed drives as compared
shaft power (kW)
with throttling control using valves, vanes etc.
= (head (m) acceleration due to gravity (N/kg)

flow (ms-1))/efficiency
Centrifugal Pumps
= (37.5 9.81 (10.6/60))/0.83
Figure 12.25 shows the characteristic curve of a typical
centrifugal machine. It is based upon the performance = 78.3 kW
286 TECHNIQUES COMMON TO MANY APPLICATIONS" E n e r g y Saving

100
90
80
70
60
head (rn)
50
efficiency (%)
40
30
20
10
0 I I I I I I

0 2 4 6 8 10 12
flow, m3 per min

Figure 12.25 Characteristic flow curve of a typical centrifugal machine (pump, fan or compressor)

60 /

50

40
head at 1480 min-1 (m)
30 head at 1210min -1 (m)
head at 960 min-1 (m)
20

10

| | | | | .

0 2 4 6 8 10 12
flow, m3 per min

Figure 12.26 Characteristic flow curves of a typical centrifugal pump operating at different speeds

100
90
80
70
60
flow (%) I
50 head/shaft torque (%)
40 power (%)
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
speed %

Figure 12.27 Characteristic relationship between flow, head~torque and power in a centrifugal pump operating at
different speeds

If the pump speed is reduced from the rated speed of head is proportional to (n2/nl)2
1480min -1, a similarly shaped curve exists relating the
power is proportional to (n2/n1)3
head/flow characteristic of the pump at any particular speed.
Figure 12.26 shows a family of curves generated for speeds It follows that in respect of the shaft:
over the range 1480 to 960 min- 1 (65 per cent). shaft torque is proportional to (n2/nl) 2
The head/flow curves for any speed can be readily estimated
Figure 12.27 shows these relationships graphically.
from the constant/rated speed characteristic. The following
relationships apply: For pumping applications, the characteristics of the system
into which pumping takes place must be considered and the
if the rated speed is n] and the reduced speed is n2, then:
back pressure of the pump consists of two components:
speed ratio is (n2/nl)
static head
flow is proportional to (nz/nl) friction losses
 Chapter 12.2 287

60

50

40 head at 1480min -1 (m)

head at 1210min -1 (m)
30
head at 960 min -1 (m)
20 system demand

10

0 2 4 6 8 10 12
flow, m 3 per min

Figure 12.28 Characteristic flow curves of a centrifugal pump operating at different speeds with system demand
superimposed

45
40
35
30
25 head at 1210min -1 (m)
20 system demand
15
10
5
0 I I I I I I )

0 2 4 6 8 10 12
flow, m 3 per min

Figure 12.29 Characteristic flow curve of a centrifugal pump operating at reduced speed with the system demand
superimposed

Figure 12.28 shows a system demand curve superimposed The pump shaft power requirement is given as:
on the variable speed curves of Figure 12.26.
shaft power (kW)
Static head is seen to be about 22 m and represents a total lift
from the pump inlet to elevation of the point of discharge. = (head (m) x acceleration due to gravity
Friction losses are a function of pipe diameter, pipe length,
(N/kg) x flow (ms-'))/efficiency
inlet losses, pipe C factor, specific gravity of the liquid, type
and number of bends, fittings, reducers, valves etc. and are = (28 x 9.81 x (6.8/60))/0.785
approximately proportional to the square of the flow. = 39.7 kW
From Figure 12.28 it can be seen that at the maximum (rated)
speed of 1480 m i n - 1 the system demand curve intersects the If, instead of using variable-speed control, a mechanical
pump curve at 11 m 3 min- 1., this represents 100 per cent flow. throttle were used, the system curve would be modified as
shown in Figure 12.30.
Consider the condition where flow is to be reduced to 6.8 m 3
min,- 1 a reduction of 40 per cent. The pump speed required The operating conditions for the pump are now:
to operate at this point on the demand corresponds to the
pump characteristic drawn for operation at 1410min-~. head - 45 m
This is shown on Figure 12.29. flow - 6.8 m3min -1

The system back pressure at this point is 28 m including efficiency - 81%

friction losses of about 23 m:
The pump shaft power requirement is given as:
n2/nl- 1210/1480
= 0.82 shaft power(KW)
With this 18 per cent reduction in shaft speed the effi- = (head (m) x acceleration due to gravity (N/kg)
ciency of the pump would typically fall by the order of
3 per cent. Figure 12.25 shows the efficiency at a flow x flow (ms-l))/efficiency
rate of 6.8 m3min - ~ to be 81 per cent so the efficiency at = (45 x 9.81 x (6.8/60))/0.81
the reduced speed can be assumed to be 0.81 x 0 . 9 7 -
78.5%. = 61.8 kW
288 TECHNIQUES COMMON TO MANY APPLICATIONS" E n e r g y Saving
60 /
50-
40
30
20-
10-
0 I I I I I
0 2 4 6
flow, m 3 per min
Figure 12.30 Characteristic flow curve of a centrifugal pump operating at fixed speed with the system demand with
throttling superimposed
The excess head dropped across the valve therefore repre-
sents the energy loss due to throttling.
The energy saving by using a variable-speed drive in
this example, at that duty point, is (61.8-39.7)kW =
22.1 k W - 35.7 per cent.
This example does assume that the pump selection and valve
sizing have been optimised for the application.
It needs to be noted that even at the design flow rate, some
excess head must exist across the valve for it to be able to
control flow. Typically this would be 5-10 per cent of the
rated pump head.
So far only the pump has been considered. In order that
overall losses are included in the calculation, i.e. from the
electrical supply to the pump output, it is necessary to take
into account the efficiency of the drive system. For the fixed-
speed motor rated in 75 kW, the rated efficiency could be
expected to be 94 per cent. For a modem A.C. variable-
speed drive, the converter efficiency can be conservatively
assumed to be 97 per cent. The motor under variable fre-
quency control could be conservatively assumed to lose two
points of efficiency.
3 APPLICATION PRINCIPLES/EXAMPLES
The applications in which variable-speed drives are applied
are many and extremely varied. The reasons for using
variable-speed drives are almost as diverse. This section
brings together a broad cross section of applications. In some
cases technical details behind the application of the drives
are given; in others emphasis is given to the benefits that
head at 1480min -1 (m)
system demand
(without throttle)
system demand
(with throttle)
I I
8 10 12
The power requirements in the above example, at the
reduced flow, can be restated as:
mains power for variable
speed solution = 39.7/(0.97 x 0.92) --44.5 kW
mains power for the
throttling solution = 61.8/0.94 = 65.7 kW
The power saving is 21.2 kW/32.2 per cent.
Centrifugal Fans and Compressors
Centrifugal fans obey the same basic characteristics as cen-
trifugal pumps and the shape of their pressure/volume curves
is therefore similar to those of pumps. The calculations and
the rationale for variable-speed operation are the same.
The pressure/volume characteristic for centrifugal com-
pressors, although generally similar to that for the pump,
differs in that a pressure peak occurs between low flow and
rated flow. The range of flow reduction cannot therefore
extend beyond the limit where surging takes place. Good
flow control can be achieved with variable-speed operation
over typically a 2:1 speed range, although care must be
taken to avoid surge problems.
variable-speed drives offer from the user's perspective. In
many cases it can be seen that not only is the core perfor-
mance of the drive critical, but also the auxiliary features.
The capability and flexibility of the soft logic program-
mable applications module features heavily in many of the
application examples.

CRANES AND HOISTS
General
The use of variable-speed drives on cranes and hoists is very
widespread. Historically the characteristics of slip-ring
induction motors with resistance and later phase control in
the rotor circuit were very popular. Today the use of A.C.
cage induction motors predominates, with closed-loop
flux-vector control used for precise control, and where
performance is not important open-loop control is applied.
There is a substantial market for retrofitting of the drives
systems on cranes since the electrical systems invariably
have a shorter life span than the very substantial mechanical
parts. There comes a point where drives maintenance on
cranes becomes uneconomic and downtime is seriously
affecting the operation of the factory or dockyard.
Planning an Installation
In most retrofit applications with state-of-the-art inverter
control systems, there are several issues:
the need to install the equipment in the existing
environment
the need to create the same characteristics on the
movements as before with the desired feel on the
controller
the maximum capacity of the crane
application of the present safety rules - these are
constantly being revised and tightened
With regard to the maximum capacity of the crane, this is
only valid if all of the controls for the crane movements are
tuned in such a way that the driver is able to control the load
in an easy and safe manner.
When designing a drives system for a retrofit - or, indeed,
for a new crane - it is essential that the driver's needs are
fully considered. The ability to build in particular control
characteristics is a very important feature. Some drive
manufacturers have available programmable applica-
tion modules for both D.C. and A.C. drives, to customise the
performance and features of the drive to exactly meet the
requirements of the user.
13 0
O,
time, s
Figure 12.31 Comparison of desired speed of the load against the actuality, with the load speed finally being totally out of
control, for a speed-controlled slewing drive
Chapter 12.3 289
Requirements typically include:
slewing control on a cargo crane
grab control on the hold-and-close drive
synchronisation on two or more motors
load-dependent speed control on the hoist movement
By utilising an applications module it is possible to provide
all the movement-related control in the drive itself. There-
fore, in most instances, there is no need for an additional
PLC-a major cost saving!
Slewing Control
On many conventional cranes, the slewing movement is
undertaken with slip-ring motors. The slip-ring motor, in
combination with rotor resistors, meets the crane driver's
needs in most instances. There is good motor torque control
for acceleration and deceleration and it is possible to coast
when the controller is moved to zero. However, this method
of control is very poor at low speeds, with sudden steps in
torque between resistor steps, wasting a lot of energy, and
the system requires very regular and intensive maintenance.
When replacing the slip-ring motors with a modem dynamic
drive system, the results can be very disappointing. Figure
12.31 shows the behaviour of a conventional speed-
controlled drive system that makes it difficult to control the
swaying of the load.
To counter this effect it is possible to design a program to run
on the internal applications module that gives the crane
driver optimal control over the swaying load, without the
need for a PLC.
Such a control system would typically provide the driver
with control over both the speed and the motor torque. Speed
control is important for accurate positioning at low speed. It
also provides compensation for the wind forces on the load.
Torque control is crucial for controlling the sway. In this
way, the driver is always able to anticipate the movement of
the load and compensate for it. By bringing the controller
back to zero, the movement is effectively coasting, which
gives a major damping effect on the sway of the load
(Figure 12.32).
290 APPLICATIONPRINCIPLES/EXAMPLES: Cranes a n d Hoists

1.2

1.C

0.8

0.6
"0
(D
o_ 0.4

0.2

time, s

Figure 12.32 Using integrated software, the driver is back in control and is easily able to control the load (typical slewing
control)

Figure 12.33 190 tonne overhead crane upgrade (courtesy ScanRope A/S)

Crane Refurbishment for a Norwegian
Steel Wire Rope Maker
A major rebuild of an overhead crane (Figure 12.33),
upgrading it from 125 tonnes to a theoretical maximum 190
tonnes rating, at ScanRope A/S of Tonsberg in Norway
opened the way for the company to break into new market
areas in the offshore oil industry, according to development
manager, Nils Martin Teien.
"It increases the unit weight of rope coils we can supply to
over 200 tonnes," he explains, "which is why this crane
upgrade is so important to our company. We have placed
great emphasis on getting everything right - the steelwork,
the motor and most important of all, the drives systems."
The ASEA overhead crane is situated in the despatch
area and extends outside onto the nearby dockside for direct
ship loading. Originally installed in 1976, the crane was

substantially overengineered, allowing the upgrade to almost
double its rated capacity. Nevertheless, some reinforcing of
the mechanical part of the crane, designed by mechanical/
civil engineering consultant Finn Strom, has been necessary,
as well as new motors and drives.
The 200 kW A.C. hoist motor is controlled by two 120 kW
variable-speed drives, load sharing and operating in flux
vector mode (giving full torque at standstill) with feedback
from a shaft-mounted encoder. A plug-in applications module
provides simple, smooth directional control. In addition
a 6150Nm disk brake was installed, which is applied
automatically whenever the hoist is at rest.
The short and long travel drives, 7.5 kW and 30 kW, res-
pectively, are also fitted with intelligent application modules
and operate in open-loop V/F mode, the latter controlling
four 6 kW brake motors in synchronism.
A further function of the application modules, with addi-
tional I/O plug-in modules on the drives, has been to limit
the position of the crane as it travels out onto the dockside.
Although the crane can lift to its full rating across its entire
width within the factory, as it travels outside and further onto
the dockside, where the gantry is pivoted to allow boats to
come alongside, the permitted area of travel is limited to a
narrower span in the centre of the track.
Reduced loadings are permitted in defined distances to either
side of the centre line. Information from limit switches,
combined with load data, is computed in the application
modules to ensure that operation is always within safety
limits.
The control cabinets, which also included main supply
distribution, transformers, RFI filters, radio transmitters and
overload protection relays, were installed on the crane's
bridge. As well as a hand-held remote radio controller, with
stepless control on all three axes, an additional controller
was installed in the existing driver's cab as a back-up
option.
The crane has been certified at 190 tonnes plus 10 per cent.
In the future, with the assistance of a new 60 tonne crane to
be running on the same track, it will be possible to increase
loads to a full 250 tonnes.
ScanRope A/S has the world's largest facility for the pro-
duction of spiral strand mooring lines for deep sea applica-
tions. It is already one of the largest manufacturers of wire
ropes for the offshore oil industry, with the main product for
mooring applications being six-strand wire rope tructions
manufactured in units weighing up to 140 tonnes. This
represents steel wire rope with a breaking strain of 1700
tonnes and a weight of 95 kg per metre.
ELEVATORS AND LIFTS
Lift System Description
Until recently lift systems operated using motor generator
sets and Ward-Leonard multimotor control. With the devel-
opment of drive technology, motor generator sets were
replaced with D.C. motor and drive converters incorpora-
ting six-pulse and twelve-pulse systems (i.e. two drives in
parallel or series configuration).
Chapter 12.3 291
The advantages of the parallel twelve-pulse system over the
six-pulse are:
reduction of electrical interference on the electrical
supply
reduction in audible noise from the motor and thus
reflection into the lift shaft
reduced harmonics in the line currents
less ripple current thus less torque variation (producing
better lift ride performance)
Today, the D.C. lift market is declining and D.C. systems are
mostly used as refurbishment units. The decline of the D.C.
market has been due to the developments in A.C. motor and
in particular A.C. flux vector controlled drives.
The lift market can be split into three basic types of control
system:
1 Hydraulic - these are fitted in low-rise buildings and are
based on the extension and retraction of a hydraulic ram
fitted to the bottom of the lift car. The lift speeds vary,
typically in the range 0.5 to 1.25 m s -1.
2 Geared- these are fitted on low to intermediate-sized
buildings and are based on a motor gear arrangement (the
gearing used being of helical, planetary or worm type)
with lift speeds in the range from 1.0 to 2.5 m s-1. The
speed of these systems is limited by the losses / audible
noise created in the gearbox at higher speeds.
3 G e a r l e s s - lift systems of this type are generally found in
taller buildings with lift speeds in the range of 2.5 to
1 0 m s - 1 for passenger elevators and even faster for
goods elevators. However, with the latest development
in technology in motor design and A.C. drives (less
power stage losses), gearless machines running at 1 m/s
can now be found.
The main components of a lift system are:
1 Variable-speed drives.
Lift controller- the lift controller's main functions can
be split into the following sections:
a Handling car/landing calls - a separate group con-
troller is often used to control the car/landing calls
when more than one lift is used in a building.
b Learn and store floor positions - floor sensors are
set up at each landing level. The lift is moved at a
controlled speed from the bottom floor to the top
floor. Positional information is read from an incre-
mental encoder as the lift passes by the floor plates,
which indicate floor level. The position is then
stored in memory. This positional storing is con-
tinued until the top floor of the building is reached.
c To generate lift speed patterns (16 bit and 32 bit)
(these speed patterns reference the drive speed loop).
d Calculate lift position.
e Provide general control/safety functions.
f Motor brake control.
Safety g e a r - a mechanical safety device that is posi-
tioned underneath the car and works in conjunction
with the governor. It is activated if the speed of the lift
exceeds the contract lift speed by a fixed percentage set
at the commissioning stages of the lift. The function of
292 APPLICATIONPRINCIPLES/EXAMPLES:Elevators and Lifts
the safety gear is to bring the lift to a halt in overspeed
conditions.
4 Counterweight - a counterbalance weight that is ap-
proximately the weight of the lift car plus 40 per cent to
50 per cent of the lift carrying capacity. Long-term
studies of people traffic in lift cars have shown that the
car on average is mostly 40 to 50 per cent full on most
of the lift journeys. With this factor in mind, from the
above it can be seen that having a counterweight
reduces the amount of power required to run the lift.
5 Governor - a pulley that links via a rope to the lift car
and runs at the same speed as the lift. The pulley has a
configuration of masses on board which move out in
proportion to the lift speed due to centrifugal force. If
the lift should overspeed by a fixed percentage the
masses come out enough to trip the safety gear.
6 Buffers - hydraulically-filled rams that act as dampers
to the lift and counterweight should the lift reach the
extreme limits of the shaft. There is a buffer for the
counterweight and one for the lift car.
7 Positional e n c o d e r - sends positional information back
to the lift controller.
8 Floor sensors - sensors in the shaft that show the true
floor level.
9 Motor/brake.
10 Shaft peripherals - shaft limits are positioned at the
extremes of the lift shaft as electrical safety checks to
the controller.
11 Selector - shows the lift floor position. The selector
increments and decrements as the lift passes the floor
sensors in the lift shaft.
Key mechanical components are shown in Figure 12.34.
The lift controller's main function is to generate optimum
speed profiles for every lift journey with minimum floor to
floor times, floor level accuracy typically better than 3 mm
and, most importantly, passenger comfort.
Speed Profile Generation
As mentioned previously, the speed profile generation is
normally done in the lift controller but can be incorporated
within the drive if an applications module is available.
Different profiles are generated dependent on different floor
distances travelled (Figure 12.35).
Jerk is the rate of change of acceleration and can be opti-
mised in the profile on set up to give smooth take off of the
lift from floor level. This is a very important factor in lift
control. The different jerk acceleration rates can be modified
on the run by the controller, or the lift variables can be
entered as fixed values on less complex systems.
In earlier systems the profile was slightly modified from the
above with the final sections of the slowdown dropping to a
slower speed called the creep speed before aiming into the
floor position (Figure 12.36).
Sensors in the lift shaft indicate to the controller when to
start slowing down and also when to start different sections
of the profile. However, nowadays the trend is towards
direct-to-floor positioning and this is now more widely used
in new lift systems. The system works on real-time pattern
generation using third-order positioning algorithms. This
allows optimum profiles to be generated depending on the
shaft distance to be covered, giving optimum flight times
and passenger comfort.
Load Weighing Devices
In some lift applications load cells are used in the control
system. This helps in removing drop back when the lift
brake, and then lift patterns, are released. It does this by
adding a torque feedforward term into the torque loop of the
drive that is proportional to the load in the car. The motor is
thus preexcited with the torque before the brake is released,
improving zero speed holding. However, with the improved
speed/current loops in today's drives this is becoming a thing
of the past.
Figure 12.37 shows a simplified lift electrical system.
METALS AND METAL FORMING
The use of variable-speed drives in the metals industry is
widespread. The processing of metal is a classical sectional
process, with closely coordinated speeds, tension control etc.
Winders and unwinders are common. It is interesting,
therefore, to consider a somewhat more unusual application
relating to metal forming.
Winding, Crimping and Precise Cutting
A complex drives task, involving the winding and crimping
of stainless steel strip and square cutting of lengths of tube to
precise tolerances, has been achieved using variable-speed
drives. Using an applications module within a drive module,
it was possible to simplify the design and eliminate the need
for additional, costly, PLC control.
The machine, designed and built by Senior Precision in
Oldbury, Birmingham, UK for group company United
Flexible of Merthyr Tydfil, manufactures flexible steel
exhaust hose, used on trucks (Figure 12.38).
The machine is much simpler than others that perform a
similar function. Although a PLC is used to provide the basic
sequencing, all the real control loops are in the drives. This
gives the designer and user much more flexibility. The
system can easily be reprogrammed if required and extra
functions can be added in software.
Fitted between the turbocharger and the main exhaust
system, the function of the hose, apart from being gas tight,
is to take up the offset and misalignment of pipe work and to
reduce transmitted vibration. To this end, the exhaust hose
has to perform to demanding extension and compression
criteria at a specified force, with movement being equal
either side of the mid point.
Flat stainless steel strip is fed into preforming rollers,
wrapped around a mandrel, crimped into a four-fold labyr-
inth, which allows sidewards movement without gas leak-
age, and emerges as a helically-wrapped tube, which is then
square cut using a plasma source, removed and spot welded.
Tubes in a range of sections from 50 to 200 mm diameters
and up to 800 mm long can be manufactured on this machine.
 C h a p t e r 12.3 293

spring thrust bearing

load cell

car

,..... .... ! ! II damping springs

hydraulic buffer

counter roll

drive with traction heave

position reference and

monitoring

emergency limit switch

(15 cm above final position)
................................! 10 ropes

11 compensation ropes

12 car frame

13 mechanical safety catch

14 counter weight (car

weight plus 50% nominal
load)

15 compensation ropes

16 emergency limit switch

(15 cm under final position)

17 counter roll
compensation rope

Figure 12.34 Components of a lift system

1st floor down)

2nd floor
-0
3rd floor "0
~creep speed sensor 2
C).
own)

,v distance
distance

Figure 12.35 Lift speed profiles for different journeys Figure 12.36 Typical velocity profile

7.5 kW drives operated, in closed-loop speed-control mode,
power the former and the mandrel motors, and a 0.75 kW
drive, complete with PM servomotor, provides the servo
function for the lead screw-mounted plasma torch, which
follows the tube to ensure a perfectly square cut.
A PLC provides overall control of the sequencing, the hy-
draulic pressure control on the former and mandrel and is
connected to all three drives via CTNet fieldbus. The motors
for the former and the mandrel both have shaft-fitted encoders
for speed reference, and the servomotor has a resolver fitted.
294 APPLICATIONPRINCIPLES/EXAMPLES"Metals and Metal Forming

floor 30 I
RS-485

RS-485
i - - - -

',
|
cubicle
Unidrivew/UD70 ~ PC or
desktop

floor 29 I
RS-232
RS-485 encoder
/// power I
disl~layand group
floor 28 I con|rol to other lift
| . . . . . . . . . . .
windingdrum ~ ~ , , ge~bbrke~
RS-485 11 I1' fl'ux vector motor
indicator

-up/
RS-485 down
floor 2 I
trailing
floor 1 RS-485 c~ble floor selector
call station with F panel car/lift
home limit I;
ground
r//////////////A (home position)

Figure 12.37 Simplified block diagram of typical lift electrical system

Figure 12.38 Machine for the manufacture of flexible steel hose (courtesy Senior Precision)

The encoder speed reference from the former drive motor is
retransmitted via a dedicated plug-in module to the mandrel
drive, which in turn retransmits its speed reference to the
servodrive for the plasma torch. The servo's resolver signal
is also fed back to the former drive. An application module
on the mandrel drive incorporates software to ensure the
precise following of the former drive and provides the
interface with the servodrive. Thus the whole system is
digitally locked together.
Programming for the cutting is contained in an applications
module on the drive for the plasma torch. Knowing the
diameter of the product and the feed speed of the strip
determines the rate of growth of the tube. A signal initiates
the plasma cutting and the servodrive moves the gun during
the cutting to keep pace with the tube. This on-the-fly cutting
ensures a perfectly flat end section.
United Flexible is part of Senior Flexonics, which is a highly
diversified world-wide manufacturer and distributor of cor-
rugated and tubular products and is considered a leader in
each of the markets it serves - automotive, aerospace, OEM
technologies and industrial. At the Merthyr Tydfil factory in
Mid Glamorgan, the company manufactures a wide range of
flexible metal hose assemblies and the Compoflex flexible
composite hose for cargo transfers.
Roll Feed Line
A new roll feed line installed at Color Steels in South Wales
combines a maximum speed of 30 m min - 1 with a pitch feed
accuracy of 0.03 mm (Figure 12.39).
The system comprises a hydraulic decoiler which feeds into
an 11 kW D.C. leveller drive. The strip is fed into a two-
metre deep looping pit with four photocell sensors which
feed back to the drive, which has an applications module with
PID loop control software, to control the size of the loop. The
objective is to run the leveller drive at the optimum speed to
keep a constant size of loop.
Figure 12.39 Roll feed line (courtesy Color Steels)
Chapter 12.3 295
A feed roll, under the control of a 7.5 kW servodrive and
142 frame servomotor with resolver feedback, is position
controlled by a standalone motion controller to an accuracy
of 0.03 mm.
The system feeds the strip through and selects a combination
of two hydraulic punches and a shear at a demanded speed
of up to 120 operations per minute and giving a maximum
acceleration time to full speed of 0.7 seconds.
Open-loop drives and motors were used for the pinch roll
drive on an output conveyor, which runs slightly faster than
line speed to ensure that material is quickly cleared out of
the way.
The control desk and integral cubicle incorporates the con-
trolling PLC, keypad and screen. There are two modes
of operation: manual jog control, where the operator can
control any part of the line separately, and fully automatic
control, where the system will cycle for a preset number of
batch counts on pressing line start; the looping pit fills and
the punches, conveyors etc. are started automatically.
The first punch punches a pattern of holes and the strip is
moved a set distance, confirmed by two sensors (one looks
for a hole, the other for material) under the second punch
which then completes the punch pattern and forms the
material. Without confirmation from the sensors, the second
press will not start. The material is then cut to length and is
fed to the outfeed conveyor.
The system is very versatile and can be reprogrammed for a
wide range of products within the maximum component size
limits. The complete control system, interfacing with A.C.
and D.C. drives, hydraulic controls for the presses and shear
and the hydraulic pump control, is housed in the main
control desk 1600 mm wide. Data entry includes cut lengths,
line speed, acceleration and batch quantities.
Color Steels distributes the widest range of precoated steels
in the UK. State of the art technology is used in the various
296 APPLICATION PRINCIPLES/EXAMPLES: Metals and Metal Forming
slitting, decoiling and shearing processes. Swift conversion
from master strip to sheets and blanks is achieved within a
single site situated at Blackvein Industrial Estate, Cross
Keys, in Gwent.
WIRE AND CABLE MANUFACTURE
Four-Quadrant D.C. Drives for a Bar Mill
Steel rods, 150mm in diameter and 9 to 10m long, are
heated in the bar mill furnace and conveyed to the finishing
mills. For a particular product requirement, the speed
through the mill stands is determined by the finishing dia-
meter required. The subsequent speed of each stand is then
cascade controlled by the master finishing stand.
The system for the finishing line, covering mill stands 10 to
15, comprises a main D.C. drive suite, with six D.C. drives,
the finishing line PLC and auxiliary controls. Four of the
D.C. drives are for 375 kW motors and two are for 750 kW
motors (Figure 12.40).
All of the D.C. drives are fully regenerative/four quadrant,
which gives good speed control on both acceleration and
deceleration. The drive system allows future development to
serial parameter control from a host computer, running a
product recipe suite of software.
Before, if the drives overshot their required speed, it often
took 10-15 seconds to drop back, giving an overshoot on the
line. Drives were constantly speeding up and slowing down.
Coasting to a halt could take up to five minutes and reversing
the line necessitated reversing the field.
Now the line holds perfect speed control, with additional
feedback from scanners monitoring the loop height between
stands, and cascade control from stand 15 which acts as
master. Calculations concerning the motor speed refer-
ence for each drive are carried out continuously in the
Figure 12.40 Bar mill finishing line (courtesy Allied Steel and Wire)
PLC and transmitted to the additional processor in each
Mentor drive. Thus all stand drives are constantly and
simultaneously updated, thereby avoiding tension/compres-
sion during rolling.
This improvement in dynamic response has had the effect of
improving rod quality, both in finish and in a more con-
sistent rolling pattern and dimensions. Product rejects have
been greatly reduced and production volume has been
substantially increased.
Wire-drawing Machine
The wire drawing process typically reduces wire diameter
from 12 to 1 mm over up to 14 tungsten carbide dies. As the
diameter reduces, the speeds of successive blocks drives
have to increase to handle the increased material length and
to maintain a constant tension between each stage.
Between each block there is a dancer arm which takes up the
slack wire. From each of these a noncontact proximity detector
sends an analogue signal to the application module of the
following drive. Using a program with a PID-type function,
the drive speeds up or slows with the objective of keeping
the dancer arm in its central position. In practice, the control is
such that, after the start-up, during which the software works
out the sizes of the dies in use, the dancer arms have minimal
movement from the optimum central positions. The speed ratio
between drives is daisy chained from the master drive - the
final block drive ofthe sequence - and each ofthe slave drives.
This gives optimum speed following which prevents wire
breakage even during a fast stop.
With the dancer arms running in central positions, more trim
is available before reaching limit stops, so there is less dis-
ruption to production and far fewer incidents of wire
breakages. At the first limit in either direction, the drive
accelerates or stops ramping up and at either second limit,
the machine comes to a controlled stop.

