Diagrammatic Convention for Supports

Roller Supports Hinge Support Fixed Support Link Support

Fig. 1.1: Support Conditions

Axial Force, Shear Force and Bending Moment

Three forces are required to maintain internal equilibrium at every section of a beam.
The force acting along the geometric axis of the beam (i.e., perpendicular to the cross-sectional plane) is
called Axial Force, the force acting parallel to its cross-sectional plane (i.e., perpendicular to the axis) is
Shear Force while the moment or couple acting at the section is Bending Moment. They maintain the
horizontal equilibrium (Fx = 0), vertical equilibrium (Fy = 0) and moment equilibrium (Mz = 0) of the
beam segment at the relevant cross-section and are therefore calculated by considering the three equilibrium
equations at the section.
For design purposes, it may be necessary to calculate the axial force, shear force and bending moment at
several sections of a beam, resulting in diagrams of the forces versus the distance along beam length.

Axial Force, Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagram

Draw the Axial Force Diagram (AFD), Shear Force Diagram (SFD) and Bending Moment Diagram (BMD)
of the beam loaded as shown below.

Ay 10 k
By
A B
Ax
C
Fig. 1.2: Beam Free Body
5 5

The support reactions can be calculated by considering the equilibrium equations of the overall structure;
i.e., Fx = 0, Mz = 0 (at B) and Mz = 0 (at A), giving Ax = 0, Ay = 5 k and By = 5k.
Example 1.1: Free Body Diagrams for various Segments of the Beam
Free body diagrams are drawn for various beam segments considering the points D, C(left), C(right) and E at
distances 3, 5 (left), 5 (right) and 7 from the support A of the beam.
5k 5k 10 k 10 k
VD VCL 5k VCR 5k VE
A HD A HCL A HCR A HE
MD MCL MCR ME
3 5 5 5 2
Table 1.1: Results of Example 1.1
x (ft) H (k) V (k) M (k-ft) AFD (k)
3 0 5 5 3 = 15
+5
5() 0 5 5 5 = 25
+105 5 5 10 0
5(+) 0 SFD (k)
= +5 = 25
+105 5 7 10 2 Fig. 1.3: Introduction to
7 0 5
= +5 = 15 AFD, SFD and BMD
25

BMD (k-ft)

1
 Sign Convention for Axial Force, Shear Force and Bending Moment
For this course, the following sign conventions have been chosen for axial force, shear force and bending
moment. In short, tension is assumed positive for axial force, shear forces forming clockwise couple are
considered positive while a bending moment causing sagging shape is taken as positive.

Positive Axial Force Positive Shear Force Positive Bending Moment

Fig. 1.4: Sign Convention for Axial Force, Shear Force and Bending Moment

Relationship between Applied Load, Shear Force and Bending Moment

Instead of the direct approach of cutting a beam and determining the shear force and bending moment at a
section by statics, an efficient alternative approach can be used. Certain fundamental differential relations
need to be derived for this purpose. These can be used for the construction of shear force and bending
moment diagrams of beams.
y y w
w(x) load per unit length

V M + M
M
x x
x
V + V
x
Fig. 1.5: Beam and Beam elements between adjoining sections

Consider an element x long, isolated by two adjoining sections taken perpendicular to its axis in the beam
loaded as shown above. As the shear force and bending moment may vary from one section to the next, they
are assumed to be V and M on the left section and (V + V) and (M + M) on the right section of the beam
element. However, if the length x is infinitesimal (i.e., x 0), no variation of the applied load w(x) is
considered; i.e., w(x) is assumed to be constant within the length x.

From the equilibrium of vertical forces; i.e., Fy = 0

V + w x (V + V) = 0 V/x = w ...(1.1)
From the equilibrium of moments about the right sections; i.e., Mz = 0
M + V x + (w x) x/2 (M + M) = 0 M/x = V + w x/2 ....(1.2)
In the limit x 0, the above equations take the following forms,
dV/dx = w ....(1.3)
dM/dx = V ....(1.4)
2 2
Combining Eq. (1.3) and (1.4), d M/dx = w ........(1.5)
Eq. (1.5) can be used for determining support reactions of the beams, while Eqs. (1.3) and (1.4) are very
convenient for the construction of shear force and bending moment diagrams, using the equations
V = w dx + C1 .(1.6)
and M = V dx + C2 .....(1.7)

2
 Integration Method for SFD and BMD

Example 1.2
Derive equations for the shear force and bending moment of the beams loaded as shown below.
Also draw the corresponding SFD and BMD.

5 k/ft
w0 per unit length
A B
A B

L 10

Fig. 1.6(a): Simply Supported Beam under UDL Fig. 1.6(b): Cantilever Beam under triangular load

w(x) = w0 ..(1.8) w(x) = 0.5 x (1.15)

V(x) = w0 x + C1 ..(1.9) V(x) = 0.5 x2/2 + C1 ....(1.16)
M(x) = w0 x2/2 + C1 x + C2 (1.10) M(x) = 0.5 x3/6 + C1 x + C2 (1.17)

Boundary conditions Boundary conditions

M(0) = 0 and M(L) = 0 V(0) = 0 and M(0) = 0

M(0) = 0 in Eq. (1.10) V(0) = 0 in Eq. (1.16)

0 = 0 + 0 + C2 0 = 0 + C1
C2 = 0 (1.11) C1 = 0 (1.18)

M(L) = 0 in Eq. (1.10) M(0) = 0 in Eq. (1.17)

0 = w0 L2/2 + C1 L + 0 0 = 0 + 0 + C2
C1 = w0 L/2 (1.12) C2 = 0 (1.19)

Eq.(1.9) V(x) = w0 x + w0 L/2 (1.13) Eq.(1.16) V(x) = 0.5 x2/2 (1.20)

(1.10) M(x) = w0 x2/2 + w0L/2 x (1.14) (1.17) M(x) = 0.5 x3/6 .(1.21)

The following SFD and BMD are drawn for (b) using EXCEL

0 0
Bending Moment (k-ft)

0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
-5 -20
Shear Force (k)

-10 -40

-15 -60

-20 -80

-25 -100
Distance (ft) Distance (ft)

Fig. 1.7(a): SFD for Example 1.2(b) Fig. 1.7(b): BMD for Example 1.2(b)

3
 Representing Different Loadings by Singularity Functions

Singularity Functions:
f(x) = xan f(x) = 0, when x a and f(x) = xan, when x a [where n 0] (1.22)
f(x) = xa0 f(x) = 0, when x a and f(x) = 1, when x a
Howeverxan has no physical significance if n 0, and is written only as a notation with an asterisk (*) as
subscript; e.g., f(x) = xa1*
The integration and differentiation of singularity functions follow the rules for ordinary polynomial
functions;i.e., xan dx = xa n+1/(n+1) + C1 and d(xan)/dx = nxan1 .(1.23)
e.g., xa dx = xa /3 + C1 and d(xa )/dx = 2xa
2 3 2 1

By definition, xan* dx = xa n+1* + C1 if n 0 ...(1.24)

e.g., xa2* dx = xa1* + C1 and xa1* dx = xa0 + C1

Singularity Functions for Common Loadings:

Common loadings are expressed in terms of the following singularity functions
10 k 20 k 2 k/
100 k

5 10 5 10 5 10
1 1
w(x) = 10x0 * 20x5 * w(x) = 2x5 0
w(x) = 100x52*

Fig. 1.8: Singularity Functions for Common Loadings

Example 1.3
Derive the equations for the shear force and bending moment of the beams loaded as shown below.
P0 P0
A B
A B

L/2 L/2 L

Fig. 1.9: (a) Simply Supported Beam and (b) Cantilever Beam under concentrated load

w(x) = P0xL/21* .....(1.25) w(x) = P0x01* .....(1.32)

V(x) = P0xL/20 + C1 .....(1.26) V(x) = P0x00 + C1 .....(1.33)
M(x) = P0xL/21 + C1 x + C2 .(1.27) M(x) = P0x01 + C1 x + C2 .(1.34)
Boundary conditions: M(0) = 0 and M(L) = 0 Boundary conditions: V(0) = 0 and M(0) = 0
M(0) = 0 in Eq. (1.27) V(0) = 0 in Eq. (1.33)
0 = 0 + 0 + C2 C2 = 0 .(1.28) 0 = 0 + C1 C1 = 0 .(1.35)
M(L) = 0 in Eq. (1.27) M(0) = 0 in Eq. (1.34)
0 = P0 L/2 + C1 L + 0 C1 = P0/2 ....(1.29) 0 = 0 + 0 + C2 C2 = 0 ....(1.36)
Eq.(1.26) V(x) = P0xL/2 + P0/2 ...(1.30) 0
Eq.(1.33) V(x) = P0x0 0
...(1.37)
(1.27) M(x) = P0 xL/2 + P0/2 x 1
(1.31) (1.34) M(x) = P0 x0 1
(1.38)

Example 1.4: Derive the equations for the SF and BM of the beam loaded as shown below (in Fig. 1.10).
w(x) = 10x01*+ R1x51* 1x50 +1x150 + 0.15x301 10k
BCs: V(0) = 0, M(0) = 0, M(40) = 0 1 k/ 1.5 k/

5 10 15 10

Fig. 1.10

4
 Summation Method for SFD and BMD

The earlier formulations derived the following relations between applied load, shear force and bending
moment,
dV/dx = w .....(1.3)
dM/dx = V ....(1.4)
V = w dx + C1 ...(1.6)
and M = V dx + C2 ..(1.7)
While these equations have been used in the integration method of SFD and BMD, for hand calculations it is
more convenient to use their physical meanings; i.e.,
(i) Eqs. (1.3) and (1.4) Slope of the SFD is the applied load, while slope of the BMD is the shear force
(ii) Eq. (1.6) Shear Force is the summation of the vertical forces along the beam (C1 is the SF at left end)
and (1.7) Bending Moment is equal to the area under the SFD (C2 is the BM at left end)
The conclusions (ii) are particularly useful and form the basic concepts of the Summation Method of drawing
the SFD and BMD by hand calculation.
Based of that, the nature of SFD and BMD for common loading conditions is shown in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2: Nature of Load, SF and BM

w(x) Concentrated Load UDL Triangular
V(x) Straight Line, No Slope Sloped Straight Line Parabolic
M(x) Sloped Straight Line Parabolic Cubic

Example 1.5
Use the Summation Method to draw the SFD and BMD of the beams loaded as shown below.

P0 RB
RA RB 1 k/ft
A B B
A MB
L/2 L/2 10

Fig. 1.11: (a) Simply Supported Beam under concentrated load and (b) Cantilever Beam under UDL

MA = 0 P0 L/2 RB L = 0 RB = P0 /2 Fy = 0 RB 1 10 = 0 RB = 10 k
Fy = 0 RA P0 + RB = 0 RA = P0 /2 MB = 0 MB 1 10 5 = 0 MB = 50 k-ft

P0/2 SFD (k)

SFD
10
P0/2

P0L/4 BMD (k-ft)

BMD
50

Example 1.6
Use the Summation Method to draw the SFD and BMD of the beams shown in Example 1.2(a), (b), 1.3(b).

5
 Typical SFD and BMD for Beams
Example 1.6
Use the Summation Method to draw the SFD and BMD of the beams loaded as shown below.
P0/2 P0/2 P0 RB
RA RB
A B B
A MB
L/3 L/3 L/3 L

Fig. 1.12: (a) Simply Supported Beam under 2-Point load and (b) Cantilever Beam under concentrated load

MA= 0 (P0/2) L/3 + (P0/2) 2L/3 RB L = 0 Fy = 0 RB P0 = 0 RB = P0

RB = P0 /2 MB = 0 MB P0 L = 0 MB = P0 L
Fy = 0 RA P0/2 P0/2 + RB = 0 RA = P0 /2

P0/2 SFD
SFD P0
P0/2

P0L/6 BMD

BMD P0L

5 k/ft
w0 per unit length
RB
A B
RA RB A B MB
L 10

Fig. 1.6(a): Simply Supported Beam under UDL Fig. 1.6(b): Cantilever Beam under triangular load

MA = 0 (w0 L) L/2 RB L = 0 RB = w0L /2 Fy = 0 RB 5 10/2 = 0 RB = 25 k

Fy = 0 RA w0 L + RB = 0 RA = w0L /2 MB = 0 MB 25 10/3 = 0 MB = 83.33 k-ft

w0 L/2 SFD (k)

SFD

w0L/2 25

w0 L2/8 BMD (k-ft)

BMD
83.33

6
 Further Topics on SFD and BMD

SFD and BMD for Beams with Internal Hinge

Internal hinges are often used in beams (particularly bridges) to make them statically determinate. Since no
bending moment can develop in an internal hinge, it provides an additional equation for calculating the
support reactions, which would otherwise be impossible using statics only.
A beam is not continuous at an internal hinge, i.e., its slopes on both sides of it are different. Details of this
are discussed in studies on beam deflection.

Example 1.7
Use the Integration Method and Summation Method to draw the SFD and BMD of the beam shown below.
10 k
10 k
B C D E
A B C D E
A

5 10 5 5
5 10 5 5

Fig. 1.7: Beam with Internal Hinge

w(x) = 10x01* + RBx51* + RCx151* BMD = 0 RE 5 = 0 RE = 0

V(x) = 10x00 + RBx50 + RCx150 + C1 MC = 0 RB 10 10 15 = 0 RB = 15 k
M(x) = 10x01 + RBx51 + RCx151 + C1 x + C2 Fy = 0 RB + RC + RE 10 = 0 RC = 5 k

Boundary conditions: V(0) = 0, M(0) = 0, M(20) = 0, M(25) = 0 5

V(0) = 0 C1 = 0, M(0) = 0 C2 = 0 SFD (k)
M(20) = 0 0 = 200 + 15 RB + 5 RC = 0
and M(25) = 0 0 = 250 + 20 RB + 10 RC = 0 10
Solving RB = 15, RC = 5

V(x) = 10x00 + 15x50 5x150 BMD (k-ft)

and M(x) = 10x01 + 15x51 5 x151
50

SFD and BMD for Frames

Since frames are composed of beams (and columns), their SFD and BMD follow the same basic process as
for individual beams. The best process would be to draw the freebody diagram of each structural element
(i.e., each beam and column) and draw their SFD and BMD just like for beams.
The final diagrams in such cases will be an assembly of SFD and BMD of all structural elements of the
frame.

Example 1.8
Draw the SFD and BMD of the frames shown below.

1 k/ft 10 k 8
6

4 12 4 10 6

7
 Summary Notes on BMD

1. BM = 0 at points A
(i) Free End (ii) Hinge/Roller Supported End (iii) Internal Hinge

A A A

2. BM 0 at points B (in general, but can be = 0 only for special loading cases)
(i) Fixed End (ii) Internal Roller/Hinge support
B B

3. Verify and memorize the following BMDs

(i) Cantilever Beams P
M0 w/

L d L

M0 Pd wL2/2
(ii) Simply Supported Beams
M0 P w/

L a b L

M0 Pab/(a+b) wL2/8

(= PL/4, if a = b = L/2)
(iii) Beams with Overhang
P w/
M0

L a L a L a

M0 Pa wa2/2

(iv) Beams with Internal Hinge

P P
w/

c d a b a b c d L a
Pab/(a+b) Pab/(a+b) wL2/8

Pac/(a+b) waL/2

8
4. Qualitative BMDs

[ implies that the ordinate can be positive or negative depending on the loads and spans]

9
 Practice Problems on SFD and BMD
1. Draw the SFD and BMD of the beams loaded as shown below
[Assume concentrated moment = 100 k, load = 10 k, UDL = 1 k/, peak of triangular load = 1.5 k/].

(i) 3 (ii)

10 6 3@10= 30

(iii) (iv)

5 10 15 10
10 10 10
5 5
2. Draw the AFD, SFD and BMD of the beams loaded as shown below.
20 k 1 k/ft
1 k/ft d and e are Internal Hinges
45 c
a f
b d e
10 10 10 20 30

100 k 2 k/
1 k/
60 B C D B is an Internal Hinge
E
A

10 5 5 10

3. For the load distribution over the length of footing ABCD shown in the figure below, calculate
(i) the length x and uniformly distributed load w k/ft required to maintain equilibrium,
(ii) the shear force at the left and right of B and bending moment at C using Singularity Functions.

100 k 200 k
B C
A D
w k/ft

5 30 x

4. Draw the AFD, SFD and BMD of the beam bcd in the frame abcde loaded as shown below.
1 k/ft

20 k b d 20 k c is an Internal Hinge
14 c
45 45

14 a e
28 40 40 28

5. Draw the AFD, SFD and BMD of column ABEF in the frame shown below [B, C, E, F are pin joints].

A
1 k/
7
B D
C
10
E
5
F

10 15

10
 Stress, Strength and Factor of Safety
Stress
Stress is defined as the internal force on a body per unit area. Thus if an internal axial force P acts on a
cross-sectional area A, the axial stress on the area is
= P/A ..(2.1)

Fig. 2.1 shows a body being subjected to an external axial load

of P, which causes an internal force P at every cross-section of P P
the body. Therefore, the axial stress at each cross-section of
the body is equal to P/A.
P P
The commonly used units of stress are lb/in2 (psi), kip/in2 (ksi), Area = A
kg/cm2, N/m2 (Pascal or Pa), kN/m2 (kilo-Pascal or kPa),
MN/m2 (mega-Pascal or MPa, also given by N/mm2) etc. Fig. 2.1: Concept of Normal Stress

In general, stresses can be classified as Normal Stress (acting perpendicular to the area) and Shear Stress
(acting parallel to the area). Under this broad classification, several types of normal and shear stress may act
on structures due to various types of loading. Other than the axial loading mentioned, normal stress may also
be caused by bending moments. Shear stresses are also caused by direct or flexural shear forces as well as
torsional moments. In general, if a shear force V acts parallel to an area A, the average shear stress on the
area is
= V/A ..(2.2)

Strength
Strength is the ability of a body to resist stress. The purpose of calculating stresses in structural members is
to compare them with the experimentally determined material strengths in order to assure desired
performance.

Physical testing in a laboratory can provide information regarding a materials resistance to stress. In a
laboratory, specimens of known material, manufacturing process and heat treatment are subjected to
successively increasing known forces until they finally rupture. The force necessary to cause rupture is
called the Ultimate Load. The Ultimate Strength of the material is obtained by dividing this ultimate load by
the original cross-sectional area of the specimen. Therefore, the units of stress and strength are the same.

The common types of strength tests performed in the laboratory on Civil Engineering materials are
* Tension Test (of steel, concrete, cement)
* Compression Test (of concrete, brick, timber, soil)
* Direct Shear Test (of metals, concrete, soil)
* Torsional Shear Test (of metals, concrete)
* Static Bending Test (of steel, concrete, timber)
* Impact Test (of metals, aggregate)
* Fatigue/Abrasion Test (of metals, concrete, aggregate)
* Non-Destructive Test (of metals, concrete)
Besides laboratory tests, field tests are also performed (e.g., on soil) to determine material strengths in a
more realistic scenario.

Factor of Safety
Although a material can be stressed up to its ultimate strength before it ruptures, practical application and
serviceability do not often allow it to be so highly stressed. Some safety is required to allow for the
uncertainties and variations in applied loads, field conditions and material strengths. The permissible limit
up to which a material can be stressed is called its Allowable Stress. Therefore the ratio of ultimate strength
and allowable stress is a safety ratio of the material (i.e., indicates how safe it is) and is often called the
Factor of Safety; i.e.,
Factor of Safety = Ultimate Strength/Allowable Stress ..(2.3)

11
 Axial Force Diagrams

Concentrated Axial Loads

The concentrated loads on axially loaded members are predominant in many cases, e.g., in columns of multi-
storied structures where the distributed loads (e.g., self-weights) are negligible compared to the loads from
various floors.
Example 2.1
Draw the AFD of the beams loaded axially by the concentrated loads shown below.

A 3k 3k 20 k
XA B A B
50 k XB
C D C
4 12 4 5 15

Fig. 2.2: Concentrated axial forces on (a) Simply Supported Beam, (b) Cantilever Beam

Fx= 0 XA 3 3 = 0 XA = 6 k Fx = 0 50 + 20 + XB = 0 XB = 30 k

50
30
AFD (k) AFD (k)
3
6

Distributed Axial Loads

Significant examples where distributed axial loads are important include vertically suspended members
subjected to self-weight or pile foundations where the loads from super-structure are resisted by skin
friction; i.e., resistance of soil distributed along the pile-length.
Example 2.2
Draw the AFD of the piles loaded axially by the distributed loads shown below.

A w0 k/ft
A B
100 k B 100 k XB
2 k/ft
50 50

Fig. 2.3: Piles subjected to (a) Uniformly distributed axial forces, (b) Linearly distributed axial forces

Fx = 0 100 50w0 = 0 w0 = 2 k/ft Fx = 0 100 (50 2)/2 + XB = 0 XB = 50 k

AFD (k) AFD (k)

100 50
100

12
 Design of Bolted (Riveted) Joints
Bolted (or riveted) joints are widely used in connections between various structural members. Its versatility
makes it useful for connections between members made of different materials; e.g., steel, timber.
There are two types of bolted joints; i.e., Lap Joints and Butt Joints. In a lap joint, the plates to be connected
are lapped over one another and fastened together by one or more rows of connectors (Fig. 2.4). In butt joint,
the plates are butted together and joined by two cover plates connected to each of the main plates
(occasionally, only one cover plate is used). The joints are identified here (as single-row, double-row and so
on) by the number of rows of connectors that fasten the cover plate to each main plate (Fig. 2.5).

Fig. 2.4: Lap Joints (a) Single Row, (b) Double Row Fig. 2.5: Butt Joints (a) Single Row, (b) Double Row
Stresses in Bolted Joints
There are three major types of stresses that may work on bolted joints; i.e., (a) shear stress in bolts, (b)
tensile (tearing) stress in plates, (c) bearing stress between bolts and plates. Other types of failure are
possible if the joint is not designed properly; e.g., tearing or shearing of plate behind a connector hole that is
too close to edge.

Example 2.3
Calculate the maximum shearing, tearing and bearing stresses in the riveted joint shown below (in Fig. 2.6)
when subjected to a force P = 25 k. Also comment on the adequacy of the joint if the allowable shearing,
tearing and bearing stresses are 15, 20 and 25 ksi respectively.
Row1 Row2 0.75 diameter bolts (in 0.875 diameter holes)

P P 6

P P

0.5 thick plates

Fig. 2.6: Bolted joint subjected to force P

The force P can be assumed to be equally distributed among the bolts; i.e., each bolt taking (25/5 =) 5 k
force parallel to its cross-sectional area.
Shear stress in each bolt = 5/[/4 (0.75)2] = 11.32 ksi
Maximum tensile force in Row1 = 25 k Maximum Tensile stress = 25/[0.5 (6 2 0.875)] = 11.76 ksi
Maximum tensile force in Row2 = 25 10 = 15k Tensile stress = 15/[0.5 (6 3 0.875)] = 8.89 ksi
Bearing stress between each bolt and plate (main plate and cover plate) = 5/[(0.75) (0.5)] = 13.33 ksi
Joint is adequate for bolt shear (11.32 15 ksi), plate tension (11.76 20 ksi) and bearing (13.33 25
ksi).

13
 Design of Welded Connections
Welding is a method of joining metals by fusion. With heat from either an electric arc or an oxyacetylene
torch, the metal at the joint is melted and fused with additional metal from a welding rod. When cool, the
weld material and the base metal form a continuous and homogenous joint. The reliability of welded
connections has increased to the point where they are used extensively to supplement or replace riveted or
bolted connections in structural and machine design. It is frequently more economical to fabricate a member
by welding simple component parts together than to use a complicated casting.
The two principal types of welds are butt welds [Fig. 2.7 (a)] and fillet welds [Fig. 2.7 (b)]. The strength of a
butt weld is equal to the allowable stress multiplied by the product of the length of the weld times the
thickness of the thinner plate of the joint.

Fig. 2.7: (a) Single and Double V-Butt Weld Fig. 2.7: (b) Side Fillet and End Fillet Weld

The strength of transverse fillet welds is determined by the Throat Leg

shearing resistance of the throat of the weld regardless of the
direction of the applied load. In the 45 fillet weld in Fig. 2.8, Leg
with the leg equal to t, the shearing area through the length of
weld L times the throat depth, or A = L (t sin 45) = 0.707 Lt.
Shear stress = Shear force/Shearing area; i.e., = V/A
= V/(0.707 Lt) L = V/(0.707t ) ....(2.4) Fig. 2.8: Weld Leg and Throat
Example 2.4
In Fig. 2.9 shown below, calculate the length of 3/8-inch weld joints required on sides
(i) AB and CD only, (ii) AB, AD and CD to connect the 0.5 thick channel section ABCD to the 0.625
thick plate EFGH. Axial force of 50 kips passes through centroid of ABCD [Given: Allowable shear stress =
16 ksi].

E F E, F
0.625
A B A, B

3.25

50 kips
1.75
D C C, D

0.5
H G G, H
Front View Side View
Fig. 2.9: Welded joint subjected to 50 kip force
(i) For welds on AB and CD, the axial force is resisted by F AB = 50 1.75/5 = 17.5 k, FCD = 50 3.25/5 =
32.5 k
Weld lengths are LAB = FAB/(0.707 t all) = 17.5/(0.707 3/8 16) = 4.13, LCD = FCD/(0.707 t all) =
7.66; i.e., use welds of length 4.25 and 7.75 respectively.
(ii) The weld lengths on AB and CD can be reduced if the connection is welded on AD also. For the
resultant of weld forces to pass through the centroid, welds length on AD can be LAD = 1.50 2 = 3.00
This leaves a weld length of (4.13 + 7.66 3.00 =) 8.79 to be divided on sides AB and CD
Weld length on AB is = LAB = 8.79 1.75/5 = 3.08, and on CD is = LCD = 8.79 3.25/5 = 5.71;
i.e., use welds of length 3.25 and 5.75 respectively.

