Table XVI.

Results of Field Tests on Pipe-Type Cable Installations

Voltage
Induced in
Drop Noncu rrent-
Applied Along Ca rrying
Voltage, Current, Pipe, Conductor,
Utility Company Description of Installation volts amperes volts volts
(Three 600-kcmil concentric round conductors
Detroit Edison .61/2-inch-diameter (inside) steel pipe with 1/4-inch wall 1280
115 12
Company Overall length of 34 982 feet 1240 252 766
Current returned on pipe
(Three 4/0 noncompact round conductors
San Antonio Public 51/i,-inch-diameter (inside) steel pipe with 1/4-inch wall 560
144 0* 350
Service Overall length of 17 692 feet
Current returned on pipe
(Three 1250-kcmil conductors
Public Service Gas 81/is-inch-diameter (inside) steel pipe with 1/4-inch wall 35
119 3.2
and Electric Overall length of 57 500 feet
Current returned on pipe
* Measured with voltmeter.

voltage induced in the pipe by the current flowing in the con-
ductor is cancelled by a voltage induced in the pipe in an opposite
direction by the return current flowing in the pipe. As any in-
duced voltage must be the result of a mutual effect, it is my
feeling that it must be assigned to the central conductors. This
agrees with comments already made and results in a net voltage
drop along the pipe which is equal to the difference between the
IR drop and the induced voltage.
Mr. Mildner suggests that the measurement of voltage drops
measured along the pipe and the return conductors were in error
and suggests that these errors could be caused by a slight dis-
placement in the position of the two potential leads. As the
same cables with fixed potential leads were used in magnetic and
nonmagnetic pipes, I doubt that this is the explanation. It is
true that these measurements were made at the center of a 45-
foot test length. The measured values, especially at low cur-
rents, were in the millivolt range, and it is conceivable that slight
errors resulting from stray fields may have been included in the
measurement. These errors may then have been enlarged by
converting the measurements to a 1000-foot basis.

Half-Wavelength Power Transmission Lines

F. J. Hubert, Member IEEE M. R. Gent, Member IEEE

Abstract: Because of the progressively greater distances from
sources of hydroelectric power to large load centers, there is a
constant search for more efficient and less costly means of long-
distance transmission. This paper proposes a half-wavelength
transmission system for point-to-point transmission of power
to eliminate many of the operational and design problems asso-
ciated with conventional long transmission lines.
Large load centers are often located at great distances from
abundant sources of hydroelectric power. Because the long
electric power transmission line thus far is the only economical
means of transporting this energy, utilities are developing
more interest in EHV and extra-long-distance (ELD) point-
to-point transmission lines.
Historically, the first long high-voltage transmission line
appeared in 1914, when the Southern California Edison Com-
pany placed in service the 150-kV 243-mile line from the
Sierra Mountains to Los Angeles; in 1924, it was changed
to 220 kV.
reommnde andappove bythe ranmision
Pape 31TP 5-12
and Distribution Committee of the IEEE Power Group for presenta-
tion at the IEEE Winter Power Meeting, New York, N. Y., January
31-February 5, 1965. 1964;-
Manuscript submitted August 21, netet L
made available for printing November 13, 1964. -lvsmn,EDle
F. J HUERT nd. R GEN ar wih th Deartent f Wter surplus volt-amperes reactive (vars) during light load condi-
and Power, City of Los Angeles, Los Angeles, Calif. tions, Ferranti effect, and generator self-excitation.
The succeeding years witnessed longer and higher voltage
lines. Two of the notable ones are the Los Angeles Depart-
ment of Water and Power 265mile 287-kV Boulder lines,
feeding Los Angeles, completed in 1936, and Sweden's 593-
mile 380/420-kV line, completed in 1952. At present, Hydro-
Quebec of Canada is building a 700/735-kV 400-mile system
to draw on the abundant hydro potential of northern Canada.
The design of economical ELD transmission lines is becom-
ing increasingly difficult due to the high cost of compensat-
ing equipment. Instability precludes the transmission of
power from a remote generator if the angle between the gen-
erator terminal voltage and the receiving end bus voltage is be-
tween 90 and 180 electrical degrees. To provide a sufficiently
stable margin of safety, a criterion for preliminary studies of
approximately 30 electrical degrees has been suggested as the
maximum phase shift to be allowed over the line. At 60 c/s,
a 250-mile line at surge impedance loading (SIL) has an angle
of approximately 30. To maintain an angle of 300 for ELD
lines longer than 250 miles at SIL, 100-percent compensation
is required of all lengths in excess of 250 miles. Therefore, as
the line length increases, the cost per-unit length (including
compensation) increases. Aside from the high capital
ie rdc prtn rbes uha
rdc prtn rbes uha