Drives can be set to allow ramping up from standstill at a
preset ratio, with the speed of the fastest drive being limited
to allow slower drives on earlier blocks to ramp up in the
correct ratio, without exceeding their current limits. Any
drive approaching maximum speed can hold the speed of the
other drives thus preventing wire breakage due to incorrect
drafts (die sizes). During threading of a new wire, each new
block becomes the speed master, the master pilot block
moving down the machine automatically (Figure 12.41).
D.C. drives have been installed for the spoolers (30 kW) and
rotors for the formers (56 kW).
Each control desk features an operator screen with bar
graphs showing the current of each drive, the facility to
calculate machine efficiency based on set length and speed
and automatic slow down during gun or former changeover.
The sophisticated monitoring system gives the operator a
comprehensive view of machine conditions.
A PC with custom software, placed in the operator's desk,
allows improved operator feedback and system monitoring.
This shows the operator the normal operation mode, speed,
current (torque) and dancer arm position of each block,
allowing the operator to trim each block between viable
limits with real feedback.
Other key aspects include system status icons and time to run
calculator. Maintenance is incorporated into the system,
with user-explicit alarm captions and a 12-monthly logging
system. Further maintenance features allow an automatic
gateway for engineers to use software tools to monitor the
drives and the system's performance while the line is in
production. These tools assist the operator in being able to
quickly identify faults using onboard diagnostics such as
guards up, dancers back etc.
Bridon International is one of the world's leading manu-
facturers of steel wire and one of the few companies which
has the capability to manufacture large structural strands.
These are used, for example, on the Queen Elizabeth bridge
~:i~!~~,~I:: : .....
Figure 12.41 Wire-drawing machine (courtesy Bridon International)
Chapter 12.3 297
at Dartford; high-strength galvanised wires and strands are
used on the Tsing Ma and Kap Shui Mun bridges on the
Hong Kong airport approach route.
PAPER MANUFACTURING
General
Since first invented by the Chinese, paper has always been
made in basically the same way. Paper is manufactured by
pulping wood or similar cellulose material with water to
produce a stock. In the simplest process, this stock is laid on
a gauze base to allow the water to drain. More water is then
extracted by squeezing, and finally the paper is dried by
evaporation.
Whereas paper was originally made sheet by sheet, a modem
paper-making machine combines all these processes to
produce paper at continuous speeds of up to 1000 or 2000
metres per minute with web widths up to five metres. These
machines often run under computer supervision with many
interactive control loops to achieve the required production
schedules and to maintain consistent quality. A very import-
ant part of such a machine is its electrical drive system,
which may consist of up to a dozen main motors and many
smaller helper motors, with a total installed capacity of
several hundred kilowatts.
Sectional Drives
The speed of each section of the machine must be accurately
controlled to maintain the correct intersection speed differ-
entials, or draws, to cater for the changes in characteristic of
the product as it makes its way from the wet end of the
process through the press section and drying sections to be
reeled at the end of the machine ready for the next process.
The shunt-wound D.C. motor has been the traditional choice
for driving paper machines for many years; it has good
speed-holding characteristics, a high torque availability at
298 APPLICATIONPRINCIPLES/EXAMPLES:Paper Manufacturing

very low speeds - essential when starting high inertia sec-
tions of the machine - and proven reliability. When com-
bined with a modem thyristor power converter it provides an
efficient and reliable means of obtaining the degree of
control and response which is essential to the paper-making
process.
A.C. drives, now available in capacities of 600 kW and
above, are, however, making significant inroads into the
paper industry. They give the benefits of lower motor costs
and low maintenance and are now more often the preferred
choice for new machines, although D.C. will still have a
good market for some years yet, particularly for conversions
of existing machines already utilising D.C. motors.
Both provide an efficient and reliable means of obtaining the
degree of control and response which is essential to the
paper-making process.
Early machines were fitted with a line shaft driven by a large
D.C. shunt motor. Cone pulleys were provided to adjust
inter-section speeds, and clutches allowed sections to be
stopped and started as required. Modem paper machine drive
systems are sectional, a motor and controller being provided
for each section of the machine, as shown schematically in
Figure 12.42. Typical motor sizes for the medium-sized
machine making paper at 300 metres per minute and a width
of three metres are:
wire section 100 kW
first press 50 kW
second press 50 kW
first dryer 50 kW
second dryer 50 kW
third dryer 50 kW
calender 100 kW
reel 50 kW
making a total installed capacity of 500 kW.
Selecting the motor sizes for a sectional paper machine drive
involves checking the normal running load (NRL) and
recommended drive capacity (RDC) calculated for each
section and usually rationalising around two or three frame
sizes of motor to reduce the number of spare parts to be
carried. Each motor drives its respective section via a speed-
reducing gearbox which is carefully chosen with the arduous
24-hour, 7-day operating requirements in mind. For smooth-
ness of transmission, helical gears are usually specified.
Often, a restricted range of different gearbox sizes is used
with interchangeable wheels and pinions - again to reduce
the cost of spare parts stock.
Each section motor is fitted with a high-accuracy, tem-
perature-compensated tachogenerator or high-grade digital
encoder to provide accurate speed feedback to the section
power controller.
The motors must operate under very adverse conditions:
very wet at the wire section, and hot and humid at the dryers.
D.C. motors are therefore often ventilated by a clean air
supply ducted from outside the machine room, air-flow
switches normally being provided to monitor the flow of air
through each motor and to shut the equipment down if the air
supply fails. In contrast, because of their inherently high
degree of protection, A.C. motors can be used without any
special provisions.
Loads and Load Sharing
The maximum power that may be transmitted into a section
(i.e. to drive the felt or the wire) by any particular roll is
limited by the arc of wrap of the medium around the roll and
the coefficient of friction between the roll and the driven
medium. Where this power is less than the total power
required to drive the section, additional power is provided by
helper motors driving other rolls in the section.
Typical examples of such arrangements are the wire-turning
roll driven by a helper motor to assist the couch roll motor,
as shown in Figure 12.43, or the multiple drive points of
a machine felt section. These helper motors are usually tied
mechanically to the main section speed-controlled motor by
the wire or felt which passes around the section.

other
sections-
presses,
wire section(master) first presssection dryersetc. reel section

NI i N -1 (

cEA >
+4
SEA + i tension

l draw
~increase
l speed for
tension
control

masterspeed
reference
Figure 12.42 Sectional paper machine drive layout

L suction boxes
wire ~ underwire
(~- ~"~ UI1UU ~/~suction
~""couch
roll
r ~ wire
turning
[I U r''
t )
),
CEA
! the reel drum. When the reel is complete a new shell is
l lowered on top of the reel drum and the paper is transferred
SEA/~
masterspeedreference
Figure 12.43 Section motor driving wire-turning roll has
tachogenerator fitted for speed control.
Section couch roll driven by helper motor
under current control
On earlier systems, the helper motor can therefore be con-
nected in parallel, sharing a percentage of the section load
with the section motor, and using a common converter; in
more modem solutions, the two motors may be controlled
by independent converters arranged to operate in torque
control, as in Figure 12.43.
A paper machine operates over a very narrow speed range,
probably never more than 3:1, but low speeds are required
for fitting and running in the wire and felts and when
cleaning. Unlike other types of process machine, the paper is
threaded through the machine at normal paper-making
speed, each section being brought in as the web finds its way
through the machine. The stock is fed onto the wire and
recycled through large broke pits, situated below the wire
section, until its consistency is correct. A thin tail of paper is
then picked off the wire and threaded through the machine
section by section. When the paper tail reaches the reel
section and is running between the reel drum and the empty
reel shell its width is gradually increased at the wire until a
full width is passing right through the machine. At this stage
the paper is wrapped around the reel shell and reeling
commences.
Chapter 12.3 299
. ~ new reelshell
~~ , ~ normal n shell
positioreelas
-\ .
up
Figure 12.44 Arrangement of reel section
While the threading process is going on, the section motor
speeds must be held constant in spite of rapid load changes
as the paper passes through the machine and as its width
increases. Any slight variation in speed at this time will
cause the fragile web of paper to break.
The paper reel is a surface-driven system, Figure 12.44. The
reel shell with the paper winding on to it is pressed against
from the filled shell to the new shell allowing paper to be
reeled continuously. The reel section drive normally oper-
ates in speed control while threading and during reel
changes, but tension control is normally used while reeling.
Control and Instrumentation
The basic elements of a paper machine sectional drive
control system normally comprise a set of A.C. or D.C.
power converters, each housed in its own cabinet and sup-
plied through individual main isolators, motor contactors,
excitation and control circuits to provide inch, crawl and run
functions. Each section has its own stop, crawl and run
operator interface. Electrical power is normally distributed
to the cabinets by an enclosed three-phase A.C. busbar
system for D.C. drives or a D.C. system fed from a common
rectifier for A.C. drives.
The traditional instrumentation and controls for the operator
are now commonly integrated on touch screens, which allow
customisation for touch inputs, plant displays, push-button
machine adjustment etc., all incorporated in one small
box. Serial links to drives cut down on both wiring and
installation costs and simplify maintenance.
As the paper travels along the machine, passing through
various pressing and drying sections, it undergoes changes in
length. The section speeds must be adjusted to allow for this.
The intersection speed differentials thus created (known as
draw) may vary between zero and +5 per cent of maximum
speed. All the drive sections receive a speed reference signal
from a master speed reference unit. This signal is generated
as a digital value and is transmitted to the drives over a high-
speed local area network.
Individual section speeds are trimmed with respect to the
master reference to obtain the required draws. Normally, one
section is tied solidly to the master reference with no draw
300 APPLICATIONPRINCIPLES/EXAMPLES:Paper Manufacturing
adjustment. Draws may be individually and separately
adjusted, or cascade adjustment may be provided whereby
an adjustment to one section is automatically passed on to all
succeeding sections, so obviating the necessity for the
operator to reset all draws following an adjustment at one
section.
A slack take-up system operated from a push button on each
section is normally provided, for all except the master sec-
tion, to allow the operators to pull out any slack in the tail
as it is fed from section to section while threading up.
Arranging for all the drives to follow a single master refer-
ence signal ensures that no velocity lags occur between
sections, as would be the case if each drive took its reference
from the preceding section; it also ensures that slight
instability on one section is not transferred to succeeding
sections.
The master section is normally the wire section, as this is the
first section, and all draws may be expressed with reference
to it. This arrangement is particularly useful where cascaded
draw systems are required, as all draws can then be
considered to be positive.
The rate of change of the master reference is usually chosen
to be very slow, thus limiting the rate at which changes in
overall machine speed may be made. This ensures good
speed tracking between sections which may have very dif-
ferent torque to inertia ratios. It also ensures that the process
control side of the machine can keep up with machine speed
changes and is able to maintain the correct flow of stock to
the wire section and the correct amount of steam feed to the
dryer section.
Individual section drives are completely independent as
regards starting and stopping. The rates of acceleration
applied to the various sections, when running up to the preset
master reference speed, should be limited according to the
maximum power which can be mechanically transmitted
into the section. The couch roll and forward drive rolls,
which are the main drive rolls on the wire section, must not
be allowed to accelerate so rapidly that they lose traction and
slip inside the wire.
Two possible solutions are used here: first, to accelerate
under reduced torque limit and switch to a higher value once
running speed is attained; alternatively, to use a ramp gen-
erator to control the rate of acceleration of the section up to
running speed. This is then disabled to avoid the introduction
of any additional velocity lag during overall changes in
machine speed.
Some sections have large inertia-to-torque ratios, the dryers
in particular, which consist of a dozen or more 1.6 m (5 ft)
cylinders to each section. Accelerating these up to speed
from start requires substantial overload capacity: at least two
to two and a half times full load torque should be catered for.
Older machines may also have plain bearings, requiting
break away torque of up to four or five times normal running
load. These factors should always be given careful con-
sideration when planning to update an old drive system,
particularly if the original drive was a Ward-Leonard system
with essentially no limit on the current available.
With the advent of microprocessor-controlled drive systems,
paper machine drives have become more sophisticated. The
new drives allow many possibilities to be explored, such as
speed and draw menu storage and immediate set up by
product code. When used in conjunction with a modem
paper-machine process control computer, such programmes
allow very quick and efficient changes in product grade, and
improved start-up times with less time required for the
machine to settle in to the new grade. Management reporting
on drive performance can now be provided relatively easily
via the serial communications port of the drive. Assistance to
the electrical maintenance departments in fault location and
correction can be provided by recording and storing, in the
drive memory, the historical trends of various important
drive parameters prior to a shutdown condition.
Winder Drives
Once the paper has been wound into reels on the paper
machine, it must be slit into widths to suit the printing presses
or other converting machinery for which it is intended, and
rewound onto disposable cores in known lengths. This pro-
cess is carried out on a slitter rewinder, which normally
consists of an unwind stand (into which the reel is loaded as
it comes from the paper machine), a set of driven slitter
knives and a rewind system.
The rewind usually comprises two drums, mounted side by
side, upon which the slit and rewound roll of paper sits. The
distance between the two drum centres is only slightly
greater than their individual diameters so ensuring that the
rewound roll is supported by both drums. A rider roll which
sits on top of the rewound roll is arranged to rise in a vertical
slide as the diameter of the rewound roll increases.
The pay-off stand is controlled by a braking generator and
is centre driven, whereas the rewind drums and rider roll
provide a surface drive to the rewound roll.
Each motor is provided with its own A.C. or D.C. power
controller; the pay off normally runs in tension control and
the two drums run in a master and slave configuration in
speed control, the second drum load sharing with the first.
The rider roll also runs under torque control, its control
strategy depending upon the particular winder type.
A two-drum winder of this type will wind paper at speeds up
to 2000 m m - 1 and handle reels from the paper machine up
to 2.5 m diameter and 5 or 6 m wide. The rewound rolls will
be from 1 to 1.5 m in diameter, necessitating several stops in
the course of rewinding one parent reel.
The winder is therefore designed to run at two or three
times the speed of the paper machine in order for it to
keep up with the production rate. An installation of this
type is a very large capital investment and it is not acceptable
for the paper machine to be held back by undercapacity of
the winder.
Control of the rewind drum motors is fairly straightforward;
the front drum (the one nearest the unwind stand) runs under
speed control and sets the speed of the rewinding process.
The rear drum runs under torque control, its load being
determined as an adjustable percentage of the front drum
load; a load-trimming adjustment is provided for the
operator to make adjustments. The torque differential so set
between the two drums is used to control the tension, which
is wound into the roll and therefore determines its hardness.
 Chapter 12.3 301

Most modem winders employ profiling of this hardness
by automatic adjustment of the load sharing in relation to
the rewound roll diameter. This is easily measured by a
transducer attached to the rider roll.
Additional hardness control may also be provided by
adjusting the rider roll torque. Both these current-controlled
motors normally have some form of speed override to pre-
vent excessive overspeed when they are not in contact with
the rewound roll.
The slitter knives consist of rotating discs with ground faces.
They can be moved laterally across the machine to provide
different widths and are usually individually motorised and
provided with plugs and multiposition sockets to allow
selection to suit the job on the winder at the time. The slitter
knives must run at a speed slightly in excess of the paper speed
to provide a cut. But if this speed difference is too great,
excessive knife wear will occur; if too small, the knives will
not cut. The slitter motors are normally supplied from a
common variable-frequency inverter which is referenced
from the drum drive but given a fixed positive bias to ensure
the correct positive differential in speed over the paper.
The unwind brake generator at the payoff operates as a
constant-power braking system to maintain constant tension
in the paper fed from the unwind. Constant tension in this
part of the machine is essential to ensure correct operation of
the slitter knives. Any variation will cause interleaving of the
slit drums at the rewind.
Typical parameters for a medium-size winder are:
speed 2000 m min-]
parent reel diameter 1.7 m
reel shell diameter 0.33 m
paper sheet width 4.25 m
sheet tension 9 g m m - 1 width
This gives a parent reel weight of about 6000 kg and a total
sheet tension of 382kg, resulting in a tension power of
93 kW to be absorbed by the brake generator. The variation
in stored energy of the expiring parent reel and the reel shell
as the diameter reduces may be seen from Table 12.19.
This clearly shows the effect of the fixed inertia component
provided by the reel shell and brake generator armature, and
the varying inertia component of the parent reel as it is
unwound and reduces in weight and diameter.
The total stored energy reduces as the reel diameter reduces
but increases at lower diameters as the rotational speed
increases.
While accelerating and decelerating, the torque in the
braking generator must be adjusted to compensate for the
stored energy values outlined. This is a technique known as
inertia compensation. The actual change in torque demand
must be predicted, bearing in mind the total stored energy of
the unwind and field flux level of the motor at the operating
diameter and the rate of change in speed.

The unwind brake generator will normally be required to
control tension over a diameter range of about four or five to
one and also deal with a range of sheet tensions which
depends on the variety of grades to be handled. A typical
tension range may be five to one, resulting in a torque
regulating range of 25: 1.
Figures 12.45 and 12.46 show the relationship between
inertia compensation torque-producing current and diameter
for the values listed in Table 12.19, taking the effect of
motor excitation into account.
Table 12.19 Comparison of stored energy

Diameter (m) Reel (kWs) Shell (kWs) Total (kWs)

Brake Generator Power and Energy
1.52 366 20 386
The size of the brake generator is relatively simple to decide: 1.27 241 29 270
it must provide only the tension power required by the paper. 1.00 68 46 114
This may be calculated from the winding speed and max- 0.76 58 84 141
imum permissible sheet tension. Calculations should also be 0.60 180 180
made to check on the overload capacity required to accel-
erate and decelerate the unwind with a large reel of paper
present and, if necessary, the brake generator should be
increased in power to cater for this. This is particularly )
min diameter max
important where low tensions are to be used with materials
such as newsprint, where the acceleration power may be
substantial in relation to the tension power requirement.
current
In making these calculations, it is convenient to split the -50
components of the machine into fixed and varying inertia
components and calculate their stored energies in kilowatt
seconds (kWs). This allows each part of the machine to be
tension current in unwind
assessed separately throughout the diameter range; summing -100
the results gives the total stored energy, from which an
estimation of the acceleration power requirements can
readily be made.

It is common practice for the motors on a winder of this type -150 -

to be arranged for direct drive. This is of particular impor-

tance on the unwind, as it reduces frictional losses in the
system to a minimum and makes control of sheet tension Figure 12.45 Effect of inertia compensation on unwind
more accurate. brake generator- decelerating
302 APPLICATION PRINCIPLES/EXAMPLES: Paper M a n u f a c t u r i n g
I
+50
inertia compensation
current
min diameter max
t.-
L.-
-50
total current
,,.~ln unwind
tension current
-100
Figure 12.46 Effect of inertia compensation on unwind
brake generator- accelerating
Unwind Brake Generator Control
The drive control system for an unwind brake generator is
quite complex. The system must be capable of operating
under speed control during threading of the winder and
under tension control once the machine has been threaded
with paper and put into the normal operating condition.
During threading, the unwind will be set to follow the same
speed reference as the rewind drums. But, as the rewind is
surface driven and the unwind is centre driven, this speed
reference must be adjusted to allow for the diameter of the
roll of paper on the unwind to ensure a match of peripheral
speeds between the two parts of the machine. To allow the
operators to manoeuvre the paper while threading, some
adjustment of the difference in these two speeds must be
made available with the additional possibility of driving the
unwind forwards or backwards to pay out or take up paper
loops.
Once the drive is selected to tension control, calculations of
required tension torque and acceleration torques are made
and the results of these calculations used to predict the
torque setting of the motor. This open-loop tension control is
used while preparing the winder. Once the machine is
operating satisfactorily under open-loop tension control at
low speed, the tension loop is normally closed by taking a
feedback signal from a tension-measuring load cell and
using this signal via an auxiliary PI control loop to trim the
predicted torque level applied to the motor. Normally, the
drive designer will endeavour to achieve as accurate a torque
prediction system as is possible, so reducing the amount of
control necessary from the load cell loop.
Coating Machines
As the name implies, coating machines coat the paper. They
are used to impart a special finish which cannot be done on
the paper machine itself. Coated paper products include
high-gloss magazine papers, NCR paper and other such
products.
A coating machine consists of an unwind stand often
arranged to handle two reels, supporting them on turrets and
rotating them into position to perform a splice as the old reel
expires, thereby maintaining continuous processing. Nip
rolls pull the paper from the unwind. There are usually one
or two coating heads, depending on whether both sides of the
paper are to be coated, together with their respective drying
sections which may be ovens or heated cylinders or a
combination of both. Hold-back rolls control the paper
before it enters the rewinder which again, like the unwind,
may be arranged for continuous operation with rotating
turrets and reel changing on the run.
As the paper passes through the machine it undergoes con-
siderable changes in moisture content and hence the tension
levels between the various sections vary considerably.
Dancer rolls are usually fitted between important sections to
allow the state of the paper to be controlled more readily.
Each section is provided with its own motor, which must be
accurately controlled to maintain correct speed or tension.
The powers involved in a coating machine are considerably
less than those on a paper-making machine or winder, and
the control problems are somewhat different.
The payoff must control sheet tension accurately through a
four or five to one diameter range, but it must also accelerate
a new reel up to match the speed of the expiring reel to
enable a flying splice to be successfully completed. Once the
splice has been made the payoff must smoothly and quickly
transfer to tension control which is maintained until the reel
is finished, at which point it must bring the empty reel shell
quickly to rest after the next splice transfers control back to
the other payoff.
The speed-controlled sections must track speed accurately
throughout the full speed range of the machine, which may
be 50 or 100 to one. Trims from dancer rolls must also be
incorporated into some of the section speed controllers. The
dancer roll control loops may have gain-adjusting circuits to
increase their effect as the machine speed increases.
The twin rewinds are normally centre driven, each with its
own motor and, like the payoffs, must accelerate a new reel
core up to speed in readiness for a changeover at speed when
the previous reel becomes full, changing to tension control
once the splice is complete.
Owing to the mechanical arrangement of the payoff and
rewind, with concentric drive shafts which pass the power
through the centre of the rotating stands, considerable
attention must be paid to providing adequate compensation
for frictional losses within the tension control systems. Both
static and dynamic friction compensation circuits should be
incorporated into the controller together with inertia com-
pensation. Also, the paper surface, once coated, becomes
very smooth. This results in telescoping of the rewound
reels unless the tension is carefully monitored and con-
trolled. Usually, coated papers require some degree of taper
tension to prevent telescoping and the rewind tension
control system must invariably include this feature. The
tension taper control reduces the web tension as the dia-
meter increases by some preset ratio under control of the
operator. As with a paper machine, each section is provided
with its own motor and drive which all follow a master
speed reference signal and are controlled from the master
line run and stop controls.
 Chapter 12.3 303

The machine is threaded with paper at crawl speed and the

unwind and rewind set to tension control. The machine is
then accelerated up to operational speed and the drive
system must maintain control over the paper throughout
this process.

Paper-slitting Machine
Denaeyer Papier is one of the few companies in Belgium still
producing its own paper. Using a unique process, with no
addition of chemicals, the company converts raw pulp
into thin, hard-surface backing paper simply through the
application of heat and high pressure.
End users take delivery in small coils ready cut to the
required width. This is where the paper-slitting machine
comes in. The customer wanted an increased performance,
within the mechanical limitations of the existing machine,
and improved reliability, with particular emphasis on precise
torque control to prevent ripping of the very thin paper.
The paper is supplied on reels of a maximum diameter of
two metres. The unwind reel is controlled by a 93 kW D.C.
motor under the control of a four-quadrant D.C. drive. To
accommodate the line-speed variation of 0-1000 m/min and
the reel diameter which varies from 2 m down to 32 cm,
a field controller is fitted to allow the motor to go into
overspeed with field weakening.
The paper is guided by rolls to the slitter section, where the
rotating knives are computer set to give the required widths. Figure 12.47 Paper-slitting machine (courtesy of Denaeyer
The knives are controlled at line speed by an 11 kW asyn- Papier)
chronous motor with an open-loop drive. After the slitting
process, each strip is then wound to the correct length, under It is crucial that there is no shock start. The winder roll is
tension, onto cardboard cores. Two D.C. motors, 32 and held at zero and the unwinder rolls are run in reverse to
75kW, both controlled by D.C. drives, provide the close stretch the paper. As the correct torque (current) is detected
torque control for the final winding process (Figure 12.47). by the D.C. drive, both winder rolls are started and the
speed is run up very gently. The winder is running under
D.C. drives with application modules, complete with stan-
speed control, the unwinder under torque mode with speed
dardised centre wind software, were chosen for the torque-
override.
critical D.C. motors. The unwind drive calculates and adjusts
the unwind motor armature and field current to maintain Paper Board Machine
constant tension. This software also provides inertia com-
pensation since the inertia of a loaded reel is significantly At the start of the board-making process white chemical
different from that of an empty one. This prevents tension processed pulp is poured onto moving wire and the water
errors during speed changes. vacuumed off to form the first paper layer. This is repeated
another four times as the paper moves through each section
All drives are controlled from a cubicle near to the machine of the machine, each section adding another layer of paper
which contains the start and stop functions, the potenti- until the product leaves the fifth section as the formed five-
ometers which define line speed, start tension, end tension ply board. More moisture is removed as the board then
etc. and indicators. passes through four separate presses which ensure that it is
When the machine is started, all the drives are running in flat, compact and of uniform thickness. Product thickness for
speed control so that the operators can guide the paper from the machine varies between 450 and 750 microns.
the unwind reel through the rolls and knives to the winder Two dryer sections remove the last of the moisture from the
rolls. This is achieved at very low line speed and, with a top and underside as the board is pressed between two sets of
starting diameter of 2 m, it was necessary to provide feed- large steam-filled cylinders. Its speed through the dryers is
back for the drives with incremental encoders to minimise critical to prevent bowing which causes the plys to separate.
the influence of noise.
The board then passes around a large, rotating glazing
When everything is ready to start, the line speed is set - with cylinder which acts like a steam iron, giving the top surface
a maximum of 1 0 0 0 m m i n - 1 - and the start and end of the board a highly polished finished. The rotation speed of
tensions are also set. This is to define the tension profile of the cylinder varies from 150 m i n - 1 to 225 m i n - 1, depend-
a wound and slitted reel; i.e. the tension is higher at the ing on the finish quality required for a specific product.
beginning and decreases as the diameter increases. The rest
is automatic. The diameter, necessary for the calculations, is Next, the board goes through the size press where it is coated
provided by an ultrasonic device. with starch to prepare the finished surface for printing.
304 APPLICATIONPRINCIPLES/EXAMPLES:Paper Manufacturing
Figure 12.48 Paper board machine (courtesy Iggesunds
Paperboard)
It then goes through a final drying section and on to the
coating section. Here it is calendered, coated and dried twice
before going through a third and final calender. The finished
board is then reeled onto large drums ready for slitting,
rewinding or sheet stacking and shipping to the customer.
Operators can wind the drums to a diameter for reel orders or
to weight for sheet orders. Whichever method is used the
reeled drums leaving the machine can have a maximum
diameter of 5 ft and/or a maximum weight of five tonnes,
depending on the end product (Figure 12.48).
The machine's new drive system uses D.C. drives in the
range 420-825 A on the main sections - 18 in total. The
moving wire on each of the five initial ply-laying sections is
controlled by an 825 A drive. There are also drives on each
of the four presses, each of the three dryers, the size press,
the three calender sections, the paperboard reel up and the
threader drive which threads the tail of the paper into the
dryer on start up.
Other drives on the machine include: two 4 kW flux vector
A.C. drives on the applicator rolls in the two coating sec-
tions; four, 2.2 kW flux-vector A.C. drives on the paper lead
rolls which help pull the paper on its vertical journey through
the second coating dryer; a 75kW open-loop A.C. drive
driving less critical lead roll motors connected in parallel.
Open-loop A.C. drives are also used for all the auxiliaries
including various fans and pumps along the machine and
controlling the speed of three brush sections which polish the
board after coating. These are fitted into a multimotor con-
trol panel and controlled from a process control system.
At the machine's wet end the pouting of the pulp onto the
wire is critical to the stiffness and strength of the final
paperboard; the speed of the wire therefore needs to be
matched accurately to the speed of the pulp flow and the
drives need to keep their speed holding between machine
sections or paper breaks. Under normal operation the
machine lays at the same number of tonnes/hour, so for
thinner board the machine is speeded up and v i c e v e r s a . The
speed-holding accuracy along the rest of the machine is also
critical to end product quality.
The original drive-to-drive serial communications of the
D.C. drive were modified to enable full cascading along the
machine. A drive, which is not associated with any motor, is
used to generate the master speed reference for the system.
This reference signal is transmitted with high precision,
1 part in 65 000, to the first machine drive. Specially written
software running on the drive's onboard application module
modifies this reference to insert draw, presents it to the
digital lock speed-control software in that drive and then
passes it back to the master drive for transmission on to the
next drive down the line where the exercise is repeated.
This approach provided an extremely accurate speed/draw
processing system at minimal cost, completely eliminating
the need for a programmable controller (PLC) or master
processor. Further, just a single, screened, twisted-pair cable
was needed to transmit the reference between sections.
The software in each of the drives enables both progressive
and independent adjustment of draw at any point along the
machine. Certain sections are also fitted with load cell ten-
sion measurement and this signal is used in conjunction with
the Mentor's own PID (proportional integral derivative)
software to control tension at critical points in the machine.
All the drives on the machine are continually interrogated by
a PC to provide the operators with machine set up and
performance information. The actual speed, set draw and
percentage load of each drive is displayed on a colour
monitor, together with a fault monitor screen and full paper-
break history analysis with graphical trending.
To maintain sufficiently high data collection rates to ensure
a meaningful analysis, the PC is fitted with two intelligent
serial communications boards which give a total of eight
RS-485 communications lines running asynchronously in
parallel enabling the entire machine to be scanned at half-
second intervals.
As a maintenance aid the system also includes a drive
software package which gives access to all the machine
drives through the intelligent communications boards on
the PC.
BUILDING MATERIALS
Brick-handling Line
A major new brick-making plant, for Ibstock Building
Products Ltd, features 37 A.C. drives for numerous appli-
cations on two brick-handling lines. The drives, ranging
from 1.1 to 18.5 kW, may be operated in sensorless vector
(open-loop) or flux-vector (closed-loop) mode simply by
selecting a parameter without the need for extra hardware
(Figure 12.49).
The brick-making process starts with clay being prepared to
the right particle size, mixed and extruded to set column
lengths in two rows. A brick cutter cuts the wet bricks to size
and they move from one conveyor 90 onto a transfer con-
veyor which is moving slightly faster to create a gap between
the bricks, and are then picked up by pallets to one of two
combilifts. (One fills a dryer car from the top down to half
way - the other completes the bottom half.) Six rows make
a shelf and each dryer car has a total storage capacity of 18
shelves.
The conveyors are controlled by 1.1 kW drives running in
open loop, at a fixed ratio. The combilifts are driven by

