IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 23, NO.
4, OCTOBER 2008
Implementation of the Numerical
Laplace Transform: A Review
Task Force on Frequency Domain Methods for EMT Studies, Working Group on Modeling and Analysis of System Transients
Using Digital Simulation, General Systems Subcommittee, IEEE Power Engineering Society
Pablo Moreno and Abner Ramirez
AbstractIn this paper a detailed description, an analysis, and
an assessment of a frequency-domain technique highly applicable
to power systems transient analysis (i.e., the numerical Laplace
transform) are presented. The errors due to truncation and sam-
pling when converting a frequency-domain signal to the time do-
main are analyzed. Additionally, the use of odd and regular sam-
pling is discussed. Two major goals of the paper are the revival of
the mentioned technique and its friendly description for power sys-
tems engineers. As an application, a transmission-line transient is
presented.
Index TermsFourier transform, frequency-domain (FD) anal-
ysis, Laplace transform, transient analysis.
I. INTRODUCTION
REQUENCY dependence is an intrinsic characteristic of
F electrical/electronic devices. Its effects are clearly visible
in the distortion of voltage/current waveforms.
A natural choice for mathematically handling frequency de-
pendent elements is the frequency domain (FD). However, on
analyzing transients one needs to go back to time domain (TD)
where a more comprehensive way of interpreting results ex-
ists. In general, the mathematical FD expressions resulting from
practical studies are difficult, if not impossible, to be solved by
analytical means. This difficulty is, however, overcome by nu-
merical methods.
Initially, the Inverse Fourier transform was applied to con-
vert an FD signal into the TD. The direct integration brought up
certain errors caused by discretization and truncation of the FD
signal. Later on, the modified Fourier transform (MFT) and win-
dowing techniques were introduced in order to decrease these
errors. Finally, slight modifications to the latter produced the
numerical Laplace transform (NLT) in its actual form.
This paper intends first to revive the interest in the NLT
through its detailed description and analysis.
Manuscript received October 14, 2007; revised December 17, 2007. First pub-
lished May 7, 2008; current version published September 24, 2008. Paper no.
TPWRD-00600-2007.
P. Moreno and A. Ramirez are with CINVESTAV, Guadalajara 44550,
Mexico (e-mail: pmoreno@gdl.cinvestav.mx).
Task Force Members: J. L. Naredo (Task Force Chairperson), A. Ametani,
S. Carneiro, M. Davila, V. Dinavahi, J. A. de la O, F. de Leon, P. Gomez, J.
L. Guardado, B. Gustavsen, J. A. Gutierrez-Robles, J. R. Marti, J. A. Martinez-
Velasco, F. Moreira, P. Moreno, A. Morched, N. Nagaoka, W. A. Neves, T.
Noda, V. H. Ortiz-Muro, A. I. Ramirez, M. Rioual, A. C. Siqueira de Lima, F.
A. Uribe, K. Strunz, N. Watson, D. J. Wilcox.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2008.923404
0885-8977/$25.00 2008 IEEE
2599
As a second objective, this work describes in a comprehen-
sive manner the numerical issues of the NLT in such a way that
a power system engineer (without being a specialist in digital
signal processing) can understand the basic theory and develop
a FD program for handling transients. Since some of the refer-
ences mentioned in this paper are old and/or out of reach for
most of power engineers, we repeat here many of the theory al-
ready contained in those papers.
Although the NLT technique is applied in this work to the
power systems transients area, it is deemed here that its appli-
cability can be expanded to other Engineering areas.
Finally, a code section is included (Appendices A and B) that
allows to apply the NLT in Matlab.
II. HISTORY
One of the earliest numerical methods to invert Laplace
transform was developed in the 1960s by Bellman, Kalaba, and
Lockett [1]. From 1964 to 1973, Day, Mullineux, Battisson,
and Reed approached the problem of analyzing power system
transients using Fourier transforms and reported their results
in [2][5]. These researchers realized that, due to truncation of
the FD signal, the corresponding time functions were affected
by Gibbs phenomenon [2]. Additionally, since FD functions
have to be sampled, the corresponding TD waveforms were
affected by aliasing. To alleviate Gibbs errors they introduced
the use of window functions [4], and to decrease aliasing errors
they proposed the use of an artificial exponential damping, i.e.,
shifting the integration path away from the imaginary axis [3].
These authors named their technique the MFT.
Wedepohl and Mohamed, in 1969 and 1970, adopted the MFT
and applied it to the calculation of transients on multiconductor
power lines [6]. These authors further extended the technique
to applications including switching manoeuvres [7]. In 1973,
Wedepohl and Wilcox applied the MFT to the analysis of un-
derground cable systems [8].
A major problem with the MFT was that it required very long
computational times. In 1973 Ametani introduced the use of the
fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm and the MFT became a
much more attractive transient analysis alternative [9]. In 1979,
Ametani proposed a numerical Fourier Transform with expo-
nential sampling for handling electrical transients where a very
wide range of frequency or time is required [10].
In 1978, Wilcox formulated the MFT methods in terms of the
Laplace Transform theory and introduced the term numerical
Laplace transform [11].
2600 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 23, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2008