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND 5Y5TEM5 VTOL. PAS-84, NO. 10 OCTOBER, 1965
 Instead of shortening, if the line is electrically lengthened
so that its effective electrical length is between 1800 and 2700,
an interesting phenomenon occurs. The system is as stable
as one operating in the first quadrant (O to 900). For
example, if the generator terminal voltage is 1900 with re-
spect to the load, the stability limit of the system is the same
as if the generator were operating at 100 from the load. In
addition, there are none of the usual long line operating
polems
problems.
The most attractive feature of the half-wavelength system
is that the cost per-unit length decreases as the line.length
l llin- .
creases. At 60 c/s, viewing only the initial investment and
disregarding for the moment other advantages, the transition
point between conventional and half-wave design would be
approximately 900 miles.
The half-wave transmission line is not a new concept in that
communication engineers have worked in terms of wavelength
for many years. However, studies pertaining to transmission
of bulk power to a utility load on a half-wavelength system
have been virtually nonexistent. Generally speaking, the
communication engineer is not faced with the problem of in-
stability because high-frequency loads usually consist of
passive impedandes. Similarly, he is not as concerned as the
utility engineer with the efficiency of the line because of the
small amounts of power that his line is required to transfer.
This paper compares the advantages and disadvantages of
a half-wave point-to-point transmission system with the afore-
mentioned problems in mind.
Design
An explanation of the phenomenon of a half-wavelength
transmission line can best be illustrated by designing a hypo-
thetical line and conducting load flow, short circuit, and trans-
ient stability studies.
The wavelength of an uncompensated overhead line is
approximately 3000 miles. Changing the line parameters
such as conductor size, grouping, phase spacing, and voltage
has practically no influence on the wavelength, provided the
frequency is held constant. Assuming that all practical 60-
e/s transmission lines are less than 180 electrical degrees in
length, two methods are presented for electrically increasing a
900-mile 500-kV overhead line to a half-wavelength system.
The first method places all tuning equipment at the ends of
the line; in the second, shunt capacitors are added along the
line to simultaneously increase the line's SIL and shorten
the 60-c/s wavelength.
For two reasons the transmission system, including trans-
formation, should be 100 or more longer than one-half of a
wavelength. The first reason (discussed in more detail later)
is to reduce the required sensitivity of the generator var out-
put control and the second is to assure having a full half-wave-
length transmission line during temporary system reduced
speed operation. The wavelength is inversely proportional
to the frequency; therefore, if the system frequency drops
5 percent, the wavelength increases 5 percent, thereby
electrically shortening the line. If a sufficient margin of
safety is not provided, loss of power flow may occur.
The following have been assumed for the first design:
1. Length: 900 miles.
2. Operating voltage: 500 kY.
3. Type conductor: Twin Chukar 1780-kcmil, 1.6-inch-OD
(outside diameter), ACSR (steel-reinforced aluminum cable),
18-inch spacing.
4. Phase spacing: 39 feet.
966 IEEE TRANSACTIONS. ON POWER
The following are computed per-unit (pu) values on a 1000-
MVA base:
z=0.0123+jO.249 &/100 mi.
y=O+jO.167 mho/100 mi.
Zo -=1.22-jO.00303 ohm
-o
where Zo is the surge impedance or characteristic impedance
ofwherlieZO isthe seriesimpedance oftharce lne, anpd te y s
of the line, z is the series impedance of the line, and y is the
~shunt admittance of the line.
From these data, the classical equation a +j3 = \/Zy can be
solved to determine the phase shift due to the characteristics
of the line alone. In this equation, a is the attenuation con-
stant in nepers per-unit length and f3 is the phase constant
(phase shift at SIL) in radians per-unit length. For this
case, the attenuation constant is negligible compared to the
resulting phase shift.
a+ __O_20_per____iles
a+j3= V(o.0123+jO.249)(jO.167)=0.005+j0.204perl10miles.
(1)
Therefore
T
,3=0.204 rad/100 mi. (2)
or
9(0.204)=1.835 rad
for the 900-mile transmission line. For this value of ,B there
is a phase shift 0 of
0=1.835(57.3)=1050. (4)
For a half-wavelength system, another 750 of phase shift
is necessary. However, as suggested earlier in the paper, to
provide a 100 margin, the line is extended instead to 190 elec-
trical degrees in length, making the necessary additional
phase shift 85. To achieve this 850 shift, T-section tuning
equipment is inserted in the system.
The T sections may be placed in series anywhere in the line
with the same overall result. However, because of the high-
voltage hazard near the center of the line during faults (ex-
plained in detail later), the T sections should be placed as far
from the electrical center as possible. By dividing the T
sections into two equal portions and installing all the tuning
equipment at the line terminals, the momentary high voltage
to which the equipment may be exposed is reduced. This
also allows the transformers to serve as part of the branch of
two T sections. Fortunately, an appreciable range in the
transformer impedances is obtainable, which gives flexibility in
fitting transformers into the T sections. Additional benefits
in reduced insulation are realized if the T sections are placed
on the low-voltage side of the transformers.
There are numerous methods of determining the number
and size of the T sections because there are many sizes of
sections which would give satisfactory results. The method
employed here is dimensioning relatively small T sections of
equal size to approximate 60-c/s transmission line operation.
The assumed line has a reactance of jO.249Q/100 mi or'
9(jO.249) pu total. To obtain the desired additional 850
phase shift, a total impedance in the T sections of jl.81 ohms
is required.
In this example, four T sections are used, two at each end
of the line. As show-n in Fig. 1, the transformers at both
ends make up part of the T sections. At the sending end, the
inductors and capacitors necessary to complete the T sections
APPARATUJS AND SYSTEMS OCTOBER.
 900 MILE TRANSMISSION LINE netizing currents are assumed to be negligible because they
have no appreciable effect on the final results.
T SECTION Fig. 2 shows the calculated voltage at the receiving end,
JO.225 0.22 jO.225 0.165 JO.225 JO.225 10.225 LOAD the receiving end transformer high-voltage side, the sending
end transformer high-voltage side, and the generator termi-
nals, at 100-mile intervals along the transmission line. Note
jo.2921 1o292 jo.292 Xjo.292 that at SIL (820 MW), the voltage level varies less than 2
I>- l | - - percent. Except for the slight mismatch of the tuning equip-
ment, the voltage would be uniform from end to end.
SENDING
TRANSNGFORMDER ENDREIVNED
TRANSFORMER It should be noted that a load 20 percent greater than SIL
io.225 Jo.06 causes the peak value of voltage to rise 20 percent; conversely,
Fig.l. Tsectionsof500-kV900-milesingle-circuittwin-conduc- a 20-percent decrease causes a 20-percent voltage dip. Not
tor half-wavelength transmission system on 1000-MVA base shown on the graph is the no-load voltage profile. At zero
load (open receiving end), the voltage at the line's electrical
center is near zero in spite of the fact that both ends maintain
normal voltages.
It can be seen from Fig. 2 that the line voltage is extremely
are placed between the generator terminals and the low-volt- sensitive to the amount of power being transferred. How-
age side of the transformer bank, and at the receiving end, ever, regardless of load requirement, the sending end voltage
between the low-voltage side of the transformer bank and the is virtually unchanged if the receiving end voltage and fre-
load. The reactance needed for each of the T sections is jl.81 quency remain the same.
divided by 4, or jO.45 pu. The sending end transformer, with To substantiate the analytical approach just presented, an
J0.225 pu reactance, furnishes half the reactance of one T ac network calculator was used to conduct a load flow study
section. The assumed reactance of the receiving end trans- to show the system with its appropriate resistance included.
former is jO.06 pu ohm. The adjacent inductor is conse- Fig. 3 shows the system with the metered values given.
quently j0.165 pu ohm reactance so that the two in series make If the transmission system (including transformation) is
up half of the first receiving end T section. shorter than 1900, a special generator var control would be
The next step is determining the size of the shunt capaci-
tors for the T sections. The T-network equation that de-
scribes this situation is
z212
Z0= -+-. (5) 1000 MW
110
Rearranging (5) to solve for y gives z BM
820 MW
1
100' ._-
Z02 _z (6)
z 4 - 90 \
Substituting the established values for ZO (same as line) 640 MW
080-
and z (total T-section series inductive reactance) gives y= >
j0.292 mho pu admittance per T section.
The completed design, as shown in Fig. 1, requires 1170 70
Mvar of shunt capacitors and 1017 Mvar of series inductors for GEN 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 0 LOAD
a total of 2187 Mvar for the system. DISTANCE FROM RECEIVING END IN HUNDREDS OF MILES
Fig. 2. Voltage profile of 500-kV 900-mile half-wave transmis-
Load Flow sion system for different values of transmitted load
To illustrate the uniqueness of the half-wave transmission
line, a load flow and voltage study is presented. This study
covers three important conditions of line loading; SIL, load-
ing greater than SIL, and loading less than SIL. The SIL RECEIVALENTD
reference is used because it is the most efficient and natural
loading of an ELD line. This analysis consists of calculating
the sending end and line conditions for various receiving
end unity power factor loads. E I OOLI 190- VOLTS
SENERATORND GNLOCAL
GE=NERATION
The specified receiving end loads are 0.82, 1.0, and 0.64 pu P00
MVARS Q * 0 MVARS P20570
Q~~07OO MW
MVARS
ampere, representing SIL, loading greater than SIL, and less
than SIL, respectively. The potential is held at 1.0 pu vo]t- 826 760 A

