Reactor Startup

A reactor startup is a procedure, that comprises many points and changes of operational
parameters and significantly differs according to certain reactor type. For example, any
startup of zero-power reactors (e.g. research reactors) can be classified into three
categories:
Normal Startup. The normal startup is the routine restart of a reactor. Restarts
are possible, if all reactivity characteristics (fuel, control rods, experimental
channels) remain and all these reactivity characteristics and the control rod
positions in the critical condition of the reactor are known.
Comprehensive Startup Experiment. It is necessary for a safe reactor startup
after minor material or geometry changes which do not require a critical
experiment.
Critical Experiment. A critical experiment has to be carried out, if all reactivity
characteristics (e.g. critical mass, reactivity characteristics of the control rods,
excess reactivity etc.) were changes and all these reactivity characteristics and the
control rod positions in the critical condition of the reactor are experimentally
unconfirmed (are known only computationally). This applies, in any case, to the
first startup of a newly build reactor and to any further startup after variations of
the assembly which let expect a considerable change in the reactivity behaviour.

For power reactors, such as for PWRs, reactor startups are usually classified also into
three categories:

Reactor Startup after Normal Shutdown. Sometimes, a reactor must be

shutdowned without refueling. In this case, a reactor startup is a routine issue,
since all reactivity characteristics and estimated critical conditions are well
known. Such a shutdown usually (e.g. a restart following a turbine trip) does not
require the Reactor Coolant System (RCS) to be cooled down and depressurized.
Therefore may take only several hours, because a startup from a hot condition
does not need plant heatup and physics tests.
Reactor Startup after Refueling. During refueling, every 12 to 18 months, some
of the fuel usually one third or one quarter of the core is removed to spent
fuel pool, while the remainder is rearranged to a location in the core better suited
to its remaining level of enrichment. Changes in loading pattern significantly
change especially neutronic parameters of a core. In conjunction with each
refueling or other significant reactor core alternation, physics tests are required to
determine if the operating characteristics of the core are consistent with the core
design calculations (pre-calculated). It may take several days.
Initial Reactor Startup. Initial reactor startup, has to be carried out for
successful commissioning of a nuclear power plant. It comprises many other test,
such as hydraulic and pressure tests. It may take several months.

Startup, as presented here by following points, applies to a reactor startup after refueling.
This procedure briefly describes a typical plant startup from cold shutdown state. It is
assumed that all pressure tests were successful.
From Cold Zero Power (CZP) to Hot Full Power (HFP)

Plant Heatup.
Startup to Minimum Load.
Reload Startup Physics Tests.
Synchronization of the Generator
Normal Operation Full Power

Plant Heatup

Nuclear reactor and primary coolant system of WWER-1200.

Source: gidropress.podolsk.ru
used with permission of

In general, a reactor startup after refueling is a startup from a cold condition, since
refueling requires the Reactor Coolant System (RCS) to be cooled down and
depressurized. The initial conditions are: the NSSS Nuclear Steam Supply System is in
the cold shutdown mode, that means Tavg = 30C, pressure = near atmospheric, boron
concentration is sufficient to yield 10% shutdown margin and RCPs Reactor Coolant
Pumps are off. Prior to each point of procedure above, compliance with the plant
Technical Specifications must be verified.

The NSSS heatup from Cold Shutdown (MODE 5) to Hot Standby (MODE 3) is
performed by reactor coolant pumps which are very powerful (they can consume up to
6 MW each) and therefore its work together with a decay heat can be used for heating the
primary coolant before a reactor startup. To operate the reactor coolant pumps, reactor
coolant system pressure must be increased to satisfy net positive suction head
requirements. Reactor coolant pumps are started sequentially. Primary plant heatup rate is
limited to about 30C per hour in order to minimize internal stress in the material of the
pressure vessel, primary piping and other components.

The RCPs are used due to the fact a pressurized water reactor may have a positive
moderator temperature coefficient at low temperatures. An operation (reactor criticality)
with a positive moderator temperature coefficient, which is caused by the amount the
soluble boron in the moderator (see: MTC), is prohibited. Therefore the heatup by chain
fission reaction is prohibited. The plant is brought to near operating temperatures (e.g. Tin
~ 275C) with reactor coolant pump heat before the reactor is made critical. Heat
exchangers of the residual heat removal system are bypassed to allow heatup. Since the
coolant volume increases (due to thermal expansion) during its heatup, its excess must be
removed from the reactor coolant system.

Extensive and intensive properties of medium in the pressurizer.

Pressure in the pressurizer is controlled by varying the temperature of the coolant in the
pressurizer. For these purposes two systems are installed. Water spray system and
electrical heaters system. The submerged electrical heaters are designed to increase the
pressure by evaporation the water in the vessel and to heatup pressurizer. Water
pressure in a closed system tracks water temperature directly; as the temperature goes up,
pressure goes up.