An application of the NLT to the solution of boundary value IV. ERRORS INCURRED IN THE NLT
problems using a similar approach to that due to Wilcox was
Numerical evaluation of the inverse Laplace Transform intro-
presented in 1979 [26].
duces two types of errors: Gibbs oscillations due to truncation
An FD transient program that includes switching manoeuvres
of the integration range and aliasing due to discretization
and nonlinear lumped elements (using piecewise techniques)
of the continuous variable . Truncation errors are reduced
was reported by Nagaoka and Ametani in 1988 [12].
by introducing a window function . Aliasing errors are
An alternate approach was published in 1998 to the numerical
decreased by smoothing the frequency response of the system
inversion of the Laplace transformation [27]. In this technique
by an appropriate choice of the convergence (damping) factor
the exponential function in the integrand is approximated by
[11].
a series expansion. The method presents truncation errors and
Although we are dealing with the NLT, in this Section, the
the errors associated with the approximation of the exponential
illustration of the errors incurred while converting from the FD
function. It is also reported the existence of difficulties when
to the TD is presented using the Fourier transform as a basis.
dealing with some singularities in the excitation functions (i.e.,
the Laplace transform of a square function, and singularities A. Truncation Error
present in the response of distributed constant circuits).
Recently, a group of researchers have been successfully ap- Consider the rectangular pulse [see Fig. 1(a)]
plying the NLT to analyze electromagnetic transients [13][16].

(3a)
III. MATHEMATICAL BASIS
Let be a transient waveform and be its FD image. The Fourier image of is given by [see Fig. 1(a)]
These functions are related by the Laplace transform [25]

(1a) (3b)

where the period of oscillation is equal to .

and the inverse Laplace transform Suppose that a data window with maximum frequency
is defined, we would like to obtain back from the trun-
cated integral
(1b)

where the complex frequency is given by . corre-

sponds to the angular frequency variable and is a positive real
constant. Alternatively, (1a) and (1b) can be expressed as (4)

(1c)
where

and (5a)

and the TD image of is

(1d)

From (1c), one can observe that the Laplace transform (5b)
is equivalent to the Fourier transform of the damped signal
. This exponential damping makes it possible to deal with a period of oscillation . Fig. 1(b) depicts
with dc components when using the Fourier transform instead and a partial view of .
of the Laplace transform. In fact, this is the approach of the From (4), it is observed that the transform of the FD product
modified Fourier transform introduced by Day, Mullineux, is equivalent to perform the TD convolution [illustrated in
Battisson, and Reed [2][5]. Fig. 1(c)]
With being a real and causal function, the inverse
Laplace transform can be written as (6)

Additionally, from (6), we notice that the original function

(2) has been degraded to due to the truncation of the infi-
nite frequency range, as shown in (4). Fig. 1 shows graphically
MORENO AND RAMIREZ: IMPLEMENTATION OF THE NLT: A REVIEW 2601

One way to attenuate truncation errors is to introduce a

weighting factor that averages over one period of the
Gibbs oscillations, i.e.,

(7a)

where is known as the window function in TD. For instance,

consider that corresponds to the rectangular time window
function shown in Fig. 2(a). Then, the substitution of (4) into
(7a), and using , gives

(7b)

Interchanging the integration order in (7b) and performing the

inner integral yields

(7c)

where is the Lanczos window given in the FD as [see

Fig. 2(a)]

(7d)

Notice that for numerical implementation, only the central

lobe of Lanczos window is taken. The effect of truncating and
introducing the window function is represented in the FD and
in the TD by

(8a)

(8b)

respectively, and is illustrated by Fig. 2. Comparison of the

graphs in Figs. (1c) and (2b) shows the attenuation of Gibbs
oscillations in the latter due to the use of the window function.