age in all cases, satisfying the practical requirement that the 46 7 lI

receiving end voltage remain essentially unchanged from no I I I I~ LOAD
load to full load. The receiving end voltage angle is used as - - I
reference and held at zero degrees and all other angles in the E95X-280 VLSW
sytmaemeasured with respect to the receiving end. @283
P MWAR
Two approximations are made to simplify the calculations. Fig. 3. Results of ac network calculator load-flow study at SIL
First, the resistance is assumed to be negligible, thereby conducted over half-wave 500-kV 900-mile system (voltages are
creating a l.ossless system. Second, the transformer mag- in percent)

1965 HUBERT AND GENT: HALF-WAVELENGTH TRAN5M155ION LINES 967

 necessary because the conventional voltage regulator would
not be of sufficient sensitivity. To illustrate this type of var
problem, consider the case of two generators tied directly to a
bus with no impedance between them. A cross-current com-
pensator is required to control the tar flow of the generators.
Similarly, a transmission system of exactly 1800 would be
equivalent to a system with no series impedance between the
sending and receiving end, and some special means would
have to be provided to control the current. For this reason,
it is advisable, as stated before, to design the line for a mini-
mum of 1900 operation.
The advantage of the half-wavelength transmission system,
as pointed out by this study, is that the generator appears to
be separated from the load only by that portion of the line
that is in excess of 180 instead of the physical 900 miles.
Therefore, the factors that limit line loading are efficiency,
line insulation, and radio interference at the center of the
line, and the thermal capability at the terminals. Stability
is not a limiting factor when transmitting on a half-wavelength
line.
Shout Circuits
An extensive ac network calculator analysis was made of
short-circuit currents and voltages. The results indicated
that currents presented no unusual problems because their
magnitudes were within accustomed ranges. The fault cur-
rents varied widely with the fault location. Faults at the
center of the line produced ground currents smaller than SIL
and faults near either end of the system caused ground cur-
rents in the order of 15 or 20 times SIL.
For the T-section design, studied in this paper in detail, a
subtransient reactance was assumed for the sending end
generator and also for the local generation equivalent. These
values were 15 percent and 7 percent, respectively, on a 1000-
MVA base. It was further assumed that the sending end
step-up transformer bank was delta-wye grounded and that
the receiving end step-down transformer was a grounded wye
autotransformer bank.
Complete tests were made for 1-, 2-, and 3-phase-to-ground
faults at all locations. The generator positive sequence
currents varied from near zero for 3-phase faults 900 away to
some high value related to the transient impedance for faults
near the generator terminals.
Table I shows the more pertinent results of faults in terms
of phase voltage. At the line ends (transformer high-voltage
side), highest voltages developed on the unfaulted phase dur-
ing a 2-phase-to-ground fault at the system's receiving end
(load). For the 3-phase-to-ground fault, the transformer
voltage rise vas slightly less severe. The faults of most
Table 1. Percent Voltage at Sending and Receiving End Transformer High-Voltage Sides During 1-, 2-, and 3-Phase-to-
Ground Short Circuits
Percent Voltage at Sending End
Transformer High-VoltageSide
Type Fault Fault Location Phase A
Thre-has
fe-paulse
I Sending end transformer, high-voltage side 0 0
Receiving end transformer, high-voltage side
222
Load 190
Two-phase-to I Sending end transformer, high-voltage side 69
groPund faults -( Receiving end transformer, high-voltage side 265
Load 68
Single-phase-to- I Sending end transformer, high-voltage side 099
ground faults -( Receiving end transformer, high-voltage side 235
Load 142
968 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS
interest, not shown on Table I, are faults within the T sec-
tions. Three-phase faults at this point cause voltages up to
seven times normal at the center of the line. However,
locating the T sections within the sending and receiving sta-
tions would minimize the occurrence of short circuits of this
nature and the high voltages associated with them. Never-
theless, the possibility of this type of short circuit occurring
necessitates the investigation of higher transformer insulation
levels.
To control the high voltages resulting from faults near the
ends of the line, arc gaps could be used near the line's mid-
point. In addition to collapsing the voltage, grounding the
midpoint reduces the terminal breaker duty. The arc gaps
could be set above the gap required for minor lightning surges
to a value necessary to handle only voltages resulting from
short circuits. The normal lightning surges could be handled
by lightning arresters at the transformer high-voltage side.
Worth mentioning again in connection with short circuits is
the unusually low magnitude of ground currents associated
with center of the line faults. For the cases of 1-, 2-, and 3-
phase-to-ground faults the follow-up current was less than SIL.
Stability
The steady-state stability of a half-wave transmission sys-
tem is unquestionable because, when properly designed, the
generator appears as if it is only about 100 from the load.
To study the transient stability of the half-wavelength
transmission system, several cases were run on an ae network
calculator. To simulate actual system conditions as closely
as possible, typical kinetic energies and transient reactances
were assumed for both the sending and receiving end equiv-
alent generators. The internal impedances were 0.20 and
0.089 pu ohm reactance on a 1000-MVA base, respectively.
The kinetic energies assigned to the generators were 8100 and
10 550 MW -s, respectively.
Faults of exaggerated duration were employed to illustrate
the strong synchronous tie. In the case discussed here, a 2-
phase-to-ground fault was applied in the region of the receiving
end network equivalent and was maintained for 17 cycles.
The phasor diagrams of Figs. 4, 5, and 6 indicate the
unusual transient reaction. These diagrams show the send-.
ing end generator and line voltage magnitude and angle with
respect to load, before the fault, 1 cycle after clearing (T= 18
cycles) and 11 cycles after clearing (T= 28 cycles).
Comparing the phasor diagrams for before and immediately
after the fault, Figs. 4 and 5, respectively, it can be seen that
the terminal voltage angles never swing less than 1800 with
respect to each other, even though the sending end generator-
is momentarily in the second quadrant with respect to the
Percent Voltage at Receiving End
Transformer High-Voltage Side
Phase B Phase C Phase A Phase B Phase C
0 166 166
222000
166
222
190 190 232 232 232
0 0 170 136 194
242225 0 41
178 167 163 0 219 226
74 171 49 165
180
99 0 89 79
31 162 204 141 131
OCTOBERL
 go "0 T-28 CYCLES