Figure 12.49 Drives for a brick handling line (courtesy Ibstock Building Products Ltd)
5.5 kW drives in closed-loop vector drive, receiving signals
from fibre-optic positioning encoders.
The dry bricks are conveyed to an elevator working under
closed-loop vector control from 18.5 kW drives, where they
are picked up, sixteen rows at a time, and placed onto a
sixteen-row chain conveyor for transport through the tunnel
kiln at a throughput of 27 000 bricks per hour.
The chain conveyor features pin devices which interrupt
brick movement to create predetermined gaps. A star
wheel which turns bricks through 90 and a hydraulically-
controlled inverter to turn bricks by 180 to create particular
types of stacking in patterns of 11 over 4, 10 over 4, face-to-
face (for facing bricks), flat setting, single edge or double-
face setting etc. for optimum firing conditions. Bricks are
then conveyed through the kiln, restacked and shrink
wrapped for transport.
Throughout this process, the drives provide precise open-
loop control of each of the conveyor drive motors. The
facility to change programs quickly gives great flexibility
and the capability of changing settings for different products
on the same line.
Roofing-Tile Manufacturing Plant
At Redland Roofing Systems in Westerham, a complete
upgrade of the drives systems has resulted in such large
Chapter 12.3 305
financial savings that the cost of the project was recovered in
just seven working days!
The replacement of old D.C. drives with modem A.C. drives
and A.C. motors, coupled with a complete reevaluation of
the software control of a tile manufacturing plant has seen an
improvement in production availability from 40 to nearly
90 per cent, with a corresponding increase in profitability.
The concrete tile mixture is extruded onto an alloy mould or
pallet that is fed, by conveyor, into an automatic racking
elevator system. The conveyor runs underneath the rack
elevator and the pallets are loaded into crates from the front
and back, with a pusher mechanism allowing loading four
deep. Each completed column is indexed across to the next
until the completed crate of five columns, i.e. a total of 660
tiles, is loaded. Following curing, these are then fed back
into the system, by a similar deracking mechanism, for
separation from the pallet and collated for packing
(Figure 12.50).
The operation of the racking system is crucial to the whole
of the plant's output capability. Any stoppages directly
affect the plant efficiency. Poor repeatability of the existing
D.C. drives during the loading of the crate was causing
frequent pusher jams and damage to the product. In addition,
to prevent tiles sticking together during the curing process, a
gap of 15 mm has to be maintained between the products.
306 APPLICATIONPRINCIPLES/EXAMPLES:Building Materials
Figure 12.50 Drives controlling a tile production line (courtesy Redland Roofing Systems)
Again, because of the inconsistencies in the push, caused by
speed variations in tum caused by supply voltage fluctua-
tions, it was proving impossible to maintain this crucial gap
causing a loss in product.
Under the control of a PLC, 1.5 kW drives, with start/stop
feedback signals, control the brake motors for the rack
elevators for both loading and unloading. 0.75 kW drives,
with applications modules, complete with position-control
programs, drive closed-loop vector motors to control the
front and back pushers, giving a precise push to tiles each
and every time, maintaining the crucial gap between them.
This repeatable tile alignment and position accuracy alone
has been responsible for a dramatic fall in spoilt product.
The drive applications module on the elevator drives enables
the intelligence to be at drives level, eliminating the need for
PLC system control. This has simplified both the design and
operation of the system and means that, if necessary, a drive
can be changed very quickly. The applications module is
plugged into the new drive and off it goes.
Tiles, and therefore pallets, are counted in and counted out
to ensure that there is a balanced flow in the system.
Finally, a closed-loop drive gives control of the output
conveyor.
All of the drives were retrofitted into existing cubicles
because they were much smaller than the existing drives, and
the motors used were standard induction motors. A system

of resolvers monitors the speed of the input and output
conveyors and the racking, the difference being fed to the
drives which corrects the error to zero to give precise syn-
chronisation so that tile gaps are maintained. All drives have
very smooth acceleration and deceleration ramps to ensure
that the wet and easy-to-fracture products are handled as
gently as possible.
The purpose of the collator, which was originally fitted with
two brake motors on the elevator, is to lift and stack tiles into
blocks of 50, assembling nine blocks of 50 to form a 450-tile
module for shipping. A stripper pulls the carry rails apart and
drops the tile onto a carriage, stacking the tiles vertically.
The synchronisation between the collator and stripper is
critical and any out-of-phase causes jams and damaged tiles.
Indexing of the elevator rails used to use a proximity switch
which itself had an error of 6 to 7 mm and this was com-
pounded by the old brake motor drives. With such a system it
was impossible to get perfect synchronisation and a techni-
cian had to be on site around the clock just to keep the
machine running. It was not uncommon to have a two day
downtime on the machine.
However, once the brake motors had been replaced by
standard induction motors controlled by 2.2 kW closed-loop
drives, again with plug-in application modules running
special application software, accuracy was no longer an
issue. The motors are sized to allow a feed rate of 140 tiles
per minute maximum index rate, which means that the drive
accelerates and decelerates the 300 kg elevator load up to 2.2
times a second.
Figure 12.51 Fabric-dyeing machine (courtesy Sclavos S.A.)
Chapter 12.3 307
TEXTILES
Fabric-dyeing Machine
Sclavos, founded in 1948, established a worldwide market
for its dyeing machines, with its Diplo ballooning-type
machine and the next generation twin-soft-flow Apollon
range introduced in 1990. In 1995, Sclavos introduced
a revolutionary new concept in rope dyeing - the Venus
system (Figure 12.51).
The Sclavos Venus system uses a new process called
AquaChron, which allows the whole process of prescouring,
bleaching, dyeing, rinsing and softening to be carried out
without ever stopping the fabric circulation, creating an
optimum environment for achieving the highest possible
fabric quality. It gives the dyer total control over all of the
process parameters of heating, cooling, fabric movement and
water management.
This is achieved with four inverter drives - to control pump
speed, for liquid flow, for the folding of fabric inside the
machine, for pump control of chemicals supply and for
fabric movement.
The net result is a 40 per cent reduction in water con-
sumption, a process time reduction of 35 per cent and a
productivity improvement of a massive 54 per cent. In head-
to-head tests against the best of the competition, based on the
dyeing of 540 kg of cotton, Venus with AquaChron was over
an hour faster, used over 26 000 litres less water and 165 kg
less steam, with a power consumption less than one quarter
that of the other machine on test.
308 APPLICATION
PRINCIPLES/EXAMPLES:Textiles
Figure 12.52 Quilting machine (courtesy TEC Multineedle)
So, with pressure on profit margins increasing day by day,
with client demands for even higher fabric quality and the
pressing environmental need for reducing water consump-
tion, it is hardly surprising that only a short time after its
launch, over 200 Venus machines are already in operation
worldwide.
The changeover from traditional D.C. to A.C. drive tech-
nology also gives customer benefits such as lower overall
maintenance and water-tight motors with sealed bearings: a
definite advantage in working conditions which include
water, steam and chemicals.
Each Sclavos machine is supplied with up to five drives,
depending on its size. All are used in open-loop control, in
communication with the system controller, operating under
software designed by Sclavos.
Quilting Machine
TEC Multineedle, a leading manufacturer of specialist
quilting machines, is applying techniques more common to
machine tools than textiles with the results that its machines
are becoming faster, more versatile and more reliable than
other machines on the market (Figure 12.52).
Each Multineedle quilting machine, designed and manu-
factured by the Textile Enterprise Corporation at their
Heywood factory in Lancashire, is produced to customer
specification. Material widths from 167mm to 3340mm
can be accommodated, with two or three needle bars, one
inch needle spacing and 132, 176, 220 or 264 needles on
each bar.
However, it is when the more detailed technical specifica-
tions are examined that the parallels with machine tools
becomes apparent-a cycle time of 50ms, very precise
movements to tolerances of +0.0005 mm, loads of 14.50
Newtons plus the ability to use CAD/CAM techniques for
the programming of intricate patterns.
In machine quilting, even a small error becomes very
noticeable, since two halves of a pattern will not then match
up. A correction factor has therefore been incorporated into
the programming so that an adjustment can be made while
the machine is running.
The CAD program runs on a motion control card built into
a PC, which determines the X-Y movements, the pitch, the
stitch size and running speed of the machine. Designs can be
previewed on the screen and common designs can be stored for
future use. A number of basic patterns are incorporated as
standard.
The drives have a 4-10 V differential input and a simulated
quadrature encoder output fed back to the PC giving a
resolution of one in 16 384. Typically, the machine runs at
600 stitches (min-1) per minute which, depending on the
complexity of the pattern, allows a material throughput of up
to 200 metres per hour.
PLASTICS EXTRUSION
General
The concept of a single-screw extruder as a pump of tubular
design has been in existence for several thousand years.
 Chapter 12.3 309

However, ram extruders to manufacture lead pipe were first
used in the early 19th century. Towards the end of the 19th
century the demands of the rubber processing industry
rationalised design to a machine of a type which was the
basis of modem extruders. The extrusion of PVC in 1925,
and later on polythene, marked the commencement of
modem extrusion technology and by the late 1940s a
machine of today's basic layout had arrived.
The thermoplastic extrusion industry experienced rapid
growth in the 1950s, and since that time the development of
new polymers, the development of new extrusion technol-
ogy and almost total penetration of many product areas has
ensured an upward trend in the industry.
Extrusion processes involving the forcing of molten thermo-
plastic through a die to form a continuous product are used to
make a wide range of products such as given in Table 12.20.
Also, with the use of additional machinery, other products
can be manufactured such as those in Table 12.21.
Secondary products are manufactured by extrusion, such as
packaging bags from film and thermoformed articles from
sheet.
One of the main problems in extrusion is surging. This
usually appears as a fluctuating extruder output, giving a
variable product geometry. It is caused by inadequate
mixing, melt instability, feed temperature effects, and solid
bed break-up variations. The result is dimensional variations
and take-off problems, e.g. drift.
Possible remedies are to run the extruder slower, increase the
pressure, cool the screw and lower the metering zone tem-
perature to achieve a bite limit. Bite limit is where the melt
reaches the correct consistency, and is not too soft (when the
screw would fail to drive the melt).
The process of extrusion has certain basic requirements,
which are:
The extruder should be capable of processing polymer at
high and consistent output rates. To aid this, a drive with
a high degree of torque/speed stability is required.
The polymer produced should be within an acceptable
melt temperature range, and the temperature should
not vary. A good quality temperature controller with
proportional, integral and differential (PID) control will
enhance temperature control.
The pressure developed in the extruder should be con-
sistent. This requires a combination of good control of
process variables and speed. The use of a process
controller and a carefully considered choice of variable-
speed drive will aid consistent production quality.
The polymer should be sufficiently well mixed and not
contain any low-temperature volatiles which would spoil
product appearance. Mixing is assisted by the screw
design, both with single screws and twin screws.
The optimising of screw designs has made lasting changes in
extrusion technology. These developments have included
many features from those listed in Tables 12.22 and 12.23.

Table 12.20 Products made by extrusion Table 12.23 Twin-screw design features

Film tubular or flat Type Characteristic feature

Sheet rolls and cut sheet, laminated and coextruded,
embossed Nonintermeshed
Profiles window frames, gaskets twin screws
Pipe rigid pressure pipe, gas pipe Intermeshed contra-rotating
twin screws
Contra-rotating twin
screws, self-wiping type
Table 12.21 Products made using additional machinery Modular twin screws interchangeable screw components
for different formulations
Coated substrates paper, aluminium foil Conical twin screws better feed of dry blend; better
Insulated materials wire and cable bearing support
Filaments and strapping uniaxially-orientated for ropes,
textiles, sacks
Table 12.24 Typical extruder performance ranges

Nominal Screw Maximum Power Dynamic load

Table 12.22 Single-screw design features torque diameter screw speed drive of thrust
(kPm) (mm) (min-1) (kW) bearing (MPa)
Type Characteristic feature
80 45 105-322 7.5-18.5 47.5
Rubber screw reducing root diameter, 160 45, 50, 60 84-280 11-30 47.5/81.5
decreasing pitch 220 60 110-278 23-45 81.5
Plastic screw reducing root diameter, 350 60, 70, 72-275 23-60 81.5/118
constant pitch 80, 90
Metering screw zoned screw, with feed, 700 70, 80, 90, 64-230 37-110 118/153
compression 100, 120
and metering zones 1300 90, 100, 110, 58-207 68-189 153/224
Two-stage, or double two metering screws connected 120, 150
metering screw by a decompression vent 3000 120, 1 4 0 , 45-146 110-280 224/375
Mixing and barrier sections e.g. pins and Madelock heads 150, 160,
Solid-channel/melt- various designs of barrier 2O0
channel screws flight screw 7000 180, 2 0 0 , 32-100 230-600 585/810
grooved feed sections 220, 250
310 APPLICATION
PRINCIPLES/EXAMPLES:Plastics Extrusion
.--~ pitch I'*"
vr-- feed depth
-~ feed zone ~ ~ compression zone-~
Figure 12.53 Principal zones of typical feed screw
Other machine and process technology developments have
given large gains in output and improvements in cost/per-
formance ratio. Such developments include improvements in
the very critical area of compound formulation to hold
polymers to specific tolerances.
There is a trend towards open modular design, enabling
components to be changed without stripping down the
machine, leading to greater operational efficiency and main-
tenance economy. In addition to this, some machine manu-
facturers offer, for any given application, the option of
selecting the torque, screw diameter, screw speed range, axial
pressure and drive power most appropriate for their series of
machines. Table 12.24 shows a typical range of figures.
Basic Extruder Components
As with most industries, extrusion has its own technical
terms, although different terms are not always consistently
used in the industry. At the end of the screw is the adapter
region and filter pack and the head and die region. Beyond
this are the various take-off units, which may be devices
such as accumulators, conveyors, cutters, winders or others
not relevant to this discussion.
In some of the downstream equipment, variable-speed drives
are used to match up to the extruder speed or, for example, to
introduce a specific ratio required for the finished product
from its extruded size to the finished size. Stretching and
heating produces orientation of the polymers and makes
the end product much stronger.
Regardless of the physical design of the machine used, the
extrusion process is broken down into four basic steps:
solid feeding
melting
mixing
melt conveying
These operations are identified by the zones of the screw,
Figure 12.53. The feed zone is a zone of constant feed depth
and its function is to preheat the bulk material before it is
conveyed by screw rotation to the next zone. The tempera-
ture rise is produced by heaters around the barrel, and also by
frictional heat generated by the granules travelling along the
barrel. The compression zone is the part of the screw where
the root diameter is gradually increased while pitch and
overall diameter remain constant, thus reducing the volume.
This accelerates heat generation and therefore melting, and a
change in the bulk density of the polymer also occurs; as
more granules melt, any air trapped in the barrel is squeezed
out through the hopper.
r-- overall diameter
~ metering
depth
meteringzone _~
The melted polymer is transferred to the pumping or
metering zone, which is shallow and of constant depth. This
zone delivers the polymer melt at a uniform flow rate,
composition and temperature.
The length of the metering section must be such as to allow
it to achieve the melt while the compression zone develops
sufficient pressure to pump the melt through the die at a
constant output unaffected by small fluctuations in pressure.
It is clear that the design of the screw fixes certain para-
meters at the design stage, but the operator can improve
mixing and melting in several ways:
1 Reduction of screw speed. This will reduce the channel
length required for melting to be completed; the obvious
drawback is reduced production rate.
2 Increase of pressure at screw exit. This can be done by
reducing die temperature, or by using a finer screen
pack. Temperature within the polymer would increase.
3 Use of screw cooling. This delays the break up of the
polymer solid bed. Output is reduced, but this can
usually be overcome by increasing the screw speed.
This has some benefits in the melt in terms of mixing,
but power consumption is increased.
Overall Extruder Performance
For extruder performance to be assessed, some knowledge
of the die characteristics is required. A die may be char-
acterised by a pressure drop and a flow rate and therefore the
output/pressure characteristics should be used with those of
the screw to achieve an overall picture of the performance.
The limits to output are summarised in Figure 12.54.
Energy Considerations
Most operations of polymer processing involve the heating
and cooling of solid or liquid polymers. Usually the net
energy change from solid granules to the extrudate is very
small compared with the energy which flows into and out of
the polymer, as shown in Figure 12.55.
On the whole, there is not much that can be done to affect
the basic form of this diagram once extrusion is chosen as
the means of process. Nevertheless, a number of points are
noteworthy:
1 The cost of different forms of energy; in particular,
directed energy (electrical and mechanical) is obtained
 C h a p t e r 12.3 311

temperature I
overheating = degradation I
~ " " :--!!7 cooling capacity limited sizing I

I power [~ __~ .m-" _~ ~ " ' ~ ~ , o

[Ihiohd'e
IowgearboxratingHlX._:___p
not enough kW

esistanoel X ~~,X" ~~'X

T X 'Ill
melting pumping take off
heat transfer / flightwear speed limits
heater capacity | die resistance inspection
melt solids separation | screw geometry packing
screw geometry
1

feed ] mixing nonmachine limits

particle form (low densitY)l mixing devices products storage
particle surface (lubricity) I channel depth shipping
barrel temperature I screw temperature sales order input rate
barrel surface (grooved) I screw too short safety
screw geometry ] head pressure
vertical pressure

Figure 12.54 Factors imposing output limitations

heating of As the screw diameter transmits the power to the material, its
granules diameter governs the power of the drive, therefore:
melting power (at max speed) = 2D 2"5
of
t-
eD crystalline where D is the screw diameter.
C
.-~ polymer
ii
"0
"O function Minimum power required (for 80 per cent drive efficiency):
cu of
B },
heating Pmin = Y x Qw x Cp(T1 - T2)
and melt
Where Pmi,= minimum power, Qw=output by weight,
stage
Cp=specific heat (average, between 7'1 and T2), Y=
22.2 x 10 -4 (S1 units) or 5.3 x 10 -4 (Imperial British
units), T] = melt temperature and T2 = feed temperature.
>.,
loss in
t-
die Some typical Cp values of common polymers are:
region
C
c "~
.m nylon 0.65
E PVC 0.85
I,_

HDPE 0.85

Approximate losses of energy in a typical small extruder are

shown in Figure 12.56. As can be seen, some saving could be
made by effective lagging and by precise application and
cooling of effective control of electrical heating.
extrudate

Figure 12.55 Energy considerations

from thermal energy and is relatively expensive. The
mode of heating to be used needs to be chosen with care.
The capital cost of providing the needs of A, Figure
12.55, have to be matched by the cost of enabling the
energy to be removed, B; i.e. cooling air or water and
associated installations. Therefore a saving in A will lead
to equipment and services saving in B also.
In extrusion, the rejected energy offers little potential for
useful recovery, being largely to air or water.
Motors and Controls
Motors for plastics extrusion applications have historically
been either slip-ring motors, where speed variation is
obtained by varying the effective rotor resistance, or Schrage
motors with rotating multiple tings of brushes producing
a transformer effect to increase and decrease speed. The
rotation of the brush rings was usually done by a pony motor.
This type of motive power is expensive to maintain, quite
apart from its high initial cost.
More recently, extruder screws have usually been driven by
D.C. motors controlled by thyristor converters. The use of
the thyristor converter offers important benefits, as follows:

Figure 12.55 shows that for the net input (A) to the 1 Power consumption becomes a function of applied load,
polymer, heat losses to the machine and then to atmo- thus creating a power saving as compared with the old
sphere offer some potential for savings. A.C. drives.
312 APPLICATIONPRINCIPLES/EXAMPLES: Plastics Extrusion

15 kW input 6.6 kW

drive ~ heaters

barrel

3 kW 3.3 kW 2.4 kW 12.9 kW

losses radiated convected polymer
to die

Figure 12.56 Typical extruder energy balance

2 Extremely high resolution of speed holding is possible

by using a tachometer feedback from the motor. This
helps when a constant throughput is required from the
extruder.
3 As the screen becomes progressively obstructed, the
pressure increases in the barrel causing an increase in the
torque required to drive the extruder. A converter com-
pensates automatically, to aid in achieving a constant
throughput.
4 For extruders that need to run at different speeds for
different products, the speed is easily varied by the
use of a potentiometer or increase/decrease push buttons.
5 Modem D.C. drives have serial communication ports to
connect with computers and other drives. Computers
enable automatic control of integrated systems and, as
more extruder manufacturers move towards continuous
production lines, fully integrated controls become
essential. There is the further advantage that drive para-
meters can be changed on line. The communication ports
can also be used for data collection. This is a valuable
benefit in view of the increasing application of ISO 9000,
which requires that a record of production characteristics
should be kept on a data logger or other such device.
A.C. drives are increasingly being used as modem high-
performance systems and are able to provide the required
high starting torque.
FOOD
Control of Hammermills in Animal Feed
Production
One of Holland's leading suppliers of animal feed,
O. Bouman B.V. of Andel, has found major cost benefits in a
switch to a variable-speed drive for one of its two ham-
mermills (Figure 12.57).
The ability to be able to select running speed has improved
product quality - and the considerable time savings in
stopping and restarting the high-inertia machine achieved
with a regeneration unit have cut downtime considerably and
led to greatly reduced energy costs.
Figure 12.57 Animal feed hammermill (courtesy
O. Bouman B.V.)
The hammermills are used to reduce the size of particles in
each animal feed recipe to a specified size. Such is the ser-
vice and flexibility offered by Bouman that an individual
farmer can order feed tailor made to his own specification.
Up to 26 ingredients are used - peas, soya, malt, maize,
tapioca, soya milk and coconut husk being just a few - and
these arrive daily from around the globe.
After a mix is made, fines are separated out and particles
larger than specification are fed in batches to a hammermill.
Each mill has eight rows of 22 hammers, which are rotated at
up to 3000 m i n - 1 _ typically for four minutes for a 2000 kg
batch. Meshes of between 3 and 12mm fitted around the
diameter determine final particle size. 400 varieties of pro-
cessed feed are extruded to the required pellet or nut size
needed for chickens, pigs, cattle, horses etc.
Traditionally, fixed-speed motors have been used. Direct
online starting gave a starting current typically of 800 A and
it took a full minute to run up to speed. Further, with a fixed
speed there were often problems making the product fine
enough. Worst of all, because of the inertia, these mills take
15 minutes to stop; downtime was considerable.
The solution offered for speed control was straightforward
with an open-loop inverter, but the braking required a little
more thought. Conventional braking resistors were out of the
question because of the potential hazard of dust explosion,
so it was agreed to turn a problem into a benefit by feeding
braking energy through a regeneration unit back into the
plant power supply.
Now, the hammermill runs up to speed in just 18 seconds,
with supply current limited to 250 A, a major benefit since

no peak power charges are incurred. Even more significant is
that the stopping time has been cut from 15 minutes to just
30 seconds!
HVAC
Air Conditioning for Driver and Vehicle
Licensing Agency
The running costs of a chiller pump have been slashed by
over 1000 per month since the installation of variable-
speed drives at the Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency
(DVLA) in Swansea (Figure 12.58).
The 160 kW motor driving the chilled water pump for the
air-conditioning system at the DVLA provides chilled water
for both the 18-storey (heavily glazed and air conditioned)
D-Block input centre and the five storey output (dispatch)
centre, C-Block. Some 2500 people work at the Agency,
which has responsibility for the licensing of drivers in Great
Britain, and the registration and licensing of vehicles and the
collection and enforcement of Vehicle Excise Duty (VED)
in the United Kingdom. This involves the collection of over
4 billion in VED and the maintenance of 36 million driver
records and 25 million licensed vehicle records.
The five main centrifugal chilling units installed in the
power centre serving the site are connected in parallel and in
order to ensure a constant flow of 200 cubic metres per hour
through each chiller, each unit is provided with a full
balanced bypass system when not in use. The total 1000
Figure 12.58 Air-conditioning control panels (courtesy
DVLA)
Chapter 12.3 313
cubic metres per hour circulation requirement was provided
by a fixed-speed 160 kW motor-driven pump.
After the main computer operation was transferred to another
site 2 years previously, the two-storey computer block was
demolished, effectively reducing the site demand for chilled
water for air conditioning by 40 per cent. Nevertheless, with
2500 staff, hundreds of personal computers, printers and other
electrical equipment, plus solar gain, there was still a con-
siderable cooling load but there was clearly no longer any
need to maintain all the chilling units on line.
As part of a constant drive to reduce electrical power con-
sumption the DVLA property manager agreed to isolate two
of the chiller units which in effect reduced the circulation
pump requirement. The possibility of reducing the power
requirement of the chilled-water circulating pump was then
evaluated.
The choice was either to change the motor or to introduce an
inverter drive to replace the star/delta starter for the pump.
The decision was made to do the latter, as it gives maximum
flexibility to increase or reduce the load as required.
The inverter drive chosen was designed specifically to meet
the requirements of a fan/pump load. The drive features
dynamic voltage/frequency control which automatically
optimises the voltage to the required load. The result is a
substantial energy saving, as the power is matched to the
actual need. Incorporated within the drives panel is a soft-
start bypass facility to ensure the system has a back up in
case of emergency.
Following installation of the drive, the power consumption
of the pump fell from almost 160 kW to under 50 kW.
The savings are between 100 and 115 kWh for the 12/15
hours a day that the chilled-water system is running. Despite
the fact that it is only running for around seven months of the
year, the savings, which can be directly attributed to the
drives, mean a payback of around 18 months.
Air-handling Units at Oxford Brookes
University Students' Union
Two variable-speed drives, installed on air-handling units
for an Oxford students' union, are saving 10 to 15 per cent
of energy costs and, at the same time, improving the unit's
performance (Figure 12.59).
The students' union at Oxford Brookes University has a
main hall which is used for all manner of functions. It fea-
tures an air-handling system which has two 25 kW two-
speed motors for extraction and the supply of fresh air,
respectively.
Previously, the only control was by star/delta starters and
manual switching between full speed, at 25 kW, and low
speed at 7 kW. During a major function, there can be 3000
students in the students' union, at other times the number
varies considerably.
The temperature and the air quality (carbon dioxide levels)
are monitored by detectors in the hall and fed back to the
drives via 0-10 V signals. The drives, which are also con-
nected into the building management system, now provide
a continuous adjustment to fan speed. This gives a much
314 APPLICATION
PRINCIPLES/EXAMPLES:HVAC
Figure 12.59 Air-handling units at students" union (courtesy Oxford Brookes University)
improved level of temperature and air-quality control, with
the added bonus of a reduction in fuel bills in the area of 10
to 15 per cent, giving a payback of under three years.
The drives have a simple menu structure specifically
designed to meet the needs of the fan and pump market.
Dynamic voltage/frequency control means that the motor
speeds are always matched to the requirements of the air-
handling system. The result is a substantial energy saving.
STEEL
Anshin Steel Ltd of Shah Alam, Malaysia, needed a proven
and reliable drives and controls system for its hot rolling
combination merchant bar and rod mill. The solution
provided is described below.
Main Mill Drives
The main mill motors use D.C. drives rated at 1850 A D.C.,
600 V (Figure 12.60).
Localised control boxes enable the operator to run/jog
reverse/stop the stands and to lock off the power if work
needs to be done on the stands themselves. The mill cannot
be started from the main pulpit, but the cascaded speed
control is carried out from this position.
The menus for the range of products intended to be rolled are
stored in a PC located in the main pulpit. When a particular
product is selected for rolling, the information concerning
the cross-sectional area of the billet and the mean roll
diameter of each stand is downloaded to a PLC.
The control system is based on the principle of constant
volume rolling and cascaded speed control whereby the
speed of each stand is related to the master finishing stand.
Calculations concerning the motor speed reference for each
drive are carried out continuously in the PLC and trans-
mitted to the applications module in the D.C. drives in the
form of 12-bit parallel words. All stand speeds are simul-
taneously updated - this avoids tension/compression during
speed changes.
If the speed of any section is adjusted using the desk-
mounted cascaded speed trim potentiometers, the PLC
calculates the new speed of all upstream drives and simul-
taneously updates them. Individual speed trims for the
drives, catering for errors in initial calibration, are available
to the operators from wall-mounted stations near the mill
stands. The speed of the master stand is set by the operator,
using a preset potentiometer.
Auxiliary Drives
The roughing mills are both 1000 HP A.C. motors running at
constant speed. The conveyor systems for the roughing mills
are equipped with D.C. motors and are controlled by D.C.
controllers. These conveyors are manually controlled via
joysticks and are required to accelerate rapidly up to speed to
guarantee entry of the bar into the roughers. The pinch roll
drive at the entry to stand 2 and the exit from the disc shear
are both D.C. drives running at bar speed (Figure 12.61).
The disc shear, after the final stand, is designed to cut the bar
to presettable lengths which are multiples of the cut length at
the cold shear and can be accommodated within the cooling
bed itself. The speed of the bar leaving the finishing stand,
and its instantaneous position, is determined by measuring
the elapsed time when the nose of the bar passes two hot
metal detectors at a known distance apart, situated after the
finishing stand.
Using this information the bar can be cut precisely to pro-
duce the required preset length for the cooling bed. The disc
shear itself is driven by three D.C. drives - one for each disc
blade and one to orientate the shear mechanism itself. The
run-in conveyor to the cooling bed is driven by 32 D.C.
motors connected in parallel across the Mentor controller.
 Chapter 12.3 315

main panel

lkV ( ~ ~ computer
lkV ' I " I" B12.BCT L ne, downloaded

T4
speed
references
I
L machine
interface
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cascadedspeedtrims (4-20) ma