Fig. 1. Illustration of truncation phenomenon. (a) Original function. (b) Data
window. (c) Truncation effect.
B. Discretization Error
In the numerical computation of the inverse Fourier trans-
form, what it has actually done is transform an FD sampled
signal (instead of a continuous one) into the TD as follows:

(9)
the truncation process described by (3)(6). The ringing phe-
nomenon appearing in [see Fig. 1(c)] is known as Gibbs
oscillations and has a period of oscillation that is equal to where corresponds to a train of regularly spaced Dirac
[17]. The value of also corresponds to the minimum rise time impulses [17]
of ; that is, due to frequency truncation, the resulting func-
tion not only presents Gibbs oscillations, it also has a finite rise (10)
time.
2602 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 23, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2008

Fig. 2. Effect of windowing. (a) Lanczos window. (b) Windowed function

f (t).

In the TD, (9) becomes

(11)

where is the TD image of given by

(12)

Substitution of (12) into (11) gives

(13) Fig. 3. Illustration of discretization phenomenon. (a) TD original waveform

As an illustration of the discretization error, the functions de-
scribed by (9)(13) are shown in Fig. 3 for a specific triangular
signal. Fig. 3(a) shows the TD triangular function and its FD
counterpart. The sampled FD signal is depicted in Fig. 3(b) and
its corresponding TD counterpart in Fig. 3(c).
As it can be noted from (13), the resulting TD function ob-
tained after discretization of its FD image consists of a periodic
function with period . According to the sampling
theorem, overlapping will exist if [17].
To decrease the aliasing phenomenon, the NLT takes aim into
the fact that the inversion involves the function attenuated by a
f (t) and its FD image F (! ). (b) Sampled version of F (! ) and (c) TD wave-
form of the sampled version.
damping coefficient . Several formulae have been proposed for
calculating this damping coefficient; some of these have been
obtained in a heuristic way. We will only mention those pro-
posed by Wilcox [11] and by Wedepohl [18], respectively
(14a)
(14b)
MORENO AND RAMIREZ: IMPLEMENTATION OF THE NLT: A REVIEW 2603

where for time and frequency, we use equally spaced sam-

ples. Additionally, since the numerical integration of (2) re-
quires finite integration limits, let us define as the maximum
frequency and as the observation time. The observation time
corresponds to the waveform repetition period which in this case
is given by

(15c)

Thus, we can establish the following relations [23]:

(16a)
(16b)

Equation (16b) is defined by the odd sampling procedure

and (16a) represents the minimum useful time step. This value
comes from the fact that truncation of the spectrum produces a
rise time of

(16c)

and the ratio gives samples.

By using the sampling scheme defined by (15) (and including
Fig. 4. Illustration of basic definitions: (a) TD and (b) FD.
the window function), (2) can be approximated numerically as

Wilcoxs criterion often permits an accuracy of about ,

whereas with Wedepohls criterion, the numerical error level
can be brought up to . This is shown in Section VI. In (17)
the authors experience, the criteria presented provide good re- Substitution of definitions (15) and (16) into (17) yields
sults; however, it is worthy to note that up to now, there is no
sound basis for choosing a suitable value for . On the one hand,
choosing a small value will not displace far enough from the
imaginary axis the integration path and, therefore, waveform (18a)
tails will not be damped enough. On the other hand, if is too
large, while the frequency response may then be very smooth, where
the truncated integration contour might not enclose the signif-
icant poles and the resulting response would be unacceptably (18b)
distorted.
The term inside the square brackets in (18a) permits us to
V. NUMERICAL FORMULATION utilize the fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm [17] which
makes the calculation of in a very efficient manner when
A. Odd Sampling is equal to an integer power of two.