500 400 300

600 MILES MILES MILES 200

L TRANSORMER 5\-4
40
TRANSFORM ER
S00
EIVING END
HIGH VOLTAGE// / SIDE
\
GENERATOR
'\_l 4e
HIDE _ o
/G ;
HIGH VOLTAGE TERMAL
-
SIDE LOADNA
IN'TERNALLA
270"

GENERATOR

/ O 10 25 50
/_O_10_25_50 % VOLTAGE SCALE
INTERNAL % VOLTAGE SCALE Fig. 6. Voltage phasor diagram of half-wavelength 500-kV
Fig. 4. Voltage phasor diagram of half-wavelength 500-kV 900-mile system at 28 cycles (11 cycles after clearing)
900-mile system at SIL under normal operating conditions

400
GENERATOR 90g T-18 CYCLES
w 360
~~~~TEs~~~~~~~~~~~~4 S~~~~~~~ _-
_ 0
o /NSENDING END
WINAL LOAD Z 300 _
180 0 FAULT

/~~~~~~~~~~~~0
aX
41// w~~

0 - o ~ 't' 4
0 10 25 50 0 RECEIVING END
N. 4r 4
%VOLTAGE SCALE 270 j 100 /

Fig. 5. Voltage phasor diagram of half-wavelength 500-kV

900-mile system after clearing of 17-cycle fault
-j

0 40 50 60 70
0 10 20 30
TIME IN CYCLES
load. While in the second quadrant, the sending end genera- Fig. 7. Swing curve of generator internal voltage angles for
tor is motoring, the power flow in the line is reversed, and fault of 17-cycle duration applied in region of receiving end
simultaneously the voltage along the line is oriented in the equivalent of half-wavelength 500-kV 900-mile system
opposite quadrant; therefore, the motoring generator is still
over 1800 from the other end. Using the phasor diagram for
reference, it can be said that the power flow is always in the
clockwise direction, taking the longest path measured in not only increases the SIL but lengthens the line electrically.
in terms of electrical degrees. For example, assume that the SIL of the line in the first design
To arrive at the conditions shown in Fig. 6 (T = 28 cycles), (900 miles of single-circuit twin Chukar at 500 kV) is to be
the motoring action of the generator and the turbine drive increased from 820 MW to 1400 MW.
combine to force the generator back into normal operation. For SIL of 1400 MW, the admittance necessary for this
Here, at 28 cycles, the power flow has again reversed and co- line would be
incidentally the voltage has flipped back towards its original
position. In tests at lower clearing times, the motoring gen- y =zIP =jO.249(1.4)' =jO.489-pu mho/100 mi. (7)
erator situation did not occur. on 1000-MVA base.
In summary, the remarkable transient stability of the half-
wavelength transmission system to a 'fault 1. . 1.
of extraordinary The
Teeoe h admittance
natural ifrneo ofO32hst emdpu/100
the line is i0.167 pwt mi.
duration iS self-evident In Fig. 7, the swing curve for the 17- shunt capacitors. A total of 9(0.322) (1,000) or 2900 Mvar,
cycle fault. distributed at 100-mile intervals along the line, is required to
Alternate Designs increase the SIL from 820 MW to 1400 MW.
DESIGN NUMBER
Two ~~~~~~~~Since the admittance of the line has been increased, the
phase shift over the line has also been increased. The new
If greater line-carrying capacity is desired without going to phase shift, 6, over the 900-mile line is:
higher voltages, the SIL of the line can be increased by adding______
shunt capacitors along the line. This additional admittance 0 =57.3LX/zy =57.3(9) X/(0.249)(0.489) =1800. (8)

1965 HUBERT AND GENT: HALF-WAVELENGTH TRANSMISSION LINES 969

 Therefore, no additional terminal tuning equipment is
needed because the transformer impedance will add a suffi-
cient margin of safety to insure continual 180 operation.
Comparing the second design with the first, 33 percent more
tuning equipment is necessary in terms of Mvar. However,
the line power transmitting capability has been increased
71 percent. This advantage in reduced capital cost per mega-
watt must be weighed against the additional I2R losses in
the line. The efficiency of the line decreases when the SIL
is increased with shunt capacitors.
DESIGN NUMBER THREE
In this third example, it is assumed that a single conductor
is used instead of twin conductor and that the shunt capaci-
tor method of increasing the electrical length of the line would
be used.
It is assumed that 1150 MW is to be transmitted at SIL
for a distance of 900 miles at 500 kV over a 2'/2-inch-OD ex-
panded ACSR line, with 39-foot horizontal spacing. On a
1,000-MVA
The000tal admittane, z =j0.305 pu
base, z=jOired pu and
and y=jO137pu100mi.
y =jO.137 pu/100 mi.
The total admittance required is
y =z12=jO.305(1.15)2 =jO.403 pu/100 mi. (9)
The shift in voltage angle, end-to-end, is:
0= 57.3L = 57.3(9) /(0.305)(O.403) = 1810. (10)
Therefore, no additional tuning equipment is needed.
The total required charging is greater than the natural line
charging; char
therefore,
g; shunt caacitos
terefoe shut capacitors arerequied at 100-
are required at100-
mile intervals along the line. To make up the difference,
9(403-137) or 2400 Mvar is needed for the 900-mile line.
This compares favorably with the first design which required
1170 Mvar ofof shunt capacitors and
1170 1017 Mvar
and 1017 of series in-
ductorsMvar shunt capacitors
for a total of 2187 Mvar Mvar of series in-
of tuning equipment to
transmit 820 MW.
Conclusion
As increased attention is focusing on the more remote
hydro-energy sources, need for a more economical trans-
mission system is developing. As an alternate to dc and con-
ventional ac lines, a half-wave ac point-to-point transmission
system has been proposed with three designs or variations of
designs. The advantages of the half-wavelength trans-
mission line as compared to a conventionally designed ELD
ac line are:
1. For 60-c/s lines longer than 900 miles, the half-wavelength
line would require less capital investment than a line of the same
rating, using series capacitor and shunt inductor compensation.
The need for tuning equipment decreases with distance up to
1500 miles, providing the necessary breakthrough of the cost
barrier of an ac system.
2. Half-wavelength systems are completely free of the special
problems of Ferranti effect, excessive charging current, and the
possibility of generator self-excitation associated with generating
plant start-up and energizing a long transmission line. For all
practical loadings, the terminal voltage of the generator is
essentially constant.
3. The system is stable under severe fault conditions.
4. Unlike the ac lines of conventional design, the voltage of the
half-wave line in the regions away from the terminals is a function
of the transmitted load. The line potential automatically
adjusts to different loading conditions. In any of the three