When the reactor coolant temperature and pressure reaches the target value (e.g. 275C
and 16 MPa), then the RCS heatup is finished. The temperature of the coolant is then
maintained through the balanced use of reactor coolant pump heat input and a steam
dump system which releases steam to the main condenser. The next step in the startup of
the plant is to take the reactor critical.

Criticality Approach Startup to Minimum Load

Subcritical Multiplication

The process of reaching criticality (i.e. keff = 1) is known as the criticality approach or
startup to minimum load. Prior to this process, the boron concentration is usually
sufficient (after refueling) to yield ~10% shutdown margin (i.e. keff = 0,90), the control
rods are fully inserted into the core. If allowed, the boron concentration can be adjusted
to the required value prior to startup.

For the criticality approach, parameters known as estimated critical conditions must be
known. Estimated critical conditions are precalculated for each fuel loading pattern and
consist usually from:

Estimated critical rod position (e.g. the last control rod bank at 90% of the core
height)
Estimated critical boron concentration (e.g. cB = 9 g/kg = 1573 ppm)
Estimated critical core inlet temperature (e.g. Tin = 275C)

These three parameters together specifies estimated critical state. The control rods must
satisfy the requirement known as the rod insertion limit. The rod insertion limit ensures
shutdown margin requirements. There are many ways, how to reach critical state, but
usually the following two procedures are used:

Approach by control rods withdrawal. When the existing boron concentration

is near the estimated critical, the approach can be performed only by control rods
withdrawal. Sometimes the boron concentration can be adjusted to the required
value prior to startup, and then this procedure can be used. The control rods are
withdrawn from the core in successive steps. The shutdown rod banks are
withdrawn in sequence, and then, the control banks are withdrawn manually to
achieve criticality. Following each step the neutron count rate is registered.
Experimentally the neutron count rate is measured by source range neutron
detectors (usually three in the 120 symmetry) located at different positions
outside the reactor. The neutron level following each addition of reactivity should
be allowed to stabilize in order to obtain an accurate indication of asymptotic
 multiplication before proceeding with the next reactivity addition. This
stabilization time becomes progressively larger as criticality is approached.
Approach by boron dilution. When the existing boron concentration is far from
the estimated critical and the adjustment is not allowed, the critical state must be
approached by boron dilution. Prior to boron dilution, the shutdown and control
rods are withdrawn to estimated critical condition (e.g. all at ARO position except
the last control rod bank which is withdrawn to 90% of the core height). Then the
boron concentration can be lowered by introducing condensate into the reactor
coolant system. This process is not performed by steps, therefore there is no
stabilization in order to obtain an accurate indication of asymptotic multiplication.
Also in this case the neutron count rate is measured by source range neutron
detectors.

See also: Subcritical Multiplication

Evidence of criticality is indicated by a positive sustained startup rate or by reactimeter

with no rod motion and increasing source range counts. After criticality is achieved, a
positive startup rate is established (reactor is slightly supercritical), and power level
increases up to minimum load. This power increase is then stabilized at minimum load
by control rods insertion. At minimum load, the power level does not influence the
criticality (keff) of a power reactor unless thermal reactivity feedbacks act (operation of a
power reactor without reactivity feedbacks is between 10E-8% 1% of rated power). The
reactor behaves as zero power reactor.

It is very important to pay attention to safety instructions. Since the reactor is at low
power, the reactor is far from temperature feedbacks, that improves reactor stability.
There is a possibility that automatic shutdown, which can be activated by reactor
protection system in case too much reactivity is inserted.

The inherent power stability is ineffective below the point known as the point of adding
heat. If a power excursion is initiated from a very low power level, power will continue
to rise unchecked until the point of adding heat is reached, and the subsequent
temperature rise adds negative reactivity to slow the rise of reactor power.

See also: 1/M Plot

See also: Source Neutrons

Reload Startup Physics Tests

In conjunction with each refueling or other significant reactor core alternation, reactor
startup physics tests are required to determine if the operating characteristics of the core
are consistent with the core design calculations (pre-calculated). Therefore key nuclear
safety parameters must be also verified experimentally during physics tests at low
power.
Key nuclear safety parameters are selected as a minimal set of parameters that describes
the behaviour of a reactor core during transients and accidents assumed in safety analyses
(SAR).

The set of key nuclear safety parameters selected for low power physics tests includes:

Reactivity balance
o Measurement of critical boron concentration
o Flux symmetry measurements
Reactivity coefficients such as:
o Moderator temperature coefficient
o Moderator density reactivity coefficient
o Boron reactivity coefficient
Reactivity control:
o Control rod worths
o Immediate reactivity after reactor trip

Following the low power physics tests, the power distribution must be verified. Power
distribution tests are performed at higher power levels (e.g. between 30% 50% of rated
power).

See also: Initial Test Programs for Water-cooled Nuclear Power Plants, Regulatory Guide
1.68, U. S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, June 2013.

See also: Reload startup physics tests for pressurized water reactor, American National
Standard, ANSI/ANS 19.6.1-2011, January 2011.