The numerical evaluation of (2) requires the consideration of B. Choice of , , and

sampling intervals and , as shown in Fig. 4. The numer-
In this respect, one has several options [11]. For instance,
ical formulation that will be described uses an odd discretization
once the total observation time in the transient analysis is
in the FD with spacing of , and normal time steps of ;
chosen, is automatically defined by (16b); according to the
therefore, the following definitions are made:
bandwidth of (or the type of transient under analysis), one
can choose the maximum frequency , and will be given
for (15a) by (16b); is then calculated by (16a). Note that can be
calculated by either (14a) or (14b).
and
C. Regular Sampling
for Alternatively, (2) can be approximated numerically by using
(15b) regular sampling (i.e., equally spaced samples with spacing
2604 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 23, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2008

equal to ). In this case, the relation corresponding to (17) is

given by

(19)
where is defined as in (16a), and (16b) becomes

(20a)

and (and ) has been discretized as follows:

(20b)
Note that in (20b), the samples at the left hand side of the
imaginary axis have been flipped to the right and conjugated. In
(20), the selection of , , and should be modified accord-
ingly.

D. Direct Transform
For completeness of this paper, the numerical formulation of
the direct Laplace transform is provided in this subsection.
In order to obtain a useful formula for the frequency spec-
trum, the discretized TD function can be converted to a contin-
uous analog time function. Since the behavior between samples
is unknown, it suffices to assume that time point defines a
time rectangle of magnitude from to (sample
and hold operation). Hence, for the case of FD odd sampling, Fig. 5. Error from choosing the damping factor c corresponding to expressions:
(1c) can be expressed as follows: (a) (14a) and (b) (14b).

(21a) VI. ASSESSMENT OF THE NLT

A. Damping Factor and Number of Samples

Solving the integral in (21a) by applying the rectangular rule
For the sake of illustration, we have taken the shifted unit step
of integration gives the following formula that allows using the
FFT algorithm:
(22a)

(21b) whose Laplace image is

Similarly, for the case of regular sampling (22b)

The NLT is evaluated by first transforming into the TD

(21c)
where , , and , are given by (15a), (15b), and (20b),
respectively.
Since the analog function formed from is a train of rectan-
gular pulses, a different formula for the frequency spectrum can
be obtained by summing the Laplace transforms of all pulses. In
the authors experience, (21b) and (21c) provide good results.
and then comparing the result with the exact function given by
(22a). In the graphs of Fig. 5, the delay has been assumed
to be equal to 0.1 s and the decimal logarithm of the
error is presented for each of the two choices for selecting
[i.e., (14a) and (14b)]. The number of samples in the NLT has
been taken as 512, 1024, and 2048. The spikes seen in the plots
of Fig. 5 correspond to the error at the discontinuity of the unit
step, which is caused by the different rise times between the
exact formula in (22a) and the numerical solution.
MORENO AND RAMIREZ: IMPLEMENTATION OF THE NLT: A REVIEW
TABLE I
DAMPING FACTOR c
Fig. 6. Error from using different window functions.
Table I presents the damping coefficient corresponding to
the results shown in Fig. 5. Notice that from criterion (14a)
remains constant regardless the number of samples. Note also
that using (14b) the damping factor increases as increases.
B. Window Functions
The analysis of the NLT is now directed to the differences
given by the use of different window functions. As a basis, we
use the same function given by (22), choose from (14b), and
use 1024 samples. In Fig. 6, the errors obtained by using the
window functions by Hanning, Lanczos, and Blackman are pre-
sented. Additionally, the error without window function is also
shown. From Fig. 6, we notice that for engineering purposes,
the three windows give excellent results.
C. Odd Versus Regular Sampling
The comparison between the odd and regular sampling [ex-
pressions (18) and (19)] is shown in Fig. 7 for the specific case
of using Hanning window function with and ap-
plying (14b) in the numerical inversion of (22b). From Fig. 7,
one can notice that the error of the numerical inversion using
regular sampling is bigger than the one from using odd sam-
pling. Besides, Gibbs phenomenon is less attenuated with the
former, as seen in Fig. 7. An explanation for the statement above
is that given the same observation time and number of samples,
while the actual samples spacing in both methods is the same
the maximum frequency for the odd sampling is twice the max-
imum frequency for the regular sampling.
The Matlab v.7 code that has been used for obtaining the re-
sults in Figs. 5 and 6 and Table I is presented in Appendix A.
In that code, the user can easily modify the number of samples,
the choice of , and the type of window function.
2605
Fig. 7. Odd sampling versus even sampling errors.
Fig. 8. Switching simulation. (a) Closing. (b) Opening.
VII. SWITCHING MANEUVERS SIMULATION
A. FD Switch Representation
Switching operations produce changes in network topology
that turn the network into a time-varying system, precluding at
first sight, the use of FD methods. However, for a linear network
by using the superposition principle, the NLT can still be applied
[12], [19].
On the one hand, an opened switch can be represented by a
voltage source that is equal to the potential difference be-
tween its terminals. Switch closing is accomplished by the series
connection of a voltage source with an equal magnitude
but opposite polarity to that of so that
[see Fig. 8(a)]. Therefore, the voltage source required to close
the switch at is given by
(23)
where is the TD waveform of the voltage between the
switch terminals for the whole observation time with the switch
opened and indicates the Laplace transform.
On the other hand, a closed switch is represented by a cur-
rent source that is equal to the current flowing across it.
Switch opening is performed by connecting in parallel to
a current source of equal magnitude but opposite polarity,
so that [see Fig. 8(b)]. Opening the switch
2606 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 23, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2008