14
 Practice Problems on Stresses
1. Calculate the allowable value of force P for the truss shown below [Given: Cross-sectional area of both
AB and AC = 2 in2, ultimate strength in compression = 30 ksi, tension = 36 ksi, factor of safety = 2.0].
A
P

20

B C
20 20

2. Draw the AFD and calculate the maximum tensile and compressive stress in the bar ABC shown below.

50 k 200 k
A B 50 k/in C
2 dia 4 dia

10 10

3. Calculate the shearing stress in the rivets and the maximum tearing and bearing stresses in the plates at
joint B of the structural member ABC loaded as shown below.
3 rivets of 1 dia 3/8 thick plates

10 A 1 k/in 20 k
B 12C 12 10 12

40 20 20
Member ABC
Joint B
4. In the truss ABCD shown below, use factor of safety = 1.5 to calculate the required
(i) Bolt diameter (d), (ii) Thickness (t) of member BD, (iii) Width (b) of member BD
[Given: Shear strength = 150 MPa, bearing strength = 250 MPa, axial strength = 200 MPa].

B Bolt diameter = d Thickness = t

Gusset Plate
b

A 30 30 D
C

200 kN
Member BD
Joint B (Enlarged)
5. (i) Calculate the maximum allowable value of P for the axially loaded member abc shown below.
(ii) For the force P calculated in (i), determine the lengths of 10 mm welds to connect the members ab
and bc at joint b
[Given: Allowable stress in shear = 180 MPa, tension = 200 MPa, compression = 150 MPa].

12mm thick rectangular plates

100 mm a P b 3P c 150 mm 100 mm 150 mm

4 @ 250mm = 1000mm 10mm thick welds

Member abc Joint b
15
6. In the structure ABC loaded as shown in the figure below,
(i) Check the adequacy of the member BC,
(ii) Design the welds for member BC with Gusset Plate at joint B
[Given: Allowable axial stress in member BC = 18 ksi, Allowable shear stress in welds = 15 ksi].
0.25
C Member BC Gusset Plate Gusset
Plate

4
10 k
0.25
30
A B 4
Member AB
Joint B (Enlarged) Cross-section of BC

7. Design the welds at the Gusset Plate of a truss (connecting members 1, 2 and 3) in the figure shown
below [Given: F1 = F3 = 45 kips, F2 = 25 kips, Allowable shear stress in the welds = 16 ksi].

Mem1 (443/4) Mem3 (443/4)

Mem2 (445/8)

16
 Stress, Strain and Stress-Strain Diagram
Stress is defined as the internal force on a body per unit area. Thus if an internal axial force P acts on a
cross-sectional area A, the axial stress on the area is
= P/A ..(3.1)
Fig. 3.1(a) shows a body being subjected to an external axial load of P, which causes an internal force P as a
reaction at every cross-section of the body. Therefore, the axial stress on the body is equal to P/A. The
commonly used units of stress are lb/in2 (psi), kip/in2 (ksi), kg/cm2, N/m2 (Pascal or Pa), kN/m2 (kilo-Pascal
or kPa) etc.

Several types of stress may act on structures under various types of load. Other than the axial loading
mentioned, stresses are caused by direct or flexural shear forces as well as flexural and torsional moments.
In general, stresses can be classified as normal stress (acting perpendicular to the area) and shear stress
(acting parallel to the area). This chapter deals with normal stresses.

An obvious effect of stress is the deformation it causes in the body. Strain is the deformation caused in a
body per unit length. If a body of length L [Fig. 3.1(b)] undergoes an axial deformation of , the axial strain
caused in the body is
= /L ..(3.2)
Strain is a non-dimensional quantity but often units like in/in, cm/cm etc are used for strain. Like stress,
strain can be broadly classified as normal strain and shear strain.
P

Area = A L

P (a) (b) (c)

Fig. 3.1: (a) Concept of stress, (b) Concept of strain, (c) Different stress-strain diagrams

The diagram showing the stress (along y-axis) and strain (along x-axis) on a body is called its Stress-Strain
(-) Diagram. Usually it is typical of the material, but also depends on the size of the specimen, the rate of
loading, etc. Fig. 3.1(c) shows typical - diagrams for different materials.

17
 Essential Elements of Stress-Strain Diagram
The stress vs. strain (-) diagrams discussed in the previous section are often used in studying various
mechanical properties of materials under the action of loads. Depending on the type of materials, the -
diagrams are drawn for specimens subjected to tension (typically for mild steel, aluminum and several other
metals, less often for granular materials) or compression (more often for concrete, timber, soil and other
granular materials).

Several elements of the - diagrams are used in Strength of Materials as well as structural analysis and
design. Figs. 3.2 (a) and 3.2 (b) show two typical stress-strain diagrams often encountered in material
testing. The first of them represents a material with an initial linear - relationship followed by a
pronounced yield region, which is often followed by a strain hardening and failure region (typical of Mild
Steel). The second curve represents a material with nonlinear - relationship almost from the beginning and
no distinct yield region (typical of concrete and timber).

Actual - Curve
ult
y(offset) y(proof)
yu
Apparent - Curve
p yl brk

p y(offset) y(proof)
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.2: Typical stress-strain diagrams for (a) Yielding materials, (b) Non-yielding materials

Up to a certain limit of stress and strain, the - diagram for most materials remain linear (or nearly so); i.e.,
the stress remains proportional to the strain initially. Up to this limit, the material follows the Hookes Law,
which states that deformation is proportional to applied load. The corresponding stress is called the
Proportional Limit (or Elastic Limit), which is denoted by p in Fig. 3.2(a), and the strain is denoted by p.
The ratio of p and p (or any stress and strain below these) is called the Modulus of Elasticity or Youngs
Modulus and is denoted by E.
E = p/p ..(3.3)
The area under the - diagram indicates the energy dissipated per unit volume in straining the material
under study. The corresponding area up to the proportional limit is called Modulus of Resilience and is given
by the following equation
Modulus of Resilience = p p/2 = p2/2E ..(3.4)
Longitudinal strain is accompanied by lateral strain as well, of different magnitude and opposite sign. If the
longitudinal strain is long and the corresponding lateral strain is lat, the ratio between the two is called the
Poissons Ratio, often denoted by .
= lat/lomg ..(3.5)
The Modulus of Elasticity and the Poissons Ratio are two basic material constants used universally for the
linear elastic analysis and design.

Within proportional limit, the - diagram passes through the origin. Therefore, the strain sustained within
the proportional limit can be fully recovered upon withdrawal of the load; i.e., without any permanent
deformation of the material. However, this is not applicable if the material is stressed beyond p. If load is
withdrawn after stressing the material beyond yield point, the - diagram follows the initial straight path
during the process of unloading and therefore does not pass through the origin; i.e., the strain does not return
to zero even when stress becomes zero.

18
In many materials, the proportional limit is followed by a stress (or small range of stresses) where the
material is elongated (i.e., strained) without any significant change in stress. This is called the Yield Strength
for the material and is often denoted by y. As shown in Fig. 3.2 (a), yielding occurs within a range of stress
rather than any particular stress. The upper limit of the region is called Upper Yield Strength while the lower
limit is called Lower Yield Strength of the material. In Fig. 3.2 (a), they are denoted by yu and yl
respectively.

However materials with - diagrams similar to Fig. 3.2 (b) do not have any particular yield point or region.
In order to indicate the stress where the material is strained within the range of typical yield strains or
undergoes permanent deformation typical of yield points, two methods have been suggested to locate the
yield point of non-yielding materials. One of the is the Proof Strength, which takes the stress y(proof) as the
yield point of the material corresponding to a pre-assigned strain indicated by y(proof). The other is the Offset
Method, which takes as yield point a point corresponding to a permanent strain of y(offset). Therefore the Yield
Strength by Offset Method is obtained by drawing a straight line from y(offset) parallel to the initial tangent of
the - diagram and taking as yield strength the point where this line intersects the - diagram.

Beyond yield point, the strains increase at a much faster rate with nominal increase in stress and the material
moves towards failure. However, the material can usually take stresses higher than its yield strength. The
maximum stress a material can sustain without failure is called the Ultimate Strength, which is denoted by
ult in Fig. 3.2 (a). For most materials, the stress decreases as the material is strained beyond ult until failure
occurs at a stress called Breaking Strength of the material, denoted by brk in Fig. 3.2 (a).

Here it may be mentioned that the stress does not actually decrease beyond ultimate strength in the true
sense. If the Actual - Diagram [indicated by dotted lines in Fig. 3.2 (a)] of the material is drawn using the
instantaneous area (which is smaller than the actual area due to Poissons effect) and length of the specimen
instead of the original area and length, the stress will keep increasing until failure. All the other - diagrams
shown in Figs. 3.1 and 3.2 (and used for most Civil Engineering applications) are therefore called Apparent
- Diagrams.

The total area under the - diagram is called the Modulus of Toughness. Physically, this is the energy
required to break a specimen of unit volume.

Ductility is another property of vital importance to structural design. This is the ability of the material to
sustain strain beyond elastic limit. Quantitatively it is taken as the final strain in the material (the strain at
failure) expressed in percentage.

Table 3.1 shows some useful mechanical properties of typical engineering materials (quoted from available
literature). However, these properties may vary significantly depending on the ingredients used and the
manufacturing process. For example, although the yield strength of Mild Steel is shown to be 40 ksi, other
varieties with yield strengths of 60 ksi and 75 ksi are readily available. The properties of concrete are even
more unpredictable. Here, the ultimate strength is mentioned to be 3 ksi, but concretes with much lower and
higher ultimate strengths (1~7 ksi) are used in different construction works. The typical properties of timber
also vary significantly depending on the type of timber (e.g., Gurjan, Jarul), seasoning (e.g., green, air-dry)
or type of loading (compression or bending, parallel or perpendicular to grain).

Table 3.1: Useful Mechanical Properties of Typical Engineering Materials

Modulus of Modulus of Reduction of
p y ult E Ductility
Material
(ksi)
Resilience Toughness
(%)
Area
(ksi) (ksi) (ksi)
(ksi) (ksi) (%)
Mild Steel 35 40 60 29000 0.25 0.02 15 35 60
Aluminum 60 70 80 10000 0.33 0.18 7 10 30
Concrete 1.4 2.0 3.0 3000 0.30 0.0003 0.006 0.30 0.60
Timber 3.4 4.5 5.3 2000 0.30 0.003 0.007 0.80 1.60

[Note: Properties may vary significantly depending on ingredients and manufacturing process]

19
 Three-Dimensional Stresses
Uniaxial normal stress (discussed in the previous section) is only an idealized stress scenario. In practice, an
element can be subjected to a combination of normal and shear stresses acting in different directions.

Figs. 3.3(a) and 3.3(b) show the three-dimensional stresses acting on an element along the x, y and z axes as
well as the two-dimensional stresses on the x-y plane.

The sign convention followed here is y yy

ij = Normal stress on plane i along j-axis ........(3.6)

yy
ij = Shear stress on plane i along j-axis ............(3.7) z yx
xy yx
yz
zy xy
xx
For example x O xx
y xz
xx = Normal stress on plane x (i.e., yz) along x-axis zx

yx = Shear stress on plane y (i.e., xz) along x-axis zz

z
x

Fig. 3.3: Stresses (a) Three-dimensional, (b) On x-y plane

Shear Stress and Strain
As mentioned before, shear stress acts parallel to a surface whereas normal stress acts perpendicular to it.
And as shown in Fig. 3.3, an element can be subjected to shear stresses in addition to normal stresses. For
the equilibrium of the element in Fig. 3.3(b), summation of moments about point O
{xy (y)(z)} (x) + {yx (x)(z)} (y) = 0 yx = xy ..(3.8)

It can be shown similarly that, zy = yz and xz = zx ..(3.9), (3.10)

Therefore the shear stresses in mutually perpendicular planes are equal.

Shear stresses would naturally cause shear strains in an element, as shown in the x-y plane in Fig. 3.4. This is
the change of angle between the planes x and y; i.e., shear strain (denoted by xy) inclines the sides of the
deformed element in relation to the original axes.

y
xy
yx

xy xy
G

x
yx

Fig. 3.4: Concept of Shear Strain Fig. 3.5: Shear Stress vs. Shear Strain

Within the elastic range, shear stress is related to shear strain by

=G (3.11)
where G is the Modulus of Rigidity or Shear Modulus of the material and is related to elastic modulus by
G = E/(2 (1 + )) (3.12)

20
 Constitutive Relations for Isotropic Materials: Generalized Hookes Law
In this section, six basic relations between a general state of stress and strain are derived using the principle
of superposition from the previously established simpler stress-strain equations. This set of equations is
referred to as the Generalized Hookes Law and is valid for Isotropic Materials; i.e., materials having the
same properties in all directions (as against anisotropic materials, with significantly different properties in
different directions).

According to the basic concept of Hookes Law, a linear relationship exists between the applied stress and
the resulting strain (e.g., xx =xx/E). During this process, a lateral contraction or expansion of a body also
takes place (i.e., yy and zz), depending on whether it is being stretched or compressed. The extent of the
lateral deformation is obtained using the Poissons Ratio (i.e., yy = zz = xx). Therefore, a uniaxial normal
stress xx causes normal strains in three directions; i.e., xx/E, xx/E and xx/E along the x, y and z axis
respectively. Similarly, the normal stress yy causes normal strains, yy/E, yy/E and yy/E and the
normal stress zz causes normal strains zz/E, zz/E and zz/E.

Based on the above, the three normal strains according to generalized Hookes Law for Isotropic Linearly
Elastic Materials can be written as
xx = xx/E yy/E zz/E (3.13a)
yy = xx/E + yy/E zz/E (3.13b)
zz = xx/E yy/E + zz/E (3.13c)

The relationships between the shear stresses and strains are more direct and follow Eq. (3.11); i.e.,
xy = xy/G (3.14a)
yz = yz/G (3.14b)
zx = zx/G (3.14c)

Example 3.1
The rectangular prism shown below is subjected to normal force in the x direction and is restrained in the y
and z directions (i.e., yy = 0, zz = 0). Calculate the normal stresses (xx, yy, zz) and strain (xx) that develop
in the prism [Given: Modulus of Elasticity = 2000 ksi, Poissons ratio = 0.30].

The normal stress in x-direction is y

xx = 60/(5 3) = 4 ksi 3

yy = (0.30 4 +yy 0.30 zz)/2000 = 0 5 60 k 60 k

yy 0.3 zz = 1.20 x
zz = (0.30 4 0.30 yy + zz)/2000 = 0
z
0.3 yy + zz = 1.20
10
Solving, yy = 1.71 ksi, zz = 1.71 ksi
Fig. 3.6: Force on Rectangular Prism
xx = (4 0.30 1.71 0.30 1.71)/2000
= 1.49 10-3
Elongation of the prism in the x-direction, xx = (1.49 10-3) 10 = 0.0149 in

Tensile force in y-direction, Pyy = 1.71 (10 3) = 71.4 kips

and in z-direction, Pzz = 1.71 (10 5) = 85.7 kips

Example 3.2
Calculate all the shear forces, stresses and strains if the prism is also subjected to a uniformly distributed
shear force of Vxy = 45 k.

21
 Axial Deformations
Calculation of structural deformations is one of the main objectives of the study of axial strains. Excessive
deformation can render a structure useless even if it is safe in terms of stress induced. It may also cause
excessive stresses adjacent structural elements. Axial deformation in a structure is caused by axial strains.
The figure below (Fig. 3.7) shows a differential element of length x in an axially loaded bar.

u
x x x

Fig. 3.7: Axial Deformation of Differential Element

If the applied loads cause the differential element to extend by a differential amount u, the axial strain
xx = u/x, and in the limit x 0, xx = du/dx (3.15)

du = xx dx = xx/E dx = Pxx/AE dx du = Pxx/AE dx

where Pxx = Axial force, A = Cross-sectional area, E = Modulus of elasticity at distance x
The axial deformation between points A and B is given by
uB uA = (Pxx/AE) dx (3.16)

Therefore, using Eq. (3.15), the axial deformation between sections A and B can be calculated if the axial
force, cross-sectional area and modulus of elasticity are known at any section. For the special case when
they are all constant, the axial deformation takes the special form
uB uA = PxxL/AE (3.17)

Example 3.3
Calculate the axial deformations at point B and C of the axially loaded bars shown below in Fig. 3.8
[Given: E = 2000 ksi, Members AB and BC are (6 3/8) and (4 3/8) sections respectively].

20 k 20 k 40 k 20 k 0.5 k/ 40 k

40 50 40 50
A B C A B C

40 40
20 20
AFD (k) AFD (k)

Fig. 3.8: Axially Loaded Bars with AFD

uB uA = PABLAB/AABE uB uA = PAB dx/AABE
uB 0 = 20 40/{(6 3/8) (2000)} uB 0 = (20 + 40)/2 40/{(6 3/8) (2000)}
uB = 0.178 uB = 0.267

uC uB = PBCLBC/ABCE uC uB = PBCLBC/ABCE
uC uB = 40 50/{(4 3/8) (2000)} uC uB = 40 50/{(4 3/8) (2000)} = 0.667
uC = 0.844 uC = 0.933

Example 3.4
Calculate uB and uC if the depth of member AB varies linearly between A and B from 6 to 4.

22
 Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Bars
A large portion of civil engineering structures is statically indeterminate; i.e., they cannot be analyzed by
statics alone. Analysis of such structures require knowledge of displacements; i.e., axial deformation.
Solution of statically indeterminate structures is one of the main objectives of the study of axial
deformations.

Example 3.5
Draw the axial force diagram of the statically indeterminate axially loaded bar shown below in Fig. 3.9
[Given: E = 2000 ksi, Members AB and BC are (6 3/8) and (4 3/8) sections respectively].

20 k 40 k The structure is solved by first withdrawing the support at

C and then ensuring that the elongation at that point is
zero. Fig. 3.10 shows the two components of the problem.
40 50
A B C
Fig. 3.9: Statically Indeterminate Axially Loaded Bar

20 k 20 k 40 k P P

40 50 40 50
A B C A B C

40
20 P
AFD1 (k) AFD2 (k)

Fig. 3.10: Statically Determinate Components of the Problem

uC1 uA1 = PABLAB/AABE + PBCLBC/ABCE uC2 uA2 = P LAB/AABE + PLBC/ABCE

uC1 0 = 20 40/{(6 3/8) (2000)} + uC2 = P {40/(6 3/8) + 50/(4 3/8)}/(2000)
40 50/{(4 3/8) (2000)} = P (17.78 + 33.33)/2000 = P/39.13
uC1 = 0.178 + 0.667 = 0.844

uC = uC1 + uC2 = 0.844 + P/39.13 = 0 6.96

AFD (k)
P = 33.04 k 13.04

Example 3.6
Calculate the forces in wires A, B and C supporting the rigid bar ABC loaded as shown in Fig. 3.11
[Given: E = 10,000 ksi and A = 0.20 in2 for wire A and C, while E = 30,000 ksi, A = 0.30 in2 for B].

MB = 0 PA 10 PC 10 = 0 PA = PC = P (let)
Fy = 0 PB + P + P 10 = 0 PB = 10 2P
25
Rigid bar ABC A (= C ) = B
P (25 12)/(10000 0.2) = (10 2P) (50 12)/(30000 0.3)
25
A B C P/(0.2) = (10 2P) (2)/(3 0.3) 4.5 P = 20 4P
P = 2.35 k
10 10 PB = 10 2P = 5.3 k
10 k

Fig. 3.11: Rigid Bar ABC

Supported by A, B, C

23
 Stresses and Strains in Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels
A cylindrical tank carrying gas or fluid under a pressure p is subjected to tensile forces that resist the
bursting forces developed across longitudinal and transverse sections. Consider a typical section A-A through
the pressure loaded cylinder shown in Fig. 3.12 (a). A free body diagram of the lower half of the cylinder
isolated by the cutting plane is shown in Fig. 3.12 (b).
F = pDL

P
p L P
D

A A

(a) (b)
Fig. 3.12: Calculation of Bursting Force F
As shown in Fig. 3.12, the cylinder is occupied by a fluid, which transmits pressure equally in all directions.
From the accompanying free-body diagram, the bursting force F, acting over the flat surface of the fluid,
equals the pressure p multiplied by the area DL over which it acts, i.e.,
F = pDL ....(3.18)
The stress in the longitudinal section that resists the bursting force F is obtained by dividing it by the area of
the two cut surfaces. This gives t = F/A = pDL/2tL
t = pD/2t ..(3.19)
This stress is called the Tangential stress because it acts tangent to the surface of the cylinder. Other
common names are Circumferential Stress, Hoop Stress and Girth Stress.
Considering next the free-body diagram of a transverse
system (Fig. 3.13), where the bursting force acts over the
end of the cylinder is resisted by the resultant P of the
tensile forces acting over the transverse section; i.e., F = p(D2/4)

P = F (D + t)t l = p(D2/4)
l pD/4t (3.20)
where l is called the Longitudinal Stress because it acts
parallel to the longitudinal axis of the cylinder.

Eqs. (3.19) and (3.20) show that the longitudinal stress is P =Dtl
one-half the tangential stress.
Fig. 3.13: Bursting Force on Transverse Section

t, t

l, l l, l

t, t
Fig. 3.14: Longitudinal and Hoop Stress and Strain

Since the longitudinal and transverse stresses act in perpendicular planes, the corresponding strains obtained by
t = t/E l/E = (pD/2t) (1/2) .(3.21a)
l = l/E t/E = (pD/2t) (0.5) .(3.21b)

24
 Connections in Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels
Instead of a single thin-walled piece of metal, pressure vessels are often composed of several metal sheets
bolted or welded together. And since Eqs. (3.19) and (3.20) show that the longitudinal stress is one-half the
tangential stress, the longitudinal joint (Fig. 3.15) should be twice as strong as the hoop joint, otherwise the
permissible internal pressure will depend on the strength of the longitudinal joint.

Longitudinal Bolts
Longitudinal Weld
spaced @ Sl
(Thickness tl)

Hoop Bolts Hoop Weld

spaced @ Sh (Thickness th)

Fig. 3.15: Longitudinal and Hoop Joints (a) Bolted, (b) Welded
Bolt Connections
For connections joined together by bolts spaced at Sl along the length of the vessel, the force (pD/2) Sl is to
be resisted by the shear force acting on each bolt.
(pD/2) Sl = all (d2/4) Sl = (all/p) (d2/2D) .. (3.22 a)
It is reasonable to conclude from previous analysis that the bolts would be distributed at twice this spacing
along the perimeter of the vessel, to be acted on by longitudinal pressure and resisted by bolt shear stress.
Here, the longitudinal force p(D2/4) is resisted by all the bolts [number = Perimeter/Spacing = (D + t)/Sh]
around the perimeter of the vessel.
p (D2/4) = [(D + t)/Sh] [all (d2/4)] Sh (all/p) (d2/D) .......... (3.22 b)
which is indeed twice the spacing of the longitudinal bolts, shown in Eq. (3.22 a).

Weld Connections
For connections joined together by welds of thickness tl along the length of the vessel, the force (pD/2)L is
to be resisted by the shear force acting on each weld.
pDL/2 = all (0.707tl L) tl = (p/all) (0.707D) .. (3.23 a)
On the other hand, the longitudinal force [p (D2/4)] will be resisted by circumferential welds of thickness th
and length (D + t); i.e.,
p (D2/4) =all [0.707 th(D + t)] th (p/all) (0.353D) .. (3.23 b)
which is half the thickness required for longitudinal welds, as expected.

Possible reasons for failure of Pressure Vessels

* Increased temperature (due to fire/heat) can
- Increase gas pressure p
- Melt the wall-metal
- Reduce the metal-strength
* Decreased temperature can reduce the strength and ductility of the metal
* Careless handling/storage or accidents can lead to impact loading that may damage the wall
* Poor design may result in inadequate welds or bolts
* Poor workmanship can lead to porous welding/reduced weld thickness than designed
* Corrosion can reduce the thickness of the wall, weld, bolt or may create holes within the wall causing
stress concentration

25
 Practice Problems on Strain
1. The figure below shows the load vs. elongation diagrams of specimens X and Y. If their cross-sectional
areas are AX = 0.20 in2, AY = 0.25 in2 and gage-lengths are LX = LY = 5 respectively, determine which
specimen is made of (i) stronger, (ii) stiffer, (iii) more resilient, (iv) more ductile, (v) tougher material.
12

10
X
Load (kips)

8
Y
6
4

0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Elongation (in)

2. The figure below shows the idealized load (P) vs. elongation () diagram of a 2 long mild steel
specimen with X-sectional area = 0.20 in2. If P1 = 40 kN, P2 = 50 kN, 1 = 0.075 mm, 2 = 12.5 mm,
calculate (i) ultimate strength, (ii) modulus of elasticity, (iii) % elongation, (vi) modulus of toughness.