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remotecontrolstations

individualspeedtrims
Figure 12.60 Layout of the main mill D.C. drives on the combination merchant bar and rod mill of Anshin Steel

hydraulic pusher
U B
roughing mill 8 1000 HP furnace
30t/hr
(~ (~ 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Psheart 500 500 850 900 shear 900

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900 disc run-in '~'". . . . . . "

HP shear conveyor .J>~'~....
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~ line-
run-out conveyor cold
shear

Figure 12.61 Overall mill layout from reheat furnace to packing line at Anshin Steel

The kick-off shaft is driven by five 35 HP D.C. motors dis-
tributed along the shaft and controlled by five four-quadrant
drives which load share. This enables the kick off to con-
tinue to operate with only three drives in the event of failure.
Slow down and stopping is by regenerative braking with the
brake operating as a holding brake only. The slow down and
stop position is from the cam box driven from the shaft.
The 80-metre-long cooling bed operates in a similar manner
to the kick off; it is driven by five 50 HP D.C. motors con-
trolled from five four-quadrant D.C. drives which accurately
control the slow down and stopping.
Shuffle bars, driven by five 15 HP D.C. motors controlled by
single-quadrant Mentors carry the bars from the cooling bed
to the run-out conveyor. This in turn is driven by three 30 HP
drives operated manually from a joystick controller at the
cold shear desk. Three more D.C. conveyor drives carry the
cut bars down to the packing line which is driven by four
open-loop inverter drives and controlled by a PLC mounted
in the control desk.
The cold shear is a brake/clutch unit with a flywheel driven
by a 50 HP slip-ring induction motor. Three more D.C.
conveyor drives carry the cut bars down to the packing line
which is driven by four open-loop inverter drives and con-
trolled by a PLC mounted in the control desk. In total, there
are 45 D.C. drives and six A.C. inverters controlling more
than 100 motors, and this mill has been operating reliably
since installation.
CHEMICAL
Enamel Painting of Fluorescent Tubes
At Demaglass in Harworth near Doncaster, the upgrading of
a semiautomatic twin-head spraying machine, used for the
enamel painting of fluorescent tubes, has increased pro-
duction output by 50 per cent, reduced paint consumption by
60 per cent and improved the appearance of the finished
product (Figure 12.62).
316 APPLICATION
PRINCIPLES/EXAMPLES:Chemical
Figure 12.62 Fluorescent-tube spray machine (courtesy
Demaglass)
This has been achieved by converting the existing chain,
gear and wire-driven paint spraying mechanism to servo-
drive control, giving a greatly increased accuracy, better
throughput and improved reliability.
Previously, 25.5 mm soda glass tubes for spraying were
loaded manually onto moving spindles on the spraying unit
and blanking caps placed on the top of the tubes. The
spindles progressed past the spray booth, where the tubes
were sprayed two at a time by two vertically reciprocating
spray guns. The spray guns also followed the rotating glass
tubes as they passed. After spraying, the blanking caps had
to be removed and the tubes transferred manually onto
moving spindles in the baking unit, the blanking caps being
placed in a tumbler to remove the overspray. With the labour
and paint accounting for nearly half of the cost of the fin-
ished tube, it was important to look for ways of making the
process more accurate, to reduce overspraying, and improve
overall efficiency in order to increase the productivity of the
plant.
The plant output was restricted because of the limits of the
mechanical reciprocating mechanism and also the speed of
manual loading with the need to put on the blanking caps. In
addition, 100 per cent inspection was needed because of the
variable quality of the spray finish.
There were also frequent problems with the mechanical con-
trol because of wear in the chains and sprockets, backlash,
stretching of the wire rope and wasted paint from overspray.
The enamel spraying unit has now been completely refur-
bished, with improvements to the spray guns and the elim-
ination of the need for fitting blanking caps by the addition
of a twin-head brushing station to clean the tops of the tubes
post spraying.
The most significant improvement has been the rebuilding of
the spray-gun reciprocating mechanism. The system is based
on a single-axis drive for raising and lowering the 10 kg twin
enamel spray heads. These are driven by a one-metre-long
ballscrew with a pitch of 15 mm and a preload of 1 Nm. A
servodrive, with a door-mounted MMI, provides the control
of a servomotor. Operation is synchronised to the speed of
the feed conveyor, with a manual push button input at start
up providing the datum position.
The drive is fitted with a plug-in applications module, which
was specifically programmed for the task and a plug-in
option for a second encoder input. Feedback from an enco-
der on the motor driving the chain conveyor provides a
reference for the synchronous operation of the spraying
cycle and an encoder mounted on the servomotor provides
information on the position of the spray head. Limit switches
at the top and bottom of the ballscrew prevent overtravel.
Further drives, each with plug-in encoder modules, were
fitted to provide improved control of the chain conveyor for
the tube-spraying unit and also for the baking unit chain drive.
Both quality and output have improved dramatically. Paint
consumption has been cut by 60 per cent, saving some
30000 over a year on this alone. The output has been
increased from 22 to 32 tubes per minute - nearly a 50 per
cent increase - and the reject rate has also been cut by at
least a third. The enamel coating is now very even and the
brush heads ensure that the tubes have a good sharp edge on
the enamelling. On top of this, one person can now control
the spraying operation as the need for fitting and removing
end caps has now been eliminated.
The operator uses the operator keypad to set tube lengths of
267, 305,330 and 368 ram, with the unenamelled sections at
each end of the tubes adjustable to 40 or 60 mm. From the
keypad the operator also sets spray count and the software
converts this to a motor speed. The speed of the baking
conveyor is also synchronised to the feed conveyor speed.
Demaglass' Harworth factory is one of the most modem
in Europe, using ribbon machine technology for glass
bulbs, including incandescent lamp shells and Christmas
tree omament bulbs. The factory also produces lead glass,
pharmaceutical glass, two-ply glass and fluorescent tubing
on state-of-the-art production lines.
MARINE APPLICATIONS
Cable Laying
A new generation of cable-laying ships to meet the demands
of the rapidly expanding fibre-optic submarine cable-laying
market has specific requirements for the controlled feeding
of cable that can only be met with digital drive technology.
Linear cable engines have difficulty in handling very small
diameter submarine fibre-optic cable. However, such cable
can be handled with a cable drum engine. The critical factor
is the ability of the drives to limit the cable tension to prevent
cable damage. In conventional systems, it can take a starting
tension of 1.7 tonnes to start the cable drum moving, so the

objective is a frictionless system, with very precise low
tension control.
On the Cable & Wireless stern working vessel, shown in
Figure 12.63, Dowty has supplied two cable lines - a cable
drum engine with D.C. motor drive, with a maximum pull of
40 tonnes (for cable retrieving duties) together with a four-
tonne/four-wheel pair haul-off/hold-back unit, plus a 21-
wheel pair linear cable engine for conventional cable laying.
The cable drum (Figure 12.64) engine has three 85kW D.C.
motors which drive a ring gear around the drum. These are
controlled by D.C. drives, with field controllers and applica-
tions modules programmed with customised centre-wind
Figure 12.63 Cable-laying ships (courtesy Dowty Aerospace)
Figure 12.64 Cable drum engine (courtesy Dowty Aerospace)
Chapter 12.3 317
tension control application software. The drives work in master
- slave mode. In the event of the master controller failing, one
of the other two is assigned as master. For maintenance pur-
poses and in an emergency, the drum will run on one drive
alone for laying duties (all three are required for cable retrie-
val). The system is designed for maximum drive availability at
all times.
The drives are designed to operate in four distinct modes.
During the initial paying out of cable, the drum has to haul the
cable out of the cable tank and push it over the stem. The drives
run in speed control mode until there is sufficient weight of
cable in the sea for it to exert a positive pull on the drum. At
318 APPLICATION PRINCIPLES/EXAMPLES" M a r i n e Applications
this point, the drives switch to tension control and begin to
regenerate power, which is fed into the ship's electrical system.
Although the regenerated power is not massive in relation to
the total generated power on board, it is nevertheless sig-
nificant and will produce some fuel savings.
In this mode the tension controller, taking its signal from a
load cell, can be used to limit the current to the set maximum
for the laying of skinny cable.
A further operating mode is for picking up cable, when the
drives are again operating using speed control.
The operator has controls for speed and direction, tension
control, selection for speed control or torque control (down to
250 kg) and drive selection. Thus the operator can drive the
drum engine from zero up to maximum speed (12 km/hr) in
either pick-up or pay-out mode, with the tension (current
limit) set if required. Alternatively, the operator can choose to
let the drive be overhauled by the weight of the cable and the
ship's movement, after an initial nudge in the payout direc-
tion to cause the brakes to release. The outboard cable speed
and tension would then be controlled by the drum engine
tension controller, with the drives operating in regen mode.
A.C. drives have now been introduced into this application
with excellent results.
Pipe Laying
Closed-loop flux-vector A.C. drives were chosen for a rigid
steel pipe-laying system on the Norlifl, a pipe-laying vessel
owned by McDermott Subsea Contractors Ltd, which is
laying pipelines 190 km west of the Shetland Islands in over
500 metres of water.
The MSV Norlift (Figure 12.65) is a multipurpose monohull
construction vessel, which provides a large, stable work
platform for subsea construction. Her flexible and rigid
reeled pipe-laying capability, dynamic positioning and an
r ~i~ ii!~
Figure 12.65 MSV Norlift- pipe laying ship (courtesy McDermott Subsea Contractors Ltd)
18-man diving system combine to enable the vessel to
undertake a wide range of subsea activities. These include
pipe laying using the reeled pipelay system, an advanced,
technology-led system designed to load and lay large
quantities of rigid and flexible pipelines, umbilicals or
cables in shallow or deep water.
The rigid pipelay system covers pipe sizes from 6 to
12 inches, with the tower angle variable between 30 and
vertical, and a reel capacity from 12 000m (12 inch pipe) to
29 000 m (6 inch pipe) at a lay/spooling rate of up to 900 m
per hour.
The drives are fitted on the 1250 tonne product storage reel,
undertaking a role which conventionally would have been a
hydraulic application, bringing the benefits of the avail-
ability of full torque at all speeds and standstill for the
control of a massive 18.3 metre reel for the feeding of a rigid
steel pipe.
The pipe is loaded in 500-metre lengths which are welded
together on shore and wound onto the reel. The system com-
prises three 75 kW flux-vector drives, complete with appli-
cations modules with software to provide load sharing and a
master-slave changeover facility, each driving an 80 kW
induction motor, the shafts of which are mechanically coupled.
The units work in master-slave configuration, the master
unit running in speed control and the other two in torque
control, with a filter smoothing the current to give smooth
load sharing. Effectively, all three work as one big flux-
vector drive acting on a peripheral chain drive.
Although the three drives are set up to share the load, if
one (or more) should fail, the system must continue to run
with minimal disruption. Under normal conditions, drive 1
is master, drives 2 and 3 acting as slaves. An applications
module on each drive monitors a digital input on that
drive. The status of this input determines whether the
drive is a master or slave. The signal is derived from the
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drive-healthy relay and drive override inputs; if drive 1 is
not healthy, or is overridden, drive 2 becomes master - if
this is not healthy, drive 3 is then master. In the event of a
change of status, the relevant applications module recon-
figures its drive as master, setting up the parameters in
milliseconds, and takes control. This happens so fast and
so smoothly that there is no discernible change, or jolt, in
the feed rate.
In an extreme situation, one drive alone is capable of running
the reel feed.
The drives provide full torque at standstill. The system is
designed so that the reel brakes can only be released when
the drives are enabled and therefore producing torque and
the drives remain enabled until a signal is received to say
that the brakes have come on.
During normal laying operations, the drives running in
torque control are in regenerating mode, producing a con-
siderable amount of energy which has to be dissipated. Two
large water-cooled resistors are used for this purpose. The
torque limit on each of the drives limits the current, effec-
tively also limiting the speed and thereby providing braking,
to stop the pull of the heavy pipe causing overspeed.
One further requirement was for simple fault finding by the
operators. It is critical that any problem is sorted out as
quickly as possible by operating staff while the vessel is at
sea. Therefore, full diagnostics and simple instructions on
what to do ensure that any situation can be resolved in
seconds rather than minutes.
An indication of the confidence that Baricon Systems Ltd
has in the drives is the serious consequences should the
drives fail or lose torque. The process of pipe laying is a
continuous one which cannot be stopped once started with-
out incurring substantial technical difficulties and costs.
Since the installation, the system has worked perfectly,
proving the reliability of the drives and demonstrating the
~:i i ~: !
Figure 12.66 Albertcanal
Chapter 12.3 319
advantages of using electronic flux-vector drives instead of
the conventional solution.
Baricon Systems is a private company which has established
its reputation in providing high-integrity systems for the
demanding world of the North Sea oil industry, but is now
having considerable success in other offshore contracts and
also in the design and support of original equipment for
manufacturers.
Control of Lock Gates and Sluices
Renovation projects both at Antwerp docks and at the
important Albertcanal in Belgium have resulted in the suc-
cessful installation of variable-speed drives for the control of
lock gates and sluices (Figure 12.66).
The Albertcanal is considered to be one of the most
important waterways in Belgium, being the only connection
between Flanders, with the ports of Antwerp and Zeebruges,
and Wallonia. This makes it one of the main routes for
international water traffic through to the waterways of
Germany and France.
The Albertcanal lock system at Wijngem comprises a three-
stage sluice, one hydraulically controlled, two electrical.
Because of increasing maintenance costs (the eight elec-
trically-operated sluice gates were controlled by D.C. slip-
ring motors constantly running at full speed) the Belgium
govemment decided to modemise the whole installation and
contracts were awarded in 1993.
The requirement was for precise and smooth low-speed
control (+14 m i n - 1) of each of the 11 kW motors with full
torque during the opening of each sluice. This is to prevent
turbulence, which can cause damage to ships in the lock. At
a defined point, all four sluices open fully to allow more
rapid filling of the lock. D.C. drives were selected for this
duty and eight 45 A regenerative drives were installed. All
drives are under the overall control of a PLC.
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320 APPLICATION PRINCIPLES/EXAMPLES:Marine Applications
The provision of digital speed references for the drives
proved problematical because cables had to run some 500
metres adjacent to the power cables, with resulting noise
interference. The problem was solved by installing 150 V
tachogenerator feedback devices with a specifically designed
noise filter which effectively eliminated the interference.
In the actual harbour of Antwerp, at the Sluice Royale, a
retrofitted flux vector drive, rated at 75 kW, has provided the
solution for the control of a massive lock gate. The client
wanted to keep the existing ten-pole slip-ring A.C. motor,
which has a base speed of 600 min-1. Key requirements
were for full torque at zero speed and the ability to switch
from speed to torque control (achieved by the fitting of an
application module).
On closing, the gate drive is run at full speed to within 20 cm
of the wall, where it slows to 10 per cent speed and switches
to torque control. As the gate hits the wall, the drive goes
into current limit but does not trip out. Torque is progres-
sively decreased, to relieve the tension on the drive chain, to
reduce stretching, and at zero torque the motor brake is
applied. A special encoder with 1280 p.p.r, was provided to
give the accuracy of feedback for the drive.
PRINTING
Real-time Registration and Shaftless
Web Tensioning Control
A unique digital system, for real-time registration and
shaftless web tensioning control, has recently been installed
and commissioned by APS Engineering on an eleven-station
offiine print finishing system, for direct mail specialists The
Lettershop Group of Leeds (Figure 12.67).
Offiine finishing adds individual names and addresses
to previously printed rolls in a high-speed operation.
The process is more difficult than for an online application
Figure 12.67 Offline print finishing system (courtesy APS Engineering)
because the system has to cope with continuous registration
errors and the print quantities are much larger. Despite these
difficulties APS Engineering has engineered a system which
enables operators to restore registration and web tension in
real time, either locally, via individual manual stations, or
remotely via a centralised touch screen controller. The
benefits of this to the user are greater throughput, increased
operator flexibility and reduced costs as a result of less
material wastage and reduced setting time.
APS's control system is unique in that it combines the
benefits of real-time, totally digital control in a package
which employs A.C. induction motors, rather than more
expensive servomotors, to provide the shaftless control of
multiple stations. The motors are able to achieve levels of
high-speed accuracy and resolution previously attainable
only by D.C. machines.
This is possible due to a combination of bespoke software
written by APS and the use of drives fitted with the plug-in
application module. Each of the eleven flux-vector drives
used on the finishing line has a compact application module
fitted.
Equipped with 32-bit RISC processors, and an onboard
single-axis position controller, which can be synchronised to
speed or encoder tasks, the modules eliminate the require-
ment for costly PLCs or other standalone controllers. They
interface to APS's black box via a fast RS-485 duplex net-
work and are instrumental in the system achieving pre-
viously unattainable levels of performance in real-time
registration and web tensioning control.
The implementation would have been impossible without
the application module. Its use allowed the design of a
completely digital system. The module is extremely fast and
allows access to virtual drive parameters, such as shaft
position and position of secondary encoders, without which
it could not have achieved the required system flexibility and
response.

One of the major ways in which the APS system is
helping The Lettershop Group to reduce waste, and hence
cost, is by ensuring that the finishing line does not have to
slow down for splicing and then speed back up to get into
registration when rolls are changed. Now expensive splicers
can be dispensed with, because synchronisation is achieved
from one roll to the next with minimal wastage - usually
with no more than a maximum of ten copies lost. This
compares extremely favourably with conventional systems
employing splicers, where slow-down and ramp-up times of
up to two minutes are quite common and thousands of copies
can be wasted as a result.
APS's newly developed Beacon System means that the
Lettershop Group's operators are aware at any given moment
in the offiine process of the status of registration. This
information is conveyed by means of three lamps. Green
means that the tool is in register, yellow means that a mark
has been located and the system is moving into register and
red means that no mark has been located.
When the operator sees a red lamp he can adjust the regis-
tration locally, at five individual stations (perforator, die
cutter, wet flap gluer, portable gluer and rotary cutter), via
APS's single-user registration control units (SUC 100Rs), all
of which are interfaced to the drive application modules.
Alternatively, if more than one station requires registration,
this is undertaken centrally via the master shaftless regis-
tration system. The registration system communicates to the
drive-mounted application modules via a touch-screen inter-
face and APS's black box. This recommended set up yields
the maximum flexibility for the user, but at a competi-
tive price.
Similar facilities are provided for tension control. The turner
bar, plough folder (three-off) puller and ribbon shifter sta-
tions in the line are equipped with APS's single-user tension
control units. These provide individual web tensioning, once
again via the drive application modules. However, if more
than one station needs tensioning, this is effected centrally
from the touch-screen controller.
In addition to its links with the registration system and
APS's black box, the user-friendly touch screen also has a
Figure 12.68 Offset printing press (courtesy KBA-Planeta)
Chapter 12.3 321
PC interface with modem. The latter allows remote loading
of new software, and diagnostic monitoring from anywhere
in the world, via a laptop and mobile phone.
At the application level, the black box presently commu-
nicates with the drive application modules at 38 400 baud,
although there are plans to expand this quite soon to five
megabits/s using the CTNet fieldbus. The control program is
application specific and very fast.
Offset Printing Presses
KBA-Planeta of Dresden is one of the world's leading
suppliers of high-speed printing presses, from small
machines for the jobbing printer up to the huge web presses
seen in major newspaper giants.
These are modular inline machines with a common drive
from one shaft. Generally, each colour printing stage requires
an additional 15 kW over the base load of 15 kW, so for a
six-colour press the main drive is rated at 105 kW.
Typical of the printing machines is the general-purpose
sheet-fed offset press, the RAPIDA 104, ideal for jobbing
work and packaging printing in the 720 1040 mm format
class, and the larger RAPIDA 130-162 range, which can
handle sheet sizes of up to 1200 162 mm. Both machines
feature a high level of automation, high production rates and
low wastage (Figure 12.68).
In both cases, the impression cylinders and transfer drums
run without play in precision antifriction bearings and are
driven by a continuous gear train from the main drive shaft
driven by a single D.C. drive and D.C. motor.
Overall control of each press is by PLC, with binary signals
being decoded by an applications module on the Mentor
drive. Some 25 different functions have to be carried out by
the drive, with the applications module being programmed
for:
jogging mode, in both directions, to aid setting up and
maintenance
special limited jogging mode to enable cleaning with
maximum safety
decrease/increase
322 APPLICATION PRINCIPLES/EXAMPLES:Printing
positioning
crawl
as well as emergency stop, torque monitoring and alarms.
The software in the application module is a derivative of the
standard spindle orientation package. There are two distinct
modes of operation. One is for start/jogging with encoder
feedback and the second, a speed loop under tachogenerator
control for normal running.
The KBA RAPIDA 104 range, with its unit construction, is
available for printing up to eight printing couples, double-
size impression cylinders and transfer drums, at an output of
up to 15 000 sheets per hour. The method of sheet transfer
ensures a flat, smooth sheet run and excellent print quality. A
high level of automation ensures short make-ready times and
low wastage.
The large format KBA RAPIDA 130-162 range also
achieves a maximum printing performance of 15 000 sheets
per hour in straight printing and up to 12 000 sheets per hour
when perfecting. The high level of automation, with auto-
matic plate changing, automatic pile changing and automatic
presetting of almost all machine components and auxiliary
systems, guarantees practically the same short make-ready
times as for smaller machines. The standard configurations
span two to eight colour versions, with a wide range of
options being available.
STAGE SCENERY- FILM AND THEATRE
James Bond Film Stunts
When James Bond and his female companion jump off a
32-storey building in the film Tomorrow Never Dies the pair
grab an advertising banner which rips and peels progres-
sively, slowing their descent. They plummet a mere 15 floors
and live to fight another day (Figure 12.69). When Tom
Cruise is suspended beneath a lift in Mission Impossible
Figure 12.69 Death-defying jumps (courtesy Unusual Rigging)
the lift stops with great precision, just before the crucial
point at which he would have been crushed.
Engineering stunts like these, and others such as the specta-
cular collapse of an eight-ton ceiling in The Mummy, are
all in a day's work for Unusual Rigging. Like the majority of
Unusual's custom automation solutions, they were achieved
using flexible variable-speed drives with applications
modules.
Unusual Rigging's growing reputation for providing fast,
well engineered solutions was responsible for the company
being asked to help overcome problems with the rooftop
jump in Tomorrow Never Dies. Historically, such leaps have
been achieved using air descenders, but these are slow and
laborious and cause long delays between takes.
In an attempt to overcome these problems, an alternative
system using two steel-wire winches linked to harnesses was
tried. The reason for using winches was that they can rewind
quickly to allow for multiple takes. Unfortunately, in this
case, the acceleration of the drum was so fast that there were
problems in getting the cable to come off without loops
developing. Unusual was called in to solve the problem, and
given two to three weeks to design, manufacture and ship a
system to Bangkok in Thailand.
The system that the company devised comprised a take-off
motor and pinch roller, controlled by a drive with an onboard
applications module. The applications module was used
because it is extremely fast and allows access to virtual drive
parameters, such as the position of secondary encoders,
without which the required system performance could not
have been achieved. The pinch roller has its own encoder
linked to the applications module, which also receives speed
data from the winch encoder. By comparing the two streams
of speed data the drive/applications module, in combination
with the pinch roller, ensures that tension in the cable never
goes slack.

With Unusual's system fitted the cable was unwound from
the drum at 4.5 metres/second with no looping problems
whatsoever. Moreover, the system was able to control an
accelerated drop of 15 stories and stop, repeatedly, at the
exact point required for the start of the next scene.
Controlling Acoustics
Unusual Rigging has been responsible for installing a
movable acoustic ceiling in the auditorium of the new
Milton Keynes theatre, and for rigging and controlling the
animatronic moth which was the subject of so much interest
in the stage revival of Doctor Dolittle. Once again, drives
feature heavily in both projects.
The acoustic ceiling, weighing 25 tonnes, has been sus-
pended on 22 hanging points in the roof of the theatre. Wires
from the hanging points are hung over driving drums, each
controlled via a drive with an onboard applications module.
The benefit of using the applications module is that Unusual
avoided the costs of a PLC and its programming limitations.
The positioning programme for the ceiling is actually in the
applications module at the front end of the drive, which
makes for faster operation and better response all round. The
flexibility of the overall control program, which was written
by Unusual using a soft logic programming and configura-
tion tool, means that the applications module can actually
learn positions from a simple dial-in keyboard and display.
An additional benefit is that the control software com-
municates with all the existing firmware in the theatre.
Exhibition Focal Point- The Control
Techniques' Orchestra
Trade exhibitions are in many respects a stage, and an eye-
catching exhibit can be memorable and technically chal-
lenging. With the launch of Unidrive in 1995 Control
Techniques was looking for something with great visual
impact, but with the high performance of the product as the
Figure 12.70 The Control Techniques" orchestra
Chapter 12.3 323
underlying theme. What resulted was an exhibit which
dominated press and television coverage of the Hanover
Messe where it was exhibited, played on Children's televi-
sion and played for the Queen by special invitation
(Figure 12.70).
The drives were of course Unidrives. The vision was also
provided by Control Techniques - 'We'd like you to build us
an orchestra for our exhibition stand at Hanover Messe' was
the request made to Unusual Rigging.
The idea of drives creating music was not new. At an earlier
exhibition, Control Techniques Engineers had played 'God
save the Queen' on a D.C. drive/motor with the aid of an
applications module. The note or tone was based mainly on
the speed of the motor. The faster the motor rotated, the
higher the pitch of the note.
The brief for the orchestra was to build nine motors and
drives in three sections of three. The sections were defined
by the mode of operation of the Unidrive:
1 A.C. servo
2 A.C. closed-loop flux vector
3 A.C. open-loop
A five-metre diameter circular area was allocated for the
exhibit.
The first problem was how to create good quality music. In
collaboration with the University of York, it was agreed that
it was practical for the pitch of the note to be determined by
the rotational speed of the motor. However, the idea of using
its inherent noise was seen as low quality and, frankly, bad
publicity as many applications, including stage scenery,
require the motors to be as quiet as possible. The idea of
mounting something such as a siren to the motor shaft was
discussed but discounted as its scope was very limited.
In the end, for reasons of versatility and simplicity, a rotating
disk with an electronic pickup to produce the basic electrical
waveform at the required frequency was used (Figure 12.71).
324 APPLICATIONPRINCIPLES/EXAMPLES:Stage Scenery- Film and Theatre
. . .~iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii~i!~:
Figure 12.71 Toothed wheel and electronic pickup
This signal was then processed and fed to a loudspeaker - a
principle reminiscent of the Hammond tone wheel organ.
The requirement for the music was wide ranging - it could be
anything from classical to pop, from rock and roll to film
themes. Before starting on the music arrangements it was
necessary to establish the musical characteristics of the
instruments and see what limitations existed. The three main
issues were accuracy (getting the notes in tune), stability (will
there be any unwanted vibrato) and dynamic response (getting
quickly from one note to the next). The results of the early
trials exceeded all expectations. Accuracy was not an issue.
Even the open-loop drives were accurate to one or two min- 1.
Stability was good and dynamic response was amazing. It was
agreed to settle on a working range of two-and-a-half octaves
for each instrument. The open-loop drives would play bass
with a top note of middle C, the closed loop flux-vector drives
would be tenor with a range an octave above the basses and the
servomotors treble, an octave above that.
Having established the technology of the orchestra, what
was it going to look like? The orchestra had to look like an
orchestra, and from the early days of creation the key con-
stituents were in place. The Unidrive itself was to be the
head, below that the torso would be a box containing the
loudspeaker and any other electronics. In front of the torso
was a motor representing the instrument being played. Arms
and legs were made of anglepoise light fittings and there
would be a variety of hairstyles fashioned from cables and a
selection of bow ties and necklaces (Figure 12.72).
i
. . . .
ii
~:i!i!i:ii~: ii!i~
.. ::~/
To reinforce the connection between motor speed and
pitch of the note, each musician would be equipped with a
rope light thermometer-type indicator, calibrated in semi-
tones, as well as displaying the speed numerically on the
face of the drive. To make the orchestra visually capti-
vating there also had to be some animation. If there was
too much it would detract from the drives. In the end, a
liberal sprinkling of moving hands and tapping feet,
swaying heads and revolving bow ties was incorporated.
The musicians were arranged on a 4.5 metre tiered
podium, with a small stage area at the front for a human
performer or demonstrator.
So the technology and hardware were established but control
still had to be considered. In the end, a PC-based MIDI
system was used. The PC contained a Music Quest MQX-
32M MIDI interface card with built in timecode facility. The
musical arrangements were commissioned in MIDI format
and transferred directly. Nine microprocessor units were
built, one for each musician, to first filter out and act upon
the locally relevant MIDI commands. Second, they had to
process the continuous square-wave output of the optical
pickup produced by the spinning toothed disk on the end of
the motor shaft. The unit sent a speed demand signal to the
Unidrive via a high-speed serial link.
The processing comprised chopping up the signal into
individual notes and adding 'a bit of colour'. This avoided a
Stylophone type of sound.