ELD designs presented, the line megawatt capacity can be3
increased above SIL simply by dimensioning the system for
higher operating voltage levels in the region awvay from the
970 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS
system terminals and larger currents near the terminals. The
flexibility of the half-wavelength line design offers a large variety
from which the engineer may select to fit a particular need.
References
[1] E. W. DuBois, J. F. Fairman, Jr., D. E. Martin, C. M. Murphy,
and J. B. Ward, "Extra-long-distance transmission," Trans.
AIEE (Power Apparatus and Systems), vol. 80, pp. 1108-1116,
February 1962.
[2] S. B. Crary, Power System Stability, vols. I and II, New York:
Wiley, 1947.
[31 Electrical
Central Stations Engineers
Transmission the Westinghouse Electric Corp.,
andofDistribution Reference Book, East
Pittsburgh, Pa.: Westinghouse Electric Corp., 1950.
[4] L. A. Ware and H. R. Reed, Communications Circuits, New York:
Wiley, 1944.
[5] Y. I. Lyskov and N. N. Sokolov, "Characteristics of the tuned
transmission of ac power," Elekt. Stantsii, no. 5, pp. 46-50,
May 1963 (in Russian).
Discussion
E. W. Kimbark (Bonneville Power Administration, Portland,
Ore.): In some respects, a half-wavelength power transmission
line is like a high-voltage direct-current transmission line: 1) In
the present state of the art, both are most suitable for point-to-
point transmission and not particularly for tapped loads or net-
working, 2) both overcome the limitation of distance due to
instability, and 3) if the half-wavelength is achieved by arti-
ficially increasing the electrical length through the addition of
lumpy terminal sections, the line bears a further resemblance to
the HV dc line in having more expensive terminals than the
ordinary ac line.
A characteristic of the half-wave line that appears strange at
first sight is that, in the middle of the
light load and bulges at heavy load. A line,
the voltage sags at
short ac line with equal
terminal voltages does the contrary: the voltage at the middle
exceeds the terminal voltage at light load and sags at heavy load.
Actually, of course, there is no inconsistency. The voltage
profiles of lossless lines of both lengths are appropriate segments
of the profile of a longer line, as indicated in Fig. 8.
For purposes of general interest and comparison, it would be
well to have an estimate of kilovoltampere capacities and costs
of various components of the terminal equipment indicated in
Fig. 1. An estimate of series capacitor and shunt reactor equip-
ment required to accomplish the same transmission would be
interesting for comparison. Would such a line, tuned to half
wave, be suitable for intermediate tapping, and what equipment
would be required?
M
1'.0
S R /
/ \
/I
z / I\
D: I
.'
> 0.5
W
-
>
0- _ D _TAC
- \ ADDED \2-- ISAC
_2X
Fig. 8. Voltage profile of lossless half-wavelength line and ac
line
OCTOBER
 H. D. Hunkins and F. R. Schleif (U. S. Bureau of Reclamation,
Denver, Colo.): The nature of the Bureau of Reclamation's
assignments in developing water resources and the associated
power developments often commits it to large power projects
a considerable distance from load centers. Hence, various forms
of long-distance high-capacity electric power transmission receive
review for applicability, including such half-wavelength trans-
mission systems as described by the authors.
The half-wave transmission system has intriguing charac-
teristics, many of which have been well set forth in the paper.
A few additional characteristics of interest are described in the
following comments: By designing the line for operation at
somewhat above surge impedance loading, the rise of voltage
in the central section of the line can be utilized to effect an
increase onftransmission efficiency. The IAR losses of this portion
are decreased at the expense of higher operating voltage level,
Since the voltage transformation for this portion is achieved
by the line itself, there is no corresponding increase of insulation
expense for the terminal equipment, and the increase of line
insulation, if actually needed, is somewhat less expensive. Con-
versely, as shown by Fig. 2, the voltage decreases along the
central portion of the line and the losses increase at light load,
The result is a load regulating effect upon the remote generating
station which has some desirable aspects. The point-to-point
transmission capabilities of the half-wave line conceivably could
be overlaid upon a network. Since the line operates at phase
shifts of 180 to about 1900 from zero to full load, a fixed phase
shift could be built in. Reconnecting one set of line terminals
would provide 1200 of shift and a delta-wye transformer an
additional 30f. A plus-minus 30tvariable phase shifter might
then provide the remaining phase shift required to match the
network.
These rather cumbersome means of adjusting load flow upon
a network serve to point up the superior flexibility of high-voltage
dc transmission. This is at present committed to long-distance
open-wire transmission by the economics of high-cost terminal
equipment and the lower cost intervening line. In addition, the
high-voltage dc line offers potential advantages of rapid control
to improve the stability of the underlying network if such control
is needed, and the ability to transfer power without synchronism
whenever this may be an advantage,
Aside from the complications of utilizing the half-wave trans-
mission, economic comparisons by the Russians (115] of the paper)
still indicate a substantial advantage in favor of the high-voltage
dc transmission system.
Although the half-wave transmission system is intriguing and
worth consideration for special future applications, it appears
that the advantages at present are still strongly in favor of the
high-voltage dc transmission system for point-to-point service.
The possibilities for tapping a half-wavelength line are much
less feasible than tapping a high-voltage dc line,
H. M. Ellis and D. G. McFarlane (British Columbia Hydro and
Power Authority, Vancouver, B. C.): The authors have re-
viewed in some detail the use of a tuned circuit for transmitting
large blocks of power over considerable distances. A number of
questions arise on a review of the paper. Mention is made of a
break-even point for conventional system design and half-wave
design at approximately 900 miles. Is this based on only one
line rather than a normal requirement of at least two lines in