P =P2 Parabolic
P =P1
Load
P
Linear

Elongation
3. The figure below shows the axial force (P) vs. elongation () diagram of a 200 mm long mild steel
specimen of 25 mm diameter. Calculate the (i) Youngs modulus, (ii) apparent and actual breaking
strength and (iii) energy needed to break the specimen.
P (kN)

(15, 300)
(30, 250)
(0.4, 200)
(5, 200)

(mm)
4. The Proof Strength, yield strength from Offset Method and ultimate strength of a (2 2) timber
specimen (6 long) are all equal to 6 ksi, while its proportional limit is 3 ksi. Calculate the
(i) modulus of elasticity, (ii) modulus of resilience, (iii) ultimate deformation of the specimen.
Also draw its load (P) vs. deformation () diagram indicating appropriate values of P and .
5. The rectangular prism shown below is subjected to uniformly distributed normal forces in the x and y
directions and is restrained in the z direction (i.e., zz = 0). Calculate the normal stresses (xx, yy, zz) and
strains (xx, yy, zz) that develop in the prism [Given: E = 2000 ksi, Poissons ratio = 0.20].
y 2k

5 10 k 10 k
x
z 2k

2 1

26
6. For members ABCD shown below, draw the axial stress diagram and calculate the elongations at point
A, B, C and D. Neglect the effects of stress concentration [Given: Modulus of Elasticity = 30,000 ksi].
10 10 10
1 1

20 k 5k 2 1

A B C D Section A Section B, C, D

10 10 10 1 1

A 20 k B C 5k D 2 1

Section A Section B, C, D
7. Rework Question 6 if both ends A and D are restrained.

8. A rigid bar is supported by a pin at A and two linearly elastic wires at B and, as shown in the figure
below. The area of the wire B is 60 mm2 and wire C is 120 mm2. Determine the reactions at A, B and C
caused by the applied force P = 6 kN.

A
B

C 1m

P = 6 kN
0.5 m 0.5 m 0.5 m

9. Calculate the forces and axial stresses in wires a and c supporting the rigid beam abcd shown below.
Also calculate the deflection of the beam at a, c and d
[Given: E = 30,000 ksi, A = 0.20 in2, L = 15 for wire a, E = 20,000 ksi, A = 0.10 in2, L = 15 for c]

2 k/ft 1 k/ft
a d
c
b
6' 3' 3'

10. A cylindrical steel pressure vessel 400 mm in diameter with a wall thickness of 20 mm is subjected to an
internal pressure of 4.5 MPa.
(i) Calculate the tangential and longitudinal stresses and strains in the steel.
(ii) To what value may the internal pressure be increased in the allowable stress in steel is 120 MPa
(iii) If the internal pressure is increased until the vessel burst, sketch the type of fracture that would occur
[Given: Modulus of elasticity of steel = 200 GPa, Poissons ratio = 0.25].

11. For a gas cylinder of 6 diameter and 0.25 wall thickness, calculate the
(i) maximum internal pressure that the cylinder can be subjected to,
(ii) corresponding tangential and longitudinal stresses and strains in the wall of the cylinder,
(iii) required spacing of 1 diameter bolts and thickness of welds (both longitudinal and circumferential)
if the cylinder is subjected to an internal pressure one-third the maximum pressure calculated in (i).
[Given: Allowable tensile stress in the wall = 20 ksi, Allowable shear stress in bolts and welds = 16 ksi,
Modulus of elasticity of steel = 30 103 ksi, Poissons ratio = 0.25].

12. A large pipe, 1.5 m in diameter, is composed of wooden pieces and bound together by steel hoops 300
mm2 in cross-sectional area. If the permissible tensile stress in the hoops is 130 MPa, what is the
maximum spacing between hoops under a head water of 30 m [Given: Unit weight of water = 1 ton/m3].

27
 Bending Stress and Neutral Axis

O Assumptions:
1. Plane sections remain plane
2. Deformations are small
3. Hookes law is valid
R

y M M

B
A
B N
A
N N P
N
P P D
P D C
C

Fig. 4.1: Pure Bending of Beam

If NN = s and PP = s + u
If s 0, Normal Strain, x = u/s du/ds ....(4.1)
Also, u = y u/s = y /s (4.2)
If s 0, du/ds = y d/ds ....(4.3)
Also, Curvature = 1/R = d/ds
Eq. (4.1) x = y (4.4)
Using stress-strain relationship, x = Ex Normal Stress, x = E y (4.5)
Total Normal force on the section, dFx =x dA = E y dA (4.6)
Since dFx = 0 E y dA= 0 y dA = 0 (4.7)
Eq. (4.7) The beam bends about its Centroidal Axis, which is also called its Neutral Axis
Total moment on the section, dMz = y dFx = y x dA =E y2 dA
Mz = E Iz = Mz/EIz (4.8)
Combining Eqs. (4.4) and (4.8) x = Mz y/Iz (4.9)
Maximum normal stress,
x(max) = Mz ymax/Iz, commonly denoted by x(max) = Mz c/Iz ..(4.10)

Example 4.1: Calculate the maximum bending stress in the simply supported beam shown below.
1 k/ft
Maximum bending moment, Mmax = wL2/8 = 12.5 k = 150 k
Moment of inertia Iz = 10 103/12 = 833.33 in4 10
ymax = c = 10/2 = 5
L = 10
Maximum normal stress 10
0.9 ksi
x(max) = 150 5/833.33 = 0.9 ksi

+ 0.9 ksi
Fig. 4.2: Bending Stress in Simply Supported Beam

28
 Bending Stress in Composite Sections
Instead of homogeneous materials, engineering structures are quite often made of composite sections. For
example, concrete and wooden beams are sometimes reinforced by steel and metal straps, plastics reinforced
with fibers. The structural analysis of these sections is somewhat different from the analysis of homogeneous
sections. Although the basic assumption plane sections remain plane after bending is still valid, the
resulting stresses are quite different, depending (for linearly elastic materials) on the modulus of elasticity of
the different materials of the section.
To use the basic equations of pure bending, the structural analysis of these sections assumes them to be
made of a homogeneous material. Instead of changing the modulus of elasticity over the section, the width
of various parts is modified proportionately. The stress analysis is made of an Equivalent or Transformed
Section derived.
Example 4.2
For a simply supported beam loaded as shown below, draw the flexural stress and strain diagrams over the
composite cross-sectional area at section B.
10
1 k/ft
4 E1 = 1000 ksi
A C
B 6 E2 = 3000 ksi

5 5 2 E3 = 2000 ksi
7
Fig. 4.3: Simply Supported Composite Beam
10
Maximum bending moment, Mmax = 110 /8 = 12.5 k-ft = 150 k-in
2
a
For the Equivalent Section (Fig. 4.4), assumed to be made of material1 4
b
y = (40 1 + 126 5 + 40 10)/(40 + 126 + 40) = 5.19
6 21
andI = 20 23/12 + 40 (5.191)2 +21 63/12 + 126 (5.195)2 c
+ 10 43/12 + 40 (5.1910)2 = 2076.90 in4 2 d
Bending strains 20
a = {(150) 6.81/2076.90}/1000 = 4.92 104
Fig. 4.4: The Equivalent Section
b = {(150) 2.81/2076.90}/1000 = 2.03 104
c = {(150) (3.19)/2076.90}/1000 = 2.31 104
d = {(150) (5.19)/2076.90}/1000 = 3.75 104
4.92 0.492
The corresponding stresses are 2.03 0.203
a = aE1 = 4.92 104 1000 = 0.492 ksi 0.609
b1 = bE1 = 0.58 105 1000 = 0.203 ksi, b2 = b E2 = 0.609 ksi 2.31 0.692
c2 = cE2 = 0.692 ksi, c3 = cE3 = 0.461 ksi 0.461
3.75 0.750
d3 = dE3 = 0.750 ksi Strain (104) Stress (ksi)
Fig. 4.5: Variation of Flexural Strain and Stress

Example 4.3
If the cross-sectional area of the simply supported beam loaded as in Example 4.2 is made of Reinforced
Concrete as shown below, draw the flexural stress diagram over the section B.
Assume that the section is uncracked [Given: Esteel = 30000 ksi, Econcrete = 3000 ksi].

2.5
Bar diameter = 0.75

9.5

Fig. 4.6: Reinforced Concrete Section

10

29
 Bending Stress in Reinforced Concrete
Reinforced Concrete is one of the prime examples of a composite section subjected to flexural stress. It is a
combination of concrete and reinforcing steel working together in a wide range of structural applications. As
a building material, it has unique characteristics, because the very low tensile strength of plain concrete is
offset by the high tensile efficiency of the encased steel bars. The following examples illustrate the linearly
elastic material behavior of Reinforced Concrete subjected to flexural stress.
The first illustration is Example 4.3 shown before, when concrete does not crack due to tensile stress.
Solution of Example 4.3
(n1)As
Bar diameter = 0.75
0.542
2.5 nAs
3.04

9.5
y

10 0.602
10 10
Flexural Stress
(ksi)
Fig. 4.6 (Repeated):
Reinforced Concrete Section Fig. 4.7: Equivalent Uncracked Section

The modular ratio, n = Esteel/Econcrete = 30000/3000 = 10

Transformed extra steel area in the Equivalent Cracked section, (n1)As = 9 [3 (0.75)2/4] = 11.93 in2
y = (120 6 + 11.93 9.5)/(120 + 11.93) = 6.32
Moment of Inertia,I = 10 123/12 + 120 (6 6.32)2 + 11.93 (9.5 6.32)2 = 1572.91 in4
Maximum compressive stress in concrete, fc = My/I = 150 6.32/1572.91 = 0.602 ksi
Maximum tensile stress in concrete, ft = 150 (12 6.32)/1572.91 = 0.542 ksi
Maximum tensile stress in steel, fs = 150 (9.5 6.32)/1572.91 10 = 3.04 ksi
As the tensile stress induced in concrete is quite substantial (expected to be greater than its tensile strength),
it is more reasonable to assume concrete to have cracked in tension.
Example 4.4
Rework Example 4.3 if the Reinforced Concrete section at B (shown below) is assumed cracked.

2.5 2.5
Bar diameter = 0.75 nAs
13.78
9.5 9.5
c

0.942
10 10
Flexural Stress (ksi)
Fig. 4.6 (Repeated):
Reinforced Concrete Section Fig. 4.8: Equivalent Cracked Section

Modular ratio, n = 10
Transformed steel area in the Equivalent Cracked section, nAs = 10 [3 (0.75)2/4] = 13.25 in2
Taking moments of the cracked area about neutral axis
10 c c/2 = 13.25 (9.5 c) 5c2 + 13.25 c 125.91 = 0 c = 3.86
Moment of Inertia,I = 10 3.863/3 + 13.25 (9.53.86)2 = 613.30 in4
Maximum compressive stress in concrete, fc = Mc/I = (150 3.86)/613.30 = 0.945 ksi
Maximum tensile stress in steel, fs = 150 (9.53.86)/613.30 10 = 13.78 ksi

30
 Plastic Bending of Beams
For reasons of economy, it is important to determine member strengths beyond the elastic limit. The elastic
bending theory for beams can be readily extended to inelastic bending by introducing a uniaxial nonlinear
stress-strain relationship for the material. The basic requirement for statics and kinematics of deformation
will remain the same as for the elastic case.
The elastic perfectly plastic idealization, for reasons of simplicity, is often used, for beams of ductile
materials in determining their behavior in bending. Fig. 4.9 shows the elastic-perfectly plastic uniaxial
stress-strain (-) relationship of a material, while Fig. 4.10 shows the development of strain and stress
when a beam section made of this material is subjected to pure bending.

M
yp

yp

Elastic Elasto- Fully Plastic

Plastic
Fig. 4.9: Elastic-Perfectly Plastic - Relation Fig. 4.10: Development of Bending Strain and Stress
As shown in Fig. 4.10, it is reasonable to assume linear variation of strain across the section (i.e., plane
sections remain plane after bending), but as the strain increases the corresponding variation of stress is no
longer linear. At the extreme case, the stress over almost the entire section may reach the yield point (yp);
i.e., the section becomes fully plastic and the corresponding bending moment Mp (the Plastic Moment of the
section) is given by
Mp = yp Z ..(4.11)
where Z is called the plastic Section Modulus. The ratio of the plastic and elastic section modulus (i.e., Z and
S) is called the aspect ratio () of the section; i.e.,
= Z/S ..(4.12)
If the material has identical - relation in tension and compression, the neutral axis of the fully plastic
section corresponds to two equal areas in tension and compression.

Example 4.5
Calculate the Section Modulus, Plastic Section Modulus and Shape Factor of the sections shown below.
b
For the rectangular section, the neutral axis divides the area into two segments of (b h/2).
Compressive force = Tensile force = yp (bh/2) h
Plastic moment Mp = Tensile (or compressive) force Moment arm = yp (bh/2) h/2
Mp = yp (bh2/4) Z = bh2/4
Since S = bh2/6, = Z/S = 1.5 2

For the T-section, the neutral axis divides the area along the flange line.
Compressive force = Tensile force = yp (12 2) = 24yp 12
Plastic moment Mp = Tensile (or compressive) force Moment arm = 24yp (1 + 6)
Mp = yp (168) Z = 168 in3
Also,y = (24 1 + 24 8)/48 = 4.5; c = 14 4.5 = 9.5 2
I = 12 23/12 + 24 (1 4.5)2 + 2 123/12 + 24 (8 4.5)2 = 884 in4 12
S = 884/9.5 = 93.05 in3, = Z/S = 1.81
Fig. 4.11

31
 Practice Problems on Bending Stress
1. Calculate (i) the maximum positive and negative bending moments, (ii) the maximum tensile and
compressive flexural stresses in the beam ABC loaded as shown below.
10
1.5 k/ft
A 1
B C 6
15 5
1
2. The figure below shows a 5 long cantilever beam of uniformly varying cross-section. The beam is 1
wide and its depth increases linearly from 1 at the free end A to 2 at the fixed end B. If the beam
weighs 150 lb per ft3, calculate the maximum bending stress at B due to the self-weight of the beam.

1 1

1 A B
2
Section A
5 Section B
3. Calculate the maximum allowable load P in the simply supported beam loaded as shown below, if the
allowable compressive stress in the cross-section is 20 ksi and allowable tensile stress 15 ksi. For this
value of P, (i) draw the bending stress and strain diagrams over the section, (ii) calculate the
compressive and tensile forces acting on the section [Given: Modulus of elasticity E = 30,000 ksi].
2
P/2 P/2

12

2
10 10 10
12 Cross Section

4. A concrete cylinder of 1 diameter and 2 height is suspended at the free end of a 12 cantilever beam as
shown in the figure below, which also shows the composite cross-section of the beam, made of steel and
timber. Calculate the maximum flexural stresses in the section [Given: Unit weight of concrete = 0.15
k/ft3, Modulus of elasticity of steel = 30,000 ksi, Modulus of elasticity of timber = 1500 ksi].

12 Steel 2

A Timber 9

Concrete
Cylinder 2
6
1
Cross Section

5. For the beam described in Question 4, draw the flexural strain diagram over the composite cross-
sectional area shown below at Section A. Also calculate the maximum stress in timber and aluminum.
2 Timber Et = 2000 ksi

20 Aluminum Ea = 10000 ksi

2 16
2
Composite cross-section

32
6. (i) Calculate the required depth h if the Section 1 shown below (made of concrete) is subjected to a
negative bending moment of 50 k-ft.
(ii) Calculate the maximum flexural stress in concrete if the section is made of Reinforced Concrete as
shown below in Section 2. Assume the section is cracked due to concrete tension
[Given: Allowable concrete stress in tension = 200 psi, compression = 1500 psi, n = 10].

2.5 Steel Bar

(1 diameter)
h 15.5

12
12

Section 1 Section 2 (Reinforced Concrete)

(Concrete)
7. Calculate the bending moment required to cause the Reinforced Concrete section shown below to crack
in concrete tension. Also calculate the corresponding tensile stress in steel bars and maximum
compressive stress in concrete [Given: n = 10, Allowable tensile stress in concrete = 300 psi].

12.5

2.5 Steel Bar

(1 diameter)
12

8. The side elevation and 1-ft wide cross-section A of the Reinforced Concrete wall of a 12-ft high water
tank is shown in the figure below. Calculate the maximum bending stresses in concrete and steel
assuming that the section is (i) uncracked, (ii) cracked due to concrete tension
[Given: Esteel = 30000 ksi, Econcrete = 3000 ksi].

Bar diameter = 5/8

3 5 3
12
10 12

Bar diameter = 0.75

A Section A

9. Calculate the (i) Section Modulus, (ii) Plastic Section Modulus and Shape Factor of the inverted T-
section shown in Question 3.

10. Calculate the ultimate moment capacity of the RC section shown in Question 7.

33
 Shear Flow and Flexural Shear Stress
The theory of simple bending analyzes a section under pure bending, neglecting the effect of shear force
acting on it. But in actual practice when a beam is loaded, the shear force at a section always comes into play
along with the bending moment. And sometimes the shear stress at a section assumes much importance in
design.
Shear Force at a Section
Consider a small beam segment ABCD of length dx shown in Fig. 5.1(a), in equilibrium under the action of
shear forces V and (V + dV) and bending moments M and (M + dM) at sections AB and CD respectively.
A C

M M + dM dA
y y b
y0
Neutral Axis
F
V V + dV
B D
dx

Fig. 5.1: (a) Shear and Moment on a Differential Beam Segment, (b) Cross-Sectional Area

If I = Centroidal moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area [shown in Fig. 5.1(b)],

Bending stress on the differential area dA at height y on section AB, = My/I ..(5.1)
and on the differential area on section CD, + d = (M + dM) y/I ......(5.2)
The net unbalanced normal force acting on the differential area dA
dF = (M + dM) y/I dA (M) y/I dA = (dM)(dA) yI ......(5.3)
Total unbalanced normal force on the dark-shaded area
F = dF = (dM) (dA) y/I = (dM) Ay /I ......(5.4)
This force has to be balanced by a shear force F acting along the length of the beam.
Shear force per unit length of beam (at height y0 from the Neutral Axis) = F/dx = (dM/dx) Ay /I = VQ/I
i.e., Shear Flow, q = VQ/I ......(5.5)
If b is the width of the section at height y0 from Neutral Axis, shear stress along horizontal surface b dx
yx = VQ/I b ......(5.6)
Sincexy =yx (from past formulation of shear stress), shear stress along the vertical surface AB is also
= VQ/I b ......(5.7)

Example 5.1: Calculate the flexural shear stress at levels 1-1, 2-2 and 3-3 at the support sections of the
simply supported beam shown below.
1 k/ft 3 3
Shear force at support, V = wL/2 = 5 k = 5000 lb 2
2 2
Moment of inertiaIz = 10 103/12 = 833.33 in4 3
1 1
At level 1-1, Q11 = (10 5) 5/2 = 125 in3 5
L = 10
11 = VQ11/I b = 5000 125/(833.33 10) = 75 psi 10

At level 2-2, Q22 = (10 2) (3 + 2/2) = 80 in3 Fig. 5.2: Levels at Section of Simply Supported Beam
22 = VQ22/I b = 5000 80/(833.33 10) = 48 psi

At level 3-3, Q33 = 0

33 = VQ33/I b = 5000 0/(833.33 10) = 0

34
 Flexural Shear Stress in Typical Sections
The following examples demonstrate the shear stress distribution over several cross-sectional areas.

Example 5.2: Show the variation of flexural shear stress over a rectangular and circular cross-section.
dy
h/2y0
y0 Ry0
y0 y
1.5 V/A
h/2 1.33V/A
R
b

Fig. 5.3: Flexural Shear Stress Distribution for (a) Rectangular Section, (b) Circular Section

For the rectangular section, For the circular section,

Area A = bh, Moment of inertiaIz = bh3/12 Area A = R2, Moment of inertiaIz = R4/4
At level y0, Q0 = b (h/2 y0) (h/2 + y0)/2 At level y, dQ = {2(R2y2) dy} y = 2y(R2y2) dy
= b {(h/2)2 (y0)2}/2 At level y0, Q0 = 2y(R2y2) dy = 2/3 (R2y02)3/2
0 = VQ0/I b 0 = VQ0./I b
= V [b {(h/2)2 (y0)2}/2]/(bh3/12 b) = V [2/3 (R2y02)3/2]/{R4/4 2(R2y02)}
= 1.5 (V/bh) {1 (2y0/h)2} = (4/3) (V/R2) {1 (y0/R)2}
max = 1.5 (V/bh) = 1.5 V/A [when y0 = 0] max = (4/3) (V/R2) = 1.33 V/A [when y0 = 0]

Example 5.3: Calculate the flexural shear stress at Level 1-1 and 2-2 for the T- and I-sections shown below
and loaded as a simply supported beam shown in Example 5.1.

12 12
1 2 1 1 2 1
2 2
6
12 2 2
9.5 2 6

2 2

Fig. 5.4: Flexural Shear Stress Distribution for a (a) T-Section, (b) I-Section

For the T-section, For the I-section,

Area A = 24+24 = 48 in2,y = (246 + 2413)/48 = 9.5
Moment of inertia
Iz = 24 (122/12 + 3.52) + 24 (22/12 + 3.52) = 884 in4
At level 1-1, Q11 = 24 (2.5 + 2/2) = 84 in3
At level 2-2, Q22 = Q11 + 2 2.5 (2.5/2) = 90.25 in3
11 (flange) = VQ11/Iz b11 = 5 84/[884 12]
= 0.040 ksi
11 (web) = 5 84/[884 2] = 0.238 ksi
22 = 5 90.25/[884 2] = 0.255 ksi
max = 0.255 ksi, while avg = 5/48 = 0.104 ksi
Neglecting the flange, avg 5/(28) = 0.179 ksi
Area A = 24 + 24 + 24 = 72 in2,y = 8
Moment of inertia
Iz = 12 163/12 10 123/12 = 2656 in4
At level 1-1, Q11 = 24 (6 + 2/2) = 168 in3
At level 2-2, Q22 = Q11 + 2 6 (6/2) = 204 in3
11 (flange) = VQ11/Iz b11 = 5 168/[2656 12]
= 0.026 ksi
11 (web) = 5 168/[2656 2] = 0.158 ksi
22 = 5 204/[2656 2] = 0.192 ksi
max = 0.192 ksi, while avg = 5/72 = 0.069 ksi
Neglecting the flange width, avg 5/(32) = 0.156 ksi

35
 Flexural Shear and Connections
Structural sections are often built by combining together several simpler sections. The main purpose is to
enhance the load-carrying capacity of the sections, which may otherwise be inadequate to withstand the
design loads. These sections can be either glued together or joined by bolts/welds to withstand the shear flow
working at the joints to separate the sections.

Example 5.4:
(i) Calculate the flexural shear flow at Level 1-1 of the T-sections joined as shown below in (a) and (b) if
loaded as the simply supported beam shown in Example 5.1.
(ii) Calculate the spacing of 3/8 bolts required at the joints to withstand shear flow.
(iii) Calculate the size of welds required at the joints [Given: Allowable shear stress = 15 ksi].
1
12 5
1 2 2
1
1
12 12
9.5 9.5

2 2

Fig. 5.5: Flexural Shear Flow at 1-1 for a T-Section joined as (a) and (b)

For the T-section joined as (a) For the T-section joined as (b)
Area A = 48 in2,y = 9.5, Iz = 884 in4 Area A = 48 in2,y = 9.5, Iz = 884 in4
At level 1-1, Q11 = 24 (2.5 + 2/2) = 84 in3 At level 1-1, Q11 = 5 2 (2.5 + 2/2) 2 = 70 in3

Shear flow q11 = VQ11/Iz = 5 84/884 = 0.475 k/in Shear flow q11 = VQ11/Iz = 5 70/884 = 0.396 k/in
Allowable shear at bolts = (/4) (3/8)2 15 = 1.66 k Allowable shear at bolts = 1.66 k
Required bolt spacing = 1.66/0.475 = 3.49 Required bolt spacing = 1.66/0.396 = 4.18
Bolts can be spaced @ 3.5 c/c Bolts can be spaced @ 4 c/c

Allowable weld shear = 0.707all t 2 = 1.414 15 t
= 21.21 t k/in
21.21 t = 0.475 t = 0.022, which is quite nominal
1/16 thickness will be more than sufficient
[even if used in part of the beam]
Allowable weld shear = 21.21 t k/in
21.21 t = 0.396 t = 0.019, which is also nominal
1/16 thickness will again be more than sufficient

Example 5.5:
Repeat the calculations of Example 5.4 for the I-section shown in Example 5.3.

36
 Shear Center
Torsional moments are caused by forces acting off the axis of a section. Every cross-section possesses a
point through which the transverse load must be applied so as to produce to torsion in the section. The point
is called the Shear Center of the section. Torsion is produced if the transverse load is applied away from the
shear center and moreover, the twist takes place around it. For this reason, the shear center is also called the
center of twist.
For cross-sectional areas having one axis of symmetry (e.g., T-section, channel section), the shear center is
always located on the axis of symmetry. For those having two axes of symmetry (e.g., rectangular, circular,
I-section), the shear center coincides with the centroid of the cross-sectional area.
For thin-walled channel sections, of particular interest here, the location of the shear center is obtained
explicitly by considering the shear flow within the section due to applied transverse load V. If b = Width of
the flange, h = Height of the web, t = Thickness of the section, I = Moment of inertia of the section (shown
in Fig. 5.6), the maximum shear flow in the horizontal flanges
qmax = VQmax/I = V (b t h/2)/I ...(5.8)
Horizontal Force, H = qmax b/2 = V (b2 h t)/(4 I) ...(5.9)
Torsional moment due to horizontal forces T = H h = V (b2 h2 t)/(4 I) ...(5.10)
Required distance of applied load from web, e = T/V = (b2 h2 t)/(4 I) ...(5.11)

b q = V(bth/2)/I

V
h
e
t
V H

Fig. 5.6: Location of Shear Center of Thin-walled Channel section

For thin-walled cross-sections, I can be approximated by

I th3/12 + bth2/2 .(5.12)
from which e b/(2+h/3b) .....(5.13)

As mentioned, torsion is induced in the section if the transverse

load is applied away from the shear center. Fig. 5.7 shows that
in such cases, the section twists about its shear center; i.e., the
torsional moment equals to the applied force times its e
perpendicular distance from the shear center.
e
Knowledge about torsional deformations is required to
calculate the torsional rotation induced in such cases.