Fig. 9. (a) Ideal switch and (b) equivalent circuit.

Fig. 10. Scheme of closing condition.

when the current reaches its first zero value after a specified
opening time is accomplished by injecting the current source

(24)

where is the current zero-crossing time and is the TD

waveform of the current flowing through the closed switch for
the whole observation time. Fig. 11. Transmission system model.
It should be mentioned that when using a nodal formulation,
ideal voltage sources cannot be used to simulate switch closures.
Hence, the injection of voltage must be accomplished
that resulting from injecting the current source that performs
through a Norton equivalent current source
the switch maneuver. As can be seen in (23) and (24), switching
simulation requires going back and forth from the FD to the TD,
(25) therefore to speed the development of an inhouse tool by the
reader. In Appendix B, a Matlab function for the direct Laplace
transform is provided.
where is a resistance with a very small value (or, alterna-
tively, equal to the switch resistance). B. Numerical Example
Regarding the switch initial condition, a conductance of zero
is assigned for an initial state of open and a value of for an Consider the three-phase transmission line represented in
initial state of closed. In order to implement switching simula- Fig. 10. Using a two-port admittance model for the transmis-
tions, a topological change in the network nodal matrix must be sion line (see Fig. 11) and the model shown in Fig. 9 for the
accomplished when a maneuver occurs. This topological change circuit breaker, the network nodal equation can be expressed as
is performed by introducing (closure) or extracting (opening) follows:
from the network matrix before solving for the state due to
the injected current.
From the discussion before, a practical switch model suitable
for simulating closures and openings can be as the one shown
in Fig. 9. The injected current is given by (28)
where and are the two-port
closure admittance submatrices for the transmission line with charac-
(27a)
opening teristic admittance and propagation matrix [6], [23], [28],
[29]. is the vector of Norton equivalent currents, is
and the Norton conductance is given by a diagonal conductance matrix that represents the three phase
switch condition, is a diagonal matrix whose elements are
closure , and is the load admittance ( for an open
(27b) ended line). When , (28) represents the system state
opening.
before switching. For an initially opened three-phase switch
. In (28), all submatrices are of order 3 3; there-
When is positive, is introduced in the admittance fore, the system matrix is of order 9 9.
matrix, representing the connection between the switch nodes As an application example, consider the energization of a
and when is negative, is subtracted, leaving the switch 203 km long transmission line. The line is equipped with two
nodes disconnected. Bluejay ACSR subconductors per bundle separated by 450 mm.
After a switching operation, the complete system response The average height and horizontal separation of the bundle cen-
is obtained by adding the response existing before switching to ters are 40 m and 8.8 m, respectively. The earth resistivity is
MORENO AND RAMIREZ: IMPLEMENTATION OF THE NLT: A REVIEW
Fig. 12. Voltage waveform calculated at the receiving end of phase B.
taken equal to 100 m. The three poles of the circuit breaker
are closed sequentially. The closing times are 3.0, 5.0, and 8.0
ms for phases A, B (center), and C, respectively. The switch re-
sistance is set to 0.1 , and the receiving end
of the transmission line is left open. The number of samples is
. on (14b), 512 or 1024 samples are reasonable numbers for a
Consider the first maneuver (closing of phase A). In order to
perform the operation, is set to zero, and the injected current
is determined as follows:
(29)
where is the unit step function. The topological change in
the admittance matrix is done by adding the switch conductance
matrix
(30)
After solving (28) for the node voltages due to the injec-
tion of , the complete voltage response is obtained by adding
the system response due to initial conditions (previous system
state). Closing the rest of the circuit-breaker poles is performed
in a likewise manner.