Figure 12.72 The conductor and a musician
The choice of the music catered for all tastes: Beethoven's
Ode to Joy, Mozart's Eine Kleine Nachtmusik, Handel's
Water Music. Then there were a few Beatles songs, as well as
big band swing numbers such as the Pink Panther and New
York, New York and some military brass band arrangements.
As the original exhibition was in Germany a number of
Bavarian umpah tunes were included for good measure.
To complete the stand a conductor was hired. His speciality
was to be able to lean his body forwards about 45 , anchored
to bolts in the floor- who says trade exhibitions cannot be fun!
The orchestra still performs today, on special occasions such
as carol concerts at local schools.
Rock Concert
Six 7.5 kW flux-vector drives moved the spectacular high-
tech scenery on the 1992 world tour of rock group Genesis
(Figure 12.73).
Chapter 12.3 325
The band had three 5.6 m high, 3 m wide television screens
specially built to enable thousands of fans who packed each
venue to see what was happening on stage. Each screen
weighed six tonnes. The centre screen was fixed, but the left
and right screens were driven by winches, controlled by
flux-vector drives. The two outer screens moved horizon-
tally from the sides of the stage to the edge of the centre,
fixed screen where all three locked together to form a single,
massive 9 m wide television.
The drive's accuracy enabled the screens, moving at speeds
of approximately 0.5 m s -1, to be positioned within a milli-
metre of their target point; critical for numbers which require
the screens to join together as one. Position sensors on all
three screens relayed the necessary information via the
show's control computer back to the drive via its serial
communications link.
Adding to the show's special effects was a group of four
moving lighting pods, two on each side of the stage. These
326 APPLICATIONPRINCIPLES/EXAMPLES"Stage Scenery- Film and Theatre

Figure 12.73 Stage set for Genesis (courtesy hit and run music)

Figure 12.74 The Lovers" Duet (courtesy The Millennium Experience)

moved along two, 25 metre long tensioned steel wire ropes
which ran at an angle of 45 from floor level, one at each end
of the set, to the top of 18 metre high masts on opposite sides
of the stage, crossing centre stage above the band. Each
lighting pod, weighing half a tonne and carrying six rotating
lights and special-effect plates and mirrors, was moving
using a cable-driven winch controlled by a flux-vector drive.
The lighting pods travelled along the tensioned cables at
speeds ranging from an almost imperceptible 0.1 m s - 1
during slow numbers to 1 m s - 1 for rapid positioning before
the start of a new song.
Millennium Dome Aerial Ballet
The haunting image of two sylph-like creatures hanging by
silver threads while performing an aerial pas-de-deux (the
Lovers' Duet) 44 metres above a crowded arena is one that is
uniquely memorable (Figure 12.74). It is a spectacle which

owes much to the skill of the performers themselves.
However, the aerial ballet is a marriage of art and technol-
ogy. It would not be possible without the five-axis servo and
SCADA system.
The Millennium Dome is a unique building and posed its
own set of problems. For example: the sheer height of the
Dome meant that any servo control system would have to be
situated over almost 50 metres in the air, close to the roof-
mounted hoists and winches that it controls. In contrast, its
associated supervisory SCADA would, by necessity, be at
floor level.
Much more difficult in system terms was the requirement to
accommodate the circular profiles within the Lovers' Duet
routine. This entailed mounting the panel, which enclosed
the servo and axis control system, on a circular turntable
suspended from the Dome roof. Of course, with the table in
motion the process of ensuring continuous signal integrity
between the roof-mounted servo system and the floor-
mounted SCADA is that much more difficult.
In addition to the physical and signal logistical problems,
the overall system performance demands were pretty exact-
ing too. The varied nature of routines in the aerial ballet
sequence meant that five axes of fast movement were
required, with many sequences needing complex interpola-
tion between axes. The system specification also called for a
manual teach function to operate in conjunction with two
joysticks. This was to enable the performers to experiment
with new moves and, if they liked them, integrate them into
their performance.
The system includes a broad range of products. Its five axes
comprise two horizontal (for winches), traversing at the
Chapter 12.3 327
rapid rate of 2 m s - 1., two vertical (for hoists) traversing at
an even faster rate of 3 m s - ~ and a rotational function for
the turntable.
All of the five axes are controlled over the CTNet fieldbus
system using the combination of five servodrives and
servomotors. The drives are coordinated via a motion con-
troller. This unit has the capability to control and interpolate
between the motions of the axes.
The link from the floor-mounted console to the roof-
mounted turntable is also via CTNet, operating at a baud rate
of 1.25 Mbits/s. Interestingly, the final connection to the
turntable is via slip rings. This arrangement has worked
perfectly since the system was commissioned.
The overall control program for the aerial Lovers' Duet is
housed in the control console.
Also fundamental to the control package, and included in the
floor-mounted control console, is a touch-screen computer
and keyboard running the SCADA program. It operates in
conjunction with two joy sticks on the console and provides
great flexibility to create new routines. Operators can draw
pictures using the software and enter function routines.
These are then sent via the CTNet driver to the motion
controller and servodrives, enabling new routines to be
performed. The powerful facilities of the SCADA software
enable it to record all the five axes of fully interpolated
motion, and also to sample profiles executed using the joy-
sticks and reconstitute cues that are stored. This flexibility is
all important because it means that if the operators see
something they like, it can be easily integrated into the
overall routine.
 APPENDIX A

Standards for Drives

Miiiiiii!!ii!i
ii A1 IEC (INTERNATIONAL) STANDARDS 330

ii!iiiHi A2 CENELEC (EC) STANDARDS 332

ii~ A3 BRITISH STANDARDS 334

~+~;~~
' A4 IEEE (USA) STANDARDS 335

i~i~ii~ A5 UL (UNDERWRITERS' LABORATORIES, USA) STANDARDS 335

:--~.~:~-~

A6 OTHER STANDARDS 335

This list shows the main international, European and British
standards which may be relevant to the design or application
of variable-speed drives.
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standards
are generally preferred for the purposes of harmonisation to
facilitate world trade. They are not in themselves mandatory,
whereas national standards and European harmonised stan-
dards may be adopted under legally binding regulations and
become effectively or actually mandatory.
Many IEC standards are identical in technical content with
the CENELEC ( E N . . . ) standard of the same number; in this
case, the CENELEC standard is listed here. There may be
discrepancies when revisions are ratified at different times,
and in that case both are listed.
IEC standards with four or less digits in the number have
been renumbered by the addition of 6000. Where the stan-
dard has not been revised recently, the old number may still
appear on the document.
330 IEC (INTERNATIONAL)STANDARDS
A1 IEC (INTERNATIONAL) STANDARDS
CISPR 11 (1999-08) Ed. 3.1 Consolidated edition
Industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) radiofrequency
e q u i p m e n t - electromagnetic disturbance characteristics -
limits and methods of measurement
CISPR 16-1 (1999-10)
Specification for radio disturbance and immunity measuring
apparatus and methods - Part 1: Radio disturbance and
immunity measuring apparatus
CISPR 16-2 (1999-08) Ed. 1.1 Consolidated edition
Specification for radio disturbance and immunity measuring
apparatus and methods - Part 2: Methods of measurement of
disturbances and immunity
IEC 50161
International electrotechnical vocabulary: electromagnetic
compatibility
IEC 60034-5 (1991-02)
Rotating electrical machines - Part 5: Classification of
degrees of protection provided by enclosures of rotating
electrical machines (IP code)
IEC 60034-6 (1991-11)
Rotating electrical machines - Part 6: Methods of cooling
(IC code)
IEC 60034-8 (1972-01)
Rotating electrical machines - Part 8: Terminal markings
and direction of rotation of rotating machines
IEC/TR2 60034-17 (1998-06)
Rotating electrical machines - Part 17: Cage induction
motors when fed from converters - application guide
IEC 60034-19 (1995-07)
Rotating electrical machines - Part 19: Specific test methods
for D.C. machines on conventional and rectifier-fed supplies
Future standard: IEC 60034-25 Ed. 1.0
Guide for the design and the performance of cage induction
motors for converter supply
IEC 60068-2-64 (1993-05)
Environmental testing - Part 2: Test methods - test Fh:
vibration, broadband random (digital control) and guidance
IEC 60146-1-1 (1991-04)
Semiconductor convertors - general requirements and line
commutated convertors - Part 1 - 1: Specifications of basic
requirements
IEC/TR 60146-1-2 (1991-04)
Semiconductor convertors - general requirements and line
commutated convertors - Part 1 - 2: Application guide
IEC 60146-1-3 (1991-04)
Semiconductor convertors - general requirements and
line commutated convertors - Part 1 - 3: Transformers and
reactors
IEC 60146-2 (1999-11)
Semiconductor converters - Part 2: Self-commutated
semiconductor converters including direct D.C. converters
IEC/TR2 60146-6 (1992-12)
Semiconductor convertors - Part 6: Application guide for
the protection of semiconductor convertors against over-
current by fuses
IEC 60204-1 (1997-10)
Electrical equipment of industrial machines - Part 1: Gen-
eral requirements
IEC 60249-1 (1982-01)
Base materials for printed circuits - Part 1: Test methods
IEC 60249-2-4 (1987-06)
Base materials for printed circuits - Part 2: Specifications.
Specification no. 4: epoxide woven glass fabric copper-clad
laminated sheet, general-purpose grade
IEC 60249-2-5 (1987-06)
Base materials for printed circuits - Part 2: Specifications.
Specification no. 5: epoxide woven glass fabric copper-clad
laminated sheet of defined flammability (vertical burning
test)
IEC 60249-2-12 (1987-04)
Base materials for printed circuits - Part 2: Specifications.
Specification no. 12: thin epoxide woven glass fabric copper-
clad laminated sheet of defined flammability, for use in the
fabrication of multilayer printed boards
IEC 60249-3-1 (1981-01)
Base materials for printed circuits - Part 3: Special materials
used in connection with printed circuits. Specification no. 1:
prepreg for use as bonding sheet material in the fabrication
of multilayer printed boards
IEC 60249-3-3 (1991-06)
Base materials for printed circuits - Part 3: Special materials
used in connection with printed circuits. Specification no. 3:
permanent polymer coating materials (solder resist) for use
in the fabrication of printed boards
IEC 60326-3 (1991-05)
Printed boards - Part 3: Design and use of printed boards
IEC 60326-4 (1980-01)
Printed boards - Part 4: Specification for single and double-
sided printed boards with plain holes
IEC 60326-5 (1980-01)
Primed boards - Part 5: Specification for single and double-
sided printed boards with plated-through holes
IEC 60364-4-41 (1992-10)
Electrical installations of buildings - Part 4" Protection for
safety. Chapter 41" protection against electric shock
IEC 60364-4-41 (1999-05) Ed. 3.2 Consolidated edition
Electrical installations of buildings - Part 4: Protection for
safety. Chapter 41" protection against electric shock

IEC 60364-4-444 (1996-04)
Electrical installations of buildings - Part 4: Protection for
safety. Section 444: protection against electromagnetic
interference (EMI) in installations of buildings
IEC 60364-5-54 (1980-01)
Electrical installations of buildings - Part 5: Selection and
erection of electrical equipment. Chapter 54: earthing
arrangements and protective conductors
IEC 60364-5-523 (1999-02)
Electrical installations of buildings - Part 5: Selection and
erection of electrical equipment. Section 523: current-
carrying capacities in wiring systems
IEC 60364-5-548 (1999-04) Ed. 1.1 Consolidated edition
Electrical installations of buildings - Part 5: Selection and
erection of electrical equipment. Section 548: earthing
arrangements and equipotential bonding for information
technology installations
IEC 60384-14 (1993-06)
Fixed capacitors for use in electronic equipment-Part 14:
Sectional specification. Fixed capacitors for electromagnetic
interference suppression and connection to the supply mains
IEC 60417-1 (1998-08)
Graphical symbols for use on equipment- Part l" Overview
and application
IEC 60417-2 (1998-08)
Graphical symbols for use on equipment - Part 2" Symbol
originals
IEC 61140 (1997-11)
Protection against electric s h o c k - common aspects for
installation and equipment
IEC 60664-1 (2000-04) Ed. 1.1 Consolidated edition
Insulation coordination for equipment within low-voltage
systems - Part 1: Principles, requirements and tests
IECITR3 60664-2-1 (1997-11)
Insulation coordination for equipment within low-voltage
systems - Part 2 - l : Application guide. Dimensioning
procedure worksheets and dimensioning examples
IEC 60664-3 (1992-10)
Insulation coordination for equipment within low-voltage
systems - Part 3: Use of coatings to achieve insulation
coordination of printed board assemblies
IEC/TR3 60664-4 (1997-09)
Insulation coordination for equipment within low-voltage
systems - Part 4: Consideration of high-frequency voltage
stress
IEC 60695-1-1 (1999-11)
Fire hazard testing - Part 1-1: Guidance for assessing the
fire hazard of electrotechnical products. General guidelines
IEC 60695-2-1/1 (1994-03)
Fire hazard testing - Part 2: Test methods. Section 1/sheet 1:
glow-wire end-product test and guidance
IEC 60695-2-1/2 (1994-03)
Fire hazard testing - Part 2: Test methods. Section 1/sheet 2:
glow-wire flammability test on materials
Appendix A 331
IEC 60950 (1999-04)
Safety of information technology equipment
IEC 60990 (1999-08)
Methods of measurement of touch current and protective
conductor current
IEC 61000-2-4 (1994-02)
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 2" Environ-
ment. Section 4: compatibility levels in industrial plants for
low-frequency conducted disturbances
IEC/TR3 61000-2-6 (1995-09)
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 2" Environ-
ment. Section 6" assessment of the emission levels in the
power supply of industrial plants as regards low-frequency
conducted disturbances
IEC/TR3 61000-2-7 (1998-01)
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)-Part 2: Environ-
ment. Section 7" low-frequency magnetic fields in various
environments
IEC 61000-3-2 (1995-03)
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 3: Limits.
Section 2: limits for harmonic current emissions (equipment
input current _< 16 per phase)
IEC/TS 61000-3-4 (1998-10)
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 3 - 4 " Limits.
Limitation of emission of harmonic currents in low-voltage
power supply systems for equipment with rated current
greater than 16 A
IEC/TR2 61000-3-5 (1994-12)
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 3: Limits.
Section 5: limitation of voltage fluctuations and flicker in
low-voltage power supply systems for equipment with rated
current greater than 16 A
IEC/TR3 61000-3-6 (1996-10)
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 3" Limits.
Section 6: assessment of emission limits for distort-
ing loads in MV and HV power systems. Basic EMC
publication
IECITR3 61000-3-7 (1996-11)
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 3" Limits.
Section 7" assessment of emission limits for fluctuating
loads in MV and HV power systems. Basic EMC
publication
IEC/TR3 61000-5-2 (1997-11)
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 5" Installation
and mitigation guidelines. Section 2" earthing and cabling
IEC 61000-6-1 (1997-07)
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 6" Generic
standards. Section 1" immunity for residential, commercial
and light industrial environments
IEC 61000-6-2 (1999-01)
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 6 - 2 : Generic
standards. Immunity for industrial environments
IEC 61000-6-4 (1997-01)
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 6" Generic
standards. Section 4" emission standard for industrial
environments
332 IEC (INTERNATIONAL)STANDARDS

IEC 61131-1 (1992-10) IEC 61508-7 (2000-03)

Programmable controllers - Part 1: General information Functional safety of electrical/electronic/programmable elec-
tronic safety-related systems - Part 7: Overview of techni-
IEC 61131-2 (1992-10)
ques and measures
Programmable controllers- Part 2: Equipment requirements
and tests IEC 61543 (1995-04)
Residual current-operated protective devices (RCDs) for
IEC 61131-3 (1993-03)
household and similar u s e - electromagnetic compatibility
Programmable controllers - Part 3: Programming languages
IEC 61800-3 (1996-06)
IEC/TR 61131-8 (2000-01)
Adjustable speed electrical power drive systems - Part 3:
Programmable controllers - Part 8: Guidelines for the
EMC product standard including specific test methods
application and implementation of programming languages
IEC 62326-4 (1996-12)
IEC 61508-1 (1998-12)
Printed boards-Part 4: Rigid multilayer printed boards with
Functional safety of electrical/electronic/programmable
interlayer connections. Sectional specification
electronic safety-related systems - Part 1: General
requirements IEC 62326-4-1 (1996-12)
Printed boards - Part 4: Rigid multilayer printed boards with
IEC 615O8-2 (2OOO-O5)
interlayer connections. Sectional specification. Section 1:
Functional safety of electrical/electronic/programmable
capability detail specification. Performance levels A, B
electronic safety-related systems - Part 2: Requirements for
and C
electrical/electronic/programmable electronic safety-related
systems
IEC 61508-3 (1998-12)
PLANNED FUTURE IEC 61800 STANDARDS
Functional safety of electrical/electronic/programmable
electronic safety-related systems - Part 3: Software
IEC 61800-4 Ed. 1.0
requirements
General requirements - rating specifications for A.C. power
IEC 61508-4 (1998-12) drive systems above 1000 V A.C. or 1500 V D.C. and not
Functional safety of electrical/electronic/programmable exceeding 38 kV
electronic safety-related systems - Part 4: Definitions and
IEC 61800-5 Ed.l.0
abbreviations
Adjustable speed electrical power drive systems - Part 5:
IEC 61508-5 (1998-12) Electrical, thermal and fuctional safety aspects
Functional safety of electrical/electronic/programmable elec-
IEC 61800-6 TR Ed.l.0
tronic safety related systems - Part 5: Examples of methods
Creation of technical report to replace IEC 61136-1 and
for the determination of safety integrity levels
withdrawal of IEC 61136-1 upon completion
l E e 61508-6 (2000-04)
Functional safety of electrical/electronic/programmable
electronic safety-related systems - Part 6: Guidelines on the
application of IEC 61508-2 and IEC 61508-3

A2 CENELEC (EC) STANDARDS

EN 81-1:1985 EN 954-1:1997
Lifts and service lifts. Safety rules for the construction and Safety of machinery. Safety-related parts of control systems.
installation of electric lifts General principles for design
EN 292-1:1991
Safety of machinery. Basic concepts, general principles for EN 1037:1996
design. Basic terminology, methodology Safety of machinery. Prevention of unexpected start-up
EN 292-2:1991
Safety of machinery. Basic concepts, general principles for EN 1050:1997
design. Technical principles and specifications Safety of machinery. Principles for risk assessment

EN 12015:1998
Electromagnetic compatibility. Product family standard for
lifts, escalators and passenger conveyors. Emission
EN 12016:1998
Electromagnetic compatibility. Product family standard for
lifts, escalators and passenger conveyors. Immunity
EN 50081-1:1992
Electromagnetic compatibility. Generic emission standard.
Residential, commercial and light industry
EN 50081-2:1994
Electromagnetic compatibility. Genetic emission standard.
Industrial environment
EN 50082-1:1998
Electromagnetic compatibility. Generic immunity standard.
Residential, commercial and light industry
EN 50082-2:1995
Electromagnetic compatibility. Generic immunity standard.
Industrial environment
EN 50160:2000
Voltage characteristics of electricity supplied by public
distribution systems
EN 50178:1998
Electronic equipment for use in power installations
EN 55011:1998 (CISPR 11:1997)
Limits and methods of measurement of radio disturbance
characteristics of industrial, scientific and medical (ISM)
radiofrequency equipment
EN 60034-1:1998
Rotating electrical machines. Rating and performance
EN 60034-2:1999
Rotating electrical machines. Methods for determining
losses and efficiency of rotating electrical machinery from
tests (excluding machines for traction vehicles)
EN 60034-7:1993 (IEC 60034-7:1992)
Rotating electrical machines. Classification of types of
constructions and mounting arrangements (IM Code)
EN 60068-2-6:1996 (IEC 60068-2-6:1995)
Environmental testing. Test methods. Test Fc. Vibration
(sinusoidal)
EN 60068-2-21:1999 (IEC 60068-2-21:1999)
Environmental testing. Test methods. Test U. Robustness of
terminations and integral mounting devices
EN 60068-2-27:1993 (IEC 60068-2-27:1987)
Environmental testing. Test methods. Environmental testing
procedures. Tests. Test Ea and guidance. Shock
EN 60068-2-29:1993 (IEC 60068-2-29:1987)
Environmental testing. Test methods. Environmental testing
procedures. Tests. Test Eb and guidance. Bump
EN 60068-2-32:1993
Environmental testing. Test methods. Test Ed. Free fall
EN 60146-1-1:1993 (IEC 60146-1-1:1991)
Semiconductor convertors. General requirements and
line commutated convertors. Specifications of basic
requirements
Appendix A 333
EN 60146-1-3:1993 (IEC 60146-1-3:1991)
Semiconductor convertors. General requirements and line
commutated convertors. Transformers and reactors
EN 60204-1:1993
Safety of machinery. Electrical equipment of machines.
Specification for general requirements
EN 60417-1:1999 ( IEC 60417-1:1998)
Graphical symbols for use on equipment. Overview and
application
EN 60417-2:1999 (IEC 60417-2:1998)
Graphical symbols for use on equipment. Symbol originals
EN 60439-1:1999 (IEC 60439-1:1999)
Specification for low-voltage switchgear and controlgear
assemblies. Type-tested and partially type-tested assemblies
EN 60445:1990
Specification for identification of equipment terminals and
of terminations of certain designated conductors, including
general rules for an alphanumeric system
EN 60529:1992
Specification for degrees of protection provided by enclo-
sures (IP code)
EN 60947-2:1996
Specification for low-voltage switchgear and controlgear.
Circuit breakers
EN 60947-3:1999
Specification for low-voltage switchgear and controlgear.
Switches, disconnectors, switch disconnectors and fuse
combination units
EN 60950:1992 (BS 7002:1992)
Specification for safety of information technology equip-
ment, including electrical business equipment
EN 61000-2-4:1995 (IEC 61000-2-4:1994)
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC). Environment. Com-
patibility levels in industrial plants for low-frequency con-
ducted disturbances
EN 61000-3-2:1995 (IEC 61000-3-2:1995)
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC). Limits. Limits for
harmonic current emissions (equipment input current 16 A
per phase)
EN 61000-3-3:1995 (IEC 61000-3-3:1994)
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC). Limits. Limitation of
voltage fluctuations and flicker in low-voltage supply sys-
tems for equipment with rated current 16 A
EN 61000-4-2:1995 (IEC 61000-4-2:1995)
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC). Testing and mea-
surement techniques. Electrostatic discharge immunity test.
Basic EMC publication
EN 61000-4-3:1997
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC). Testing and mea-
surement techniques. Radiated, radiofrequency, electro-
magnetic field immunity test
EN 61000-4-4:1995 (IEC 61000-4-4:1995)
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC). Testing and mea-
surement techniques. Electrical fast transient/burst immu-
nity test. Basic EMC publication
334 CENELEC
(EC) STANDARDS

EN 61000-4-5:1995 (IEC 61000-4-5:1995) EN 61000-4-28:2000 (IEC 61000-4-28:1999)

Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC). Testing and mea-
surement techniques. Surge immunity test
EN 61000-4-6:1996 (IEC 61000-4-6:1996)
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC). Testing and mea-
surement techniques. Immunity to conducted disturbances,
induced by radiofrequency fields
EN 61000-4-7:1993 (IEC 61000-4-7:1991)
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC). General guide on
harmonics and interharmonics measurements and instru-
mentation, for power supply systems and equipment con-
nected thereto
EN 61000-4-8:1994 (IEC 61000-4-8:1993)
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC). Testing and mea-
surement techniques. Power frequency magnetic field immu-
nity test. Basic EMC publication
EN 61000-4-9:1994 (IEC 61000-4-9:1993)
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC). Testing and mea-
surement techniques. Pulse magnetic field immunity test.
Basic EMC publication
EN 61000-4-10:1994 (IEC 61000-4-10:1993)
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC). Testing and mea-
surement techniques. Damped oscillatory magnetic field
immunity test. Basic EMC publication
EN 61000-4-11:1994 (IEC 61000-4-11:1994)
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC). Testing and mea-
surement techniques. Voltage dips, short interruptions and
voltage variations immunity tests
EN 61000-4-12:1996 (IEC 61000-4-12:1995)
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC). Testing and mea-
surement techniques. Oscillatory waves immunity test.
Basic EMC publication
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC). Testing and mea-
surement techniques. Variation of power frequency, immu-
nity test
EN 61000-6-2:1999 (IEC 61000-6-2:1999)
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC). Generic standards.
Immunity for industrial environments
EN 61010-1:1993
Safety requirements for electrical equipment for measure-
ment, control and laboratory use. General requirements
EN 61136-1:1998
Semiconductor power convertors. Adjustable-speed electric
drive systems. General requirements. Rating specifications,
particularly for D.C. motor drives
EN 61326:1998 (IEC 61326-1:1997)
Electrical equipment for measurement, control and labora-
tory use. EMC requirements
EN 61496-1:1998 (IEC 61496-1:1997)
Safety of machinery. Electrosensitive protective equipment.
General requirements and tests
EN 61800-1:1998 (IEC 61800-1:1997)
Adjustable-speed electrical power drive systems. Rating
specifications for low-voltage adjustable-speed D.C. power
drive systems
EN 61800-2:1998 (IEC 61800-2:1998)
Adjustable-speed electrical power drive systems. General
requirements. Rating specifications for low-voltage adjus-
table frequency A.C. power drive systems
EN 61800-3:1997 (IEC 61800-3:1996)
Adjustable-speed electrical power drive systems. EMC
product standard including specific test methods

EN 61000-4-14:1999 (IEC 61000-4-14:1999)

Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC). Testing and mea-
surement techniques. Voltage fluctuation immunity test

A3 BRITISH STANDARDS

BS 6651:1999 BS 7671:1992
Code of practice for protection of structures against Requirements for electrical installations, lEE Wiring
lightning Regulations. Sixteenth edition
 Appendix A 335

A4 IEEE (USA) STANDARDS

IEEE 519 (1992) IEEE C62 collection (1995)

Recommended practices and requirements for harmonic Surge protection
control in electrical power systems.