Fig. 5.7: Section twists about Shear Center

37
 Practice Problems on Flexural Shear Stress
1. Compare the maximum flexural shear stresses on a square and a circular area if their cross-sectional
areas the same (assume 100 in2) and they are subjected to the same shear force (assume 10 k).

2. (i) Calculate the maximum allowable load P in the simply supported beam loaded as shown below, if
the allowable shear stress in the cross-section is 12 ksi.
(ii) For this value of P, draw the shear stress diagram over the section at support.
2
P/2 P/2

12

2
10 10 10
12
Cross Section
3. (i) Calculate the maximum allowable value of w (k/ft) if the flexural shear stress over the cross-section
is not to exceed 100 psi.
(ii) For the value of w calculated in (i), draw the shear stress diagram over the cross-section where the
shear force in the beam is the maximum.

25
w k/ft
4
A
B C 10
15 5
10
Cross Section

4. The figure below shows a 5 long cantilever beam of uniformly varying cross-section. The beam is 1
wide and its depth increases linearly from 1 at the free end A to 2 at the fixed end B. If the beam
weighs 150 lb per ft3, calculate the maximum shear stress at the fixed end B due to the self-weight of the
beam.
1 1

1 A B
2
Section A
5 Section B

5. Rectangular plates [(50.5) and (30.5)] are to be joined either by bolts of 0.25 diameter (spaced @
3 c/c) or 1/8 thick welds to form an I-section as shown below. Calculate the shear stress induced in the
bolts and welds if the section is subjected to a shear force of 10 kips
[Given: Allowable shear stress = 12 ksi].

0.5

3 0.5 Bolts Welds

0.5

38
6. Locate the shear centers of the areas (thickness = 0.25 throughout) shown below by centerline
dimensions, and calculate the torsion produced by the vertical forces (10 kips) passing through points A.

A
1

7 5 A 7 A

2 2
2 3.5 2

7. The channel-shaped cross-sectional area of a beam is shown below by centerline dimensions. If the self-
weight of the beam is 15 lb, calculate the magnitude of force P needed to avoid torsion in the section.

4
P

6
Thickness = 1/8
(throughout)

39
 Torque Diagram and Torsional Stress of Circular Section
Torsional or twisting moment is caused by forces whose resultant does not pass through the axis of rotation
(called the shear center) of the structural member. Typically, significant torsions are induced in shafts of
rotating motors, structural members subjected to eccentric loading (e.g., edge beams) or curved in the
horizontal plane (e.g., curved bridges, helical stairs).

Torque Diagram 5k
3
3

10 k 5k 10 k 15 k 15 k 10 k 1k/ 15 k
4 2
10 k
5k
4 5 6 4 5 6 4 5 6

Case 1: T1 (k ) Case 2: T2 (k ) Case 3: T3 (k )

15 20
10 5 15
5 10

15

Torsion of Circular and Tubular Section

Unlike other sections (e.g., rectangular, thin-walled), the behavior of circular or tubular sections due to
torsional moment is well represented by some familiar simplifying assumptions; i.e., plane sections remain
plane when torsional moment is applied (i.e., no warping deformations), shear strains are small (as are shear
stesses if Hookes law is valid) and vary linearly from the center of the section.

Using these assumptions, the shear stress at any distance from the center
of the circle is = max /c ..(i) T
Shear force acting on a small differential area dA is c
dF = dA = ( max /c) dA ..(ii)
Corresponding torsional moment, dT = dF = ( max 2/c) dA ..(iii)
Total torsional moment integrated over the entire circular area is
T = ( max 2/c) dA = max J/c max = Tc/J ..(iv)
max
where J = Polar moment of inertia of the section.
For a solid circular section of diameter d, J = d4/32
Eq. (iv) can be simplified as max = T(d/2)/( d4/32) = 16T/ d3 ...(v)

Example: Considering the torque diagram T1 corresponding to Case 1 shown above, calculate the maximum
torsional shear stress for (a) a solid circular section of 4 diameter, (b) a tubular section of 4 outside
diameter and 3 inside diameter.
(c) Calculate the required diameter of a solid circular section if the allowable shear stress is 10 ksi.

(a) Since T max = 15 k = 180 k , max = 16 180/ (4)3 = 14.32 ksi

(b) max = 180 (4/2)/( {(4)4 (3)4}/32) = 20.95 ksi 4 3
(c) max = 16 180/ d3 = 10 ksi d = 4.51

1
 Torsional Rotation of Circular Section
Calculation of torsional rotation is necessary to
1. design structures not only to be strong enough (to withstand torsional stress), but also stiff enough (i.e.,
they should not deform too much due to torsional moments),
2. design machineries for torsional vibrations,
3. analyze statically indeterminate structures.

Torsional Rotation of Circular and Tubular Section

The assumptions used to derive the equation for torsional shear stress of circular sections are valid here also;
i.e., plane sections remain plane due to torsional moment, shear strains (as well as stresses if Hookes law is
valid) are small and vary linearly from the center of the section.
For a cylindrical segment of differential length dx, the length of the arc MN dx
is given by ds = max dx ..(i)
It can also be expressed in terms of the differential angular rotation d , i.e.,
ds = c d ..(ii)
max O
where c = radius of the circular area. M
Combining Eq. (i) and (ii) c d = max dx = ( max/G) dx 1 d
Using max = Tc/J c d = (Tc/JG) dx d = (T/JG) dx ..(iii) N
where J = Polar moment of inertia of the section.
Integrating between sections A and B B A = (T/JG) dx .(iv)

where is integration between sections A and B.

If T, J and G are uniform between A and B, then B A = (TL/JG) .(v)

Example: Considering the torque diagram shown below, calculate the torsional rotations for
(a) a tubular section of 4 outside diameter and 3 inside diameter.
(b) Calculate the required diameter of a solid circular section if the allowable torsional rotation is 1
[Given: G = 12000 ksi].

B C T (k )
A D 10 15 4 3 d
5
10 k 5k 10 k 15 k

4 5 6

(a) The polar moment of inertia of the tubular section is J = {(4)4 (3)4}/32 = 17.18 in4
D C = (TL/JG)CD = (15 12) (6 12)/(17.18 12000) = 0.0629 rad C = 0.0629 rad = 3.60
C B = (TL/JG) BC = (5 12) (5 12)/(17.18 12000) = 0.0175 rad B = 0.0803 rad = 4.60
B A = (TL/JG)AB = (10 12) (4 12)/(17.18 12000) = 0.0279 rad A = 0.1083 rad = 6.21

(b) Using D = 0, the maximum torsional rotation at point A is

A= [(TL/JG)CD + (TL/JG)BC + (TL/JG)AB]
/180 = [(15 12) (6 12) + (5 12) (5 12) + (10 12) (4 12)]/(J 12000) = 1.86/J
J = d4/32 = 106.57 in4 d = 5.74

2
 Torsion of Closed Thin-Walled Sections
Thin-walled sections have wall thickness much smaller than its other dimensions. Closed thin-walled
sections are widely used in structures subjected to torsional moments because compared to other sections,
they can resist torsional stress and deformations more efficiently.

Torsional Stress and Rotation of Thin-Walled Section

Thin-walled sections can be analyzed for torsion using somewhat similar assumptions as for circular
sections; i.e., plane sections remain plane, shear strains are small. However, since the thickness of the
section is very small, the shear stresses remain almost constant across the thickness instead of varying
linearly from the center of rotation.
dx
But the shear stress does not remain constant throughout the perimeter of the
section. Instead the shear flow q, which is the shear force per unit length
(given by shear stress times the wall thickness t; i.e., q = t) is
constant.
Shear force on a small element of length ds is dF = q ds .....(i) r
and the corresponding torque dT = r dF = q r ds .(ii) T
ds
Since the area of the small triangular area subtended at the center of rotation
is = rds, integrating rds over the perimeter of the area will give twice the
dF
entire area enclosed by the section [i.e., 2 A ].
Total torque T = dT = q r ds = q 2 A = q/t = T/(2 A t) ..(iii)
Also, the external energy required by a torque T to cause a twisting rotation d is = T d /2 .(iv)
while the corresponding internal energy is = 2/2G dV = (T2/8 A 2t2G) (dx t ds)
= (T2 dx /8 A 2G)( ds/t) .....(v)
Eq. (iv) and (v) d /dx = (T/4 A 2 G)( ds/t); i.e., Jeq = 4 A 2/( ds/t) .....(vi)

Example: Considering the torque diagram shown below, calculate the maximum shear stress and torsional
rotation for a 4 4 hollow square section with 0.5 wall thickness [Given: G = 12000 ksi].

B C T (k )
A D 10 4
15
10 k 5k 10 k 15 k 5 0.5 thick wall

4 5 6 4

The enclosed area A = 3.5 3.5 = 12.25 in2

max = T/(2 A t) = (15 12)/(2 12.25 0.5) = 14.69 ksi
Also Jeq = 4 A 2/ ds/t = 4(12.25)2/(4 3.5/0.5) = 21.44 in4
D C = (TL/JG)CD = (15 12) (6 12)/(21.44 12000) = 0.0503 rad C = 0.0503 rad = 2.89
C B = (TL/JG)BC = (5 12) (5 12)/(21.44 12000) = 0.0140 rad B = 0.0644 rad = 3.69
B A = (TL/JG)AB = (10 12) (4 12)/(21.44 12000) = 0.0224 rad A = 0.0868 rad = 4.97

3
 Torsion of Rectangular Sections
Since a majority of civil engineering structures consist of rectangular or assembly of rectangular sections,
the study of torsional behavior of such sections is important. However, when subjected to torsional moment,
rectangular sections do not behave like circular or thin-walled sections, due to the warping deformations
accompanying their response.

Torsional Stress and Rotation of Rectangular Section

The torsional response of these sections cannot be derived using the simple methods of Strength of
Materials, and requires concepts of Theory of Elasticity instead, which is beyond the scope of this course.
Therefore, only the final expressions for torsional stress and rotation are shown here.
For a (b t) rectangular section (with b t) subjected to torsional moment T, max
the maximum shear stress max = T/( bt2) ......(i)
and the equivalent polar moment of inertia for torsional rotation is
Jeq = bt3 .....(ii) b
Torsional rotation for a uniform section of length L is
= TL/( bt3)G ....(iii)
The constants and in Eqs. (i) and (ii) are non-dimensional parameters
and depend on the ratio b/t, as shown in the following table.
t
b/t 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 6.0 10.0
0.208 0.231 0.246 0.267 0.299 0.312 0.333
0.141 0.196 0.229 0.263 0.299 0.312 0.333

Example: Considering the torque diagram shown below, calculate the maximum shear stress and torsional
rotation for a (a) 4 4 solid section (b) 4 4 0.5 open section [Given: G = 12000 ksi].

B C T (k )
A D 4
10 15
10 k 5k 10 k 15 k 5 0.5

4 5 6 4 4

(a) For the 4 4 solid section, = 0.208, = 0.141

2
max = T/( bt ) = (15 12)/(0.208 4 42) = 13.52 ksi
Also Jeq = bt3 = 0.141 4 43 = 36.10 in4
D A = {(15 12) (6 12) + (5 12) (5 12) + (10 12) (4 12)}/(36.10 12000) = 0.0515 rad
A = 0.0515 rad = 2.95

(b) The 4 4 0.5 open section is torsionally equivalent to a rectangular section of size 16 0.5
b/t = 32 Both and can be assumed to be 0.333
2
max = T/( bt ) = (15 12)/(0.333 16 0.52) = 135 ksi
Jeq = bt = 0.333 16 0.53 = 0.667 in4
3

D A = {(15 12) (6 12) + (5 12) (5 12) + (10 12) (4 12)}/(0.667 12000) = 2.79 rad
A = 2.79 rad = 160
Obviously, common structural materials cannot survive such a large shear stress and angular rotation.

4
 Distributed Torsion and Torsional Rotation
Since the loads on civil engineering (or other) structures are often distributed over a length or over an area,
torsional moments on such structures seldom work as concentrated at one section. The torque diagram and
calculation of torsional rotation in such cases require special attention.

Distributed Torsion

A B C D A B C D

10 k 10 k 15 k
1k/ 15 k 2k/

4 5 6 4 5 6
Case 1: T1 (k ) Case 2: T2 (k )

15 15
10 10

Example: Considering the torque diagrams shown above, calculate the maximum torsional rotation for a
solid circular section of 4 -diameter [Given: G = 12000 ksi].

The polar moment of inertia of the circular section is J = (4)4/32 = 25.13 in4
Using D = 0, the maximum torsional rotation at point A is
(a) A = [(TL/JG)CD + BC(T/JG) dx + (TL/JG)AB]
= [(15 12) (6 12) + {(10 +15)/2 12} (5 12) +(10 12) (4 12)]/(25.13 12000)
= 0.0919 rad = 5.27

(b) A = [(TL/JG)CD + BC(T/JG) dx + (TL/JG)AB]

= [(15 12) (6 12) + {(10 +5/3) 12} (5 12) +(10 12) (4 12)]/(25.13 12000)
= 0.0900 rad = 5.15

5
 Composite and Variable Cross-sections
Composite Sections
Instead of the simple sections (i.e., circular, thin-walled and rectangular), structures subjected to torsion may
be sections of arbitrary shape or composite sections made up of two or more simple sections. While arbitrary
shaped sections can only be dealt numerically, composites of two or more simple sections can be solved
more conveniently. The basic assumption for solving this type of problems is that when subjected to torsion,
the section rotates as a rigid body; i.e., = TL/JG is valid for each part of the section so that = T1L/J1G1 =
T2L/J2G2, etc. Therefore, if G is constant, T1/J1 = T2/J2 = ..etc; i.e., the torque taken by different parts of
the section is proportional to their J values.

Example: Calculate the magnitude and location of the maximum shear stress in the compound section shown
below when subjected to a torque of 10 k-ft.
The composite section consists of a thin-walled, a rectangular and a
4 t = 0.10 circular section. If the torques taken by them are T 1, T2 and T3
throughout
respectively, then T1/J1 = T2/J2 = T3/J3 = T/(J1 + J2 + J3)
Here, area enclosed by section1, A = {(2 + 4)/2} 2 = 6.0 in2
2
J1 = 4 A 2/ ds/t = 4 (6.0)2/[{(4 + 2 + 2 (22 + 12)}/0.10] = 1.38 in4
J2 = bt3 = 0.141 2 (2)3 = 2.26 in4
2 J3 = d4/32 = 24/32 = 1.57 in4
T1/1.38 = T2/2.26 = T3/1.57 = 10/(1.38 + 2.26 + 1.57) = 10/5.20
T1 = 2.64 k-ft, T2 = 4.34 k-ft, T3 = 3.02 k-ft
2
max(1) = T1/(2 A t) = 2.64 12/(2 6.0 0.1) = 26.43 ksi
2
max(2) = T2/( bt ) = 4.34 12/(0.208 2 22) = 31.28 ksi
3
max(3) = 16 T3/( d ) = 16 3.02 12/( 23) = 23.07 ksi
max = 31.28 ksi, at the midpoints of rectangles sides
1 2 1

Variable Sections
The shape and/or size of the cross-sectional area of a structure subjected to torsional moment may vary over
its length. The problem is easier to handle if it varies at particular locations only, although the possibility of
stress concentration needs special attention and requires the variations in sections to be smooth or well
rounded-off. However, if the variation is gradual over a considerable length, torsional rotation can only be
calculated by integration.

Example: Considering the torque diagram shown below, calculate the torsional rotation at A if the cross-
section diameter varies from 4 at A to 8 at B [Given: G = 12000 ksi].
C
A B A B
4
(i) 10 k 10 k (ii) 10 k 8
10 k

90 90 180 Section A
10 T (k ) 10 Section B

(a) Neglecting the effect of stress concentration

B A = (TL/JG)AC + (TL/JG)BC = {(10 12) 90/( 44/32) + (10 12) 90/( 84/32)}/12000
A = 0.0380 rad = 2.18

(b) The diameter of the circular section at a distance x from end A is d(x) = 4 + 4x/180
Polar moment of inertia J(x) = (4 + 4x/180)4/32
4 3
B A= (T/JG)dx = (10 12)/(12000) dx/( (4+4x/180) /32) = (0.01) ( 180/4) {(1/8) (1/4)3}/3/( /32)
A = 0.0209 rad = 1.20

6
 Statically Indeterminate Problems on Torsion
A large portion of civil engineering structures is statically indeterminate; i.e., they cannot be analyzed by
statics alone. For purely torsional problems, since there is effectively only one equation of statics (i.e., Mx
= 0), a statically indeterminate structure has another extra unknown. Determining such unknowns require
knowledge of displacements; i.e., torsional rotation.

Example: Considering the statically indeterminate torsional problem shown below, calculate
(a) the maximum torsional stress and torsional rotation for a solid circular section of 4 diameter
(b) the required diameter of a solid circular section if the maximum allowable torsional stress is 10 ksi and
allowable torsional rotation is 1 [Given: G = 12000 ksi].

B C A B C A B C
A D = D + D
10 k 5 k 10 k 10 k 5 k 10 k TA

4 5 6 4 5 6 4 5 6

15 k
4.67
10 k TA
0.33 5.33 5k

Final Torque Diagram (k ) Case 1 Case 2

(a) The polar moment of inertia of the circular section is J = (4)4/32 = 25.13 in4
The problem is statically indeterminate because the torsional moments at joints A and D are both unknown.
This problem is divided into two statically determinate problems, namely Case 1 and 2.
Using D = 0, the maximum torsional rotation at point A is
Case1: A1 = [(TL/JG)CD + (TL/JG)BC + (TL/JG)AB]
= [(15 12) (6 12) + (5 12) (5 12) +(10 12) (4 12)]/(25.13 12000)
= 0.0740 rad
Case2: A2 = TAL/JG = (TA 12) (15 12)/(25.13 12000) = 0.00716 TA
Adding Case1 and 2 A1 + A2 = A = 0.0740 0.00716 TA = 0
TA = 10.33 k , from which the final torque diagram can be plotted as shown.
Using the final torque diagram,
The maximum stress, max = BC = (Tc/J)BC = (5.33 12) 2/ 25.13 = 5.09 ksi, and
The maximum rotation, max = C = (TL/JG)CD= (4.67 12) (6 12)/(25.13 12000) = 0.0134 rad
= 0.766

(b) If J is the polar moment of inertia of the circular section, the final torque diagram
The maximum stress, max = BC = (Tc/J)BC = (16T/ d3)BC = (16 5.33 12)/ d3 = (325.95/d3) ksi, and
The maximum rotation, max = C = (TL/JG)CD= (4.67 12) (6 12)/(J 12000) = (0.336/J) rad
max = 10 ksi 325.95/d3 = 10 d = 3.19
max = 1 = /180 rad 0.336/J = /180 J = d4/32 = 19.25 in4 d = 3.74
Required diameter, d = 3.74

7
 Practice Problems on Torsion
1~3.Calculate the maximum shearing stress and torsional rotation in the structures shown below (Neglect
stress concentration) [Given: G = 12000 ksi].

100 k 10k 30

4 dia 2 dia

40 40 60 20

D 10k 0.5
3 square tube (wall thickness = 0.5 ) 1 square 20
3 Section between AB

A B C
40 30 1 Section between BCD

4
6 Fy = 10 k y

10 1

4. For the structure shown below, draw the torque diagram of member ACD and calculate its maximum
torsional shear stress and torsional rotation [Given: G = 1000 ksi and the cross-section is a 12 circle].
y 10

1 k/ft A
5
x
B C
10 12
z
D E
5
Cross Section
F 5k
20 k
10

5. Calculate the required depth (h) of the channel section shown below if the allowable shear stress in ABC
is 10 ksi and the allowable angle of twist is 1 [Given: G = 12000 ksi].

t = 10 k-in/in T = 100 k-in h/10

A B C h

h/2
15 10 5

8
6. Calculate the torsional stiffnesses (i.e., torque required to produce unit rotation per length) of the two
thin-walled sections shown below [t b].

b b t
b t

b b
7. The compound section shown below is to be replaced by a circular section so that the torsional stiffness
(torque/rotation) remains the same. Calculate the required diameter of the circular section.

1
t = 0.1 throughout
0.5

1 1 1

8. Calculate the magnitude and location of the maximum shear stress in the compound section shown
below when subjected to a torque of 10 k-ft.
Also calculate the diameter (D) of the circular section that has the same maximum shear stress when
subjected to the same torque.

4 t = 0.10 throughout

D
2

2
9. Calculate the required diameter d of the circular rod ABC shown in the figure below if allowable shear
stress is 20 ksi. For the diameter d, calculate the maximum angle of twist in the rod [G = 12000 ksi].
Torque = 10 k-ft

A B C
Cross-section
30 70

10. Calculate the torsional shear stress at A and the torsional rotation at B for the circular rod (of non-
uniform diameter) shown below (Neglect stress concentration) [Given G = 12000 ksi].

100 k

2 dia A B C 4 dia

10 10

9
 Recent Exam Problems on Torsion
1. For members ab and bcd (each weighing 0.50 k) of the frame abcd loaded as shown in Fig. 1,
(i) draw the torque diagram,
(ii) calculate the maximum torsional shear stress and maximum torsional rotation
[Given: Shear Modulus = 12000 ksi].

10 10
b c d
5 y
7 6.5
1k
15
10 x
6 Cross Section of abcd
e f
z
a
g h
Fig. 1

2. If the compound section shown in Fig. 2 is subjected to a 10 kN-m torque, calculate the
(i) magnitude of maximum shear stress in the section
(ii) depth and width (B) of the square section that has the same maximum shear stress when subjected to
the same torque.
2m 2m B
t = 0.1m (periphery)
0.2m
2m B

1m 1m

Compound Section Square Section

Fig. 2

3. For the rotating shaft ABCD shown in Fig. 3

(i) calculate the torque T0 required to make the torsional rotation at B equal to zero,
(ii) draw the corresponding torque diagram and calculate the maximum shear stresses at A and D
[Given: Shear Modulus = 12000 ksi].
1k/
B C
A D 4 2 2
T0

15 5 5 Cross-section of Cross-section of
member AB member BCD
Fig. 3

10
 Stress Combination and Combined Normal Stress
Stress in general is broadly classified as normal stress and shear stress. Normal stresses act perpendicular to
the plane (e.g., axial stress and flexural or bending stress), while shear stresses act parallel to the plane (e.g.,
direct shear, flexural shear and torsional shear stresses). The following table shows the equations for
different types of stresses and their validity.

Type of Stress Equation Validity

Normal Axial = P/A All sections
Stress Flexural = My/I All sections
Direct Shear = V/A All sections
Flexural Shear = VQ/It All sections
Shear
= Tc/J Circular sections
Stress
Torsional Shear = T/(2 A t) Thin-walled sections
= T/( bt2) Rectangular sections

Practical problems on stress analysis, including those in civil engineering, almost always consist of a variety
of stress conditions. For example, in a typical building structure, beams and slabs are subjected to significant
flexural and shear stresses due to vertical loads, while columns and footings have significant axial and
flexural stresses (and possibly shear stresses mainly due to lateral loads).

This discussion focuses on combination of normal stress with normal stress and shear stress with shear
stress. The more general topic of stress combination (normal stress with shear stress) is covered in the
transformation of stresses.

Combination of Axial and Bending Stress

Combination of normal stresses in the form of axial and bending stress is quite common in practical
situations; e.g., in beams, columns and footings in civil engineering structures. In this case, the combined
normal stress is simply the algebraic sum of two stresses, given by
z (x,y) = P/A Mz y/Iz .(i)
where P is the tensile force and Mz is the bending moment on a cross-section whose area is A, and moment
of inertia about z-axis is Iz. A very common example of combination of axial and bending stress is the case
of pre-stressed concrete, where a flexural member (one under bending stress) is subjected to sufficient
compressive stress in order to reduce or avoid tension in concrete, which is relatively weak in tension.

Example: Calculate the maximum stresses at the midspan section of a 20 long simply supported rectangular
beam of (1 2 ) section under a uniformly distributed load of 1 k/ft, if it is subjected to an additional pre-
stressing compressive force of P = 100 kips.
Also calculate the pre-stressing force P0 necessary to avoid tension in the section altogether.
y
1 k/ft a d 125 ksf 75 ksf

P P
z
20

b c
+ 25 ksf + 75 ksf

With b = 1 , h = 2
Cross-sectional Area A = 1 2 = 2 ft2, Moment of Inertia about z-axis Iz = 1 23/12 = 0.667 ft4
Maximum midspan bending moment Mz = 1 202/8 = 50 k-ft
a,d = 100/2.0 50 1/(0.667) = 50 75 = 125 ksf, b/c = 50 + 75 = + 25 ksf
If the necessary pre-stressing force to avoid tension in the section is P0, then
t(max) = b.c = P0/2.0 + 75 = 0 P0 = 150 kips

11
 Combination of Bending Stresses: Biaxial Bending
Biaxial (involving two axes) bending is the bending of a cross-section about two axes of rotation and often
deals with bending about the centroidal axes. For an area subjected to biaxial moments M z and My about the
centroidal z and y axes, the compressive stress at a point with coordinates (z, y) is given by
x(z, y) = Mz y/Iz + My z/Iy .(i)
where Iz and Iy are the moments of inertia of the cross-section.