parallel?
The high initial cost of compensating equipment is pointed
out. However, initially the only compensating equipment
required in a conventional design is the shunt reactors, which
are a fraction of the total line costs. As the line loading increases,
the requirement for series compensation arises and builds up
until the ultimate system design is achieved. For example, the
Peace River scheme of two 500-kV lines covering approximately
mission system cost. For the half-wave design, compensating
installedrquremmditeyat hefreachh Tsetiendnnnnnnofnnnnthennnnnnline,
transmission design is the large voltage fluctuations which can
arresters and spark gaps, insulation coordination and equipment
reasonablennnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnonnnnnnnnthennnnnnnnnhalf-wavelengthnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnsystem.nnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnHowever,soaleo
1965
BILs, all become major problems because of this large funda-
mnental frequency voltage variation. The transformer saturation
may have two possible effects on such a system, the first provid-
ing some assistance in holding down voltages, but the second
introducing the possibility of resonant circuitry and still higher
voltages due to ferroresonance. In actual fact, lengthening
the line to a half-wavelength does not eliminate such problems.
Much theorizing is done but little mention is made of operating
problems. How would the system, consisting of two such half-
wave lines in parallel for security, be energized and brought up
to the 1900 operation? What loading can be used to maintain
stability when one line is faulted and removed from service?
The investigation of transient stability studied for the half-wave
design considered a lengthy fault occurring in the receiving
systemiand not in the transmission system. How would the
half-wave system be operated during light system loading
conditions? How would the authors propose protecting such
a transmission system? All these questions point out the
problems of operating such a transmission system in conjunction
with a normal one.
A consideration that might be investigated is the economics of
using this tuned-type ac transmission for up to 1500-mile trans-
mission of large blocks of power. Comparison with alternative
de transmission would then be of interest.
J. W. Skooglund (Westinghouse Electric Corporation, East
Pittsburgh, Pa.): The authors have presented a timely discus-
sion of the application of the half-wavelength transmission line
to bulk power transmission. With present interest and emphasis
on EHV and ELD transmission in the world today, it is appro-
priate that this subject be examined.
I agree with the majority of the authors' technical conclusions,
but I believe some additional clarification of the economics of
this transmission scheme is needed. It is stated that the half-
wavelength system cost per-unit length decreases as the line
length increases. This is certainly true, as the need for com-
pensation decreases, but the total cost still increases significantly
with longer line lengths. General transmission economics are
not the subject being discussed here, but in my opinion, there
is little justification for the economic development of remote
hydro sources 1000 to 1500 miles from the load.
STABILITY
The results of the transient stability cases show that the system
is stable for a long duration (17 cycle) fault applied in the re-
ceiving area. Was the line opened to clear the fault and then
reclosed? Generally, in the study of ELD lines, a fault is as-
sumed on the transmission line, the line is opened in clearing the
fault, and then reclosed later. A fault at the sending end causes
acceleration of the machines, but even more acceleration is
produced during the dead time before reclosing. For this reason,
it is difficult to stabilize a remote source having only one out-
going line.
Should the development of a remote source be economically
feasible, the power would usually be considered firm and not
interruptable following faults. A typical conventional ac trans-
mission system from such a source would consist of two parallel
circuits sectionalized every 200 miles. It is typical design prac-
tice to deal with a permanent fault on one line section, and to
maintain stability through transmitting the total power across
the good parallel line section. Of a total transmission distance
of 1000 miles with five sections, the loss of one section increases
the line impedance only 20 percent.
n nIt appears that the half-wavelength line is not particularly
suited to sectionalizing. Therefore, a 2-parallel-line system
must be designed to increase power transfer on one complete
line by two to one, should one circuit suffer a permanent fault.
Line impedance is increased 100 percent, and the voltage profile
wvlngthnnnnnnnnnnnsystem?nnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnWouldnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnlossesnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnbennnnnnnnnexpectednnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnn
n n n n n n nnlines,nnnnnnnnnlossesnnnnnnnnnncannnnnnbennnnnannnsignificantnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnportionnnnnnnnnnnnofnnnnthennnnnntotale,hestransmissionoalacsyte? n L
t
HUBERT AND GENT: HALF-WAVELENGTH TRANSMISSiON LINES 971eeeeeeeeeeeee
 concerned with the problem of establishing the BIL of the
sending and receiving end transformers and tuning equipment.
Transformer BIL is primarily determined by the lightning
arrester rating that can be applied at the transformer location.
Using the overvoltage values given in Table I and assuming
500-kV maximum operating voltage, a maximum 60-cycle voltage
of 2.65X500/-/'3=765-kV rms to ground is produced. This is
the minimum arrester rating that can be used. Determining
the BIL based on switching surge coordination with a 15 percent
margin
BIL = (765)\/2(1.65)(1.15) = 2460 kV.
0.83
This is a high BIL for a 5Q0-kV system and is much higher than
that required for the equivalent conventional ac system. Prim-
arily for this reason, the authors' conclusion that 900 miles is
the break-even point between half-wave and conventional ac
transmission seems optimistic. Since the line costs are the same
for both systems, any difference is in the terminal, switching,
and compensating equipment. High BILs will significantly