A5 UL (UNDERWRITERS" LABORATORIES, USA) STANDARDS

UL 50 UL 508
Enclosures for electrical equipment Standard for industrial control equipment
UL 94 UL 508C
Test for flammability of plastic materials for parts in devices Standard for power conversion equipment
and appliances

A6 OTHER STANDARDS

ELECTRICITY ASSOCIATION, UK 485 (1998)

Standard for electrical characteristics of generators and
G.5/3 (1976) receivers for use in balanced digital multipoint systems
Limits for harmonics in the UK electricity supply system (RS-485 specification)
G.5/4 (2001 - proposed)
Planning levels for harmonic voltage distortion and the ANSI
connection of nonlinear loads to transmission systems and
public electricity supply systems in the United Kingdom X3.28 (1976)
Use of communication control characteristics of ASCII in
specified data communication links
EIA/TIA (PREVIOUSLY RS)
232 (1997)
Interface between data terminal equipment and data circuit -
terminating equipment employing serial binary data inter-
change (RS-232 specification)
 APPENDIX B

Symbols and Formulae

B1 SI UNITS AND SYMBOLS 336

B2 ELECTRICAL FORMULAE 338

B3 MECHANICAL FORMULAE 342

B4 WORKED EXAMPLES OF TYPICAL MECHANICAL LOADS 346

B1 SI UNITS A N D SYMBOLS

The following formulae are based on the International
System of Units, known as SI (Systeme Internationale
d'Unites) which is used throughout this book. SI was
adopted in February 1969 by a resolution of the CGPM
(Conference Generale de Poids et Mesures) as ISO
Recommendation R1000.
A base unit exists for each of the dimensionally independent
physical quantities: length, mass, time, electric current,
thermodynamic temperature and luminous intensity. The
SI unit of any other quantity may be derived by appropriate
simple multiplication or division of the base units without
the introduction of numerical factors.
The system is independent of the effects of gravity, making a
clear distinction between the mass of a body (unit of
mass - kilogram) and its weight, i.e. the force due to gravity
(unit of force = Newton).
Example:
A force of 1 N acting on a mass of 1 kg results in an accel-
eration of 1 m s - 2.
Conversion factors from non SI units to SI units are to be
found in Appendix C.
 Appendix B 337

SI BASE UNITS Time-related Units

Symbol Quantity Unit Unit

Quantity Unit symbol Unit name
symbol name
Length m metre
t time S second
Mass kg kilogram
r time constant S second
Time s second -1
u, v velocity ms metre per second
Electric current A Ampere -2
a acceleration ms metre per second
Temperature K Kelvin
per second
Luminous intensity cd candela
u; angular velocity rad S- 1 radian per second
a angular rad S- 2 radian per second
acceleration per second
DECIMAL MULTIPLES AND SUBMULTIPLES f frequency Hz Hertz
-1
n rotational frequency S (revolution)
per second
Factor Prefix Symbol

1012 tera T
10 9 giga G
Mechanical Units
10 6 mega M
10 3 kilo k
102 hecto h
Symbol Quantity Unit Unit
10 deca da
symbol name
10 -1 deci d
10 -2 centi c m mass kg kilogram
10 -3 milli m F force N Newton
10 - 6 micro la G (W) weight N Newton
10 -9 nano n J moment of inertia kg m 2 kilogram metre
10 -12 pico p squared
10 -15 femto f M (T) torque kgm kilogram metre
10 -18 atto a w (E) work (energy) J Joule
P power W Watt
P pressure Pa Pascal
E modulus of elasticity Pa Pascal
DERIVED UNITS Pascal
O" stress Pa
P density k g m -3 kilogram per
Geometrical Units cubic metre
6x rate of flow m 3 s -1 cubic metre
per second
Symbol Quantity Unit symbol Unit name k, k l, etc. any constant factor
1, s length, distance m metre
A area m2 square metre
V volume m3 cubic metre
a,/3, "7 etc. plane angle rad radian
o
degree
a,/3, "7 etc. solid angle steradian
338 ELECTRICAL
FORMULAE"Electrical Quantities

B2 ELECTRICAL FORMULAE

ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES
Total or apparent power in VA - VI - I2Z - - V2/Z
Active power in watts, W -- VI cos cp
Quantity Symbol Unit Unit
name symbol Reactive power in VAr - VI sin

Electromotive force E, e* Volt V

Potential difference V, v* Volt V THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS
Current I, i* Ampere A
Magnetic flux Weber Weber All quantities r.m.s, values:
Frequency f Hertz Hz
Flux linkage A Weber-turns -- kWmech = horsepower 0.746
Resistance R Ohm [2 kWetec = v/3 Vtll cos ~ at rated speed and load
Inductance L Henry H where Vt = supply voltage, Ii-- rated full load
Capacitance C Farad F current and c o s q ) - rated full-load power factor
Impedance Z Ohm [2
Reactance X Ohm f~ Efficiency, r / = (kWmech/kWelec) 100 per cent
Power, D.C., or active P Watt W
Power, reactive Q Volt-Ampere VAr, var Phase current /p-// for star connection
reactive
Power, total or apparent S Volt-Ampere VA Ip = Il / v/3 for delta connection
Power factor angle cp __ o, deg.
Angular velocity aJ radians rad s- 1
per second
LOADS (PHASE VALUES)
Rotational velocity n revolutions s -1, rev s-1
per second Resistance R, measured in Ohms (no energy storage)
Revolutions
mln --1
, r.p.m.
per minute Inductive reactance, Xt - coL - 27rfL Ohms
Efficiency r/ m (stores energy)
Number of pairs of poles p where f = frequency (Hz) and L - inductance (H)

*Capital and small letters designate r.m.s, and instanta- Capacitative reactance, X c - 1 / ( c o C ) - 1/(27rfC)
neous value, respectively
where f - f r e q u e n c y (Hz) and C - c a p a c i t a n c e (F)

A.C. THREE-PHASE (ASSUMING BALANCED

SYMMETRICAL WAVEFORM) IMPEDANCE

All quantities r.m.s, values: Impedance is the algebraic sum of the separate load
values thus:
VI = line-to-line voltage
Vp = Phase voltage (line-to-neutral) Z- v/(R 2 + X 2) or v/(R 2 + X~)
It - line current (star)
Ip = Phase current (delta) If R, XL and Xc are present in series in the same circuit then
XL and Xc may be summated, treating X c as negative, thus:
In a star connected circuit" Vp = lit~ v/3, Vl - 3 Vp, It - Ip
In a delta connected circuit" Ip = Il/v/3,It - v/3Ip, Vl - Vp z- v/(R + - Xc):)
Total of apparent power in V A - v/3 VlIt
Active power in watts, W = v/3 VtIl cos cp A.C. VECTOR AND IMPEDANCE DIAGRAMS
Reactive power in VAr - v/3 Vflt sin qo
Power factor (p.f.) - cos cp I f a voltage V is applied to an impedance Z, Figure B.la, the
current I will be phase displaced by an angle qS, Figure B. 1b.
= active power/apparent power
The current vector may be resolved into two component
= W/VAr
vectors at right angles, Figure B.2. The component in phase
with the voltage represents the value of the current due to
r e s i s t a n c e - - I cos 05, and the quadrature component repre-
A.C. SINGLE PHASE sents current due to reactance (which may be inductive or
capacitative) = I sin ~b.
All quantities r.m.s, values:
If each vector component is multiplied by the voltage V, the
V=/Z resulting triangle is similar, q5 is unchanged and the vector
 Appendix B 339

Zsin~b=X
V~ f

R
Z COS q~
=R

X
/ a

Figure B. 1 a impedance circuit Figure B.4 a impedance triangle

b voltage and current vectors b equivalent circuit

Isin~b

zT
I

Icos~ source I Z [-] load

Figure B.5 Elements of a power circuit

Figure B.2 Current vector diagram

Visin q~ and:
=12Zsin dp=12X
A cos ~ - R/z
sin ~b - X / Z
Vlcos$ P S tan ~b - X / R
=12ZCOSq~ Vl
=I2R Thus the impedance circuit Figure B.la, may be represented
by a circuit containing a resistance and a reactance in series,
Figure B.4b. All equations hold good whether X is inductive
or capacitive. If capacitive, the current, Figure B.lb, would
Figure B.3 Power vector diagram lead the voltage and the quadrature vectors of Figures B.2
and B.3 should be drawn in the opposite sense.
diagram of Figure B.3 shows the total power S, active power
P, and reactive power Q.
Since"
E.M.F., ENERGY TRANSFER

V-/Z E.m.f. is the internal driving force, symbol E, of an energy

source. It is equal to the sum of all the voltage drops in the
then: whole circuit, including any voltage drop attributable to the
energy source itself, Figure B.5.
S- VI - I 2 Z
E - I Z + Iz
similarly:
where E - s o u r c e e.m.f., I = current caused to flow bY E;
P = VI cos ~b -- I2Z cos ~b Z = s u m of all impedances external to the source and
z = impedance of the source itself.
and:
In the part of the circuit external to the source, the voltage
Q - VI sin ~b = I2Z sin ~b drop across the load is equal to the terminal voltage:

If these vectors are divided by/2, the resulting triangle is V-/Z

similar, x is unchanged, and the diagram of Figure B.4a
shows the impedance Z, and the resistance as the other two Substituting:
sides: E= V+Iz

Z cos ~b = R and:
Zsin$ = X
V = E-Iz
Further:
In A.C. circuits, quantities must be evaluated vectorially. Ifthe
z = x/(R: + x source is D.C., Z, z become R, r and evaluation is arithmetical.
340 ELECTRICAL FORMULAE: E.M.F., Energy Transfer

--1---I
i
i
i i
i i
i ~ i
i i
i i
i
I
i
i
i
i
'r
i
a
i
!

t equal areas
0 r R

Figure B.6 Maximum p o w e r transfer

n ,,,,,... ,,," 2 rc
Maximum power transfer from a supply source to a load
occurs when the resistance of the load is equal to the internal
resistance of the source. Varying values of load resistance
are plotted against power developed by the source (of fixed A~ equal areas
e.m.f, and internal resistance) in Figure B.6, showing that
...... 0.318 A
power dissipated reaches a peak value.
Note that practical power sources of low internal resistance
are usually unable to transfer maximum power due to current
overload.

0.955 A

MEAN AND R.M.S. VALUES, WAVEFORM

~ sS

Principles
i "" "- .... , . , i .."
By definition, a symmetrical altemating quantity oscillates
about a zero axis and its mean value, therefore, is zero. Figure B.7 Sine wave
Each half cycle, however, has a definite mean value. For a instantaneous value
practical purposes, the mean of a half cycle represents the b rectified 1-phase full wave
D.C. value of a rectified alternating quantity. c rectified 1-phase half wave
The power delivered by a symmetrical alternating voltage or d rectified 3-phase full wave
current is proportional to the square of the quantity at any
instant. Negative values, when squared, are positive, so the
sum of the squares of the instantaneous values has a definite The mean height of one half cycle:
mean value. The square root of this mean represents that
value of a symmetrical quantity which produces the same
power or heating effect as if it were a direct quantity. It is
called the root mean square (r.m.s.) value, being the square
area/base -
(/o A sin a d a
)//
7r

root of the mean of the sum of the squares of the instanta- - (A/Tr) sin a d a
neous values of the voltage or current wave.
= 2A/Tr = 0.637A(3 sf)
The mean value of any variable quantity above (or below)
zero in a given period is the area enclosed by the variable,
If the half wave is not repeated in the next half cycle, from 7r
divided by the length of the base. The area enclosed is the
to 2 7r (i.e. half-wave rectification), the mean value is halved
sum of all instantaneous values in the period defined by the
since the area enclosed is the same but the period is double,
base length.
Figure B.7b:
half wave mean = A/Tr = 0.318A (3 sf)
Mean D.C. Value
If the supply is three phase, the effective value of the three
For a sine wave, Figure B.7a, the instantaneous value: phases added vectorially is 1.5 times the value of one phase,
Figure B.7c:
i = Asina
three-phase mean = 3 A / T r - 0.955A(3 sf)
The area is the sum of the instantaneous values in one half
cycle: Other waveforms (Figure B.8):

square wave mean = A B / B - A

~..,.i- A sinada
~--.,(
~0 ) f0 ~ semicircular wave mean = 7rA2/(2 x 2A) - 7rA/4

and period (base length) is 7r. triangular wave - A B / ( 2 x B) - A / 2

 Appendix B 341

mean value of
half cycle = A t
i 2~
t _J"
a
A2' \ aCr;a~mean square

f
0.785A ._.. /
1
1

Figure B.9 Sine wave

a instantaneous value
b squares of instantaneous values

qjlal areas
"''/ ....... 0.5A
The mean height of one half cycle:

area/base- (foTrA 2 sin2a da)/Tr

-- AZ/Tr

The representative value is the square root of this mean

Figure B.8 Other waveforms value:
a square wave
Ar.m.s. - v/(A2/2) = A/(v/2) - 0.707A(3 sf)
b semicircular wave
c triangular wave
Other Waveforms
Square wave Ar.m.s. -- A

Semicircular wave Ar.m.s.- 2 A / 3 - 0.816A(3 sf)

R.M.S. Value
Triangular wave Ar.m.s. -- A/v~3 - 0.577A(3 sf)
For a sine wave, Figure B.9a, where the instantaneous value:

i = Asina
Form Factor
The ratio of the r.m.s, to the mean value is called the form
the square of the instantaneous value, Figure B.9b is:
factor. A square wave has a form factor of unity. All others
i2 -- A2 sin2a are greater than unity and the sharper or more peaked the
wave shape, the higher the form factor:
The area is the sum of the squares of the instantaneous
values in one half cycle: sine wave form factor -- 7r/(2V/2) -- 1.11(3 sf)
square wave form f a c t o r - 1
Z(i) 2 - A 2 sin20l dc~ semicircular wave form f a c t o r - (4x/2)/(x/37r)
0 fo ~
- 1.039 (3 sf)
and the period (base length) is 7r. triangular wave form factor - 2/v/3 - 1.554 (3 sf)
342 MECHANICAL
FORMULAE:Laws of Motion

B3 MECHANICAL FORMULAE

Term Description Unit

d diameter m m
J
F force N
g acceleration due to gravity m s- 2
J total inertia kg m 2
JL load inertia kg m 2 Figure B. 10 The action o f a single force on a body
JM motor inertia kg m2
m mass kg The first law states that a force must be applied to a body in
M motor torque Nm
order to make it move from rest, or to change its speed or
Ma accelerating torque Nm
direction if it is moving.
Mt load torque Nm
n rotational frequency mln --1"
The second law relates the applied force to the rate of change
nl -input mm --1"
of momentum which it produces. Momentum is the pro-
n2 -output mln
--1"

duct of mass and velocity, therefore for a constant mass,

An change of rotational frequency min- ~*
force is proportional to the rate of change of velocity, i.e. to
p pitch m
acceleration.
P motor power kW
Pa accelerating power kW The third law can be appreciated by considering, for
PL load power absorbed kW example, the way in which a rowing boat is propelled for-
r radius m ward by the rearward force exerted by the oars upon the
s distance m
water.
t acceleration time s
At acceleration period s
v linear velocity rn/min*
Av change of linear velocity m/min* Linear Motion
V traction capacity M 3 S--1
W energy J(Joule) Consider a body mass m acted upon by a single force F,
r/ efficiency Figure B.10. The body accelerates in the direction in which
# coefficient of friction - the force is acting, at a rate given by:

Note: for practical convenience, some o f the units in the A -F/m

formulae following are not SI units; for example, rota-
tional frequency is commonly measured in revolutions per After a time t has elapsed, the body has achieved a velocity
minute, although the SI unit is revolutions per second. In v, where:
these servo formulae, the terms used are as tabulated
above. Those which are in non-Sl units are marked*. v--u+at

(u is the initial velocity, before the force F was applied; if the

body was initially at rest, u is zero).
LAWS OF MOTION
The distance, s, travelled by the body during time t is:
Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) is well known for his work
s - ut + at 2/2
and discoveries in optics, gravitation and many other fields
of mathematics and the physical sciences. In 1687, Newton Distance and velocity are related by the following equation,
completed his monumental work on mechanics, in which the derived from the two previous ones:
concepts of force, velocity and acceleration were for the first
time accurately interrelated. 1,,2 - - U 2 -- 2as

The laws of motion, for which Newton is best known, are The work done by the force in accelerating the body is the
among the fundamental principles of mechanical engineer- product of force and distance:
ing, and are expressed as follows:
W-Fs

1 A body continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in
a straight line, unless impressed forces act upon it.
2 The impressed force is proportional to the rate of change
of momentum which it produces, and the change of
momentum takes place in the direction of the straight
line along which the force acts.
3 Action and reaction are equal and opposite.
The kinetic energy of the body, i.e. the energy which it
possesses by virtue of its motion, is the product of its mass
and the square of its velocity:
Ek -- mv2/2
Furthermore, since energy is conserved, the work done by
the force is equal to the change in the body's kinetic energy
 Appendix B 343

(neglecting losses): After a time t has elapsed, the angular velocity ~ (rate of
change of angle) is given by:
W = m ( v 2 -- u2)/2
w=~vo +c~t
Power is the rate at which work is done, therefore it is the
product of force and velocity: (~o is the initial angular velocity, before the torque M was
applied; if the body was initially at rest, Wo is zero).
P= Fv
The angle, 7, through which the body rotates in time t is:

Rotational or Angular Motion 7 = coot + c~t2 / 2

A force acting perpendicular to a pivoted lever, Figure B. 11, Angle and angular velocity are related by the following
causes a turning effect or torque at the fulcrum. The torque is equation:
the product of the force and the radius at which it is applied:
03 2 -- CO2 -- 2c~7
M = Fr
The work done in accelerating the body is the product of
If a torque is applied to a body which is free to rotate, as in torque and angle of rotation:
Figure B.12, an acceleration results in a way which is ana-
logous to the example of linear motion above. Indeed, a W = M7
similarity will be noticed between the equations of motion.
The kinetic energy of the body is the product of its moment
Any body which is capable of rotating possesses a property of inertia and the square of its angular velocity:
known as moment of inertia which tends to resist accelera-
Ek -- J c o 2 / 2
tion in the same way as does the mass of a body in linear
motion. The moment of inertia is related not only to the mass
Since energy is conserved, the work done is equal to the
of the body, but also to the distribution of that mass with
change in kinetic energy (neglecting losses):
respect to radius.
The moment of inertia of a solid cylinder of radius r is W - J(w 2 - w2)/2
given by:
Power is the product of torque and angular velocity, i.e. the
J = mr2/2 rate at which work is being done:

By comparison, the moment of inertia of a hollow cylinder, P = Mw

of inner and outer radii respectively, is as follows:

J - m(r2oo - 4 ) / 2 Relationship Between Linear and

It can be seen that, for a given outer radius, the moment of
inertia of a hollow cylinder is greater than that of a solid
cylinder of the same mass. In Figure B. 12, a body having a
moment of inertia J is acted upon by a torque M. Its angular
acceleration is:
o~ = M / J
Angular Motion
Consider a body of mass m moving in a circle of radius r
with an angular velocity w, Figure B.13.
When the body has rotated through an angle 7, it has
covered a distance s along the circumference of the circle,
where:

s=Tr
M= Fr

1 4
"1
,) m

F
Figure B. 11 The concept of torque

< M

Figure B.13 Relationship between linear and angular

Figure B. 12 The action of torque on a body motion
344 MECHANICAL
FORMULAE: Laws of Motion

Similarly, the tangential velocity or peripheral speed v, relative motion or tendency to relative motion. Consider a
being the quotient of distance and time, is given by: body of mass m at rest on a horizontal surface, Figure B. 15.
If a small force F is applied as shown, parallel to the surface
v - s / t - v /t on which the body is resting, an equal and opposite frictional
force FL is set up, preventing motion. If the applied force is
Angular velocity ~ is the quotient of angle and time:
gradually increased the opposing force increases with it, up
a; -- f / t to a point beyond which no further increase occurs, and the
body begins to move. The maximum value of the opposing
Therefore:
force is called the limiting frictional force. It can be shown to
V ~ OJr be independent of contact area, dependent on the nature of
the surfaces in contact, and proportional to the normal
Similarly, for acceleration: reaction (the force perpendicular to the surfaces in contact-
in this case the weight of the body, mg, where g is the
a - v/t- ~r/t
gravitational constant).
In general, where FL is the limiting frictional force and FN is
Therefore" the normal reaction, the ratio of the two forces is constant for
a - ar
a particular combination of surfaces in contact:

The moment of inertia is given by" F IFN - -

J- mr 2 The constant # is known as the coefficient of static friction

The Effect of Gearing
When calculating the torque required to accelerate or
decelerate the moving parts of a machine, it is necessary to
take into account any gearing which introduces a ratio
between the speeds of different parts. It is unusual to cal-
culate the moment of inertia referred to the motor shaft,
since this figure may be added arithmetically to the motor
inertia to arrive at a figure for the total inertia of the system.
Figure B.14 illustrates a motor, having a moment of inertia
J1, driving a load with inertia J2, via a gearbox.
If the gearbox has a ratio k, then the relationship between
input and output angular velocities is as follows:
~01 ~--- k~2
Neglecting losses, the input and output torques are related
thus:
M1 = M 2 1 k
The load inertia reflected back through the gearbox to the
motor shaft is reduced by a factor equal to the square of the
gear ratio. Therefore the total inertia which the motor has to
overcome is given by:
J = J~ + J2/k 2
Friction and Losses
Friction is the name given to the force acting tangentially to
the surfaces of two bodies in contact, which opposes their
between the two surfaces. Friction is present whenever there
is relative motion between two surfaces in contact, although
it may be considerably reduced by means of lubricants
which, by forming an interposing layer, keep the surfaces
apart.
In all machines, part of the power supplied is used to over-
come friction, thus the power available to do useful work is
diminished. Other losses occur due to the viscous friction of
lubricants (e.g. the oil in a gearbox reduces friction between
gears, but introduces other losses) air resistance etc.
The usable output power of a system is equal to the input
power minus the system losses. The ratio of output power to
input power is called the system efficiency, 7/:
17 - - P O U T ~ P I N = ( P I N - - losses) ~ P I N
The mechanical power lost in overcoming friction etc. is con-
verted into heat, and the disposal of this heat is an important
consideration in large systems.
Consider, for example, a machine driven by a 100 kW motor,
via a gearbox having an efficiency of 0.9 (usually expressed
as 90 per cent):
l o s s e s - - P I N -- ~ P I N
- 1 0 0 - 90 - 10kW
Therefore, 10 kW of heat is generated when the machine
works at full power. An oil cooler or heat exchanger may be
FN

motor gearbox load

M1 M2
/ ///// //////
k_, ,..,
o) 1 0) 2

mg
Figure B.14 The effect of gearing between motor and
load Figure B. 15 Friction between a body and a surface
 Appendix B 345

required to prevent overheating of the gearbox, and the actual pressure depends upon the density p of the liquid:
gearbox manufacturer will allow for this in the design.
p- pgh

For a rate of flow ~, the power delivered by the pump is

Fluid F l o w
given by:
The term fluid is used to describe any medium capable
P - p~5 - pgh6
of flowing. Gases and liquids are typical fluids; others
include foams, slurries and some granular solids (e.g. bulk In practice, the pressure will be increased by viscous friction
grain). and turbulence within the pipe work, but under normal cir-
For flow to take place, a pressure gradient must exist, cumstances these effects are small in comparison with the
therefore fluid will flow through a pipe connecting two pressure due to the height (head) of the liquid column.
vessels only if a difference in pressure exists between them.
Flow takes place from the higher pressure vessel to the
lower. In the case of liquids, pressure is directly proportional f
> > > >
to depth, so in Figure B.16 liquid flows from vessel A to > > >
vessel B until the levels are equal, when the flow ceases. The > > >
rate at which the fluid flows through a pipe or duct depends > > >
on four factors: > > > > >

1 The pressure gradient.

2 The viscosity of the fluid.
3 The cross-sectional shape and area of the pipe or duct.
4 Whether the flow is laminar, Figure B.17a, or turbulent,
Figure B. 17b.

If turbulence occurs, a greater pressure is required to achieve

a given rate of flow than when the flow is laminar. Pipe work
and ductwork should therefore be designed to avoid abrupt
changes in direction or cross section, and without obstruc- Figure B. 17 Fluid flow
tions which might give rise to turbulence. Consider the
a laminar
arrangements shown in Figure B.18, where a fan forces air
b turbulent
through a heat-exchanger matrix. The fan inlet is open to the
atmosphere, as is the outlet from the matrix, therefore these
two points are at atmospheric pressure. The pressure
between the fan and the matrix exceeds atmospheric pres-
oO00
0
0 air flow
sure, therefore air flows through the matrix as shown. o 0 o0 >
air inlet air outlet
I f p is the pressure difference (due to the fan) which gives ooo
rise to a rate of flow ~5, the power by the fan is: 0 0
000
P - p~5

Similarly, Figure B.19 shows a pump being used to raise

t
fan
t
matrix
liquid from one tank to another at a higher level.
Figure B. 18 Example of air flow
The pressure difference between inlet and outlet of the pump
is proportional to the height h to which the liquid is being
pumped with respect to the level in the lower tank. The

final level

direction of
flow

>
pump
direction of flow
A B

Figure B. 16 Flow of liquid between two vessels Figure B. 19 Example of liquid flow
346 WORKED EXAMPLESOF TYPICAL MECHANICAL LOADS: C o n v e y o r

B4 WORKED EXAMPLES OF TYPICAL M E C H A N I C A L LOADS

Note: data is typical, not necessarily SI units. Calculations Calculate Speeds and Gearing Ratio
correct to 3 significant figures
Volume of the required delivery rate:

CONVEYOR required delivery rate per h o u r - volume density

A horizontal conveyor carries a loose material (not sensitive From data:

to shock). The conveyor is required to start when fully
loaded. volume delivered - mass delivered/density (m 3s -1)

Find the rating of a standard three-phase 400V A.C. volume per second - 250/2000 - 0.125 (m 3s -1)
induction motor to drive the conveyor, assuming typically
four-pole, 50 Hz, 1475 m i n - 1 at full load. Linear velocity v of the conveyor belt:

From the same data, find the motor power if the conveyor v- volume per second/cross-sectional area
raises the load through a height of 20 m.
= 0.125 x 1/(0.8 0.1)

Data = 1.56ms -1

required delivery rate 900 tonnes (250kgs -1) Rotational speed co of the belt driving pulley:
per hour
density of load material 2 kg dm -3 (2000 kg m -3) co - linear speed/radius
width of conveyor belt 800 mm (0.8 m)
length of conveyor 150m (150m) = 1.56/0.2
maximum safe depth of load on 1O0mm (0.1 m)
belt to prevent spillage = 7.8 rad S- 1

weight of conveyor belt 15kgm -1

diameter of belt pulley 400 mm (0.4m) Converting this to revolutions per minute gives
coefficient of friction of 0.09
conveyor, static r.p.m. - aJ x 60/(27r) - 74.5 min -1
coefficient of friction of conveyor, 0.07
moving Therefore, gearbox ratio will be:
manufacturer's information:
1475" 74.5 ~ 20" 1
breakaway torque, fully loaded 6850 N m
operational requirement: desired
acceleration time 4s

Load, Force and Torque

Method
Notes:
1 Ensure all data is in SI units.
Data typically states 'weight' of the conveyor belt, but
2 Determine the linear and rotational speeds and gearing
gives the value in kg m - l , which is mass per unit length
ratio.
and correct in the SI system.
3 Determine the loading and acceleration, and from them A factor of two is applied to account for the retum run of
the forces and torques to accelerate and to run. the belt.
4 Calculate power ratings of motor and the drive.

l o a d - mass of charge plus mass of belt

= (volume of charge x density)

V + 2(conveyor length x mass of belt per metre)

... iiiiiiiiNiiliiiiHiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii = [(150 0.8 x 0.1)(2000)] + 2(150 x 15)

( =28.5x 103kg

Breakaway torque to start the conveyor from rest in the fully

i 0 0 0
I~ 150 rn __-.~ loaded state is given in the data as:

Figure B.20 Conveyor 6850 N m

 Appendix B 347

Horizontal force required to accelerate the loaded conveyor demand at the motor:
against rolling friction after breakaway:
P- Moo
Fa - (load mass x acceleration)
As power is proportional to speed, this seems to present a
+ (load mass x g x coefficient of rolling friction) problem because, at the instant of starting, speed is zero and
= ma 4- rag# so power is zero also.

= m ( a 4- g # ) Further, during acceleration the speed increases from zero to

the normal running speed, and therefore the power demand
Further, torque to accelerate the conveyor against rolling appears to have no particular value. But in fact it does,
friction is force x radius of the pulley: because the acceleration torque continues up to the point
where the motor reaches full speed, and so the accelerating
Ma - F a r torque at full speed can be used to calculate the accelerating
= [m(a 4 - g # ) ] r N m power demand.

According to the data given, the starting and acceleration

Now, determine the linear acceleration, from the calculated
period is to be 4 s. If a motor is selected which is typically
linear velocity (1.56 m s-l), and the required acceleration
rated for 150 per cent overload for 30 s, use can be made of
time (4 s):
this capability since, at 4 s, the demand period is comfortably
linear acceleration - 1.56/4 - 0.39 m s -2
within the overload period of 30 s.

Motor power to accelerate the conveyor is the accelerating

Substituting this into the torque equation:
torque at the conveyor pulley multiplied by the rotational
Ma = 28.5 x 10 3 x [0.39 + (9.81 x 0.07)1 x 0.2 speed of the pulley at full speed, taking the efficiency (r/) of
the gearing into account. For this example, r/is assumed to
= 6140Nm be 98 per cent, but in practice it must be verified for the
gearbox installed:
The horizontal force required to run the fully loaded con-
veyor at full speed against rolling friction (assuming wind Pa -- Maod/ ~7
resistance to be negligible) is = 6140 X 7.8/0.98

Fs - (load mass x g x coefficient of rolling friction) = 48.9 kW

= mg# This would be the rating of a motor able to deliver accel-

erating torque continuously. If full use is to be made of the
and, torque to run the conveyor against rolling friction is 150 per cent overload rating, the actual full load rating of the
force x radius of the pulley: motor is 48.9/1.5 - 32.6 kW"

Ms - F s r a s t a n d a r d m o t o r rated 37 k W will be satisfactory

= mg#r This rating must now be verified for the drive module
= 28.5 x 103 9.81 x 0.07 x 0.2 required to operate the motor. The reason is that the drive
must be able to deliver the current demanded by the break-
= 3.91 x 103Nm
away torque.
It is often helpful to plot the torque/speed demand as show in As current is approximately directly proportional to torque,
Figure B.21. the current demand for breakaway is in the ratio 6850/6140
of the current demand for acceleration.
Power Ratings for the Motor and Drive Note, however, that the current demand during acceleration
Since power is equal on both sides of a gearing mechanism, must be based on the 48.9 kW overload rating for accelera-
there is no necessity to refer torque and acceleration to the tion, not the selected motor rating (37 kW).
motor. The power demand at the belt pulley is the power Calculate the currents involved and, having found the
starting current demand, find rating of the drive. The starting
current is based on the motor rating of 48.9 kW and is cal-
culated from"
6 850 breakaway torque
6 140 I
accelerating torque P = v/3 x VL x IL x power factor kW
E
Z
(ff 3910 running torque .~1 where the working power factor is assumed to be the full-
ET
load, full-speed, full-voltage-rated power factor of the motor,
L
0 0.85 (from data):

total IL -- P / ( v / 3 x VL x power factor)

speed, n = 48.9 x 103/(v/3 x 400 x 0.85)
Figure B.21 Conveyor torque~speed demand =83A
348 WORKED EXAMPLESOF TYPICALMECHANICALLOADS"Conveyor

starting current = 83 6850/6140 Data

-- 92.6A
The drive itself will have a short time over current rating in
the same way as the motor has. For the Control Techniques
Unidrive, this is 150 per cent for 60 s. The drive efficiency
must be taken into account (98 per cent). The required full-
load rated current of the drive is 92.6/(1.5 0 . 9 8 ) - 63 A.
In practice, the full-load current, the short-time rating and
the efficiency must be verified. It is inadvisable to attempt to
calculate, using the formula as for a motor, a theoretical
value for the rating of the drive module. Users of VSDs are
recommended to consult the data supplied by the manu-
facturers of drives.
An actual example (the Control Techniques Unidrive) shows
that the current demand will be within the capability of
the UNI 3405 (37 kW) module, which can deliver 70 amps
continuously.
diameter of winding drum 200mm (0.2 m)
gearbox ratio, motor to drum 11 - 1
coefficient of hoisting friction 0.095
Velocity Ratio (VR)
This is a simple numerical ratio determined by the total
number of falls (ropes passing between pulleys) or alter-
natively by counting the total number of pulley wheels in
both sheaves (Figure B.23).
This example, with four falls, has a ratio of 4" 1.
Speed and Acceleration of the Hook
The speed of the lifting hook is a function of the motor speed,
the gearbox ratio, the winding drum diameter and the VR.
drum speed -- motor speed/ (gear ratio 60)min -1

INCLINED CONVEYOR hook s p e e d - drum speed

drum circumference lifting ratio
An inclined plane adds a component of force to the forces
= [1475/(11 60)] (0.27r/4)
required to start, accelerate and run a conveyor. This com-
ponent is the force required to raise the load (Figure B.22). = 0.351 m s -1
As the load to be raised is sensitive, acceleration from rest
The total force is the hypotenuse of the vector diagram
must be slow. An acceleration time of eight seconds should
(Figure B.22) of which the horizontal component is the force
be adequate. Derive the linear acceleration of the load from:
required either to start, accelerate or drive the load at con-
stant speed as already calculated, and the additional vertical
v -- u + at whereu-0
component is m g multiplied by the sine of the angle of the
a - v / t -- 0.351/8
slope, 7 (in this case, 20/150).
-- 4.39 10 -2 m s -2
The total force F is calculated from:

F - 4 [ [ ;2 + (mg. sin ,.)/)2] Lifting Force and Torque to Accelerate

from Rest to Full Speed
The linear force Fa required at the hook to raise the load
HOIST
from rest up to full lifting speed is the algebraic sum of the
forces required to:
Example: a hoist is to lift sensitive loads of 2 tonnes max-
imum. The block-and-tackle arrangement has two pulley suspend the load at rest (mg)
sheaves at the top and two at the hook. The fixed end of the accelerate the load from rest to lifting speed (ma)
rope is secured at the top sheave block. and overcome rolling friction ( m g # )
The hoist is to be operated by a standard three-phase four-
Fa -- m g + m a + m g #
hole 400V 50Hz induction motor, full load speed
1475 m i n - 1 , controlled by a VSD. Select a suitable rating -- m ( g + a + glz)
for the motor. = m[a + g(1 + #)] N

F~ ~ F~ ~ F~

Fh ~ mg VR=2:1 =~~,/VR=3:1
mgsin?.LI _.~ F

Figure B.22 Forces on an inclined plane Figure B.23 Pulley ratios


The equivalent tangential force Fda at the winding drum is
Fa multiplied by the inverse of the lifting ratio (the inverse,
since the calculation is proceeding from the output to the
input):
Fda -- Fa/4 -- m[a + g(1 + #)]/4 N
The accelerating torque at the drum is:
M d a - Fda X d r u m radius
= {M[a + g(1 + #)1/4} x d / 2
= {2 103[(4.39 x 10 -2)
+ 9.81(1 + 0.095)J/4} x 0.2/2
= 539Nm
Lifting Force and Torque to Maintain
Full Speed
The linear force Fs required at the hook to maintain the load
at full lifting speed is the algebraic sum of the forces
required to:
suspend the load at rest (mg)
overcome rolling friction (mgl~)
Fs - mg + mg#
= mg(1 + t-z)
The equivalent tangential force Fds at the winding drum is Fs
multiplied by the inverse of the lifting ratio"
Fds -- Fs /4
= mg(1 + # ) / 4 N
The full speed torque at the drum is:
Mds -- Fds drum radius
= [mg(1 + #)/4] x d / 2
= [2 103 x 9.81(1 + 0.095)/4] x 0.2/2
= 537 N m
Required Motor Power Rating
Power is the multiple of torque and speed. For the purpose of
finally calculating the required motor power it is immaterial
whether power is calculated at the winding drum or at the
motor, provided that the efficiency, r/, of the gearbox is taken
into account. For this example ~7is assumed to be 98 per cent,
but in practice it must be verified for the gearbox installed.
During acceleration the speed increases from zero to the
normal running speed, and therefore the power demand
appears to have no particular value. But in fact it does,
because the accelerating torque continues up to the point
where the motor reaches full speed, and so the accelerating
torque at full speed can be used to calculate the accelerating
power demand:
P = M~/~ 7
Motor power related to the accelerating torque:
Pa -- gda X COd/~]
Appendix B 349
where Mda is the accelerating torque at the drum (539 N ), COd
is the rotational speed of the drum in radians per second and
r/is the efficiency of the gearbox.
Note that the inverse of the efficiency is applied; greater
torque and power are required from the motor than the cal-
culated torque at the winding drum.
drum speed - [motor speed/ (gear ratio x 60)] x 7r
= [1475/(11 x 60)] x 7r
= 7.02 rad S - 1
Accelerating power is:
P a - 539 x 7.02/0.98
= 3.86 kW
This would be the rating of a motor able to deliver accel-
erating lifting torque continuously. Standard motors are
usually designed with a short time overload rating of 150 per
cent of full load rating for 30 seconds. According to the data,
accelerating time is eight seconds, comfortably within the
maximum for which a standard motor is designed. If use is to
be made of the overload rating, the actual rating of the motor
is 3.86/1.5 = 2.58 kW.
From inspection of the figures calculated earlier, it is
obvious without calculation that the motor rating for accel-
eration will be adequate for continuous lifting at full speed:
a standard motor rated 3 k W will be satisfactory
Drive Module Power Rating
In hoisting applications, drive module ratings correspond
typically to standard motor ratings, and the short time over-
load rating of a drive is typically 150 per cent for 60 s. A drive
rating of 3 kW will therefore be appropriate. Unusual appli-
cations sometimes require a drive with a higher rating than the
rating of the motor, but such circumstances are not common.
Notes:
1 In this example, where the acceleration time is relatively
long, the motor rating has been calculated taking
advantage of the short time overload ratings. If the duty
cycle is one that demands rapid repetition of acceleration
from rest, the overload factor is not an option for
either the motor or the drive due to the integration of 12
with time.
2 A well designed VSD for A.C. motors will
possess a torque feedback control feature as well as a
programmable acceleration ramp. If the torque feedback
is used to control the ramp, the motor can be made to run
at a very low speed as soon as the initial torque demand
appears. This enables the motor to collect the inevitable
slack and backlash in the winding system quickly and
then pick up the load slowly, before accelerating under
acceleration ramp control.
SCREW-FEED LOADS
Loads, such as that shown in Figure B.24 are, in principle,
the same as the conveyor example: a mass is moved
350 WORKEDEXAMPLESOF TYPICAL MECHANICAL LOADS: Screw-Feed Loads

applications, acceleration times may be especially short, and

F [iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!ii!i!ii1 there may be repetitive duty cycles.
(M Heavy machine tools can exploit VSD control of convent-
ional A.C. squirrel-cage motors. Calculation of motor power
M1 M2 .......~[[~..... is essentially the same as for conveyors. Remember to:
L
Figure B.24 Screw feed 1 Ensure that all variables are converted to SI units.
2 Determine the rotational and linear speeds from the
motor full speed and the gearing ratio, taking note that
horizontally. The force F is related to acceleration and mass the displacement of the load is the lead L of the feed
as in a conveyor. In many instances the mass concerned may screw per single revolution of the feed screw.
be quite low, and the force required to overcome friction 3 Determine the loading and acceleration, and from them
may be an insignificant part of the total but, in machine tool the forces and torques to accelerate and to run.
 APPENDIX C

Tables

C1 MECHANICAL CONVERSION TABLES 351

C2 GENERAL CONVERSION TABLES 354

C3 POWER/TORQUE/SPEED NOMOGRAM 357

Cl MECHANICAL CONVERSION TABLES

LENGTH

mm cm m inch foot yard km mile

mm 1 10 -1 10 -3 3.937 x 10 -2 3.280 x 10 -3 1.093 x 10 -3 10 - 6 6.213 x 10 - 7

cm 10 1 10 -2 3.937 x 1O- 1 3.280 x 10 -2 1.093 x 10 - 2 10 - 5 6.213 x 10 - 6
m 1000 1 O0 1 39.3701 3.28084 1.09361 10 - 3 6.213 x 10 - 4
inch 25.4 2.54 2.54 10 - 2 1 8.333 x 10 - 2 2.777 x 10 -2 2.54 x 10 -5 1.578 x 10 -5
foot 304.8 30.48 3.048 x 10 -1 12 1 3.333 x 10 -1 3.048 10 - 4 1.893 x 10 - 4
yard 914.4 91.44 9.144 x 10 -1 36 3 1 9.144 10 - 4 5.681 x 10 - 4
km 10 6 105 1000 39370.1 3280.84 1093.61 1 6.213 x 10 -1
mile 1.609 10 6 160934 1609.34 63360 5280 1760 1.609 1
352 MECHANICAL CONVERSION TABLES: Area
? ? ?
x x x ~ x x x
14t3 ~ O0 O0 ~4~
~ ~ ~ ~ I ~ ~"
,.~ ,-., ,.--, .--~ ~ ~
X X X X X X X X
X
x x x ~ x - x -
,4 0,, 0", '~1'- o o ,--~ tr'~ X ~0 X
.,..~ ,--,~ ,..,,~ ~ 0 ~"4 ~r'b q e~'b 'q
o,-~ e, i e 4 m , , . 6 , - ~6~oo6,---
x~~xx_ ~ ~ X X
xx x'"~,,.,x,,., ~x
~ ~ ~ ~. C~ ,,.o ,,.q. ~ . . .,.~ ~,~
? T
xAA~xx x N
0 X " X '~" ~" '~" oo
tt'3 ,.-..~ OO OO '4
O~ O~, t"~. ',,,O O O '4
odo~o~ ~N
o ~ . ~,,oo
.,-~ o,..~ O,..~ ~,.-~ O,~ ,q ,,.~ ,..~ ,,...~ ,,.-..~ ~"x,I
T l"~ O~ 0 0
0 0 0 ,--~ ,--~
x X
'7 T
X ~ X X
N X '~ X
. ~ ~r'~ ~'~ tl'~ '~" ',,I O . '4 .
~I- ~1- X ' I'" o,I '4
.,..~ 0
I I ~
~ X X
X X ~ ~ ~ ? ~ ???71
X X X [,..... X X X X X
% oo oo e*"~ o", oo ~O ,,~ ~ ~".,I
o'~ oq. ,.-, t'~ oo l"-.- O',, O', "~t"
X X __?
X X i.... 0,,, ,,,13 ??~ ??,, o
',,,0 e ~ "4 0'~ oo
o X X X X X X X oo
0
~ ~ X
?
X X ~ ~
X ['-.-. O',, I~ O',, '~"
',,.O ~o o ,,~'- II'---
t.~ ~::) .,,~,. ,,~ '~.
~ ~ ~ ~ . . .
o
~ t~ ~,~ . t'~ '~
? ?? T
.,..~
X X i,... X o~o
~
',,0 t'~'b ',,I x ~ x x ~ $ x
~ ~ ~ ~ 0 . .
o
t--- x x
. . oo '~t" 0o
o ,.--~ , ~ ,..-~ ~",4 ["..- -4 "4 o'3 ",::t" tth
o o o~::, . ,,, ~ . , q . o .
o
N N
__1 .&
t-.I ~,1 t-,.l
0
 Appendix C 353
I I
0 0 0 0 0 ~ 0 0
X X X ~ X X X X
,.D
0 0 0 0
X ~ ~ ~ X X X ~
~. . ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ -
IT I ? T
0 0 ~ 0 0
X X ~ ~ X ~ X X
~ ~ ~ X
I ?
o o
x~x~
o~ o,,i i.rb ~
X X X I....,
'N o,,I ~r'~ ,,_~
0 0 c",l
,,,--i ,,--i ~ X
,,,-,,,-i " ~ ~ o
,- ,~ .,--~ X 0 oo 0
IT? T ? ? ?
? ? 0 0 0 0
o o o
o
o X X X X
oo oo -4 x ~ ~ ~ x x
. ~ x oo (:~ ,~I" ,-- ~ ~ ~
~1 ~1 ',d ,,.-, N
IN
Q
?
0
o
x
X ~ ,~r'b ~,~ T i ~ ~I ?I - I O I
t~ ~
~ t'-,l 1",1 0 X X X X X X X
~ ,--~ ,---~ X ~ 7
?, IN
x ~) x x ,~i. X
o o ~ _.9. E o. oo oo o o~ t,4 e4 m
x x~ X X X
? I?1 T
x ~ xxx~xN
o ~ ~ ~
,.F'I
~) 00 o
~,~ . ,....~ 0 o
,~q it3 X tth ~t'~ ,-.~ '4
oo O oo . ~:::~ . ,-- ~'N m
>,,,
m
I-- IN
IN
~ IN
0 i_u I, LI
Z Z _~_~.~ _~ ~ ~_~_~_~_~
ILl m
354 CONVERSIONTABLES:Torque
MECHANICAL

TORQUE

N cm Nm kp cm kp m p cm oz in inlb ftlb

Ncm 1 10 . 2 1.019 x 10 -1 1.019 10 -3 101.972 1.41612 8.850 x 10 -2 7.375 x 10 - 3

Nm 100 1 10.1972 1.019 10 -1 10197.2 141.612 8.85075 7.375 x 10 -1
kpcm 9.80665 9.806 x 10 . 2 1 10 -2 1000 13.8874 8.679 x 10 -1 7.233 x 10 - 2
kpm 980.665 9.80665 100 1 105 1388.74 86.7962 7.23301
pcm 9.806 10 -3 9.806 10 -5 10 -3 10 -5 1 1.388 x 10 - 2 8.679 x 10 - 4 7.233 x 10 . 5
ozin 7.061 10 -1 7.061 10 -3 7.200 x 10 . 2 7.200 x 10 -4 72.0078 1 6.25 x 10 . 2 5.208 x 10 .3
inlb 11.2985 1.129 10 -1 1.15212 1.152 x 10 . 2 1152.12 16 1 8.333 x 10 . 2
~lb 135.582 1.35582 13.8225 1.382 x 10 -1 13825.5 192 12 1

FORCE

N kp p OZ lbf

N 1 1.019 X 10 -1 101.972 3.59694 2.248 x 10 - 1

kp 9.80665 1 1000 35.274 2.20462
p 9.806 x 10 -3 10 -3 1 3.5274 x 10 - 2 2.204 x 10 - 3
oz 2.780 x 10 -1 2.835 x 10 -2 28.3495 1 6.25 x 10 -2
lbf 4.44822 4.536 x 10 -1 453.592 16 1

POWER

k p m s -1 -1
kW PS hp kcal s

kW 1 1.35962 1.34102 101972 2.388 10 -1

PS 7.355 10 -1 1 9.8632 x 10 -1 75 1.756 x 10 -1
hp 7.457 x 10 -1 1.01387 1 76.0402 1.781 10 -1
k p m s -1 9.806 x 10 -3 1.333 x 10 -2 1.3515 x 10 -2 1 2.342 10 - 3
kcal s - 1 4.1868 5.69246 5.61459 426.935 1

C2 GENERAL CONVERSION TABLES

LENGTH AREA

SI unit - metre (m) SI u n i t - square metre (m 2)

to convert from: to: multiply by: to convert from: to" multiply by:

mile m 1609.344 square miles m 2 2.59 x 10 6

nautical mile m 1853 acre m 2 4047
km m 103 hectare (ha) m 2 104
cm m 10 - 2 k m 2 (sq. k m ) m 2 106
mm m 10 - 3 cm 2 m 2 10 - 4
yd m 0.9144 mm 2 m 2 10 - 6
ft m 0.3048 yd 2 m 2 0.8361
in m 2.54 x 10 - 2 ft 2 m 2 9.29 x 10 - 2
mil m 2.54 x 10 - 5 in 2 m 2 6.45 x 10 - 4
mil 2 m 2 6.45 x 1 0 - l O
 Appendix C 355

VOLUME VELOCITY (LINEAR)

SI unit - cubic metre (m 3) SI u n i t - metre per second ( m s - l )

to convert from: to: multiply by: to convert from: to: multiply by:

yd 3 m3 -1
0.765 m.p.h. (mile per hour) ms 0.4470
ft 3 m 3 2.83 x 10 - 2 flmin- 1 ms- 1 5.08 x 10 - 3
in 3 m3 1.64 x 10 . 4 fts -1 ms -1 0.3048
dm 3 m3 10 . 3 kmh -1 ms -1 0.2778
-1 -1
litre m3 10 . 3 m mln ms 1.67 x 10 - 2
-1
gallon (imperial) m3 4.55 x 10- 3 knot ms 0.5145
gallon (US) m3 3.79 x 10 - 3
pint (imperial) m3 5.68 x 10 - 4
pint (US) m3 4.73 x 10 - 4

VELOCITY (ANGULAR)
MASS
SI unit - radians per second ( r a d s - 1 )

to convert from: to" multiply by:

SI u n i t - kilogram (kg)
r.p.m. (revolutions per min) rad s - 1 0.1037 (27r/60)
to convert from: to: multiply by: --1
r s - 1 (revolutions per sec) rad s 6.283 (270
ton (imperial) kg 1016 o s - 1 (degrees per sec) rad s - 1 1.75 x 1 0 - 2 (27r/360)
ton (US) kg 907.2
tonne (metric) kg 103
slug kg 14.59
lb kg 0.4536 TORQUE
oz kg 2.84 x 10 - 2
g kg 10 - 3
SI unit - Newton meter (N m)

to convert from: to: multiply by:

FORCE AND WEIGHT
lbf ft Nm 1.356
lbf in Nm 0.1129
SI unit - Newton (N) ozf in Nm 7.062 x 10 - 3
kgf m Nm 9.8067
to convert from: to: multiply by:
kp m Nm 9.8067
tonf (ton wt) N 9964
lbf (lb wt) N 4.448
poundal N 0.1383
ozf (oz wt) N 0.2780 ENERGY
kp y 9.807
p N 9.81 x 10 . 2
kgf (kg wt) N 9.807 SI unit - Joule (J)
gf (g wt) N 9.81X 10 - 2
10 - 5 to convert from: to: multiply by:
dyn N
btu 1.055 103
therm (105 btu) 1.055 108
PRESSURE AND STRESS cal 4.187
ft lbf (ft lb wt) 1.356
ft poundal 0.0421
SI u n i t - Pascal (Pa)

to convert from: to: multiply by:

at (technical atmosphere) Pa 9.81 x 103 POWER

in WG Pa 248.9
mm WG Pa 10.34
in HG Pa 3385 SI u n i t - kilowatt (kW)
mm HG (torr) Pa 131.0 to convert from: to: multiply by:
-2
kpcm Pa 9.81 x 103
-2
Nm Pa 1.0 HP kW 0.7457
bar Pa 105 ps kW 0.7355
lb fft - 2 Pa 47.88 ch, CV kW 0.7355
-1
lb fin - 2 Pa 6895 Btus kW 1.055
-1
kg f m - 2 Pa 9.807 kcal s kW 4.1868
-2 -1 1.36 x 10 - 3
kg f c m Pa 9.81 x 104 ft l b f s kW
356 GENERAL
CONVERSIONTABLES: Moment of Inertia

MOMENT OF INERTIA FORCE

SI unit - kilogram metre 2 (kgm 2) SI unit - N e w t o n (N)

to convert from: to: multiply by: to convert from: to" multiply by:

k g f m 2 (GD 2) kg m 2 0.25 lb(f) N 4.4482

lbfft 2 ( W K 2) kgm 2 4.21 10 - 2 N lb(f) 0.22481
kp m s 2 kg m 2 9.807
ft l b f s 2 kgm 2 1.356
lbf in 2 kg m 2 2.926 x 10 - 4
o z f in 2 kg m 2 1.829 x 10 - 5
MOMENT OF INERTIA

SI unit - kilogram metre 2 ( k g m 2)

TEMPERATURE to convert from: to: multiply by:

lb in s 2 kg m 2 0.113
SI u n i t - Kelvin (K) ozins 2 kgm 2 7.06155 x 10 - 2
to convert from: to: factor: kg m 2 lb in s 2 8.85075
kgm 2 ozins 2 141.612
C K 1 kg cm 2 kgm 2 10 - 4
tC K t+273.15
F K 0.5555
tF K ( t - 32) x 0.5555
LINEAR ACCELERATION

FLOW SI unit - metre per second 2 (m s-2)

to convert from: to" multiply by:
SI unit - cubic metre per second ( m 3 s - 1) -2 -2
in s ms 2.54 x 10 - 2
--2 --2
to convert from: to: multiply by: fts ms 0.3048
--2 -2
ms in s 39.37
m 3 S-1 -2 -2
gallon per hour (imp) 1.26 10 - 6 ms fts 3.2808
gallon per hour (US) m 3 S-1 1.05 x 10 - 6
litre per hour m3s - 1 1.67 x 10 - 5
litre per second m3s - 1 10 - 3
cfm m 3 S-1 4.72 10 - 4
m3h -1 m 3 S-1 2.78 10 - 4
m 3min- 1 m 3 S-1 1.67 10 - 2

TORQUE

SI unit - N e w t o n metre (N m)

to convert from: to: multiply by:

lb ft Nm 1.356
lb in Nm 0.1129
oz in Nm 7.062 x 10 - 3
Nm lbft 0.7375
Nm lbft 8.857
Nm oz in 141.6
 Appendix C 357

C3 POWER/TORQUE/SPEED NOMOGRAM

Nm 2000
Ibft
- -

kW - - 10 hp - - 30 min -1
7 - - -
_ - - 9
2000 - -
m

6------8
B
-- 1000 --- 40
5---
---7
1000 --
--6 -- 50
4 - -
- . 500
----5 - - 60
- - 400 =
500 - -
-- 70
3 4 400 -- - - 300
-- 80
300 --
-- 200 90
----3 200 - - 100
-
2.,-..-

--. 100

1.5'-- - - 2
100 -- --- 150
m

-- 50
50 - - - - 40 - - 200
1--
4O - - - 30
0.9---
30--
0.8-- - - 20
--1 - - 300
0.7-- 20.---
-- 0.9
0.6--
-- 0.8
--10 - - 400
- - - 0.7
0.5'--
10--_
- - - 0.6 - - 500
0.4-- " ~ ' 5

- - - 0.5 - - 600
.-4 5252 x hp
5"- M (Ib ft) =
min -1 . i 700
0 . 3 . - - - - - 0.4 4 3
_=
800
3--
"--2 - - 900
-- 0.3 1000
2 --- . =

0 . 2 " "
9550 x kW
M(Nm) =
--1 min -1

-- 0.2 1 -_ - - - 1500
.,=

" - - 0.5
.= - - 2000
0.5 - - ' - - 0.4
0.1-.- 7124 x hp
i 0.4 0.3 M(Nm) =
min -1
0.3--
'-" 0.2
- - 3000
--0.1

power torque speed

 APPENDIX D

World Industrial Electricity Supplies (<1 kV)

Country Industrial three-phase Supply frequency (Hz) Comments

supply voltages below
1000 V (V)
Afghanistan 380/220 5O
280/220
Algeria 380/220 50
Angola 380/220 50
Anguilla 400/230 50
Antigua and Barbuda 400/230 60
208/120
Argentina 380/220 50
Armenia 380/220 50
Australia 415/230 50
Austria 380/220 50
Azerbaijan 380/220 50
Bahamas 240/120 60
Bahrain 400/230 50,60
Bangladesh 400/230 50
Barbados 400/230 50 three-phase delta - earthed mid point of
230/115 phase; one-phase, three-wire- earthed
230/115 mid point; three-phase star - earthed star point
Belarus 380/220 50
Belgium 380/220 50
Belize 480/277 60
Benin 380/220 50
Bermuda 208/120 60 three-phase star - earthed star point
240/120 one-phase, three-wire - earthed mid point
Bolivia 400/230 50
Bosnia and Herzegovinia 380/220 50
Botswana 380/220 50
Brazil 380/220 60
Brunei 415/240 50
Bulgaria 380/220 50
Burkina Faso 380/220 50
Burundi 380/220 50
Cambodia 400/230 50
Cameroon 380/220 50
Canada 600/347 60
416/240
Canary Islands 380/220 50
Cape Verde Islands 380/220 50
Cayman Islands 480/240 60 three-phase delta - earthed mid point of phase
 Appendix D 359

Table (continued)
Country Industrial three-phase Supply frequency (Hz) Comments
supply voltages below
1000 V (V)

Central African Republic 380/220 50

Chad 380/220 50
Chile 380/220 50
China 380/220 50
Colombia 240/120 60 three-phase delta - earthed mid point of phase
Comoros 380/220 50
Congo 380/220 50
Costa Rica 240/120 60 three-phase delta - earthed mid point of phase
Croatia 400/230 50
Cuba 380/220 50
Cyprus 415/240 50
Czech Republic 380/220 50

Denmark 400/230 50
Djibouti 400/230 50
Dominica 400/230 50
Dominican Republic 230/110 60 three-phase delta - earthed mid point of phase

Ecuador 440/220 60 one-phase, three-wire - earthed mid point

Egypt 380/220 50
E1 Salvador 440/220 60 three-phase d e l t a - earthed mid point of phase
240/120 one-phase, three-wire - earthed mid point
Estonia 380/220 50
Ethiopia 380/231 50

Falkland Islands 415/230 50

Faroe Islands 415/240 50
Fiji 415/240 50
Finland 690/400 50
France 400/230 50
690/400
400/230
French Guiana 380/220 50
French Polynesia 220/127 60

Gabon 380/220 50
Gambia 380 50
Georgia 380/220 50
Germany 400/230 50
690/400
Ghana 440/250 50
Gibraltar 415/240 50
Greece 380/220 50
Greenland 380/220 50
Grenada 400/230 50
Guadeloupe 380/220 50,60
Guam 480/227 60
480 three-phase - nonearthed neutral
240/120 three-phase open delta - earthed mid point of phase
208/120
Guatemala 220/110 60
Guinea-Bissau 380/220 50
Guyana 380/220 50,60

Haiti 380/220 60
230/115 one-phase, three-wire - earthed mid point
Honduras 480/277 60
240/120
Hong Kong 380/220 5O
Hungary 400/230 5O

Iceland 400/230 50
India 440/250 50
360 WORLDINDUSTRIALELECTRICITYSUPPLIES

Table (continued)
Country Industrial three-phase Supply frequency (Hz) Comments
supply voltages below
1000 V (V)

India 400/230
Indonesia 380/220 50
Iran 380/220 50
400/231
Iraq 380/220 50
Ireland, Northern 400/230 50
380/220
Ireland, Republic of 400/230 50
Israel 400/230 50
Italy 400/230 50
Ivory Coast 380/220 50

Jamaica 220/110 50 three-phase delta - earthed mid point of phase

Japan 380/220 50,60 one-phase, three-wire - earthed mid point
200V+20%
200/100
Jordan 400/230 50

Kazakhstan 380/220 50
Kenya 415/240 50
Korea, North 380/220 60
Korea, South 380/220 60
Kuwait 415/240 50
Kyrgyzstan 380/220 50

Laos 380/220 50
Latvia 380/220 50
Lebanon 380/220 50
Lesotho 380/220 50
Liberia 416/240 60 three-phase, three-wire
240/120 one-phase, three-wire - earthed mid point
208/120 three-phase - nonearthed neutral
Libya 400/230 50
220/127
Liechtenstein 380/220 50
Luxembourg 380/220 50
220/127
208/120

Macedonia 380/220 50
Madagascar 380/220 50
Malawi 400/230 50
Malaysia 415/240 50
Mali 380/220 50
220/127
Malta 415/240 50
Martinique 220/127 50
Mauritania 380/220 50
Mauritius 430/230 50
Mexico 480/227 60
220/127 three-phase three-wire
Moldova 380/220 50
Monaco 400/230 50
Mongolia 380/220 50
Montserrat 400/230 60
Morocco 380/220 50
Mozambique 380/220 50
Myanmar 400/230 50

Namibia 390/220 50
Nauru 415/240 50
Nepal 440/230 50
Netherlands 400/230 50
 Appendix D 361

Table (continued)
Country Industrial three-phase Supply frequency (Hz) Comments
supply voltages below
1000 V (V)

Netherlands Antilles 380/220 50, 60

220/127 three-phase delta - earthed mid point of phase
208/120
New Caledonia 380/220 50
New Guinea 415/240 5O
New Zealand 400/230 5O
Nicaragua 480/240 60
240/120 three-phase delta - earthed mid point of phase
Niger 380/220 50
Nigeria 400/230 50
380/220
Norway 400/230 50
690
Oman 415/240 50
Pakistan 400/230 50
Panama 480/277 60
208/120
Papua New Guinea 415/240 50
Paraguay 380/220 50
Peru 380/220 60
Philippines 440/240 60 three-phase, three-wire
Poland 400/230 50
690/400
Portugal 380/220 50
Puerto Rico 415/240 60
Qatar 415/240 50
Reunion 415/240 50
Romania 400/230 50
690/400
440/220
Russian Federation 380/220 50
Rwanda 380/220 50
St Helena 415/240 50
St Kitts & Nevis 400/230 60
St Lucia 415/240 50
St Vincent and the Grenedines 400/230 50
San Marino 380/220 50
Saudi Arabia 380/220 50,60
Senegal 380/220 50
220/127 one-phase - earthed neutral
Seychelles 400/230 50
Sierra Leone 400/230 50
Singapore 400/230 50
Slovak Republic 400/230 50
Slovenia, Republic of 380/220 50
Solomon Islands 415/240 50
Somalia 440/220 50 three-phase delta - earthed mid point of phase
220/110 three-phase delta - earthed mid point of phase
South Africa 525 50
400/230
Spain 4O0/230 50
Sri Lanka 400/230 50
Sudan 415/240 50
Suriname 220/127 50,60
220/110 three-phase delta - earthed mid point of phase
Swaziland 400/230 50
Sweden 400/230 50
Switzerland 400/230 50
Syrian Arab Republic 380/220 50
Taiwan 400/300 60
362 WORLD INDUSTRIALELECTRICITYSUPPLIES

Table (continued)
Country Industrial three-phase Supply frequency (Hz) Comments
supply voltages below
1000 V (V)