Therefore, the neutral axis is defined by the equation x(z,y) =0 Mz y/Iz + My z/Iy = 0
y = (My/Mz) (Iz/Iy) z ...(ii)

Also, max at the four corners of a rectangular section is given by max = 6Mz/bh2 6My/hb2 ......(iii)

Example: Calculate the maximum bending stresses at the four corners of the midspan section of a 20 long
simply supported rectangular beam of (1 2 ) section under a uniformly distributed load of 1 k/ft, inclined at
30 with vertical.
N y
1 k/ft With b = 1 , h = 2
a 30 d Iz = 1 23/12 = 0.667 ft4
Iy = 2 13/12 = 0.167 ft4
z Maximum midspan bending moments
20 Mz = (1 cos 30 ) 202/8 = 43.3 k-ft
My = (1 sin 30 ) 202/8 = 25 k-ft
b c
A

a = 43.3 1/(0.667) + 25 0.5/(0.167) = 64.95 + 75 = + 10.05 ksf, b = + 64.95 + 75 = + 139.95 ksf,

c = + 64.95 75 = 10.05 ksf, d = 64.95 75 = 139.95 ksf

Equation of the neutral axis is,

y = (25/43.3) (0.667/0.167) z = 2.31 z
which is a straight line through origin as indicated by the line NA.

12
 Combination of Axial and Biaxial Bending Stress
Among civil engineering structures or structural elements, columns and footings often provide common
examples of situations involving combination of axial stress and uniaxial or biaxial bending stresses.

Combination of Axial and Bending Stresses in Footings

A loading situation with axial and biaxial bending stress can be due to concentric axial force accompanied
by moments about the centroidal axes [Fig. 1(a)] or a biaxially eccentric axial force [Fig. 1(b)].
P
P y y

Mx (x, y) ex (x, y)
My ey
x x

(a) (b)
Fig. 1: Footing subjected to (a) Concentric axial load and biaxial bending, (b) Biaxially eccentric axial load

For a cross-sectional area subjected to a concentric compressive force P and biaxial moments Mx and My
about the centroidal x and y axes [Fig. 1(a)], the compressive stress at a point with coordinates (x, y) is
z (x,y) = P/A Mx y/Ix My x/Iy .(i)
where A, Ix and Iy are the area and moments of inertia of the cross-section. For a biaxially eccentric
compressive load P located at a point (ex, ey) in the coordinate axes; i.e., with eccentricities ey and ex about
the x and y axes respectively as shown in Fig. 1(b), the biaxial bending moments are Mx = Pey and My = Pex
and the compressive stress at (x, y) is given by
z (x,y) = P/A Pey y/Ix Pex x/Iy .(ii)

Kern of a Footing Area

Since the soil below foundation can hardly take any tension, it is important that the force P be applied on the
footing in a manner to ensure the stresses below the entire area under the footing remain compressive. The
zone within which the load is to be applied is called the kern of the area. A line of action of the applied load
that ensures compression is given by (x,y) 0
P/A Pey y/Ix Pex x/Iy 0 1/A + ex x/Iy + ey y/Ix 0 (iii)
For a rectangular area (b h), A = bh, Ix = bh3/12, Iy = hb3/12, Eq. (iii)
1 + 12 ex x/b2 + 12 ey y/h2 0 (iv)
To ensure compressive stress at the corner point where (x, y) = (b/2, h/2),
1 + 6 ex/b + 6 ey/h 0 ex/(b/6) + ey/(h/6) 1 .(v)
Similarly, to ensure compressive stress at corner points (b/2, h/2), ( b/2, h/2) ( b/2, h/2)
1 ex/(b/6) + ey/( h/6) 1; ex/(b/6) + ey/(h/6) 1 ..(vi)~(viii)

Plotting the lines defined by Eqs. (v)~(viii) defines a zone (called kern, Fig. 2), a parallelogram with
diagonals b/3 and h/3, within which the load must act in order to ensure compressive stresses at the four
corners of the footing, thereby ensuring an entire area under the footing free of tensile stresses.
y

h/2
h/3 x
h/2 b/3

b/2 b/2 Fig. 2: Kern of a rectangular area

13
 Combination of Shear Stresses for Helical Spring
Helical springs provide an important example of combining shear stresses. These springs are used in several
engineering structures and equipment as load transferring elements or shock absorbers.

Combined Shear Stresses in Helical Springs

Helical springs made of rods or wires of circular cross-section (as shown in Fig. 1) may be analyzed in the
elastic range by the superposition of shearing stresses. One important assumption needed here is that any one
coil of such a spring will be assumed to be in a plane, which is nearly perpendicular to the axis of the spring.
This assumption can be made if the adjoining coils are close enough.
P P

A
B
C
T = PR
d = 2r d
R
V=P E
D
G
P (a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1: Forces acting on a closely coiled Helical Spring

Therefore the forces acting on any section of the spring are (i) Shearing force V = P, (ii) Torque T = PR;
where P = force applied along the axis of the spring, R = distance of the spring axis to the centroid of the
coils cross-section. The maximum shearing stress at an arbitrary section of the spring is found by
superposing the direct and torsional shear stresses, using J = Polar moment of inertia of coil section = d4/32
= r4/2.
By superposing, one obtains max = direct + torsion = P/A + Tr/J = P/A (1 + 2R/r) .......(i)

Deflection and Stiffness of Helical Springs

In Fig. 1 (c), sin = BC/BD = EG/DG (ii)
If EG = d is the differential deflection of the small section AB (of length dx), and using DG = BD (d ), Eq.
(ii) R/BD = (d )/BD (d ) d = R (d ) ...(iii)
Also, d = T(dx)/JG = PR (dx)/JG; The deflection of a helical spring can be obtained (neglecting the
deflection due to direct shear stress, which is normally small) by using the following relationship
d = PR2 dx/JG = PR2L/JG .(iv)
where L = length of the springs rod and G = shearing modulus of elasticity (also called the modulus of
rigidity). For a closely coiled spring the length L of the wire may be obtained with sufficient accuracy as
2 RN, where N is the number of live or active coils of the spring.
= 64 PR3N/Gd4 .(v)
This equation can be used to obtain the deflection of a closely coiled helical spring along its axis when
subjected to either tensile or compressive force P. The stiffness of a spring, often referred to as spring
constant (commonly denoted by k), is defined as the force required to produce unit deflection.
k = P/ = Gd4/(64R3N) (vi)

14
 Practice Problems on Combination of Stress
1. Calculate the maximum normal stress in the beam shown below and show the point/points where it
occurs [The beam area is rectangular and 1 wide].

10 k
45

1.5

10 10

2. In the beam shown below, draw the normal stress-diagram over the sections A-A and B-B if = 60 .

9 1 100 k
A B

A B
24 24 cross-section

3. In the beam shown below, calculate the maximum allowable value of in order to avoid tension in (i)
Section A-A , (ii) Section B-B .

P
6 4
A B

A B
Diameter = 6

4. Calculate the maximum normal stress in the structure shown below (Neglect stress concentration).

10k

30

4 dia 2 dia

40 40 60 20

5. Calculate the maximum compound normal stress in the beam shown in the figures below and show the
point(s) where it occurs [The beam area is a 1 1.5 rectangle].

10k 10k

a, d a d
1.5
20 k b, c b c
5 7 1

Side Elevation Cross-section

15
6. Calculate the maximum compound normal stress in the beam shown below (subjected to inclined
loading) and show the point/points where it occurs [The beam area is a 0.5 1 rectangle].

12 k 12 k
45
a, d
a d
1 deep
b, c b c
0.5 wide
5 7
Side Elevation Cross-section

7. For the structure shown below, draw the axial force and bending moment diagram of member ACD and
calculate the maximum normal stress in the member.
10
y
1 k/ft A
5

B C x
10

D E z
5
F 5k
20 k 10

8. Determine the kern of a solid circular cross section of radius R and show the kern on the section.

9. The shaded area shown below represents the kern of the rectangular footing ABCD. For the given loads
calculate the normal stresses at A, B, C, D and locate the neutral axis.

A 10 k B
1 10 k 10 k

x
1

D C
y
2 2

10. Calculate the maximum compound shear stress in the beam described in Problem 5 and show the
point(s) where it occurs.

11. In the structure described in Problem 7, calculate the maximum compound shear stress at A.

16
12. Design the connection bolts for shear, under the loading condition shown in the figure below, if the
allowable shear stress is 12 ksi.

15k
2

2 6 4

13. Calculate the deflection at point C for the timber beam ABCDE loaded as shown below, if the spring at
E has shear modulus = 12000 ksi, coil diameter = 2 , inside diameter of spring = 8 , number of coils = 8
[Modulus of elasticity of timber = 1500 ksi].

2k 2k

A B C D E
9
6 3 3 6 12

X-Section

14. In the figure shown below, both B1C1D1 and ABCDE are rigid beams. The helical springs at A, B1 and
D1 have coil diameter = 1 in, average spring radius = 3 in, number of coils = 5 and shear modulus =
12000 ksi. Calculate the deflections at B, D, B1, D1 and the combined shear stress for the spring at A.
1k

B1 D1
C1
A E
B C D
1 0.5 0.5 1

17
 Transformation of Stresses
The earlier discussions on stress combination dealt only with the superposition of normal stress with normal
stress (e.g., axial stress with flexural stress) and shear stress with shear stress (e.g., direct shear stress with
torsional shear stress). However, many practical situations require the combination of normal stress with
shear stress (e.g., axial and flexural stress with flexural and torsional shear stress).

Besides, the failure of several structural materials (e.g., concrete, steel, timber) due to various types of
loading (e.g., tension, compression, shear, bending, torsion) occurs along different surfaces based on
material properties and orientation of maximum stress. The choice of these surfaces requires the knowledge
about stress transformation, to know the normal and shear stresses along any surface under any particular
stress condition.

Equations of Transformation of Stresses

yy
Equations for the transformation of normal and yy

shear stresses on a differential element over any

xy
surface to a plane in another orientation is xy

derived here. Fig. 1(a) shows the normal stresses xx

xx xx
xx, yy along the x- and y-directions on the xx
vertical and horizontal surfaces respectively and xy dA xy
the shear stress xy parallel to both the surfaces.
yy

Fig. 1(b) shows the free-body of a small element

demonstrating stresses xx , xy over a plane of (a) (b)
area dA oriented at an angle to the original
Fig. 1: Transformation of Normal and Shear Stresses
surface (acted upon by stresses xx and xy).

Considering the equilibrium of the element shown in the free-body diagram of Fig. 1(b),
Fx = 0 xx dA cos + xy dA sin ( xx dA) cos + ( xy dA) sin = 0
xx cos xy sin = xx cos + xy sin ...(i)
Fy = 0 xy dA cos + yy dA sin ( xx dA) sin ( xy dA) cos = 0
xx sin + xy cos = xy cos + yy sin ..(ii)
2 2 2 2
[(i) cos + (ii) sin ] xx (cos + sin ) = xx cos + yy sin + 2 xy cos sin
xx = xx (1 + cos 2 )/2 + yy (1 cos 2 )/2 + xy sin 2
xx = ( xx + yy)/2 + {( xx yy)/2} cos 2 + ( xy) sin 2 .(iii)
2
[(i) sin (ii) cos ] xy (sin + cos2 ) = xx cos sin yy cos sin + xy (sin2 cos2 )
xy = xx (sin 2 )/2 yy (sin 2 )/2 xy cos 2
xy = {( xx yy)/2} sin 2 + ( xy) cos 2 ..(iv)

Example: If the normal and shear stresses on the element shown in Fig. 1(a) are xx = 20 ksi, yy = 10 ksi
and xy = 15 ksi, calculate the normal stress xx and shear stress xy on a plane defined by = 30 .

Eq. (iii) xx = ( xx + yy)/2 + {( xx yy)/2} cos 2 + ( xy) sin 2

= (20 10)/2 + {(20 + 10)/2} cos ( 60 ) + (15) sin ( 60 )
= 5 + 15 cos ( 60 ) + 15 sin ( 60 ) = 0.49 ksi
Eq. (iv) xy = {( xx yy)/2} sin 2 + ( xy) cos 2
= {(20 + 10)/2} sin ( 60 ) + (15) cos ( 60 ) = 20.49 ksi

18
 Principal Stresses and Principal Planes
The normal and shear stresses on a plane at an angle with a reference plane acted on by normal stresses
( xx, yy) and shear stress xy are given by the following expressions
xx = ( xx + yy)/2 + {( xx yy)/2} cos 2 + ( xy) sin 2 ..(iii)
xy = {( xx yy)/2} sin 2 + ( xy) cos 2 ..(iv)
These equations can also be written as
xx = ( xx + yy)/2 + [{( xx
2 2
yy)/2} + ( xy) ] cos (2 ) ...(v)
xy = [{( xx 2 2
yy)/2} + ( xy) ] sin (2 ) ..(vi)
where tan = 2 xy/( xx yy)
The maximum and minimum values of normal stress are
2 2
xx(max) = ( xx + yy)/2 + [{( xx yy)/2} + ( xy) ]; when = /2, /2 + 180 ...(vii)
2 2
xx(min) = ( xx + yy)/2 [{( xx yy)/2} + ( xy) ]; when = /2 90

The stresses xx(max) and xx(min), also denoted by 1 and 2, are called the principal stresses, while the
mutually perpendicular planes they act on, represented by = /2, /2 + 180 and = /2 90 , are called
the principal planes. They represent the maximum tensile and compressive stresses at the corresponding
point. These stresses and planes are extremely important in analyzing the failure criteria of structural
materials, particularly for brittle materials. An important aspect of the principal planes is that the shear
forces on them are zero.

However, for yielding materials or the ones that fail in shear, the maximum values of shear stress and the
corresponding planes are also very important
2 2
xy(max) = [{( xx yy)/2} + ( xy) ]; when = /2 45 , /2 + 135
2 2 ..(viii)
xy(min) = [{( xx yy)/2} + ( xy) ]; when = /2 + 45 , /2 135

Typical Example Problems

The equations (vii) and (viii) can be used to predict the maximum stress and failure surface in several typical
stress conditions.
0 Uniaxial Tension
xx = 0, yy = 0, xy = 0 tan = 2 0/(0 0) = 180
2 2
1 = (0 + 0 )/2 + [{(0 0)/2} +(0) ] = 0/2 + 0 /2 = 0, when = 90 , 270
and 2 = 0/2 0/2 = 0, when = 0 , 180
0 xy(max) = 0/2, when = 45 , 225 ; xy(min) = 0/2, when = +135 , 45

0 Hydrostatic Compression
xx = 0, yy = 0, xy = 0 tan = 2 0/( 0 + 0) is indeterminate
2 2
1 = ( 0 0 )/2 + [{( 0 + 0 )/2} +(0) ] = 0 + 0 = 0
0 0
and 2 = 0 0 = 0
xy(max) = 0; xy(min) = 0

0
Therefore, the normal stress is 0 and shear stress is zero on all surfaces

Pure Shear
0 xx = 0, yy = 0, xy = 0 tan = 2 0/(0 0) = 90
2 2
1 = (0 + 0)/2 + [{(0 0)/2} + ( 0) ] = 0 + 0 = 0, when = 45 , 225
0 and 2 = 0 0 = 0, when = 45 , 135
xy(max) = 0, when = 0 , 180 ; xy(min) = 0, when = 90

19
 Mohrs Circle
The equations for the normal and shear stresses on a plane at angle with a reference plane acted on by
normal stresses ( xx, yy) and shear stress xy have been derived to be
xx = ( xx + yy)/2 + [{( xx
2 2
yy)/2} + ( xy) ] cos (2 ) ...(v)
xy = [{( xx 2 2
yy)/2} + ( xy) ] sin (2 ) ..(vi)
where tan = 2 xy/( xx yy)
These equations can be re-adjusted to the following form
{ xx ( xx + yy)/2}2 + ( xy 0)2 = {( xx 2
yy)/2} + ( xy)
2
..(ix)

Eq. (ix), when plotted with xx in x-axis and xy in y-axis, takes the form (X a)2 + (Y 0)2 = R2, which is the
equation of a circle with center(a, 0) = [( xx + yy)/2, 0] and radius R = [{( xx yy)/2}2 + ( xy)2]. This circle
is called Mohrs Circle, after Otto Mohr of Germany, who first suggested it in 1895.
Fig. 1 shows a Mohrs Circle with some of its more xy
important features. Among them, the coordinates of (a, max)
the center of the circle = (a, 0) = [( xx + yy)/2, 0] and A
( xx, xy)
2 2
radius R = [{( xx yy)/2} + ( xy) ] have already
been mentioned before. R
( xx , xy )
However, the figure also shows that the principal
B
stresses are 1 = a + R, 2 = a R, =
while the maximum and minimum shear stresses are 2 xx
max = R and min = R. ( 2, 0) (a, 0) ( 1, 0)
O R
Since the center of the circle is at the midpoint of all
radial lines, ( 1 + 2)/2 = ( xx + yy)/2 = a
Also from figure, tan = ( xy 0)/( xx ( xx + yy)/2) = R ( xx , xy )
2 xy /( xx yy) = tan ; = .

It can also be proved that if the slope of AB with

(a, min)
Fig. 1: Mohrs Circle
vertical is , the coordinates of B = ( xx , xy ).

Example: For an infinitesimal element, xx = 30 ksi, yy = 10 ksi, and xy = 15 ksi. In Mohrs circle of
stress, show the normal and shear stresses acting on a plane defined by = 15 .

The coordinates of the center of the circle = [( xx + yy)/2, 0] = [( 30 + 10)/2, 0] = ( 10, 0) and
radius R = [{( xx yy)/2}2 + ( xy)2] = [{( 30 10)/2}2 + ( 15)2] = 25
( 10, 25)
( 19.8, 23.0)
The principal stresses are 19.8
B
1 = a + R = 10 + 25 = 15 ksi,
and 2 = 10 25 = 35 ksi.
max = R = 25 ksi, and min = 25 ksi.
23.0

216.9
tan =2 xy/( xx yy) = ( 30)/( 40) = = 216.9
(0, 0)
( 35, 0) (15, 0)
The coordinates of B = ( 19.8, 23.0) = ( xx , xy ) 15
xx = 19.8 ksi, xy = 23.0 ksi

( 10, 0)
( 30, 15) A

( 10, 25)

20
 Yield and Fracture Criteria
The studies on transformation of stress are aimed at developing the state of critical normal and shear stresses
and the corresponding surfaces. But no comprehensive theory is available to predict the precise response of
all types of real materials to such stresses, incorporating the multitude effects of static, dynamic, impact and
cyclic loading, as well as temperature. Only the classical idealizations of yielding criteria for ductile
materials and fracture criteria for brittle materials are discussed here, both of which are greatly affected by
the temperature as well as the state of stress itself. All the criteria discussed here are formulated with respect
to the principal stresses 1 and 2 and based on comparison with the yield criteria for materials under
uniaxial tension, assuming identical material properties in tension and compression.

1. Maximum Normal Stress Theory (Rankine):

According to this theory, yielding occurs when the maximum normal stress ( 1 or 2) at a point equals the
maximum normal stress at yield in the uniaxial tension test.
Since the maximum normal stress at yield in the uniaxial tension test = Y (the yield strength of the
material), the yield criterion becomes 1 Y, or 2 Y.
This can be plotted with 1 in the x-axis and 2 in the y-axis as shown in Fig. 1.
2. Maximum Normal Strain Theory (St. Venant):
According to this theory, yielding occurs when the maximum normal strain ( 1 or 2) at a point equals the
maximum normal strain at yield in the uniaxial tension test.
Since 1 = ( 1 2)/E, 2 = ( 2 1)/E [where E = Youngs modulus, = Possons ratio], and the
maximum normal strain at yield in the uniaxial tension test = Y/E,
the yield criterion becomes 1 2 Y, or 2 1 Y.
This is plotted with 1 in the x-axis and 2 in the y-axis as shown in Fig. 2.
3. Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Tresca):
According to this theory, yielding occurs when the maximum shear stress ( max) at a point equals the
maximum shear stress at yield in the uniaxial tension test.
Since max = 1 2 /2 and the maximum shear stress at yield in the uniaxial tension test = Y/2 (the
yield strength of the material), the yield criterion becomes 1 2 Y, and adding the normal stress
criterion 1 Y, or 2 Y, is plotted with 1 in the x-axis and 2 in the y-axis as shown in Fig. 3.
4. Maximum Distortion-Energy Theory (Von Mises):
According to this theory, yielding occurs when the maximum distortion strain energy (Udist) at a point
equals the maximum distortion strain energy at yield in the uniaxial tension test.
Since Udist for 3-dimensional stress is = {( 1 2)2 + ( 2 3)2 + ( 3 1)2}/12G, i.e., for 2-dimensional
stress is = {( 1 2)2 + ( 2 0)2 + (0 1)2}/12G = {( 1 2)2 + 22 + 12}/12G, and Udist at yield in the
uniaxial tension test = 2Y2/12G, the yield criterion becomes {( 1 2)2 + 22 + 12} = 2Y2; i.e.,
2 2 2
1 + 2 1 2 = Y , which is plotted with 1 in the x-axis and 2 in the y-axis in Fig. 4.

2 2
2 2
(Y, Y) (Y , Y ) (Y, Y) (Y, Y)

No Yield No Yield No Yield No Yield

1 1 1 1
Zone Zone Zone Zone

Y = Y/(1 )

Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3 Fig. 4

21
 Practice Problems on Transformation of Stress
1. In the beam shown below, calculate the principal stresses and show the principal planes at A and B.

10 k 10 k
3
0.5
50 k B 50 k 1
A 1
Cross-section
5 2.5 2.5 5

Side Elevation

2. For the structure shown below, calculate the stresses ( x, y, xy) and the principal stresses ( 1, 2) at
points a and b of section A-A.

Fy = 15k
4
A 15 y
Fx = 100k
A
y x
a
1 z b z

Section A-A

3. For the structure shown below, calculate the principal stresses (and corresponding angles) at point a of
the section D.
10
y
1 k/ft A
5

B C x
10

D E z
5
F 5k
20 k 10

12

6
a
6

Cross Section of D

4. In the beam shown below, calculate the principal stress and show the principal planes for the point A.

10 100 k
60
A
24 24 cross-section

22
5. In the column shown below, use transformation of stress to calculate the maximum shear stress at
Section A-A . Also indicate the point and surface where it occurs in the section.

P = 100 kips

60

5
Area (1 1 )

A A

6. The shear stress at an element on the neutral axis of section D of beam ABCD shown below is 50 psi.
For this element
(i) calculate normal stresses ( xx, yy), principal stresses ( 1, 2) and maximum shear stress ( max),
(ii) draw the Mohrs circle of stresses.
w k/ft
45 12
A B C D
8
10 10 10
Beam Section

7. For an infinitesimal element, x = 30 ksi, y = 10 ksi, and xy = 15 ksi. In Mohrs circle of stress,
show the normal and shear stresses acting on a plane defined by = 45 .

8. The coordinate of the center of a Mohrs circle is (30, 0) and its radius is 12. If the principal plane is
located at an angle = 30 from plane X-X, calculate the normal stresses ( x, y) and shear stress ( xy)
on that plane [all stresses are in ksi]. Also show these stresses graphically on the Mohrs circle.

9. For the stress condition in the element shown below, find the maximum allowable value of p using the
Von Mises yielding criterion, if the yield strength of the material is 40 ksi.

3p
p

p p

p
3p

10. Calculate the shear stress necessary to cause yielding of a material in a pure shear condition. Use the
Von Mises yielding criterion, if the yield strength of the material is 36 ksi.

11. The coordinates of the center of a Mohrs circle is ( p0/2, 0) and its radius is p0.
Calculate the maximum allowable value of p0 if the material is to avoid yielding using all the criteria
suggested below, by (i) Rankine, (ii) St. Venant, (iii) Tresca, (iv) Von Mises
[Given: Yield Strength of the material = 400 MPa, Poissons ratio = 0.25].

12. For the stress condition described in Problem 7, calculate the required yield strength Y to avoid yielding
of the material using the yield criteria suggested by
(i) Rankine, (ii) St. Venant, (iii) Tresca, (iv) Von Mises [Given: Poissons ratio = 0.25].