increase equipment cost.
In summary, it should be stated that the half-wavelength line
may have a significant place in the transmission of energy over
long distances. However, for a proper comparison of the ad-
vantages and disadvantages of the half-wavelength system, the
factors discussed here should be considered in an economic
evaluation.
G. I. Stillman (AEP Service Corp., New York, N. Y.): A
transmission line in a communications system is usually termi-
nated in a constant impedance. A transmission line in a power
system is usually terminated in an impedance which varies as
the load varies from peak load to light load during the course of
a time interval. The authors are proposing a transmission line
which is tuned to approximately half a wavelength and which
is matched to the load only at unity power factor surge-impedance
loading. At any load other than unity power factor SIL, there
is a mismatch between the load and the tuned line. The mis-
match results in reflected voltage and current waves at the load
end ofine
the line..Theratiodofethenteflected
The ratio of the reflected voltage
voltagewave the
waveto the
incident voltage wave at the load end is given by
p VreflL ZL-ZO
Vin=L ZL+ZO
where ZL is the equivalent load impedance. Since Zo is usually
almost purely resistive while ZL in a power system is almost
never purely resistive (since loads are rarely unity power factor),
it is apparent that there will be reflections at the load end, even
if the real part of ZL equals Zo, i.e., even at SIL if the load is not
unity power factor. For this latter case, if ZL = RO + jXL and
ZO = Ro, the ratio of reflected voltage to incident voltage is
given by
XL 2 2RoXL XL /tn'.R
4
PVL '
XL' 4J?'+XL' X/4R02+XL2 XL
so that the reflected wave is smaller than the incident voltage
wave and shifted in time phase from it. The total voltage at
the load end is the vector sum of the incident and reflected waves.
The authors avoid this problem by calculating their load flows
for unity power factor loads at the receiving end. For the
unity power factor case let ZL = kZo (corresponding to a load of
1/k SIL) where k is a real number. The VSWR (voltage stand-
ing-wave ratio) = Vmax/Vmi,, = k. The voltage reflection
factor PVL =(k-1 )/(k + 1). Jfk> 1, the incident and reflected
voltage waves are in time phase at the load end, giving a voltage
maximum (Vmnax) there. A quarter wavelength from this point,
there is avoltage minimum (Vmin), and from the VSWR formula,
Vmin =1/k Vmax. A similar analysis may be made for k < 1.
Thus, the voltage at the center of a half-wave line is greater
or less than the voltage at the receiving end in the same pro-
portion as the receiving end load is greater or less than SIL,
provided that the receiving end load is also unity power factor.
This iS shown in Fig. 2. When the receiving end load is not
unity power factor, say ZL = kR0 + jXL and Z0 = Ro, the
97 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS
reflection factor becomes
Ro(k-1)+jXL
oLO(k+1)+jXL
so that the reflected wave is no longer in time phase with the
incident wave at the receiving end and the voltage maxima or
minima no longer occur at the receiving end of the line or at its
middle for a half-wave line.
The authors have chosen to locate the step-up and step-down
transformers on the line sides of the T sections. Since imped-
ances of the set of T sections on the sending and receiving ends
each correspond to the impedance of 343 miles of line, the high-
voltage bushings and windings of these transformers will be
subjected to the voltage stresses associated with that line location.
Thus, for a receiving end load of 1.0 pu ampere (1.22SIL) at
unity power factor, the voltage on the high side of the bushings
is calculated to be 1.135/49 pu under normal conditions, or
131/2 percent higher than nominal voltage at the receiving end.
This is a severe overvoltage and it worsens the more the load
exceeds SIL.
The authors state that additional benefits in reduced insulation
are realized if the T sections are placed on the low-voltage side of
the transformers. I would appreciate amplification of this point
in view of the previous remarks.
So far, attention has been directed only toward the load end.
There is also a reflection factor at the generator end which applies
to the reflected waves returning from the load end
VRG ZG-ZO
PVG ==
VIC, ZG + ZO
where VIG is the wave returning from the load end, VRG is the
reflected wave at the generator end corresponding to VIG, and
ZG is the generator impedance. Since ZG is almost a pure
reactance for a turbo- or hydro-generator, while Zo is almost
a pure resistance, then
XG-RO XG
PVG =- G 1
=
/1r-2 tan-1
JXG+Ro -
Thus, the reflected wave will equal the incident wave but will be
shus,edeinefleeedhase
shifted
loIf theingenerator fromwit.
time phaseoutput it.
voltage is called VG, then the total
voltage at the generator terminals is VT=VG+VIG+PVGVIG.
This equation indicates that the generator terminals can be
subjected to substantial overvoltages when the receiving end
load is larger than SIL and/or has a power factor other than
unity. I would appreciate the authors' comments on this point.
The authors suggest that SIL of the design-number-two line
can be increased byspacing shunt capacitors at 100-mileintervals
along it. Aside from the Ferranti voltages possible, there is
another major problem. Spacing the capacitors at intervals
does not change the Z0 of the 100-mile line sections; each line
section "sees" a shunt capacitor (Xc) in parallel with the equiva-
lent impedance of the following line sections and shunt capacitors.
Thus, if the final 100-mile section at the receiving end is termi-
nated in Zo, the preceding 100-mile section sees an impedance of
Z
1 +jZo/Xlc
Therefore, there will be reflections at this point and at each
other point where shunt capacitors are connected. Such a
design would be subject to multiple reflections and to the ensuing
possibilities of overvoltage, resulting in difficulties with relaying
and lightning arrester application as well as insulation problems.
I would appreciate the authors' comments on this point also.
F. J. Hubert and M. R. Gent: We wish to thank Mr. E. W.
Kimbark for his enlightening discussion. In response to his
request for comparisons of kVA capacities, we have prepared
a table of estimates, Table II. This lists megavar capacities
of the various tuning equipment components for the three de-