Tajakistan 380/220 50
Tanzania 400/230 50
Thailand 380/220 50
Togo 380/220 50
Tonga 415/240 50
Trinidad and Tobago 400/230 60
Tunisia 380/220 50
Turkey 380/220 50
Turkmenistan 380/220 50
Uganda 415/240 50
Ukraine 380/220 50
United Arab Emirates 415/240 50
380/220
United Kingdom 400/230 50
United States of America 480/277 60
575 three-phase delta
575 three-phase delta- one phase earthed
460/265 three-phase delta
240/120
208/120
Uruguay 380/220 50
Uzbekistan 380/220 50
Vatuatu 500 50
380
Venezuela 208/120 60
240/120 three-phase delta - one phase earthed
Vietnam 380/220 50
Virgin Isles 208/120 60
Yemen, Republic of 440/250 50
Yugoslavia, Federal Republic of 380/220 50
Zaire 380/220 50
Zambia 400/230 50
Zimbabwe 390/225 50
 APPENDIX E
Bibliography and Further Reading
The documents listed here have been selected to provide the
reader with useful sources of information and further read-
ing relating to electrical variable speed drives and their
application.
Converter engineering by G. Moltgen. John Wiley, 1984,
ISBN 0 471 90561 5. A reference for fundamental power
converter operations and relationships.
Electric motor handbook by B.J. Chalmers. Butterworths,
1988, ISBN 0-408-00707-9. A practical reference book
covering many aspects of characteristics, specification,
design, selection, commissioning and maintenance.
Sensorless vector and direct torque control by P. Vas.
Oxford University Press, 1998, ISBN 0198564651. General
background to the theory of vector control of motors.
Improvement of induction machine stability by modulation
techniques by M.Cade. lEE Proceedings Part B, November
1994, pp. 347-352. Detailed description of space vector
modulation.
P WM rectifier using indirect voltage sensing by P. Barrass
and M. Cade. lEE Proceedings Part B, September 1999, pp.
539-544. Detailed description of PWM rectifier control.
Electric fuses by A. Wright and P.G. Newbury. 2nd Edition.
IEE Power Series 20, ISBN 0 85296 825 6. A clear guide to
fuse design, performance, application and good practice.
Electrical engineer's reference book by G.R. Jones,
M.A. Laughton and M.G. Say. Butterworth-Heinemann,
1993, ISBN 7506 1202 9. Everything in one book.
 INDEX

A A.C. three-phase 338

absolute encoder 98 A.C. to A.C. converter 81-5
absolute measuring system 101 direct 85-7
A.C. commutator motor 22 with intermediate D.C. link 81-5
repulsion 22 A.C. to D.C. converter 72-9
Schrage 22 single-phase supply 73-5
stator-fed 22 three-phase supply 74-6
three-phase 22 accuracy, feedback device 90
A.C. drive 151-69 accuracy grade 101
braking 231-2 acoustic noise 133
control terminal layout 151 acoustics control 323
design matrix 229 active input stage 211
EMC issues 152-3 air conditioning 313
harmonics 201-3, 205 air filter 27
overtemperature protection 235 airflow 345
power terminal layout 151 air-handling unit 313-14
universal 157-63 Albertcanal, Belgium 319
A.C. drive motor cabling 236-42 alternator 264
A.C. induction motor 8-15 altitude 144
construction 14 ambient conditions 33-4
electrical characteristics 9-10 altitude 34
frequency control 272-3 standards 33-4
slip-ring 13 supply voltage unbalance 34
torque characteristics 10-11 supply voltage variation 34
voltage-frequency characteristics 11-13 temperature 33-4
A.C. inverter drive 220-1 ambient temperature 33-4, 144, 244-6, 249
A.C. motor drive control 105-14 amplitude evaluation 101
closed-loop induction motor drive 110-11 analogue D.C. drive 149
direct torque control 113-14 analogue input 143-4
four-quadrant operation 112-13 analogue master-slave control 266
open-loop A.C. drive 106-9 analogue output 144-5
permanent-magnet servodrive 109-10 angle encoder 101
A.C. rotary pickoff 95-6 angular motion 343-4
narrow-angle 95-6 angular velocity 343-4
wide-angle 95-6 conversion table 355
A.C. single phase 338 animal feed 312-13
A.C. supply-line inductance 207-10 Anshin Steel Ltd. 314-15
A.C. synchronous motor 15-17 ANSI standards 335
construction 17 anticondensation heater 249
cylindrical-rotor 16 Antwerp harbour 320
salient-pole 16 applications module 172-3
V curves 17 APS Engineering 320-1
wound-rotor 16 ARCNET 194
366 Index

area conversion tables 352, 354 construction 20-1

armature 6-7 D.C. 18
armature reaction 5-6 degree of protection 25
armourer 263 operation 18-20
ASCII 196 building materials 304-7
ASCR 56 bulk four-quadrant controlled rectifier 251-3
ASIC xvi bulk four-quadrant PWM converter 251,253-4
asymmetric thyristor 56 bulk uncontrolled rectifier 250-1
auto-transformer starting 170-1 bump/shock 144
automated warehousing 261 buncher 263
autotune 148, 160
C
B cable capacitance 240
back e.m.f, constant 19 cable-charging current 236-7
Baker clamp 59 cable cross-section 242
ballbar test 167-8 cable drum engine 316-18
Banbury mixer 260 cable interruptions 219-20
bar mill 296 cable-laying ship 317
Baricon Systems Ltd. 319 cable length 236-40
base units 337 cable resistance 236-7
battery charging 265 cable screening 219, 223-5
bearing currents 46-8 connections 223-5
magnetic asymmetry 46 earthing 224
supply asymmetry 46 electric-field screening 223
bearings 247 magnetic-field screening 223
bi-level drive 139 cabling 236-42
binary code 98 CAD/CAM link 187
bipolar junction transistor 57-61, 70-2 calender 260, 304
applications 71 CAM functions 182-6
current ratings 58 CAN 194-5, 198
packages 71 CANopen 198
powerloss 60-1 capstan 263
properties 70 carding machine 264
safe operating areas 60-1 carrier frequency method 101
short-circuit performance 61 cast tube spinner 260
switching characteristic 59-61 caterpillar 263
symbols 71-2 CE mark 214-15
voltage ratings 58 CENELEC (EC) standards 37-9, 332-4
bipolar switching 137-9 s e e a l s o EN50081-2 etc.
blower 262 centre winder 275-8
board making 303-4 constant torque 276
Bode plot 105, 119-20, 162 drive selection 278
body-drain diode 62-3 field weakening 276
bookform shape xvi-xvii flux compensation 278
bottom dead centre 123 inertia compensation 277
brake motor 37 loss compensation 278
brake resistor 231-2 power requirements 276
braking 123,228, 230-2 speed-controlled 275-6
dynamic 228 taper tension 276
regenerative 228 torque-controlled 275-6
resistive 228 centrifugal compressor 288
brick-handling line 304-5 centrifugal fan 288
Bridon International 297 centrifugal pump 262, 285-8
brinelling 246-7 Cheetah D.C. drive controller 149-50
British standards 334 chemical industry 261, 315-16
brush current density 248 choke 240-3, 250
brush fire 4 chopper 79
brush gear 7, 246-8 s e e a l s o D.C. to D.C. converter
maintenance 247-8 chopper drive 139
brushless resolver 95 closed-loop applications
brushless servomotor 17-21 vibrations 257
A.C. 18 closed-loop control 104-5
 Index 367

closed-loop induction motor drive 110-111,236-7 converters

flux 111 A.C. to A.C. 81-7
closed-loop operation, A.C. drives 159-61 A.C. to D.C. 72-9
closed-loop PM servomotor 237 D.C. to D.C. 79-81
closed-loop vector drive 110 conveyor 261,264, 304-5,346-8
CNC controllers 187 inclined 348
G codes 187 torque/speed demand 347
cogging effect 7 cooling 26-7
Color Steels 295-6 air filters 27
combilift 304 ducted ventilation 26-7
Commander SE 153-7 forced ventilation 26-7
applications 157 counter electromotive force 230
drive options 155 crane 261,289-91
performance 156-7 retrofitting 289
commissioning 148 slewing control 289-90
common D.C. bus system 250-4 crimping 292
EMC filter 254 critical speed 255-6
mains supply converter configurations 250-4 CSMA/CD 194
communications networks 191-5 CTNet 198, 279, 284, 327
communications port 189-90 current ripple 40, 76
commutation 4-6 current source inverter 83-5
commutator 248 current vector diagram 338-9
commutator stone 248 cutting 292-3,295
compensation 5-6 cyclic links 284-5
compliance angle 117 cycloconverter 86
compressor 288
computing resolver 94-5 D
feedback 95 dancer 275-6, 297
nonfeedback 95 Darlington transistor 57-9
concrete pipe manufacture 261 data encoding 192-4
condensation 249 data model 194
D.C. drive 145-50
conductivity modulation 63
braking 228, 230-1
consequence pole switching 14
commissioning 148
constant power characteristic 78-9
current response 148-9
control structure, digital drive 142
design matrix 229
control synchro 93
fuses 233-4
control system 103-5
harmonics 204-5
A.C. motor drive 105-14
overtemperature protection 235
closed-loop 104-5
set up 148
D.C. motor drive 114-16
technical specifications and ratings 148
ideal 103
torque ripple 257
open-loop 103-4
D.C. inductance 207, 209-210
speed 116-20
D.C. motor 1-8
Control Techniques construction 6-8
Commander SE 153-7 operating principles 4-6
CTNet 198 permanent magnet 3-4, 7-8
Drivesoft 173 torque/speed characteristic 2-4
M'Ax drives 166-8 wound-field 2-3
MC204 177 D.C. motor drive control 114-16
Mentor D.C. drives 145, 148-9, 234 flux controller 114-15
SYPT 172-3,284-5 torque controller 115-16
Unidrive 157-63, 172, 211,233, 236-42 D.C. motor drive systems 76-9
Unidrive VTC 153-4 dual-converter 78
Control Techniques' Orchestra 323-5 single-converter 77-8
controlled bridge 73-7 D.C. thyristor drive 264
conversion tables D.C. to D.C. converters 79-81
general 354-6 step-down 79-80
mechanical 351-4 step-up 81
converter-fed induction motor drive 84 degree of protection 24-6, 144
converter-fed synchronous machine 83-4 US 26
converter inverter brake module 69 Demaglass 315-16
368 Index

Denaeyer Papier 303 filters 249

design matrix 229 fuses 249
detent torque 135 siting 248-9
DeviceNet 198 ventilation 249
digital drive 142 electronic gearbox 180
digital input 142-3 electronic soft start 171
digital master-slave control 267 elevator 291
digital output 143 EMC 213-14
digital slaving 266-8 regulations 214-15
nonrigid lock 267 standards 215
rigid lock 267 EMC behaviour of variable-speed drives 215-17
DIN rail mounting xvii-xviii high-frequency emission 216-17, 219
diode 51-2 immunity 215-16
fast-recovery 52 low-frequency emission 216
reverse recovery time 52 EMC data and wiring recommendations 146-7
diode rectifier 51-2 EMC emissions 145
direct-axis sub-transient reactance 206 EMC filter 254
direct-on-line starting 169-70 EMC immunity 144-5,215-16
direct positional lock 180 EMC installation rules 217-20
direct torque control 113-14 earthing 218
direction discriminator 101 loop areas 217
direction of rotation 30-3 precautions 219
A.C. machines 30, 33 segregation 217
D.C. machines 31-3 EMC risk assessment 217
distance-coded reference marks 101 emission modes 220-1
distributed architecture 197 EN50081-2 215
Dowty Aerospace 317 EN50082-2 215
drive control 190-1 EN61000-3-2 200
A.C. motor 105-14 EN61000-3-12 201
D.C. motor 114-16 EN61800-2 257
drive converter effects EN61800-3 215
on A.C. machines 40-8 enamel painting 315-16
on D.C. machines 40 enclosures 22-4, 244-5
drive set up 190 air flow 245
Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency 313 IEC 60034-7 22-3
Drivesoft 173 NEMA 22, 24
dual-converter drive 78 size 244-5
duty cycles 27-30 thermal design 244-5
continuous 28-30 encoder 97-101,267
intermittent 28-9 absolute 98
short-time 28 incremental 97-8
duty rating 28-30 sin/cos 99
dyeing 307-8 energy conversion tables 353,355
dynamic braking resistor 230, 232 energy saving 284-5,288
dynamic scanning 101 engineering industry 263
error detection 197
E Ethernet 193-4
earth leakage current 222 explosion protection 37-9
earthing 218, 224 extruder
eccentricity error 101 chemicals 261
efficiency 344 foods 264
EIA/TIA standards 335 plastics 260, 308-12
electric motor 264 wires and cables 263
electrical formulae 338-41
electrical quantities 338 F
Electricity Association (UK) standards 335 fabric-dyeing machine 307-8
electrolytic processes 265 fan 262
electromagnetic compatibility: s e e EMC axial flow 262
electromagnetic interference 216 centrifugal 262, 288
electromotive force 339-40 characteristic 13
electronic equipment 248-9 Faraday, Michael xiii-xiv
condensation 249 fast thyristor 56
 Index 369

feedback device selection 99-100 remedial techniques 206-11

ferrite ring suppressor 219, 222 hazardous locations 37-9, 48-9
field control 78-9 CENELEC standards 37-9
field weakening 276 North American standards 39, 49
fieldbus system 191,196-8 testing authorities 39
film stunts 322-3 heating 265
filter 249 high-frequency inverter 272-5
flammability rating 144 applications 274-5
flashover 4 high-frequency motor 272-4
flow conversion table 356 high-performance closed-loop applications 255,257
fluid flow 345 control-loop instability 257
laminar 345 dynamic performance 257
turbulent 345 high-speed machining 272
flux controller 114-15 high-speed stepping 139
flying shear 180-2 historical perspective xiii-xvii
folder 262 hoist 261,289, 291,348-9
following error 167 velocity ratio 348
food industry 264 human-machine interface 189
force conversion tables 354-6 humidity 144, 249
forced-commutated induction motor drive 84-5 hybrid motor 135-6
form factor 341 hydraulics 263
formulae
electrical 338-41 I
mechanical 342-5 Ibstock Building Products Ltd. 304
four-pole motor 10 IEC (International) standards 330-2
four-quadrant D.C. to D.C. converter 80 IEC 146 244
four-quadrant drive power circuit 112-13 IEC 60034-1 28, 34
framing 194 IEC 60034-5 24-5
frequency control 272-3 IEC 60034-6 27
friction 344 IEC 60034-7 22-3
fuel control actuator 140 IEC 60034-8 30-2
fuses 233-4, 249 IEC 60034-17 45, 47
IEC 61000-3-2 200
G IEC 61000-3-12 201
gate turn-off thyristor 56-8 IEC61131-3 284
anode-short 57 IEC 61800-2 257
applications 71 IEC 61800-3 205, 215
gate waveforms 57-8 planned 332
packages 71 IEEE (USA) standards 335
properties 70 ignition temperature 38
snubber 57-8 immunity 215-16
symbols 71-2 impedance 338-9
geared motor 37 incremental encoder 97-8
gearing 344 incremental measuring system 101
gearing ratio 346 indexing system 182
generating 123 induction motor 161,338
generator 206, 243 induction regulator motor 22
geometrical units 337 inertia compensation 301-2
Gray code 98, 101,109 inertia conversion table 353
Gray excess code 98 input filter 219, 221-2
earth leakage current 222
H magnetic saturation 222
hammermill 312 input inverter control system 112
hard paralleling 251-3 installation 246-7
harmonic filter 211 insulated-gate bipolar transistor xvi-xvii, 63-5
harmonic generation applications 71
A.C. drives 201-3 current rating 63
D.C. drives 204 gate drive 63-4
harmonics 199-200 nonpunch through 63
calculation 204-6 operation 63-4
effects 200, 203-4 packages 71
regulations 200-1 properties 70
370 Index

insulated-gate bipolar transistor (contd.) lubrication 247

punch through 63 Lynx D.C. drive controller 149-50
safe operating area 64
short-circuit performance 64 M
switching 63-4 M'Ax drive 166-8
symbols 71-2 McDermott Subsea Contractors Ltd. 318
voltage rating 63 machine insulation 40-6
insulation tests 246 current-source inverter effects 40-1
integral coupling 101 voltage-source inverter effects 41
integrated A.C. motor xvii-xviii machine tools 260, 350
integrated-gate commutated thyristor 65-6 magnetic materials 8, 21
applications 71 magnetic saturation 222
current rating 65 maintenance 247-8
gate drive 65-6 Manchester encoding 193
packages 71 marine applications 316-20
properties 70 cable laying 316-18
switching 65-6 lock gate control 320
symbols 71-2 pipe laying 318-19
voltage rating 65 sluice control 319
integrated power module 69 mass conversion tables 353,355
Interbus S 198 master-slave relationship 182-4, 195
interferential measuring system 101 materials handling 261
interpolation 99, 101 matrix converter 86-7
cosine 186 maximum motor speed 256
linear 183-4 MC204 motion controller 177
square 185 mean value 340
inversion failure 116 measuring system 101
iron loss 40 mechanical formulae 342-5
ISO9000 312 mechanical units 337
media access control 194-5
J Megger test 246
jerk 177-8, 292 Mentor D.C. drives 145, 148, 243,264, 267, 281
applications 149
K fuses 234
KBA-Planeta 321 MentorSoft 145, 148
Kramer xiv-xv metal forming 292-6
Kramer drive 85 metal oxide varistor 244
metals industry 260, 292
L Millennium Dome 326-7
L/R drive 138-9 Miller effect 244
laws of motion 342 mixer 261,264
length conversion tables 351,354 Modbus 196
Leroy Somer D.C. motor 148, 237, 256 modular angle encoder 101
lifts 261,291-4 Moir6 principle 97, 101
speed profile 292-3 moment of inertia 343-4
line shaft 266 moment of inertia conversion table 356
linear acceleration conversion table 356 MOS-controlled thyristor 66
linear motion 342-4 MOS turn-off thyristor 66-7
linear velocity conversion table 355 MOSFET 61-3
liquid flow 345 applications 71
load characteristics 259-64 current rating 62
load sharing 268-72, 298-9 packages 71
A.C. cage motors connected in parallel 271 parasitic diode 62-3
current-slaved converters 270 properties 70
current-slaved inverters 271-2 safe operating area 62
D.C motors connected in parallel 269 switching performance 62
D.C motors connected in series 270 symbols 71-2
frequency-slaved inverters 271 voltage rating 62
loads 338, 349-50 motion control 177-9
lock gate control 320 motion controller 176-7
loom 264 programmability 187
losses 344 motion functions 180-6
 Index 371

motion profile 177-9 output filter 241

motor 1-22, 37, 122-36, 161,166-9, 237-9, 264, 272-4, 338 overcurrent protection 236-7
ambient conditions 33-4 overspeed 48
cooling 26-7 overtemperature protection 234-5
degree of protection 24-6 A.C. drive 235
direction of rotation 30-3 converter-fed motor 235
duty rating 28-30 D.C. drive 235
hazardous locations 37-9 overvolting 272
installation 246-7 Oxford Brookes University 313-14
maintenance 247
mountings 22-4 P
noise 35-6 packages 67-71
special applications 37 large wire-bonded 67-9
storage 246 pressure contact 67-8
terminal markings 30-2 small wire-bonded 69-70
vibration 34-6 wafer scale 67-8
motor cooling 26-7 packaging xv-xvii, 67-71,183
motor insulation 40-6 packaging industry 263
interturn 45 paint spraying 315-16
standards 45-6 paper manufacture 262, 297-304
motor mountings 22-4 board machine 303-4
motor protection 24-6 coating machine 302-3
MSV Norlift 318 slitting machine 303
MultiAx 166 parasitic diode 62-3
multiaxis positioning 183 perforator 260
multilevel converter 83 permanent-magnet motor 3-4, 6, 135
multiple drive installations 243-4 design 7-8
multipole resolver 95 logic modes 136
multiturn rotary encoder 101 permanent magnet servodrive 109-10
phase-angle controller 205-6
N phase control thyristor 56
NEMA phase evaluation 102
ambient conditions 33-4 phase grating scale 102
degree of protection 24 phase-locked loop 112-13
direction of rotation 32-3 phase shifting 95
hazardous locations 49 PI controller 104, 108
insulation 46-7 PID algorithm 279, 281,296, 304, 309
standard enclosures 22,24 pipe-laying ship 318-19
terminal markings 32 pipe spinner 261
network cables 192 plastic mouldings xvi
network topology 193 plastics extrusion 260, 308-12
Newton, Sir Isaac 342 energy considerations 310-12
noise 35-6 screw design 309-10
notching 244 point of common coupling 205-6
NRZ encoding 192-3 pole amplitude modulated speed change 14
NRZI encoding 193 position controller 175-6
position following 266-8
O position lock 180-2
O. Bouman B.V. 312 direct 180
open-loop A.C. drive 106-9 ramped nonrigid 180-1
current limit 108 ramped rigid 180
reference frame 107-8 positioning system 182-3
open-loop control 103-4, 106 power circuit topologies for SR motors 128-30
open-loop induction motor 237-9 power conversion tables 354-5
open-loop inverter 153-7 power factor 72, 169
Open Systems Interconnection 191-2 power integration module 69
OSI model 191-5 power semiconductor symbols 71-2
application layer 195 power supply system 205-6, 243-4
data-link layer 194-5 fault level 243
device profile 195 frequency variations 243
physical layer 192-5 line voltage 243
output choke 240-2 supply impedance 243-4
372 Index
power/torque/speed nomogram 357
power transfer 340
power vector diagram 339
pressure contact package 67-8
pressure conversion table 355
printing 262, 320-2
offiine finishing 320-1
real-time registration 320-1
web tensioning control 320-1
printing press 262
KBA RAPIDA range 321-2
offset 321-2
process data objects 198
process line topology 280
producer-consumer model 194-5
Profibus DP 197
programming tools 187, 284-5
protection
drive components 233-4
drive-motor cabling 233
mains-drive 233
overtemperature 234-5
pulleys 348
Puma D.C. drive controller 149-50
pumps 262
centrifugal 262, 285-8
PWM A.C. drive 232
PWM converter 251,253-4
PWM inverter drive 41, 43-4, 83
Q programming tool 284-5
4Q2 D.C. drive 149-50
quilting machine 308
R tension trim 281-3
radian 102
ramped nonrigid lock 180-1
ramped rigid lock 180-2
rating 259-64
rectifier 51-2, 70-2, 250-3
Redland Roofing Systems 305
reeling 299
reference mark 102
reference pulse 102
regenerative braking 228, 230
regenerative system 162-5
relative-inch function 268
reluctance motor 21,122
resistive braking 228, 230
resistor overload factor 231-2
resolution 102
feedback drive 89-90
resolver 93-7, 99-102
brushless 95
computing 94-5
multipole 95
resolver-to-digital conversion 96-7
resonance 255-7
reversal error 102
rewind 300
rock concert, Genesis 325-6
rocker ring 248
roll feed line 295
rolling mill 260, 314-15
roofing tile manufacture 305-7
root mean square value 340-1
Rootes blower 262
rotary knife 180-2
rotational motion 343
rotor copper loss 40
rotor-magnetising-current space vector 111
RS-232 data transmission system 192-3
RS-485 192-3
RTU 196
rubber 260
S
safe operating area 60-2, 64
forward-biased 60, 64
reverse-biased 61, 64
safety 246
SCADA system 327
scanning frequency 102
ScanRope A/S 290-1
Scherbius drive 86-7
Schrage motor 22
Sclavos S.A. 307-8
screened motor cables 219, 221-5
screw-feed load 349-50
screw tapping 180
sectional drive system 278-84, 297-8
fail-safe system 283-4
ratio 281-3
slack 281-2
slew rate control 282
semicircular wave 340-1
Senior Precision 292, 294
serial communications interface 144
service data objects 198
servo operation, A.C. drive 160-2
servodrive, high performance 163-9
servomotor 161,237
sheet line reeler 260
SI units 336-7
base 337
derived 337
silicon carbide 67
silicon-controlled rectifier 52, 70-2
applications 71
packages 71
properties 70
symbols 71-2
sin/cos encoder 99, 166
sine wave 340-1
single-axis positioning 182
single-converter drive 77-8
single-phase full-wave uncontrolled bridge 73
single-phase fully controlled bridge 73-5
single-phase half-controlled bridge 73-5
single-phase half-wave uncontrolled bridge 73
single-phase sine wave input converter 73-4
single-pulse control mode 125
 Index 373

single-quadrant D.C. to D.C. converter 79-80 stepping modes 136-7

single-switch-per-phase circuit 128-30 stepping motor
sinusoidal filter 241 hybrid 135-6
six-pulse converter 204-5 inertia 139
slip 10-11, 15 performance 139-40
slip ring 248 permanent-magnet 134-5
slip-ring induction motor 13, 17 resonance 139-40
slitter 260, 301,303 variable-reluctance 135
SLM Technology TM 166-9 stirrer 261
sluice control 320 storage 246
snubber network 244 temperature 144
soft start 85-6, 171 time 144
software commissioning tools 173-4 strander 263
source-destination model 194-5 stress conversion table 355
space-rated stepper 140 strip mill 260
space-vector modulator 106-7, 114 subsea construction 318
specific heat supply frequency 358-62
HDPE 311 supply-line inductance 207-10
nylon 311 supply system 205-6, 243-4
PVC 311 supply voltages 358-62
speed accuracy 157 switched-reluctance motor 122-34
speed controller 116-20 advantages 131-2
delays 119 control 124-7
ideal 116-18 disadvantages 132-3
integral gain 118 excitation frequency 128
proportional gain 118-19 losses 127-8
speed following 266-8 operation as a brake 123-4
speed loop motor xvii, xix, 166-9 operation as a motor 123-4
speed range 157 polyphase 127
speed reference 144 power electronics 128-30
speed response 157 synchro 92-4
spraying machine 315-16 control 93
square wave 340-1 resolver 93-7
square-wave voltage-fed inverter 81-2 torque 93-4
squirrel-cage induction motor 8, 10-11, 13-15 synchronous speed 10, 15
stage scenery 322-7 SYPT programming tool 172-3,284-5
standards 329-35 systematic error 102
star-delta starting 169-70
starting 169-71 T
auto-transformer 170-1 tacho: s e e tachogenerator
direct-on-line 169-70 tachogenerator 90-2, 99
soft 171 A.C. 92
star-delta 169-70 compensated 91
starting torque 156 construction 92
starts/hour 144 D.C. 90-2
static Kramer drive 85 linearity 91
static scanning 102 operating speed 91
static Scherbius drive 86-7 output voltage ripple 90-1
stator copper loss 40 stability 91
stator-fed motor 22 stable 91
stator flux 108, 113 temperature effects 91
steel hose 294 ultrastable 91
steel industry 314-15 uncompensated 91
steel mill 314-15 tachometer: s e e tachogenerator
steel wire rope manufacture 291 take-off conveyor 180-1
step-down D.C.-D.C. converter 79-80 TEC Multineedle 308
step response 104-5, 117-18 temperature control 265-6
step-up D.C.-D.C. converter 81 temperature conversion table 356
stepper/encoder 140 terminal markings 32
stepper-motor drive 134-40 A.C. machines 30-1
circuits 136-7 D.C. machines 30-1
torque ripple 257 test rigs 263-4
374 Index

testing authorities applications module 172

EEC 39 cabling 236-42
North American 39 closed-loop operation 159-61
Textile Enterprise Corporation 308 fuses 233
textiles 264, 307-8 large option modules 158
theatre 323 macros 159
thermal design of enclosures 244-5 open-loop operation 159
thermal overload 234 regeneration mode 162-5
thermostat 265 servo operation 160-2
three-phase drive 201-3,207 small option modules 158
three-phase full-wave uncontrolled bridge 74 Unidrive VTC 153-4
three-phase fully controlled bridge 74-5, 77 unipolar switching 137
three-phase half-controlled bridge 76-7 Unisoft 158, 190
three-phase induction motor 9-10, 338 United Flexible 292, 295
three-phase supply voltages 358-62 universal A.C. drive xvii-xviii, 157-63
thyristor 52-7 Unusual Rigging 322-4
asymmetric 56 unwind brake generator 301-2
current ratings 55
fast 56 V
gate turn-off 56-7, 70-1 variable frequency inverter 81
gating requirements 54 variable-reluctance motor 135
high-frequency current operation 56 logic modes 136
IGCT 65-6, 70-1 vector drive xvi-xvii
MOS-controlled 66 vee belt 247
MOS turn-off 66-7 velocity conversion tables 355
phase control 56 angular 355
power losses 54-5 linear 355
time-division multiplexing 195 ventilation 26-7, 245,249
time-related units 337 Venus dyeing machine 307-8
tissue manufacture 262 vibration 34-6, 144, 255-7
token ring 194-5 reduction 257
top dead centre 122 subsynchronous 255-6
torque 343 super-synchronous 255-6
torque constant 18-19 synchronous 255-6
torque controller 115-16 viscosity 345
torque conversion tables 354-6 voltage boost 12-13
torque motor 37 voltage forcing 139
torque ripple 127, 133,255-7 voltage ripple 72, 76
torque synchro 93-4 voltage source inverter 81-3
torsional dynamics 255,257 voltage unbalance 34
torsional stiffness 102 volts per Hertz 272-4
total harmonic distortion 200 volume conversion tables 352, 355
traction motor field control 264-5
transfer impedance 222 W
transient leakage inductance 113 Ward Leonard, Harry xiii-xiv
transient voltage suppressor 244 waveforms 340-1
trench-gate device 62-3 web lines 279, 281,283
triangular wave 340-1 weight conversion table 355
trip level current 236-7 winder 262, 275-8, 300-1
tube mill 260 winding 260
turbulence 345 wire and cable industry 263, 296-7
twelve-pulse rectifier 207, 210-11 wire-bonded packages 67-70
two-pole motor 9-10 large 67-9
two-quadrant D.C.-D.C. converter 79-80 small 69-70
two-switch asymmetrical bridge power circuit 130 wire drawing 260, 296-7
woodworking 274-5
U world industrial electricity supplies 358-62
UL (Underwriters' Laboratories, USA) standards 335 wound-field motor 2-3
uncontrolled bridge 73-4 compound 3
undervolting 272 series 2-3
Unidrive 157-63,253, 267, 281,323 shunt-wound 2-3
active input stage 211