23
 Bending Moment Diagram (BMD)
1. BM = 0 at points A
(i) Free End (ii) Hinge/Roller Supported End (iii) Internal Hinge

A A A

2. BM 0 at points B (in general, but can be = 0 only for special loading cases)
(i) Fixed End (ii) Internal Roller/Hinge support
B B

3. Verify and memorize the following BMDs

(i) Cantilever Beams P
M0 w/

L d L

M0 Pd wL2/2
(ii) Simply Supported Beams
M0 P w/

L a b L

M0 Pab/(a+b) wL2/8

(= PL/4, if a = b = L/2)
(iii) Beams with Overhang
P w/
M0

L a L a L a

M0 Pa wa2/2

(iv) Beams with Internal Hinge

P P
w/

c d a b a b c d L a
Pab/(a+b) Pab/(a+b) wL2/8

Pac/(a+b) waL/2

24
4. Qualitative BMDs

[ implies that the ordinate can be positive or negative depending on the loads and spans]

25
 Qualitative Deflected Shapes

1. The following figures show qualitative deflected shapes for the beams due to the applied loads.

(i) (ii)

(iii) (iv)

(v) (vi)

(vii) (viii)

(ix) (x)

(xi) (xii)

26
 Moment-Curvature Relationship

O Assumptions:
1. Plane sections remain plane
and perpendicular to NA
2. Deformations are small
3. Hookes law is valid
R

y M M

B
A
N
N P
P
D
C

B
A
N
If NN = s and PP = s + u P
If s 0, Axial Strain x = u/ s du/ds ..(i) N
P D
Also, u = y u/ s = y / s (ii)
If s 0, du/ds = y d /ds (iii) C

Also, Curvature = 1/R = d /ds

Eq. (i) x= y (iv)

Using stress-strain relationship, x = x/E and also x = My/I My/EI = y

Curvature, = M/EI (v), the moment-curvature relationship
and Radius of Curvature, R = 1/ = EI/M (vi)

From analytic geometry, = (d2v/dx2)/{1+(dv/dx)2}3/2 d2v/dx2, if dv/dx 0

(v) d2v/dx2 M/EI; i.e., Bending Moment, M EI d2v/dx2 .(vii)

Also, Shear Force V = dM/dx EI d3v/dx3 and Load w = dV/dx EI d4v/dx4(viii)

Example: Calculate the tip deflection of the cantilever beam shown below [Given: EI = const].
w0 per unit length
EI d4v/dx4 w0
V(x) = w0 x + C1 ..(1)
M(x) = w0 x2/2 + C1 x + C2 ..(2)
V(0) = 0 C1 = 0 [from (1)], M(0) = 0 C2 = 0 [from (2)] L
EIv (x) w0 x3/6 + C3 ..(3)
and EIv(x) w0 x4/24 + C3 x + C4 ..(4)
v (L) = 0 C3 = w0 L3/6 [from (3)]
v(L) = 0 C4 = w0 L4/8 [from (4)]
Eq. (4) v(0) = C4/EI = w0 L4/8EI wL2/2

27
 Calculation of Deflection using Singularity Functions
Singularity Functions:
f(x) = x a n f(x) = 0, when x a; and f(x) = x a n, when x a [where n 0]
f(x) = x a 0 f(x) = 0, when x a; and f(x) = 1, when x a
However x a n has no physical significance if n 0, and is written only as a notation with an asterisk
(*) as subscript; e.g., f(x) = x a 1*
The integration and differentiation of singularity functions follow the rules for ordinary polynomial
functions; i.e., x a n dx = x a n+1/(n+1) + C1 and d( x a n)/dx = n x a n 1
e.g., x a 2 dx = x a 3/3 + C1 and d( x a 2)/dx = 2 x a 1
By definition, x a n* dx = x a n+1* + C1 if n 0;
e.g., x a 2* dx = x a 1* + C1 and x a 1* dx = x a 0 + C1

Singularity Functions for Common Loadings:

Common loadings are expressed in terms of the following singularity functions
10 k 20 k 2 k/ 100 k

5 10 5 10 5 10
1 1 0 2
w(x) = 10 x 0 * 20 x 5 * w(x) = 2 x 5 w(x) = 100 x 5 *

Example 1: Calculate the tip deflection of the cantilever beam shown below [Given: EI = const].
EI d4v/dx4 w(x) = P0 x 0 1* P0
V(x) = P0 x 0 0+ C1 ..(1)
M(x) = P0 x 0 1 + C1 x + C2 ..(2)
V(0) = 0 C1 = 0 [from (1)], M(0) = 0 C2 = 0 [from (2)]
EIv (x) P0 x 0 2/2 + C3 ..(3) L
and EIv(x) P0 x 0 3/6 + C3 x + C4 ..(4)
v (L) = 0 C3 = P0 L2/2 [from (3)]
v(L) = 0 C4 = P0 L3/3 [from (4)]
Eq. (4) v(0) = C4/EI = P0 L3/3EI

Example 2: Calculate the midspan deflection of the simply supported beam shown below.
EI d4v/dx4 w(x) = P0 x L/2 1* P0
V(x) P0 x L/2 0 + C1 ..(1)
M(x) P0 x L/2 1 + C1 x + C2 ..(2)
M(0) = 0 C2 = 0 [from (2)], M(L) = 0 C1 = P0 /2 [from (2)] L/2 L/2
EIv (x) P0 x L/2 2/2 + (P/2) x2/2 + C3 ..(3)
and EIv(x) P0 x L/2 3/6 + (P/2) x3/6 + C3 x + C4 ..(4)
v(0) = 0 C4 = 0 [from (4)]
v(L) = 0 C3 = P0 L2/16 [from (4)]
Eq. (4) EI v(L/2) = (P/2) (L/2)3/6 + ( P0 L2/16) L/2 v(L/2) = P0 L3/48EI

Example 3: Derive equation of the deflected shape of the beam shown below.
1 1 0 0 1
w(x) = 10 x 0 *+ R1 x 5 * 1 x 5 +1 x 15 + 0.15 x 30
10k 1 k/
BCs: V(0) = 0, M(0) = 0, M(40) = 0,
1.5 k/
v(5) = 0, v(40) = 0
5 10 15 10

28
 10k 10k 10k
A B A B A B
C C C
15 5 15 5 10 5 5
Beam1 Beam2 Beam3
1. Statically Determinate Beam with Overhang
EIviv(x) w(x) = RB x15 1* 10 x20 1*
EIv (x) V(x) = RB x15 0 10 x20 0 + C1 (1)
EIv (x) M(x) = RB x15 1 10 x20 1 + C1 x + C2 (2)
EIv (x) = S(x) RB/2 x15 2 5 x20 2 + C1x2/2 + C2 x + C3 (3)
EIv(x) = D(x) RB/6 x15 3 5/3 x20 3 + C1x3/6 + C2x2/2 + C3 x + C4 (4)
M(0) = 0 C2 = 0 (5)
D(0) = 0 C4 = 0 (6)
V(20) = 0 RB 10 + C1 = 0 (7)
M(20) = 0 5RB + 20 C1 = 0 (8)
D(15) = 0 562.5 C1 + 15 C3 = 0 (9)
Solving (7), (8), (9) C1= 3.33, C3 = 125, RB = 13.33 (10)
EIv(x) = D(x) 2.222 x15 3 1.667 x20 3 0.555 x3 + 125 x (11)

2. Statically Indeterminate Beam with Overhang

EIviv(x) w(x) = RB x15 1* 10 x20 1*
EIv (x) V(x) = RB x15 0 10 x20 0 + C1 (1)
EIv (x) M(x) = RB x15 1 10 x20 1 + C1 x + C2 (2)
EIv (x) = S(x) RB/2 x15 2 5 x20 2 + C1x2/2 + C2 x + C3 (3)
EIv(x) = D(x) RB/6 x15 3 5/3 x20 3 + C1x3/6 + C2x2/2 + C3 x + C4 (4)
S(0) = 0 C3 = 0 (5)
D(0) = 0 C4 = 0 (6)
V(20) = 0 RB 10 + C1= 0 (7)
M(20) = 0 5RB + 20 C1 + C2 = 0 (8)
D(15) = 0 562.5 C1 + 112.5 C2 = 0 (9)
Solving (7), (8), (9) C1= 5, C2 = 25, RB = 15 (10)
EIv(x) D(x) = 2.5 x15 3 1.667 x20 3 0.833 x3 + 12.5 x2 (11)

3. Statically Determinate Beam with Overhang & Internal Hinge

EIviv(x) w(x) = C x10 3* +RB x15 1* 10 x20 1*
EIv (x) V(x) = C x10 2* +RB x15 0 10 x20 0 + C1 (1)
EIv (x) M(x) = C x10 1* +RB x15 1 10 x20 1 + C1 x + C2 (2)
EIv (x) = S(x) C x10 0 +RB/2 x15 2 5 x20 2 + C1x2/2 + C2 x + C3 (3)
EIv(x) = D(x) C x10 1+RB/6 x15 35/3 x20 3 +C1x3/6 +C2x2/2 +C3 x +C4 (4)
S(0) = 0 C3 = 0 (5)
D(0) = 0 C4 = 0 (6)
V(20) = 0 RB 10 + C1 = 0 (7)
M(10) = 0 10 C1 + C2 = 0 (8)
M(20) = 0 5RB + 20 C1 + C2 = 0 (9)
D(15) = 0 562.5 C1 + 112.5 C2 + 5 C = 0 (10)
Solving (7), (8), (9) C1 = 10, C2 = 100, RB = 20; (10) C = 1125 (11)
EIv(x) = D(x) 1125 x10 1 +3.333 x15 3 1.667 x20 3 1.667 x3 + 50 x2 (12)

29
 Practice Problems on Beam Deflection

2. Calculate the deflection and rotation at point B [EI = constant].

A B

L M0

3. Calculate the deflection and rotation at point C [EI = 40,000 k-ft2].

100k
A D B C

5 5 10

4. Calculate the deflection at C and the rotation at A [EI = constant].

P/2 P/2

A B C D E
L/3 L/3 L/3

L/2
5. Calculate the deflection at A and the rotation at B [EI = 40,000 k-ft2].
2k 1k

A B C D

2 6 4
6. Calculate the deflection at A [EIAB = 40,000 k-ft , EIBC = 20,000 k-ft2].
2

2k/

A B C
3 6

7. Calculate the deflection at C [EIAB = EIDE = EI, EIBCD = 2EI].

P

A B C D E
L/3 L/3 L/3
L/2

8. Calculate the deflection at D [EI = constant].

P P

A B C D
L/2 L/2 L/2

30
9. Calculate the deflection at C and the rotation at B [EI= 40,000 k-ft2].

1 k/ft 2k
A B C

10 5

10. Calculate the deflection at B and rotations at the left and right of B [EI = 40,000 k-ft2].

2k

A B C D
5 5 5

11. Calculate the deflection at C [EI = constant].

P

A B C D

L/2 L/2 L

12. Calculate the deflection at B and rotations at the left and right of B [EI = constant].

w/unit length
A B C

L L

13. Calculate the reaction at support B [EI = constant].

10k

A B C

5 15

14. Calculate the deflection at B [EI = constant].

P

A B C D

L/2 L/2 L

15. Calculate the deflection at B and the rotation at C [EI= 40,000 k-ft2].

1.5 k/ft
A B C

10 10

31
 Beam Deflection Solutions using Singularity Functions

2. Calculate the deflection and rotation at point B [EI = constant].

A B

L M0

EIviv(x) w(x) = M0 xL 2*
EIv (x) V(x) = M0 xL 1* + C1 (1)
EIv (x) M(x) = M0 xL 0 + C1 x + C2 (2)
EIv (x) = S(x) M0 xL 1 + C1x2/2 + C2 x + C3 (3)
EIv(x) = D(x) M0 xL 2/2 + C1x3/6 + C2x2/2 + C3 x + C4 (4)
S(0) = 0 C3 = 0; D(0) = 0 C4 = 0; V(L) = 0 C1 = 0 (5~7)
M(L) = 0 M0 + C1 L + C2 = 0 C2 = M0 (8)
EIv(x) = D(x) M0 xL 2/2 M0 x2/2 (9)
EIv (x) = S(x) M0 xL 1 M0 x (10)
v(L) M0 L2/2EI; v (L) M0 L/EI (11~12)

[Instead of V(L) = 0 and M(L) = 0,

one can use Fy = 0 RA = C1 = 0; MA = 0 C2 + M0 = 0 C2 = M0]

3. Calculate the deflection and rotation at point C [EI = 40,000 k-ft2].

100k
A D B C

5 5 10

EIviv(x) w(x) = 100 x5 1* + RB x10 1*

EIv (x) V(x) = 100 x5 0 + RB x10 0 + C1 (1)
EIv (x) M(x) = 100 x5 1 + RB x10 1 + C1 x + C2 (2)
EIv (x) = S(x) 50 x5 2 + RB x10 2/2 + C1x2/2 + C2 x + C3 (3)
EIv(x) = D(x) 50 x5 3/3 + RB x10 3/6 + C1x3/6 + C2x2/2 + C3 x + C4 (4)
M(0) = 0 C2 = 0; D(0) = 0 C4 = 0; V(20) = 100 + RB + C1 = 0 (5~7)
M(20) = 0 1500 + 10 RB + 20 C1 = 0 (8)
D(10) = 0 2083.33 + 166.67 C1 + 10 C3 = 0 (9)
Solving (7), (8) C1 = 50, RB = 50 (10)
(9) C3 = 625 (11)
EIv(x) = D(x) 16.67 x5 3 + 8.33 x10 3 + 8.33 x3 625 x (12)
EIv (x) = S(x) 50 x5 2 + 25 x10 2 + 25 x2 625 (13)
v(20) 6250/40,000 = 0.156 ft, v (20) 625/40,000 = 0.0156 rad (14~15)

[Instead of M(0) = 0, V(20) = 0 and M(20) = 0,

one can use MA = 0 100 5 10 RB = 0 RB = 50; A is hinged end C2 = 0;
Fy = 0 C1 + RB = 100 C1 = 100 50 = 50]

32
4. Calculate the deflection at C and the rotation at A [EI = constant].
P/2 P/2

A B C D E
L/3 L/3 L/3

L/2

EIviv(x) w(x) = P/2 xL/3 1* P/2 x2L/3 1*

EIv (x) V(x) = P/2 xL/3 0 P/2 x2L/3 0 + C1 (1)
EIv (x) M(x) = P/2 xL/3 1 P/2 x2L/3 1 + C1 x + C2 (2)
EIv (x) = S(x) P/2 xL/3 2/2 P/2 x2L/3 2/2 + C1x2/2 + C2 x + C3 (3)
EIv(x) = D(x) P/2 xL/3 3/6 P/2 x2L/3 3/6 + C1x3/6 + C2x2/2 + C3 x + C4 (4)
M(0) = 0 C2 = 0; D(0) = 0 C4 = 0; M(L) = 0 C1 = P/2 (5~7)
D(L) = 8 PL3/324 PL3/324 + PL3/12 + C3 L = 0 C3 = PL2/18 (8)
EIv(x) = D(x) P/2 xL/3 3/6 P/2 x2L/3 3/6 + Px3/12 PL2x/18 (9)
D(L/2) P/2 (L3/216)/6 + PL3/96 PL3/36 v(L/2) 23PL3/1296EI

[Instead of M(0) = 0 and M(L) = 0,

one can use ME = 0 C1 L (P/2) 2L/3 (P/2) L/3 = 0 C1 = P/2; A is hinged end C2 = 0]

5. Calculate the deflection at A and the rotation at B [EI = 40,000 k-ft2].

2k 1k

A B C D

2 6 4

EIviv(x) w(x) = 2 x0 1* + RB x2 1* + RC x8 1* 1 x12 1*

EIv (x) V(x) = 2 x0 0 + RB x2 0 + RC x8 0 1 x12 0 + C1 (1)
EIv (x) M(x) = 2 x0 1 + RB x2 1 + RC x8 1 1 x12 1 + C1 x + C2 (2)
EIv (x)= S(x) x0 +RB x2 /2 +RC x8 /2 1 x12 /2 +C1x /2 +C2 x +C3
2 2 2 2 2
(3)
EIv(x)=D(x) x0 3/3 +RB x2 3/6 + RC x8 3/6 1 x12 3/6 + C1x3/6 + C2x2/2 + C3 x + C4 (4)
V(0) = 0 C1 = 0; M(0) = 0 C2 = 0; V(12) = 2 + RB + RC 1= 0 RB + RC = 3 (5~7)
M(12) = 24 + 10 RB + 4 RC = 0 10 RB + 4 RC = 24 (8)
Solving (7), (8) RB = 2, RC = 1 (9)
D(2) = 8/3 + 2C3 + C4 = 0; D(8) = 512/3 + 36RB + 8C3 + C4 = 0 8C3 + C4 = 296/3 (10~11)
Solving (10), (11) C3 = 16, C4 = 88/3 (12)
EIv (x) = S(x) x0 2 + x2 2 +1 x8 2/2 1 x12 2/2 +16 (13)
v(0) C4/40000 = 7.33 10-4 ft (14)
v (2) ( 4 +16)/40000 = 3 10-4 rad (15)

[Instead of V(0) = 0, M(0) = 0, one can use A is free end VA = C1 = 0 and MA = C2 = 0.

Also MC = 0 2 8 + RB 6 + 1 4 = 0 RB = 2; Fy = 0 RB + RC = 3 RC = 3 2 = 1]

33
8. Calculate the deflection at D [EI = constant].
P P

A B C D
L/2 L/2 L/2

EIviv(x) w(x) = P xL/2 1* + RC xL 1* P x3L/2 1*

EIv (x) V(x) = P xL/2 0 + RC xL 0 P x3L/2 0 + C1 (1)
EIv (x) M(x) = P xL/2 1 + RC xL 1 P x3L/2 1 + C1 x + C2 (2)
EIv (x) = S(x) P xL/2 2/2 + RC xL 2/2 P x3L/2 2/2 + C1x2/2 + C2 x + C3 (3)
EIv(x) = D(x) P xL/2 3/6 + RC xL 3/6 P x3L/2 3/6 + C1x3/6 + C2x2/2 + C3 x + C4 (4)
M(0) = 0 C2 = 0; D(0) = 0 C4 = 0; V(3L/2) = 0 RC + C1 = 2 P (5~7)
M(3L/2) = 0 P L + RC L/2 + (3L/2) C1 = 0 (8)
Solving (7), (8) RC = 2P, C1 = 0 (9)
D(L) = PL3/48 + C3 L = 0 C3 = PL2/48 (10)
EIv(x) = D(x) P xL/2 3/6 + P xL 3/3 P x3L/2 3/6 + PL2x/48 (11)
v(3L/2) ( PL3/6 + PL3/24 + PL3/32)/EI = 3 PL3/32 EI (12)

[Instead of M(0) = 0, V(3L/2) = 0 and M(3L/2) = 0, one can use

A is hinged end C2 = 0; MC = 0 C1 L + (P) L/2 (P) L/2 = 0 C1 = 0;
Fy = 0 C1 + RC = 2P RC = 2P]

9. Calculate the deflection at C and the rotation at B [EI = 40,000 k-ft2].

1 k/ft 2k
A B C

10 5

EIviv(x) w(x) = 1 x0 0 + 1 x10 0 + RB x10 1* + 2 x15 1*

EIv (x) V(x) = 1 x0 1 + 1 x10 1 + RB x10 0 + 2 x15 0 + C1 (1)
EIv (x) M(x) = x0 2/2 + x10 2/2 + RB x10 1 + 2 x15 1 + C1 x + C2 (2)
EIv (x) = S(x) x0 3/6 + x10 3/6 + RB x10 2/2 + x15 2 + C1x2/2 + C2 x + C3 (3)
EIv(x)=D(x) x0 4/24+ x10 4/24+RB x10 3/6+ x15 3/3+C1x3/6+C2x2/2+C3 x+ C4 (4)
M(0) = 0 C2 = 0; D(0) = 0 C4 = 0; V(15) = 15 + 5 + RB + C1 + 2 = 0 RB + C1 = 8 (5~7)
M(15) = 112.5 + 12.5 + 5 RB + 15 C1 = 0 5 RB + 15 C1 = 100 (8)
Solving (7), (8) RB = 2, C1 = 6 (9)
D(10) = 104/24 + 6 103/6 + 10 C3 = 0 C3 = 58.33 (10)
EIv (x) = S(x) x3/6 + x10 3/6 + x10 2 + x15 2 + 3 x2 58.33 (11)
EIv(x) = D(x) x4/24 + x10 4/24 + x10 3/3 + x15 3/3 + x3 58.33 x (12)
v (10) (1000/6 + 300 58.33)/40000 = 1.875 10-3 rad (13)
v(15) (50625/24 + 625/24 + 125/3 + 3375 875)/40000 = 11.46 10-3 ft (14)

[Instead of M(0) = 0, V(15) = 0 and M(15) = 0, one can use

A is hinged end C2 = 0; MB = 0 10 C1 (1 10) 5 2 5=0 C1 = 6;
Fy = 0 C1 + RB 10 + 2 = 0 RB = 2]

34
10. Calculate the deflection at B and rotations at the left and right of B [EI = 40,000 k-ft2].
2k

A B C D
5 5 5

EIviv(x) w(x) = 2 x5 1* + C x5 3* + RC x10 1*

EIv (x) V(x) = 2 x5 0 + C x5 2* + RC x10 0 + C1 (1)
EIv (x) M(x) = 2 x5 1 + C x5 1* + RC x10 1 + C1 x + C2 (2)
EIv (x) = S(x) x5 2 + C x5 0 + RC x10 2/2 + C1x2/2 + C2 x + C3 (3)
EIv(x) = D(x) x5 3/3 + C x5 1 + RC x10 3/6 + C1x3/6 + C2x2/2 + C3 x + C4 (4)
M(0) = 0 C2 = 0; D(0) = 0 C4 = 0; M(5) = 0 + 5 C1 = 0 C1 = 0 (5~7)
M(15) = 20 + 5 RC = 0 RC = 4 (8)
D(10) = 41.67 + 5 C + 10 C3 = 0; D(15) = 333.33 + 10 C + 83.33 + 15 C3 = 0 (9)
Solving (8), (9) C3 = 33.33, C = 75 (10)
EIv (x) = S(x) x5 2 + 75 x5 0 + 2 x10 2 33.33 (11)
EIv(x) = D(x) x5 3/3 + 75 x5 1 + 2 x10 3/3 33.33 x (12)
v (5) (33.33)/40000 = 8.33 10-4 rad; v (5+) (33.33 + 75)/40000 = 1.04 10-3 rad (13)
v(5) (166.67)/40000 = 4.17 10-3 ft (14)

[Instead of M(0) = 0, M(5) = 0 and M(15) = 0, one can use

A is hinged end C2 = 0; BMB = 0 C1 5 = 0 C1 = 0;
MD = 0 RC 5 2 10 C1 15 = 0 RC = 4]

11. Calculate the deflection at C [EI = constant].

P

A B C D

L/2 L/2 L

EIviv(x) w(x) = P xL/2 1* + C xL 3*

EIv (x) V(x) = P xL/2 0 + C xL 2* + C1 (1)
EIv (x) M(x) = P xL/2 1 + C xL 1* + C1 x + C2 (2)
EIv (x) = S(x) P xL/2 2/2 + C xL 0 + C1x2/2 + C2 x + C3 (3)
EIv(x) = D(x) P xL/2 3/6 + C xL 1 + C1x3/6 + C2x2/2 + C3 x + C4 (4)
M(0) = 0 C2 = 0; D(0) = 0 C4 = 0; M(L) = PL/2 + C1 L = 0 C1 = P/2 (5~7)
S(2L) = 9PL2/8 + C + PL2 + C3 = 0 C + C3 = PL2/8 (8)
D(2L) = 9PL3/16 + C L +2 PL3/3 + 2C3L = 0 C +2 C3 = 5PL2/48 (9)
Solving (8), (9) C3 = 11 PL2/48, C =17 PL2/48 (10)
EIv(x) = D(x) P xL/2 3/6 + 17 PL2 xL 1/48 + Px3/12 11 PL2x/48 (11)
v(L) ( PL3/48 + PL3/12 11 PL3/48)/EI = PL3/6EI (12)

[Instead of M(0) = 0 and M(L) = 0, one can use

A is hinged end C2 = 0; BMC = 0 C1 L P L/2 = 0 C1 = P/2]

35
12. Calculate the deflection at B and rotations at the left and right of B [EI = constant].

w/unit length

A B C

L L

EIviv(x) w(x) = w x0 0 + w xL 0 + C xL 3*
EIv (x) V(x) = w x0 1 + w xL 1 + C xL 2* + C1 (1)
EIv (x) M(x) = w x0 2/2 + w xL 2/2 + C xL 1* + C1 x + C2 (2)
EIv (x) = S(x) w x0 3/6 + w xL 3/6 + C xL 0 + C1 x2/2 + C2 x + C3 (3)
EIv(x) = D(x) w x0 4/24 + w xL 4/24 + C xL 1 + C1 x3/6 + C2 x2/2 + C3 x + C4 (4)
M(0) = 0 C2 = 0; D(0) = 0 C4 = 0; M(L) = wL2/2 + C1 L = 0 C1 = wL/2 (5~7)
S(2L) = 8 wL3/6 + wL3/6 + C + wL3 + C3 = 0 C + C3 = wL3/6 (8)
D(2L) = 16 wL4/24 + wL4/24 + C L + 8 wL4/12 + 2C3L = 0 C +2 C3 = wL3/24 (9)
Solving (8), (9) C3 = 5 wL3/24, C = 3 wL3/8 (10)
EIv (x) = S(x) wx3/6 + w xL 3/6 + 3 wL3 xL 0/8 + wL x2/4 5wL3/24 (11)
EIv(x) = D(x) wx4/24 + w xL 4/24 + 3 wL3 xL 1/8 + wL x3/12 5wL3x/24 (12)
v (L) ( wL3/6 + wL3/4 5wL3/24)/EI = wL3/8EI (13)
v (L+) ( wL3/8 + 3 wL3/8)/EI = wL3/4EI (14)
v(L) ( wL4/24 + wL4/12 5wL4/24)/EI = wL4/6 EI (15)

[Instead of M(0) = 0 and M(L) = 0, one can use

A is hinged end C2 = 0; BMB = 0 C1 L wL L/2 = 0 C1 = wL/2]

13. Calculate the reaction at support B [EI = constant].

10k

A B C

5 15

EIviv(x) w(x) = 10 x0 1* + RB x5 1*
EIv (x) V(x) = 10 x0 0 + RB x5 0 + C1 (1)
EIv (x) M(x) = 10 x0 1 + RB x5 1 + C1 x + C2 (2)
EIv (x) = S(x) 5 x0 2 + RB x5 2/2 + C1 x2/2 + C2 x + C3 (3)
EIv(x) = D(x) 5 x0 3/3 + RB x5 3/6 + C1 x3/6 + C2x2/2 + C3 x + C4 (4)
V(0) = 0 C1 = 0; M(0) = 0 C2 = 0 (5~6)
D(5) = 208.33 + 5 C3 + C4 = 0 5C3 + C4 = 208.33 (7)
S(20) = 2000 + 112.5 RB + C3 = 0 C3 + 112.5 RB = 2000 (8)
D(20) = 40000/3 + 562.5 RB + 20 C3 + C4 = 0 20 C3 + C4 + 562.5 RB = 13333.33 (9)
Solving (7~9) C3 = 312.5, C4 = 1354.17, RB = 15 (10)