Fig. 12 shows the resulting voltage waveform of phase A at
the receiving end after closing the three phases using the method
presented in this work and using the PSCAD program. The cpu
time for this simulation with 1024 samples was 0.8125 s in a
Pentium IV with a 3 GHz processor.
VIII. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The basic theory of the NLT has been described in detail. We
have analyzed the main errors incurred in the numerical imple-
mentation of the NLT and discussed the way to diminish those
errors.
2607
The NLT is deemed here as a powerful tool for the analysis of
electromagnetic transients. Its evolution has permitted to refine
its numerical characteristics through the use of window func-
tions, the choice of an integration path ( parameter), and the
use of the FFT.
As shown in Section VI-B, one can choose any of the three
window functions used here (Hanning, Lanczos, and Blackman)
achieving an accuracy far beyond the one required by engi-
neering applications (in the order of ). Nevertheless, the
NLT permits the implementation of any of the window func-
tions from the literature.
Concerning the choice of parameter , in the authors
experience, (14b) gives the best results. Apparently (see
Table I), increasing produces better results; however, one
should be careful because using a larger produces an
amplification of Gibbs oscillations due to the term in
(2). In fact, the NLT technique suffers from numerical errors
in the waveform tails. This forces discarding the last 5 to
10% of the TD samples.
The NLT technique presented in this work uses odd sampling
and the utilization of the FFT speeds up the solution dramatically.
In the cases of electromagnetic transients, we can say that based
good definition of the TD response. Some algorithms using
a nonuniform sampling have been proposed [10], [20][22].
The problem with jagged behavior of the FD responses
caused by poles close to the integration axis was addressed
in [22], where an adaptive sampling scheme was proposed.
Aliasing was here avoided by integrating analytically between
samples and using linear variation, similarly as in [12]. The
use of splines was proposed in [24]. Although it is claimed
that such procedures could save computing time, their use
can become very cumbersome when switching occurs. In
fact, the most general sampling is the uniform one; it does
not need to know beforehand the behavior of the transient
(i.e., the fast dynamics appearing at the beginning followed
by the slow dynamics).
Despite the NLT being fundamentally oriented to linear prob-
lems, it is shown here that it can still be applied to nonlinear
events such as sequential switching [7], [8], [19]. Moreover
the NLT is capable of handling nonlinear elements in a piece-
wise manner [12], [14]. In addition to simulation of general
transients, the inverse transform is deemed here to be an in-
valuable tool for validation of frequency-dependent transmis-
sion-line models.
The authors believe that this paper will help power engineers
develop further insight into the field of electromagnetic tran-
sients. In addition, the presented NLT technique is an invaluable
complement for the more familiar TD analysis.
APPENDIX A
The Matlab v.7 code used for the assessment of the NLT in
Section VI is provided:
2608 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 23, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2008

clear all; function

% Laplace data; %;

; ; error ; ; % ftd: values of the waveform for 0;

; % dt, ;
% c: damping factor;
% choose a criterion to determine c;
% dt: time step;
% ;
%;
;
;
; ; ; ;

; ;
; ;
;
% function in the s-domain;
; ; .

% choose a window function; REFERENCES

% ; %Hanning; [1] R. E. Bellman, R. E. Kalaba, and J. Lockett, Numerical Inversion of the
Laplace Transform. New York: Elsevier, 1966.
[2] S. J. Day, N. Mullineux, and J. R. Reed, Developments in obtaining
% ; transient response using Fourier transforms. Part I: Gibbs phenomena
%Lanczos; and Fourier integrals, Int. J. Elect. Eng. Educ., vol. 3, pp. 501506,
1965.
% [3] S. J. Day, N. Mullineux, and J. R. Reed, Developments in obtaining
; %Blackman; transient response using Fourier transforms. Part II: Use of the modified
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