Synchronization of the Generator

Following the low power physics tests, the reactor power is increased by further control
rods withdrawal to about 10 30% of rated thermal power. The reactor is now at zero
electrical load and all the thermal energy generated is bypassed by the turbine bypass
system (TBS) directly to the main condensers.

At this point the turbine is accelerated to synchronous speed and connected with the
grid. Synchronization is the process of matching the speed and frequency of a generator
or other source to a running network. The turbine-generator must have equal line voltage,
frequency, phase sequence, phase angle, and waveform to that of the system to which it is
being synchronized. As turbine-generator loading is started (turbine control valves
opens), the turbine bypass valves will ramp shut at a rate that maintains steam pressure
until they are fully closed.

At this point, additional power increase is usually switched to automatic control. After
determining that all systems (NSSS and Turbine-generator) are functioning properly at
the initial load, the plant loading is continued to full power at a limited rate. This rate
usually does not exceed 5 percent of rated power per minute. After refueling, the power
increase can be further limited in order to minimize fuel cladding strain.

Conditions for Synchronization of Generator

From top to bottom: synchroscope, voltmeter, frequency meter. When the two systems
are synchronized, the pointer on the synchrosope is stationary and points straight up.
Source: wikipedia.org License: CC BY-SA 3.0

As was written, synchronization is the process of matching the speed and frequency of a
generator or other source to a running grid. The turbine-generator must have equal line
voltage, frequency, phase sequence, phase angle, and waveform to that of the system to
which it is being synchronized. An improper synchronization can result in electrical and
mechanical transients that can damage the generator, transformers and other power
system components.

Typically the main generator operates at speeds about:

3000 RPM for 50 Hz systems for 2-pole generator (or 1500 RPM for 4-pole
generator),
 1800 RPM for 60 Hz systems for 4-pole generator (or 3600 RPM for 2-pole
generator).

with an output voltage of 24,000 volts (i.e. 24 kV), nominal rating 1111 MVA, effective
power 1000 MWel, power factor 0,9 and efficiency 99%.

Thus, synchronizing requires the following conditions of the incoming generator:

Correct phase sequence and waveform. This requirement must be verified

during initial installation of the generator or after maintenance. Connecting a
generator with the wrong phase sequence will result in a short circuit as the
system voltages are opposite to those of the generator terminal voltages.
Frequency almost exactly equal to that of the system. The generator is brought
up to approximate synchronous speed by supplying more mechanical energy to its
shaft for example, opening the control valves on a steam turbine. Improper
matching of frequency results high acceleration and deceleration of a turbine.
Zero phase angle. The phase angle between the incoming generator voltage and
voltage of the bus bar should be zero.
Machine terminal voltage approximately equal to the system voltage.
Phase voltages in phase with those of the system. Machine terminal voltage
and phase voltages can be adjusted by exciter and must be controlled each time a
generator is to be connected to a grid.

As can be seen, synchronization matches various parameters of one generator to another

generator or to the bus bar. As a result, all generators connected in grid rotates identically
with identical speed and in the same phase sequence. The process of synchronization is
also called as paralleling of alternators.

Synchronizing Lamps Synchroscope Method

There are different methods being available for the synchronization of generators. All
these methods are based on the check of all five conditions discussed above. The
common methods used for synchronizing the generators are given below.

Synchronizing Lamps

Synchronizing lamps method uses usually three lamps that are connected between the
generator terminals and the system terminals. Each of which is rated for generator
terminal voltage. As the generator speed changes, the lights will flicker at the frequency
proportional to the difference between generator frequency and system frequency. When
the voltage at the generator is opposite to the system voltage, the lamps will be bright. On
the other hand, when the voltage at the generator matches the system voltage, the lights
will be dark. At the moment when all the conditions of parallel operation are satisfied, the
lamps should be more or less dark. If lamps flicker concurrently, indicating that the phase
sequence of the generator matches with the grid. On the other hand, if they flicker one
after another, it resembles the incorrect phase sequence.
Synchroscope Method

A synchroscope is a device that indicates the degree to which two systems (e.g.
generators) are synchronized with each other. A synchroscope is used for indicating the
appropriate moment for synchronization. Synchroscopes measure and display the
frequency difference and phase angle between two power systems. The synchroscope has
circular dial over which a pointer is hinged that is capable of rotating in clockwise and
anticlockwise directions. The pointer of the synchroscope will indicate fast or slow
speed of the generator with respect to the system. If the generator is turning at a lower
frequency than the grid, the synchroscope pointer rotates continually in the direction
(usually counterclockwise). If the generator is turning at a higher frequency than the grid,
the synchroscope pointer rotates continually in the opposite direction (usually clockwise).
Only when these two quantities (difference in frequencies and phase angles) are zero (the
pointer stops rotating) is it safe to connect the two systems together. After the machine
has been synchronized and is part of the system, it can be made to take its share of the
active power by appropriate adjustments of its control valves