[Statically Indeterminate Structure]

36
14. Calculate the deflection at B [EI = constant].
P

A B C D

L/2 L/2 L

EIviv(x) w(x) = P xL/2 1* + RC xL 1*

EIv (x) V(x) = P xL/2 0 + RC xL 0* + C1 (1)
EIv (x) M(x) = P xL/2 1 + RC xL 1 + C1 x + C2 (2)
EIv (x) = S(x) P xL/2 2/2 + RC xL 2/2 + C1x2/2 + C2 x + C3 (3)
EIv(x) = D(x) P xL/2 3/6 + RC xL 3/6 + C1x3/6 + C2x2/2 + C3 x + C4 (4)
M(0) = 0 C2 = 0; D(0) = 0 C4 = 0 (5~6)
M(2L) = 3PL/2 + RC L + 2C1 L = 0 RC + 2C1 = 3P/2 (7)
D(L) = PL3/48 + C1 L3/6 + C3 L = 0 C1 L2/6 + C3 = PL2/48 (8)
D(2L) = 9PL3/16 + RC L3/6 + 8C1 L3/6 + 2C3 L = 0 RC L2/6 + 4C1 L2/3 +2C3 = 9PL2/16 (9)
Solving (7~9) RC = 11 P/16; C1 = 13 P/32; C3 = 3PL2/64 (10)
EIv(x) = D(x) P xL/2 3/6 + 11 P xL 3/96 + 13 Px3/192 3PL2 x/64 (11)
v(L/2) (13 PL3/1536 3 PL3/128)/EI = 23 PL3/1536 EI (12)

[Statically Indeterminate Structure]

15. Calculate the deflection at B and the rotation at C [EI = 40,000 k-ft2].

1.5 k/ft
A B C

10 10

EIviv(x) w(x) = 1.5 x10 0

EIv (x) V(x) = 1.5 x10 1 + C1 (1)
EIv (x) M(x) = 1.5 x10 2/2 + C1 x + C2 (2)
EIv (x) = S(x) 1.5 x10 3/6 + C1 x2/2 + C2 x + C3 (3)
EIv(x) = D(x) 1.5 x10 4/24 + C1 x3/6 + C2 x2/2 + C3 x + C4 (4)
S(0) = 0 C3 = 0; D(0) = 0 C4 = 0 (5~6)
M(20) = 75 + 20 C1 + C2 = 0 20 C1 + C2 = 75 (7)
D(20) = 625 + 1333.33 C1 + 200 C2 = 0 1333.33 C1 + 200 C2 = 625 (8)
Solving (7), (8) C1 = 5.39, C2 = 32.81 (10)
EIv (x) = S(x) 1.5 x10 3/6 + 5.39 x2/2 32.81 x (11)
EIv(x) = D(x) 1.5 x10 4/24 + 5.39 x3/6 32.81 x2/2 (12)
v (20) (250 + 1078 656.2)/40000 = 4.297 10-3 rad (13)
v(10) (898.44 1640.62)/40000 = 18.55 10-3 ft (14)

[Statically Indeterminate Structure]

37
 Moment-Area Theorems

The moment-curvature relationship Curvature = M/EI

For small deflection and slope, Curvature d2v/dx2 = d /dx
d /dx = M/EI d = (M/EI) dx .(i)
Integrating Eq. (i) between A and B d = (M/EI) dx
B A = (M/EI) dx, where is integration between A and B ....(ii)
Eq. (ii) The area under (M/EI) diagram between the points A and B is equal to the change of slope
between two points. This is the 1st Moment-Area Theorem.

Multiplying both sides of Eq. (i) by x x d = x (M/EI) dx (iii)

Integrating Eq. (iii) between A and B x d = x (M/EI) dx
(xB xA) B (vB vA) = x (M/EI) dx, where is integration between A and B ...(iv)
B
The figure at right shows the geometric
significance of various terms in Eq. (iv).
(vB vA)
Eq. (iv) The moment of the area under
(M/EI) diagram between the points A and B (xB xA)
A B
(i.e., x (M/EI) dx) equals to the deflection
of A with respect to the tangent at B; i.e., tA/B
tA/B. This is the 2nd Moment-Area Theorem. B

(xB xA)

Example 1: Calculate the tip rotation and deflection of the cantilever beam shown below [EI = const].

B A = Area of M/EI diagram between A an B P0

= ( P0L/EI) L/2 = P0L2/2EI B
2
..(1) A
A = P0L /2EI

(xB xA) B (vB vA) = ( P0L/EI) L/2 2L/3 L

L 0 0 + vA P0L3/3EI
3
vA = P0L /3EI ..(2) P0L/EI

Example 2: Calculate the end rotation and midspan deflection of the simply supported beam shown below.
P0
B A = (P0L/4EI) L/2 = P0L2/8EI ..(1)
(xB xA) B (vB vA) = (P0L/4EI) L/2 L/2 A C B
L B 0 + 0 = P0L3/16EI
2
B = P0L /16EI; Eq. (1) A= P0L2/16EI ..(2) L/2 L/2

(xC xA) C (vC vA) = (P0L/4EI) L/4 L/3

L/2 0 vC + 0 = P0L3/48EI P0L/4EI
vC = P0L3/48EI ....(3)

38
1. Calculate vA using the moment-area theorems [EIAB = 40,000 k-ft2, EIBC = 20,000 k-ft2].

2k/
-4
(xC xB) C (vC vB) = ( 4.50) 10 6/2 6/3 A B C
6 C 0 + 0 = 27 10-4
-4
C = 4.50 10 rad .(1)
3 6
-4
C B = ( 4.50) 10 6/2
B = 9.00 10-4 rad .(2) M/EI
(10-4 rad/ft)
(xB xA) B (vB vA) = ( 2.25) 10-4 3/3 2.25 2.25
3 9.00 10-4 0 + vA = 5.06 10-4
vA = 3.21 10-3 ft = 0.0385 in ....(3) 4.50

2. Calculate C( ), C(+) and vC using the moment-area theorems [EI = constant].

P
(xD xC) D (vD vC) = ( PL/2EI) L/2 2L/3 C
A B D
L 0 0 + vC = PL3/6EI
vC = PL3/6EI .(1)
L/2 L/2 L
D C(+) = ( PL/2EI) L/2
2
C(+) = PL /4EI .(2) PL/4EI

(xC xA) C( ) (vC vA) = (PL/4EI) L/2 L/2

L C( ) ( PL3/6EI) + 0 = PL3/16EI
2
C( ) = 5PL /48EI .(3)

PL/2EI
2
3. Calculate RB and vA using the moment-area theorems [EI = constant = 40,000 k-ft ].
10k
(xC xB) C (vC vB)
= {(15 RB 200) 15/2 10 50 15/2 5}/EI A B C
15 0 0 + 0 = {(15 RB 200) 25} 75/EI
RB = 15 kips
5 15
(xC xA) C (vC vA) 15RB/EI
= {225 15/2 (10 + 5) 200 20/2 40/3}/EI
20 0 0 + vA = {(15 RB 200) 25} 75/EI
vA = 0.0339 ft = 0.406 in 50/EI

200/EI

39
 Beam Deflection Solutions using Moment-Area Theorems
2. Calculate the deflection and rotation at point B [EI = constant].

A B

L M0 M0/EI

Between A and B, A = 0, vA = 0
1st theorem B A = L ( M0/EI) = M0L/EI B = M0L/EI .(1)
and 2nd theorem L B vB + vA = ( M0 L/EI) L/2 = M0L2/2EI vB = M0L2/2EI (2)

3. Calculate the deflection and rotation at point C [EI = 40,000 k-ft2].

100k 6.25 10 3 rad/ft
A D B C

5 5 10

Between A and B, vA = 0, vB = 0
1st theorem B A = 10/2 6.25 10 3 = 31.25 10 3
.(1)
and 2 theorem 10 B vB + vA = 31.25 10 3 10/2
nd
B = 15.63 10 rad 3
.(2)

Between B and C, B = 15.63 10 3 rad, vB = 0

1st theorem C B=0 C = 0.0156 rad .(3)
nd
and 2 theorem 10 C vC + vB = 0 vC = 0.156 ft .(4)

4. Calculate the deflection at C and the rotation at A [EI = constant].

PL/6EI PL/6EI
P/2 P/2
A E
B C D
L/3 L/3 L/3

L/2
Using symmetry between A and C, vA = 0, C = 0
1st theorem C A = L/6 PL/6EI + L/6 PL/6EI = PL2/18EI 2
A = PL /18EI .....(1)
and 2 theorem (L/2) C vC + vA= PL /36 EI (2L/9) + PL /36 EI (L/3+L/12) = 23 PL3/1296 EI
nd 2 2

vC = 23 PL3/1296 EI .(2)

5. Calculate the deflection at A and the rotation at B [EI = 40,000 k-ft2].

2k 1k

A B C D

2 6 4 10 4 rad/ft 10 4 rad/ft

Between B and C, vB = 0, vC = 0
1st theorem C B=6 ( 10 4) = 6 10 4 .(1)
and 2 theorem 6 C vC + vB = ( 6 10 4) 6/2
nd
C = 3 10 4 rad .(2)
(1) B= 3 10 4 rad ....(1)
Between A and B, B = 3 10 4 rad, vB = 0
1st theorem B A = 2/2 ( 10 4) = 10 4 = 4 10 4 rad
A .(3)
and 2 theorem 2 B vB + vA = 10 4 4/3
nd
vA = 7.33 10 4 ft .(4)

40
7. Calculate the deflection at C [EIAB = EIDE = EI, EIBCD = 2EI].

P PL/6EI

PL/12EI PL/8EI
A B C D E
L/3 L/3 L/3

L/2
Using symmetry between A and C, vA = 0, C = 0
1st theorem C
2 2
A= L/4 PL/8EI + L/6 PL/12EI = PL /32EI + PL /72EI
2
A = 13PL /288EI .(1)
nd 2 2 3
and 2 theorem (L/2) C vC + vA= PL /32 EI (L/3) + PL /72 EI (2L/9) = 35 PL /2592 EI
vC = 35PL3/2592 EI .(2)
8. Calculate the deflection at D [EI = constant].
P P

A B C D
L/2 L/2 L/2
PL/2EI
Between A and C, vA = 0, vC = 0
1st theorem C A = L/4 ( PL/2EI) = PL2/8EI .(1)
and 2 theorem L C vC + vA = ( PL2/8EI) (L/2 + L/3)
nd
C
2
= 5PL /48EI .(2)
2
Between C and D, C = 5PL /48EI, vC = 0
1st theorem D C = L/4 ( PL/2EI) = PL2/8EI D = 11 PL2/48 EI .(3)
and 2 theorem (L/2) D vD + vC = ( PL2/8EI) L/6
nd
vD = 3PL3/32 EI .(4)
9. Calculate the deflection at C and the rotation at B [EI = 40,000 k-ft2].
4 2.5 10 4 rad/ft
1 k/ft 2k 3.13 10
A B C
10 5
Between A and B, vA = 0, vB = 0
1st theorem B
4
A= 10/2 2.5 10 +20/3 3.13 10 4= (1.25 +2.08) 10 3 = 3.33 10 3....(1)
B =1.875 10 rad ...(2)
nd 3
and 2 theorem 10 B vB + vA= 1.25 10 20/3 + 2.08 10 3 5 3

Between B and C, B = 1.875 10 3 rad, vB = 0

1st theorem C
4
B = 5/2 2.5 10 = 6.25 10
4
C = 2.5 10 3 rad .(3)
nd
and 2 theorem 5 C vC + vB = 6.25 10 4
5/3 vC = 11.46 10 3 ft .(4)
10. Calculate the deflection at B and rotations at the left and right of B [EI = 40,000 k-ft2].
2k
B C
A D
5 5 5

Between C and D, vC = 0, vD = 0 2.5 10 4 rad/ft

1st theorem D
4
C = 5/2 ( 2.5 10 ) = 6.25 10 4
....(1)
nd
and 2 theorem 5 D vD + vC = 6.25 10 4
5/3 D= 2.08 4
10 rad ....(2)
(1) C = 4.17 10 4
rad ....(1)
Between B and C, C = 4.17 10 4 rad, vC = 0
1st theorem C
4
B(+) = 5/2 ( 2.5 10 ) = 6.25 10
4
B(+) = 1.04 10 3 rad .(3)
and 2nd theorem 5 C vC + vB = 6.25 10 4 10/3 vB = 4.17 10 3 ft .(4)
Between A and B, vA = 0, vB = 4.17 10 3 ft
2nd theorem 5 B( ) vB + vA = 0 B( ) = 8.33 10 4 rad .(5)

41
12. Calculate the deflection at B and rotations at the left and right of B [EI = constant].
w/unit length
wL2/8EI
A B C

L L
wL2/2EI
Between B and C, C = 0, vC = 0
1st theorem C
2 3
B(+) = L/2 ( wL /2EI) = wL /4EI
3
B(+) = wL /4EI ....(1)
nd 3
and 2 theorem L C vC + vB = wL /4EI 2L/3 vB = wL /6EI 4
....(2)
Between A and B, vA = 0, vB = wL4/6EI
2nd theorem L B( ) vB + vA = 2L/3 (wL2/8EI) L/2 B( ) = wL3/8EI ....(3)
14. Calculate the deflection at B [EI = constant].
P RAL/EI

A B C D
L/2 L/2 L
PL/2EI
Between A and C, vA = 0, vC = 0
1st theorem C A = L/2 (RAL/EI) + L/4 ( PL/2EI) = RAL2/2EI PL2/8EI ....(1)
and 2 theorem L C vC +vA =RAL /2EI 2L/3 PL2/8EI 5L/6
nd 2
C = RAL2
/3EI 5PL2
/48EI...(2)
Between C and D, vC = 0, vD = 0
1st theorem D C = L/2 (RAL/EI) + L/2 ( PL/2EI) = RAL2/2EI PL2/4EI ....(3)
D = RAL /6EI PL /12EI ...(4)
nd 2 2 2 2
and 2 theorem L D vD +vC = RAL /2EI L/3 PL /4EI L/3
(2~4) (RAL2/6EI PL2/12EI) (RAL2/3EI 5PL2/48EI) = RAL2/2EI PL2/4EI
2RAL2/3EI = 13PL2/48EI RA = 13 P/32 .....(5)
(2) 2
C = PL /32EI .....(6)
Between B and C, C = PL2/32EI, vC = 0 13 PL/32EI
2nd theorem (L/2) C vC +vB = PL2/8EI L/3
+13PL2/128EI L/4 +13PL2/256EI L/3
= PL3/1536 EI
vB = 23 PL3/1536 EI .....(7)
PL/2EI
15. Calculate the deflection at B and the rotation at C [EI = 40,000 k-ft2].
5RC 10 4
1.5 k/ft
A B C

10 10 18.75 10 4 rad/ft

56.25 10 4 rad/ft
Between A and C, = 0, vA = 0, vC = 0
A
1st theorem C A = 10 ( 18.75 10 4) + 10/2 ( 37.5 10 4) + 10/3 ( 18.75 10 4)
+ 20/2 (5RC 10 4) = 187.5 10 4 187.5 10 4 62.5 10 4 + 50RC 10 4
C = 437.5 10 + 50 RC 10 4
4
....(1)
nd 4 4 4
and 2 theorem 20 C vC + vA = 187.5 10 5 187.5 10 10/3 62.5 10 12.5
+ 50RC 10 4 20/3
C = 46.88 10
4
31.25 10 39.06 10 4+16.67RC 10 4 = 117.19 10 4+16.67RC 10 4 (2)
4

(1, 2) 437.5 10 4 + 50 RC 10 4 = 117.19 10 4 + 16.67 RC 10 4 RC = 9.61 kips ...(3)

(1, 3) C = 437.5 10 4 + 480.5 10 4 = 4.297 10 3 rad ..(4)
Between B and C, C = 4.297 10 3 rad, vC = 0
2nd theorem 10 C vC +vB=10/2 (24.03 10 4) 10/3+10/3 ( 18.75 10 4) 10/4=244.25 10 4
vB = 18.55 10 3 ft ..(5)

42
 Conjugate Beam Method

From moment-curvature relationship, Curvature = M/EI d2v/dx2 (i)

Slope = dv/dx (M/EI) dx, and Deflection v = dx { (M/EI) dx} dx ... (ii)
On the other hand, if w is the load per unit length,
Shear Force V = w dx and Bending Moment M = V dx = { w dx} dx .. (iii)

From the analogy of equations (ii) and (iii), if w is replaced by M/EI, the shear force V and bending moment
M can be considered to be equivalent to slope and deflection v respectively.
However, such equivalence should be represented in the support conditions as well, which should be
modified to form a conjugate of the original beam.

Original Beam Conjugate Beam

(a)

Free end: 0, v 0 Fixed end: V 0, M 0

(b)

Fixed end: = 0, v = 0 Free end: V = 0, M = 0

(c)

Hinged/Roller end: 0, v = 0 Hinged/Roller end: V 0, M = 0

(d)

Internal Support: 0, v = 0 Internal Hinge: V 0, M = 0

(e)

Internal Hinge: 0, v 0 Internal Support: V 0, M 0

43
1. Calculate C, A, vA using Conjugate Beam Method [EIAB = 40 103 k-ft2, EIBC = 20 103 k-ft2].
2k/
A B C A1 B1 C1

2.25 10-4
3 6

M/EI 4.50 10-4

(10-4 rad/ft)
2.25 Conjugate Beam loaded by M/EI

4.50
BMB1 = 0 (right) RC1 6 + 4.50 10-4 6/2 6/3 = 0 RC1 = 4.50 10-4 rad .... .(1)
Fy = 0 RA1 2.25 10-4 3/3 4.50 10-4 6/2 + RC1 = 0 RA1 = 11.25 10-4 rad .(2)

BMB1 = 0 (left) MA1 + RA1 3 2.25 10-4 3/3 (1/4 3) = 0

MA1 = 32.06 10-4 ft = 0.0385 in ....(3)

= VC1 = RC1 = 4.50 10-4 rad,

C A = VA1 = RA1 = 11.25 10-4 rad
vA = BMA1 = MA1 = 0.0385 in

2. Calculate C( ), C(+) and vC using the Conjugate Beam Method [EI = constant].
P PL/4EI
A B C C1 D1
D A1
B1

L/2 L/2 L
PL/4EI
PL/2EI

M/EI Conjugate Beam loaded by M/EI

PL/2EI
Fy(C1) = 0 VC1(+) (PL/2EI) L/2 = 0 VC1(+) = PL2/4EI ..(1)
MC1 = 0 (right) MC1 + (PL/2EI) L/2 2L/3 = 0 MC1 = PL3/6EI .... .(2)

MA1 = 0 (left of C1)

MC1 (PL/4EI) L/2 L/2 + VC1( ) L=0 VC1( ) = 5PL2/48EI .... .(3)

= VC1(+) = PL2/4EI,
C(+) C( ) = VC1( ) = 5PL2/48EI
vC = MC1 = PL3/6EI

3. Calculate the reaction at support B [EI = constant].

10k 15RB/EI
RA1
A B C A1 B1 C1
MA1
5 15 50/EI

200/EI
In the conjugate beam, BMB1 = 0 15/2 15 RB/EI 10 + 15 50/EI 15/2+15/2 150/EI 10 = 0
RB = 15 kips .(1)

44
 Beam Deflection Solutions using Conjugate Beam Method

2. Calculate the deflection and rotation at point B [EI = constant].

A B A1 B1 MB1

L M0 RB1
M0/EI

In the conjugate beam, Fy = 0 RB1 L (M0/EI) = 0 RB1 = M0L/EI .(1)

and MB1 = 0 MB1 + M0L/EI L/2 = 0 MB1 = M0L2/2EI (2)
2
B = VB1 = RB1 = M0L/EI, and vB = MB1 = M0L /2EI

3. Calculate the deflection and rotation at point C [EI = 40,000 k-ft2].

100k 6.25 10 3 rad/ft
MC1
A D B C A1 B1 C1
D1
5 5 10 RA1 RC1

In the conjugate beam, BMB1 = 0 RA1 10 + 10/2 6.25 10 3 10/2 = 0

RA1 = 15.63 10 3 rad .....(1)
Fy = 0 RA1 + 10/2 6.25 10 3 + RC1 = 0 RC1 = 15.63 10 3 rad .(2)
MC1 = 0 RA1 20 + 10/2 6.25 10 3 15 + MC1 = 0 MC1 = 0.156 ft .(3)
C = VC1 = RC1 = 15.63 10 3 rad, and vC = MC1 = 0.156 ft

4. Calculate the deflection at C and the rotation at A [EI = constant].

PL/6EI PL/6EI
P/2 P/2

A B C D E A1 B1 C1 D1 E1

L/3 L/3 L/3 RA1 RE1

L/2

In the conjugate beam, ME1 = 0 RA1 L + {(2L/3)/2 PL/6EI + L/3 PL/6EI} L/2
RA1 = PL2/18 EI ..(1)
PL/6EI
RA1 MC1

RC1

Section at C1 RA1 L/2 + {(L/3)/2 PL/6EI (L/6 + L/9) + L/6 PL/6EI L/12} MC1 = 0
PL3/36 EI + 5PL3/648 EI + PL3/432 EI MC1 = 0
MC1 = 23PL3/1296 EI ...(2)
2 3
A = VA1 = RA1 = PL /18EI, and vC = MC1 = 23 PL /1296 EI

45
5. Calculate the deflection at A and the rotation at B [EI = 40,000 k-ft2].
2k 1k
A B C D A1 B1 C1 D1

2 6 4 10 4 rad/ft 10 4 rad/ft
RA1
RB1 RC1 RB1

MA1
In the portion B1C1 of the conjugate beam, RB1 = Rc1 = 6/2 10 4 = 3 10 4 rad .....(1)
In the portion A1B1, Fy = 0 RA1 2/2 10 4 RB1 = 0 RA1 = 4 10 4 rad .(2)
and MA1 = 0 RB1 2 + 2/2 10 4 4/3 + MA1 = 0 MA1 = 7.33 10 4 ft .(3)
B = VB1 = RB1 = 3 10 4 rad, and vA = MA1 = 7.33 10 4 ft

6. Solution in Class Note.

7. Calculate the deflection at C [EIAB = EIDE = EI, EIBCD = 2EI].

P PL/6EI PL/8EI
RA1 RE1

PL/12EI
A B C D E
L/3 L/3 L/3 A1 B1 C1 D1 E1

L/2
In the conjugate beam, ME1 = 0 RA1 L + {(2L/3)/2 PL/12EI + L/2 PL/8EI} L/2
RA1 = 13 PL2/288 EI ..(1)
PL/6EI PL/8EI
RA1
MC1
PL/12EI RC1
Section at C1 RA1 L/2 +{(L/3)/2 PL/12EI (L/6 + L/9) + (L/2)/2 PL/8EI L/6} MC1 = 0
13 PL3/576 EI + 5PL3/1296 EI + PL3/192 EI MC1 = 0
MC1 = 35 PL3/2592 EI ...(2)
2 3
A = VA1 = RA1 = 13 PL /288EI, and vC = MC1 = 35 PL /2592 EI

8. Calculate the deflection at D [EI = constant].

P P
A1 B1 C1 D1 MD1

A B C D RD1
L/2 L/2 L/2
PL/2EI
In the conjugate beam, BMC1= 0 RA1 L (L/2)/2 (PL/2EI) L/6 = 0 RA1 = PL2/48 EI ....(1)
MD1 = 0 RA1 3L/2 L/2 (PL/2EI) L/2 MD1 = 0 MD1 = 3PL3/32 EI .(2)
3
vD = MD1 = 3PL /32 EI

46
9. Calculate the deflection at C and the rotation at B [EI = 40,000 k-ft2].
4
3.13 10 2.5 10 4 rad/ft
1 k/ft 2k
A B C
A1 B1 C1
10 5
4
3.13 10
4 2.5 10 4 rad/ft
2.5 10 rad/ft MC1

RB1 RB1
RA1 RC1
In the portion A1B1, MA1 = 0 RB1 10 10/2 2.5 10 4 20/3 20/3 3.13 10 4
5=0
RB1 = 1.875 10 3 rad .(1)
In the portion B1C1, MC1 = 0 RB1 5 + 5/2 2.5 10 4 10/3 MC1 = 0
MC1 = 11.46 10 3 ft .(2)
3 3
B = VB1 = RB1 = 1.875 10 rad, and vC = MC1 = 11.46 10 ft

10. Calculate the deflection at B and rotations at the left and right of B [EI = 40,000 k-ft2].
2k
B C A1 B1 C1 D1
A D
5 5 5
2.5 10 4 rad/ft

RC1 RD1
RA1 RB1 RC1

4
2.5 10 4 rad/ft
2.5 10 rad/ft

In the portion C1D1, MD1 = 0 RC1 5 5/2 2.5 10 4 10/3 = 0 RC1 = 4.17 10 4 rad ..(1)
In the portion A1B1C1, MA1 = 0 RB1 5 + 5/2 2.5 10 4 (5 + 10/3) + RC1 10 = 0
RB1 = 1.875 10 3 rad .(2)
For a section at right of B1, Fy = 0 VB1(+) 5/2 2.5 10 RC1 = 0 VB1(+) = 1.04 10 3 rad (3)
4

and MB1 = 0 MB1 + 5/2 2.5 10 4 10/3 + RC1 5 = 0

MB1 = 4.17 10 3 ft .(4)
For a section at left of B1, Fy = 0 VB1( ) + RB1 = VB1(+) VB1( ) = 8.33 10 rad
4
.(5)
4 4 3
B( ) = VB1( ) = 8.33 10 rad, B(+) = VB1(+) = 1.04 10 rad, and vB = MB1 = 4.17 10 ft

11. Solution in Class Note.

12. Calculate the deflection at B and rotations at the left and right of B [EI = constant].

w/unit length
RA1 wL2/8EI RB1
A B C A1 B1 C1

L L
wL2/2EI

In the conjugate beam, MA1= 0 RB1 L 2L/3 wL2/8EI L/2 + L/2 wL2/2EI (L+2L/3)= 0
RB1 = 3wL3/8EI .(1)
For a section at right of B1, Fy = 0 VB1(+) L/2 wL2/2EI = 0 VB1(+) = wL3/4EI .(2)
and MB1 =0 MB1 + L/2 wL2/2EI 2L/3 = 0 MB1 = wL4/6EI ..(3)
For a section at left of B1, Fy = 0 VB1( ) + RB1 = VB1(+) VB1( ) = wL3/8EI .(4)
3 3 4
B( ) = V B1( ) = wL /8EI, B(+) = V B1(+) = wL /4EI, and vB = M B1 = wL /6EI

47
13. Solution in Class Note.

14. Calculate the deflection at B [EI = constant].

P RA1 RAL/EI RD1

A1 D1
A B C D B1 C1

L/2 L/2 L PL/2EI

In the conjugate beam, BMC1 = 0 RA1 L + L/2 RAL/EI L/3 L/4 PL/2EI L/6 = 0
RA1 = RAL2/6EI + PL2/48EI .(1)
Also, BMC1 = 0 RD1 L L/2 RAL/EI L/3 + L/2 PL/2EI L/3 = 0
RD1 = RAL2/6EI + PL2/12EI .(2)
Fy = 0 RA1 + RD1 = (2L/2) RAL/EI + 3L/4 PL/2EI = RAL /EI + 3 PL /8EI
2 2
..(3)
[(1) + (2)], (3) RAL2/3EI + 5PL2/48EI = RAL2/EI + 3PL2/8EI
2RAL2/3EI = 13 PL2/48EI RA = 13 P/32 .(4)
(1) RA1 = RAL /6EI + PL /48EI = 13PL /192EI + PL /48EI = 3PL /64EI
2 2 2 2 2
.(5)

Section at B1 RA1 L/2 + L/4 RAL/2EI L/6 MB1 = 0

MB1 = 3PL3/128EI + 13PL3/1536EI = 23PL3/1536EI .(6)
vB = MB1 = 23PL3/1536EI

15. Calculate the deflection at B and the rotation at C [EI = 40,000 k-ft2].
4
1.5 k/ft 5RC 10
RC1
A B C A1 B1 C1

10 10
18.75 10 4 rad/ft

56.25 10 4 rad/ft

In the conjugate beam, MC1 = 0 20/2 5RC 10 4 40/3 + 10/3 18.75 10 4 30/4
+ 10 18.75 10 4 (10+5) + 10/2 37.5 10 4 (10 +20/3) = 0
666.67 RC = 6406.25 RC = 9.61 kips .(1)
Fy = 0 RC1 + 20/2 5 9.61 10 4 10/3 18.75 10 4 10/2 (18.75 + 56.25) 10 4 = 0
RC1 = 4.297 10 3 rad ..(2)

Section at B1 (right)
RC1 10 10/2 2.5 9.61 10 4 10/3 + 10/3 18.75 10 4 10/4 + MB1 = 0
MB1 = 4.297 10 3 10 + 10/2 2.5 9.61 10 4 10/3 10/3 18.75 10 4 10/4 .(3)
= 18.55 10 3 ft
C = VC1 = RC1 = 4.297 10 3 rad, vB = MB1 = 18.55 10 3 ft

48
 Buckling of Columns

v v
P
A v B A v
P P P
M
x
x
L

EI v = Pv EI v + Pv = 0
v + 2v = 0 ....(i) [where 2
= P/EI]
v(x) = C1 cos x + C2 sin x ....(ii)

v(0) = 0 C1 = 0 ...(iii)
v(L) = 0 C2 sin ( L) = 0
Either C2 = 0 v(x) = C1 cos x + C2 sin x = 0 ...(iv), which is the trivial solution
Or L = n = n /L ...(v)
2 2 2
P = EI = n EI/L 2
...(vi)

Eq. (vi) provides a set of solutions for the load P in order to cause deflection of the column. The smallest of
these forces is obtained by putting n = 1, resulting in the critical load of the column as
Pcr = 2EI/L2 ...(vii)

The critical load shown in Eq. (vii) is also called the buckling load or Euler load of the column, named after
Leonhard Euler who was the first to derive it.

Eulers solution presents the buckling of column as a bifurcation problem; i.e., according to it the column
would not deflect at all until it reaches the first critical load (= 2EI/L2), where its deflection is arbitrary.
After exceeding this load, the column returns to its un-deflected position until it reaches the second critical
load (= 4 2EI/L2), and so on.
P

P=4 2EI/L2

P= 2EI/L2

v0

Obviously, the Euler solution is not consistent with the observed structural behavior of axially loaded
columns. The discrepancy can be attributed to the assumptions in deriving the formula; i.e., that the column
is perfectly straight, the applied load is concentric, the support condition is pin-pinned, the material follows
Hookes law and that there is no residual stress in the column (which is inappropriate for steel).

49
Effect of Initial Imperfection
EI (v vi) = Pv EI v + Pv = EI vi (v-vi)
v + 2 v = vi ...(i) [where 2
= P/EI] vi
P P
If vi(x) = v0i sin ( x/L) x
vi (x) = ( /L) v0i sin ( x/L) ....(ii)
2 L
2 2
(i) v + v = ( /L) v0i sin ( x/L)
v(x) = C1 cos x + C2 sin x ( /L)2/[ 2 ( /L)2] v0i sin ( x/L) .(iii)
v(0) = 0 C1 = 0 .(iv)
v(L) = 0 C2 sin ( L) = 0 C2 = 0 .(v)
v(x) = 1/[1 ( L/ )2] v0i sin ( x/L) .(vi)
2
= P/EI v(x) = 1/[1 P/( EI/L )] v0i sin ( x/L) = v0i/[1 P/Pcr] sin ( x/L) ...(vii)
2 2

v(L/2) = v0i/[1 P/Pcr] ...(viii)

Effect of Load Eccentricity (End Moments)

EI v = Pv Pe
v
EI v + Pv = Pe P P
v + 2v = 2
e ...(i) M0=Pe M0=Pe
[where 2 = P/EI]
x
L
(i) v(x) = C1 cos x + C2 sin x e (ii)
v(0) = 0 C1 = e ..(iii)
v(L) = 0 C2 sin ( L) = e (1 cos L) C2 = e tan( L/2) ..(iv)
v(x) = e [cos x 1+ tan( L/2) sin x] ..(v)
v(L/2) = e [cos L/2 1+ tan( L/2) sin L/2]
= e [sec L/2 1] = e [sec {( /2) (P/Pcr)}1] ..(vi)
(v) EIv (x) = EI 2 e [cos x + tan( L/2) sin x]
M(x) = M0 [cos x + tan( L/2) sin x] ..(vii)
M(L/2)/M0 = [sec( L/2)] .....(viii)

0.8
Graph (1) Graph (2)
0.6
P/Pcr

0.4

0.2

0
0 5 10 15 20
(1) v(L/2)/v0i, or (2) v(L/2)/e

Fig. 1: Effect of (1) Column Imperfection and (2) Load Eccentricity

50
Effect of Material Nonlinearity
For materials with nonlinear stress-strain relationship, the critical load is Pcr = 2 EtI/L2 cr =
2
Et/ 2
where Et = Tangent modulus = d /d ; i.e., slope of the stress-strain graph, = Slenderness ratio
Example: Calculate cr if = 40 20 2 and is (a) , (b) 2 , (c) 4 .
2
= 40 20 Et = d /d = 40 40
40 20 = (40 40 )/ 2
2 2 2
2(1+ 2/ 2) + 2 2/ 2 = 0 = (1+ 2/ 2) (1+ 4/ 4) (1)
(a) = = 0.586, = 16.57, (b) = 2 = 0.219, = 7.81, (c) = 4 = 0.061, = 2.35
If = 40 , Et = 40 and the corresponding strains and stresses are
(a) = = 1, = 40, (b) = 2 = 0.25, = 10, (c) = 4 = 0.0625, = 2.5

Elasto-plastic Material Property

The material property of an eccentrically loaded beam-column is elasto-plastic; i.e.,
Bending moment M = EI v , with an upper limit of Mp
Pv Pe = EI v , for the elastic range .....(i)
and Pv Pe = Mp, for the plastic range .....(ii)
M
Mp
v
P P
M0=Pe M0=Pe EI
x
L

v(L/2) = e [sec{( /2) (P/Pcr)}1], for the elastic range .(iii)

v(L/2) = Mp/Pe, for the plastic range ......(iv)

Example: If EI = 40000 k-ft2, L = 20 ft, e = 0.10 ft, Mp is (a) 200, (b) 100, (c) 50 k-ft.
Pcr = 2EI/L2 = 987 kips .(1)
For the elastic range, v(L/2)/e = sec{ (P/400)} 1 .(2)
and for the plastic range, v(L/2)/e is (a) 2000/P 1, (b) 1000/P 1, (c) 500/P 1 .(3)

1.0
Mp=200 k-ft Mp=100 k-ft Mp= 50 k-ft

0.8
P/Pcr

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5
v(L/2)/e

Effect of Material Nonlinearity

51
Effect of End Conditions
(a) Fixed-Hinged column M0
EI v = M0 Rx Pv v
P P
EI v + Pv = M0 (M0/L) x .....(i)
v(x) = C1 cos x + C2 sin x + [M0 (M0/L)x]/P ....(ii) R x
2
[where = P/EI] L
v(0) = 0 C1 = M0/P ..(iii) R
v (0) = 0 C2 = M0/P L ..(iv)
v(x) = (M0/P) [ cos x + (1/ L) sin x + 1 x/L] ..(v)
v(L) = 0 cos L = (1/ L) sin L tan L = L ..(vi)
L = 4.49341 .....(vii)
2 2 2 2 2
P = Pcr = EI = 20.19 EI/L = 2.046 ( EI/L ) EI/(0.7L)2 ...(viii)

(b) For a Fixed-Fixed column, similarly derive

P = Pcr = 4 ( 2EI/L2) = 2EI/(0.5L)2 ....(ix)

(c) Fixed-Free (Cantilever) column M0 P

EI v = M0 Pv v
P
EI v + Pv = M0 .....(x)
v(x) = C1 cos x + C2 sin x + M0/P ....(xi) x
[where 2 = P/EI] L
v(0) = 0 C1 = M0/P ..(xii)
v (0) = 0 C2 = 0 ..(xiii)
v(x) = (M0/P) (1 cos x) ..(xiv)
v (L) = 0 2
cos L = 0 L = /2 ..(xv)
P = Pcr = EI = 2EI/4L2 = 2EI/(2L)2
2
.(xvi)

In general, for any support condition, Pcr = 2EI/Le2 = 2EI/(kL)2 .(xvii)

where Le = Effective length of the column = kL, k depends on support conditions at the two ends; i.e., the
relative stiffness of the compression members and flexural members at the two ends.

Example: Calculate the buckling load in column AB if the frame is (i) braced, (ii) unbraced.
[Given: EI = constant = 40,000 k-ft2]

15
A

18
B
11 12 10

(a) Braced (b) Unbraced

A= (EI/15+EI/18)/(EI/11+EI/12) = 0.122/0.174 = 0.70, B = 0

For braced frame, k = 0.61, Pcr = 2EI/(kL)2 = 2 40000/(0.61 18)2 = 3275 kips
For unbraced frame, k = 1.12, Pcr = 2 40000/(1.12 18)2 = 971 kips

52
 1.0
20.0
50.0 50.0 100.0 10.0 100.0
50.0 50.0

10.0 10.0 30.0 5.0 30.0

0.9
5.0 5.0 20.0
20.0
4.0
3.0 3.0

2.0 2.0 10.0 10.0

3.0
0.8 9.0 9.0
8.0 8.0
1.0 1.0 7.0 7.0
0.9 0.9
0.8 0.8 6.0 6.0
0.7 0.7 5.0 5.0
0.6 0.6
0.7 4.0 2.0 4.0
0.5 0.5
3.0 3.0
0.4 0.4

0.3 0.3
2.0 2.0
1.5
0.6
0.2 0.2

1.0 1.0

0.1 0.1

0 0 0 0
0.5 1.0
A k B A k B

Braced Frames Unbraced Frames

= Ratio of EI/L of compression members to EI/L of flexural members in a plane at one end of a compression member.
k = Effective length factor.

Alignment Charts for Effective Length Factors k

53
 Design Concept of Axially Loaded Members
For structural members under compression, the AISC-ASD (AISC American Institute of Steel
Construction, ASD Allowable Stress Design) guidelines recommend the following equations
Slenderness Ratio, = Le/rmin, and c = (2E/f y)
2
If c, all = fy [1 0.5 ( / c) ]/FS,
where FS = Factor of safety = [5/3 + 3/8 ( / c) 1/8 ( / c)3] (i)
If c, all = (
2 2
E/ )/FS, where FS = Factor of safety = 23/12 = 1.92 ...(ii)
Here E = Modulus of elasticity, f y = Yield strength, all = Allowable compressive stress
A = Cross-sectional area, Le = Effective length of member, rmin = Minimum radius of gyration

The AISC-ASD column design curve is shown in the figure below

0.6

0.5

0.4
all/fy
0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5

= / c
AISC-ASD Column Design Curve
Example: Calculate Pallow for the column below using the AISC-ASD Method if
(a) L = 5 , (2) L = 10 [Given: E = 29000 ksi, fy = 40 ksi]
P 1.5

c = (2E/fy) = (2 29000/40) = 119.63

k = 0.7 [Fixed-Hinged], rmin = 1.5 / (12) = 0.433
(a) L = 5 = 60 = kL/rmin = 0.7 60/0.433 = 96.99 < c 2
cr = fy [1 0.5( / c)2] = 40 [1 0.5 (96.99/119.63)2] = 26.85 ksi
FS = 5/3 + 0.375( / c) 0.125 ( / c)3 = 1.90 L
all = cr/FS = 26.85/1.90 = 14.10 ksi Pall = 14.10 3.0 = 42.30 k
(b) L = 10 = 120 = kL/rmin = 0.7 120/0.433 = 193.98 > c
2 2 2 2
cr = E/ = 29000/193.98 = 7.61 ksi, and FS = 1.92
all = cr/FS = 7.61/1.92 = 3.96 ksi Pall = 3.96 3.0 = 11.88 k

Problem: Check the adequacy of the truss against buckling using AISC-ASD criteria, if P = 10k
[Given: A = 1.2 in2, rmin = 1 , E = 29000 ksi, fy = 40 ksi for all members].
P

8 8

54
 Moment Magnification
F/2 F/2
Concentrated Load at the Midspan of a Simply Supported Beam v
EI v = Pv Fx/2 (x < L/2) P P
EI v + Pv = Fx/2 ..(i)
Using 2 = P/EI x F
v(x) = C1 cos x + C2 sin x Fx/(2P) ..(ii)
L/2 L/2
v(0) = 0 C1 = 0 ..(iii)
v (L/2) = 0 C2 cos ( L/2) = F/(2P) C2 = F/(2P cos ( L)) .(iv)
v(x) = FL/(2P) [sin ( x)/{( L) cos ( L/2)} x/L] .....(v)
2
M(x) = EI v (x) = ( EI) FL/(4P) [sin ( x)/{( L/2) cos ( L/2)}]
= (FL/4) [sin ( x)/{( L/2) cos ( L/2)}] .(vi) [Using 2= P/EI]
M(L/2) = (FL/4) [tan ( L/2)/( L/2)] ....(vii)

Moment magnification factor = [tan ( L/2)/( L/2)] ......(viii)

Similarly, moment magnification factor for simply supported beam subjected to end moments only
= [sec ( L/2)], as derived earlier ....(ix)
Also, moment magnification factor for simply supported beam under UDL
= 2 [sec ( L/2) 1]/( L/2)2 ....(x)
The moment magnification factor according to AISC code = 1/(1 P/Pcr) ....(xi)

End Moments Conc. Load UDL 1/(1-P/Pcr) P/Pcr=0.10 P/Pcr=0.50 P/Pcr=0.90

1.0 14

12
0.8
Moment Magnification M/M0

10

0.6
8
P/Pcr

6
0.4

4
0.2
2

0.0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Moment Magnification Factor Nondimensional distance, x/L

Moment Magnification Factors for Various Loads Magnification of BMD for End Moments

55
 Buckling of Columns
1. State the effects of (i) initial imperfection, (ii) load eccentricity, (iii) material nonlinearity, (iv) residual
stresses on the critical buckling load or buckling characteristics of a slender column under compression.

2. Draw the axial load vs. lateral deflection curve of an ideal column according to Eulers formulation.
Explain why (i) Real columns start bending from the beginning of (axial) loading, (ii) Real columns fail
at axial loads smaller than the Euler load.

3. The beam ACB shown below has an initial deflected shape of vi(x) = v0i sin( x/L). If the deflection at C
for P = 100 kips is 1 , calculate the value of v0i and the deflection at C for P = 200 kips [Given: EI =
4 106 k-in2].

A C B
P P
x
15 15

4. The beam ACB shown below is subjected to compressive loads (P) applied at both ends at an
eccentricity of e. If the deflection at C for P = 100 kips is 1 , calculate the value of e and the
deflection at C for P = 200 kips [Given: EI = 4 106 k-in2].

P P
e C
A B
x
15 15

5. A 5-ft long cantilever column has a 10 10 cross-section as shown below and is made of a nonlinear
material with stress-strain relationship given by = 4(1 e 100 ), where is the stress (ksi) and is the
strain. Calculate the critical load for the column.

10

5
10

Cantilever Column Cross-section

6. The figure below shows cross-sectional areas of two columns. Calculate the critical buckling loads of
the columns if (i) One end is fixed and the other is free, (ii) Both ends are fixed [Given: Length of
columns = 10 ft, E = 29000 ksi].
3

4 1/4 1 4

56
7. Calculate the Euler loads for columns AB and BC in the frame shown below
[Given: E = 3000 ksi, EI = constant].

A 12

10

B 16
12
C Cross-section

15 18 12

8. Calculate the buckling load in column AB if the frame is (i) braced, (ii) unbraced
[Given: EI = constant = 40,000 k-ft2].

12
A

18
B

3@10

9. In the frame shown below, calculate the effective length factor of column AB about x and z-axis and
determine the minimum allowable compressive force on the column according to AISC-ASD criteria
[Given: E = 30 103 ksi, fy = 40 ksi, member sections are shown below].

8
8
12
A 15 13
13 10 8
B
15
y 10 10
15
20 20 Beam Section Column Section
Frame
x

57
10. Draw the AISC-ASD design curve for steel columns with E = 29000 ksi and yield strength = 36 ksi.
Show all the relevant details like c, allow at = 0 and = c on the graph.

11. Calculate the allowable value of F for the truss shown below using the AISC-ASD criteria
[Given: The truss members are hollow circular tubes of 4 outside and 3 inside diameter, E = 29000
ksi, fy = 50 ksi for all members].
F

10 4 3

Cross-section
10 10
12. In the structure shown below, check the adequacy of the member AB using the AISC-ASD criteria for
buckling, if P = 100k [Given: AB is a solid circular tube of 4 diameter, yield strength fy = 40 ksi,
modulus of elasticity E = 29000 ksi].
P

10

B C
10 10

13. In the structure shown below, check the adequacy of the truss against buckling using the AISC-ASD
criteria, if P = 10k [Given: Area A = 1.2 in2, rmin = 1 , Modulus of Elasticity E = 29000 ksi, yield strength
= 40 ksi, for all members].

P a

b c d

8 8

14. Check the adequacy of the structure shown below against buckling if P = 20k. Use a factor of safety of 2
and assume ends A, B and C are all hinged [Given: AB is a solid tube of 3 diameter, BC is a cable of
1/8 diameter, modulus of elasticity E = 29000 ksi].

20k
30
A B
10

58
15. What is moment magnification factor? What are the steps involved in calculating the moment
magnification factor of a typical column in a multi-storied building?

16. Using the AISC moment magnification factor (with Cm = 0.85), calculate the bending moment at the
mid-span C of the simply supported beam shown below if
(i) P = 0, and (ii) P = 300k [Given: E = 3000 ksi, I = 1728 in4].
10k

A B
P P
C
12 12

17. For the simply supported beam shown below, calculate

(i) the allowable axial load using the AISC-ASD method
(ii) the bending moment at the mid-span C
[Given: E = 29000 ksi, fy = 60 ksi, A = 10 in2, Imin = 90 in4].

1 k/ft
A B
150 k 150 k
C
10 10

18. For the beam ACB shown below, compare the deflections at C for P = 0 and P = 200 kips, if
(i) F = 0 but the beam has an initial deflected shape of vi(x) = v0i sin( x/L), where v0i = 1 in,
(ii) F = 10 kips and the beam is perfectly straight initially [Given: EI = 4 106 k-in2].
F

A B
P P
C
x
15 15

59
 Solution of Midterm Question
1.
1 k/
A B C D EI = 40 103 k-ft2

5 5 10

31.25 10-5/

A1 B1 C1 D1 Conjugate Beam
loaded by M/EI

In the conjugate beam, BM at C1 = 0 (2/3) 31.25 10-5 10 5 10 RD1 = 0

RD1 = 104.17 10-5 rad .(1)
In the separated beam C1D1, RC1 = 104.17 10-5 rad
In the separated beam A1B1C1, R C1 = 104.17 10-5 rad .(2)
BM at B1 = 104.17 10-5 5 = 520.83 10-5 ft
vB = 520.83 10-5 ft = 0.0625 .(3)

2. Moment-Area Theorem:
Using 1st theorem between C and D D = (2/3) 31.25 10-5 10 = 208.33 10-5 rad .....(1)
C
Using 2nd theorem between C and D (xD xC) D vD + vC = (2/3) 31.25 10-5 10 5
10 D 0 + 0 = 104.17 10-4 D = 104.17 10 rad ...(2)
-5

(1) C =
-5
104.17 10 rad ...(3)
st (+)
Using 1 theorem between B and C C B(+) = 0 .(4)
Using 2nd theorem between B and C (xC xB) C vC + vB = 0
5 C 0 + vB = 0
vB = 5 C = 520.83 10-5 ft = 0.0625 ....(5)

Singularity Function:
EIviv(x) w(x) = C x5 3* +RC x10 1* 1 x10 0
EIv (x) V(x) = C x5 2* +RC x10 0 1 x10 1 + C1 ....(1)
EIv (x) M(x) = C x5 1* +RC x10 1 1/2 x10 2 + C1 x + C2 ....(2)
EIv (x) = S(x) C x5 0 +RC/2 x10 2 1/6 x10 3 + C1x2/2 + C2 x + C3 ...(3)
EIv(x) = D(x) C x5 1+RC/6 x10 31/24 x10 4 +C1x3/6 +C2x2/2 +C3 x +C4 ....(4)
M(0) = 0 C2 = 0 .(5)
M(5) = 0 5C1 = 0 C1 = 0 .(6)
M(20) = 0 10 RC 50 = 0 RC = 5 .(7)
D(0) = 0 C4 = 0 .(8)
D(10) = 0 5C + 10 C3 = 0 .(9)
D(20) = 0 15 C + 833.33 416.67 + 20 C3 = 0 15 C + 20 C3 = 416.67 ...(10)
Solving (9), (10) C3 = 41.67, C = 83.33 ...(11)
EIv(x) = D(x) 83.33 x5 1 +0.8333 x10 3 0.04167 x10 3 + 41.67 x ...(12)
v(5) = D(5)/EI 41.67 5/(40 103) = 520.83 10-5 ft = 0.0625 ....(13)

60
3. Le = 2 5 12 = 120 in, A = 10 10 = 100 in2, rmin = 10/ 12 = 2.887 (1)
= Le/rmin = 41.57
= 4(1 e 100 ) Et = d /d = 400 e 100
4(1 e 100 ) = 2 400 e 100 / 2 = 2 400 e 100 /(41.57)2 1 e 100 = 0.571 e 100

e 100 = 1/1.571 e100 = 1.571 = 4.52 10 3 (2)

cr = 4(1 e 100 ) = 4(1 e 0.452) = 1.454 ksi
Pcr = 1.454 100 = 145.4 kips (3)

4. F

U0 U1 U2

10 4 3

L0
L1 L2 Cross-section

10 10
The only compression members in the truss are U1L0 and U1L2
Each of them is 14.14 long and under compressive force of 0.707F
A = (42 32)/4 = 5.50 in2, Imin = (44 34)/64 = 8.59 in4 rmin = (8.59/5.50) = 1.25
= Le/rmin = 14.14 12 /1.25 = 135.76 and c = (2E/fy) = (2 29000/50) = 107.00
2 2 2
c all = ( E/ )/FS = ( 29000/135.762)/1.92 = 8.09 ksi
Pall = all A = 8.09 5.50 = 44.46 kips
0.707Fall = 44.46 Fall = 62.88 kips

61