signs presented in the paper, as compared to the equivalent
quantity of series capacitors and shunt inductors required for a
single-circuit 30 line to accomplish the same transmission.
In terms of megavar, the component requirements are similar
only for design 1. The megavar requirements of the 300 line
OCTOBER
 Table II
33
Design Number
Design Number 1
1 22
MW Load 820 1400 1150
Series inductor Mvar 1017 0 0
Shunt capacitor Mvar 1170 2900 2400
Total Mvar Total-Mvar2187
2187 -900
2900 2400-
2400
30 line
Series capacitor Mvar 1078 3660 3035
Shunt inductor Mvar 1075 770 632
Total Mvar 2153 4430 3667
for designs 2 and 3 are much more. Difficulty was encountered
in obtaining consistent installed-cost estimates of 500-kY tuning
equipment (instead of low-voltage as suggested in paper); how-
ever, at present, series inductors appear to be less expensive
than series capacitors and conversely, shunt capacitors less
than shunt inductors. All else being equal in cost, we feel that
the comparison indicates that for transmission of these loads,
the 900-mile 500-kV half-wave line is less expensive than the
single-circuit 300 line.
In regard to the question of tapping such a line, the half-wave
characteristics would, in that case, be lost. A 900-mile line with
intermediate taps should be designed in the conventional manner
with no tuning equipment.
Mr. Hunkins and Mr. Schleif have suggested a good way of
overlaying a half-wave system on a network. Another way of
obtaining the 1800 phase shift would be to simply reverse all the
leads on one side of a transformer. In this case, an autotrans-
former could not be used on the end where the reversal would
be performed.
As to comparison with dc transmission, our intent was merely
to present an alternate method for the engineer to use if it fitted
a particular need. Certainly dc transmission offers many
advantages; however, stability is not one of them. The strong
synchronous tie of the half-wave system would do more to
stabilize the underlying network than the rapid control of dc
power flow.
We did not obtain the same results as the Russians on relative
costs of ac and dc. At this stage of the art, precise cost com-
parison is impossible; however, we find ae and dc competitive
in price, depending on the distance and quantity of power to be
delivered.
It is true that the half-wave line cannot be tapped and remain
a half-wave line. However, provisions could be made for tapping
at some future date, simply by removing the tuning equipment
and operating the line sections in the conventional manner.
We wish to thank Mr. Ellis and Mr. McFarlane for their
discussion and will attempt to answer their questions. The
900-mile break-even point of the conventional system and the
half-wave design is practically independent of the number of
parallel circuits. Dimensioning of ELD line conductors is
usually based on efficiency resulting in oversized conductors in
terms of radio interference and thermal limit; consequently,
the conductor of a 2-circuit half-wave system would be identical
to a 2-circuit 300 system. It might be desirable to install
transformers of higher current-carrying capacity in each half-
wave circuit, the cost of which would be offset by lack of high-
voltage switching stations used on 30 systems. For these
reasons, the break-even point for conventional and half-wave
design is approximately 900 miles for both 1-line and the 2-
parallel-line systems.
The possibility of ferroresonance was an oversight on our
part. Because of this hazard, we have modified our thinking
and would place the tuning equipment on the line side of the
transformer, instead of on the low-voltage side, as the trans-
former would not be subjected to high-voltage and the associated
ferroresonance during short circuits. The probability of ferro-
resonance could be further reduced by installing air-core inductors
in the tuning equipment.
The large fundamental frequency voltage variation is not as
serious as it may appear at first glance. A 500-kY line of con-
ventional design can withstand 60-c/s voltages of 1000 kV, since
minimum insulation requirements are usually determined by
1965 HUBERT AND GENT: HALF-WAVELENGTH TRANSMISSION LINES
switching surges. The half-wave system does not have high-
voltage switches and associated surges; therefore, the insulation
requirements are not out of proportion, and protection of trans-
formers and other equipment, application of lightning arresters
and spark gaps, insulation coordination and equipment BILs
seem minor problems when compared with those of a 900-mile
30'Thesystem.
problems of a half-wave system have not been totally
resolved; however, we forsee no difficulties in operating such a
system in conjunction with a normal one. In response to
questions regarding system operation:
1. A system of two such half-wave lines in parallel would be
energized and synchronized as any other ac system. For
example, if the first line is energized from the receiving end, the
sending end voltage would be of correct magnitude (since there
is no Ferranti voltage) but 1800 out of phase. The sending end
generator would be synchronized and put on the line as in any
other system. As the generator picks up load, the phase shift
gradually advances from 180 to 190 when full load is reached.
The second line could be energized from either end. There
would be a 100 phase between the fully loaded line and the
unloaded line; however, this presents no problem. As in any
ac system, a voltage phase shift exists across the last breaker
to be closed when a parallel line is placed in service.
2. The limiting factor of a half-wave system is voltage, not
stability. The additional load that the remaining circuit can
carry is almost directly related to the additional 60-cycle voltage
the center of the line can withstand.
3. The half-wave line has none of the light system loading
condition problems that exist on 300 lines, such as excessive
charging current. Except for the difference in IaR loss, the half-
wave line can be operated from no load to full load, as if it were
only 1 mile in length instead of 900 miles.
4. Protecting such a system can be accomplished with distance
relays atect
4. in
at 300-mile intervals and a transfer
a witheme.tance
tem an ansfertrip scheme. Pro-
tection of a half-wave system is simple when compared to prob-
lems posed by the unpredictable operation of the series capacitors'
arc gap of a 900-mile 30 line.
Mr. Skooglund's discussion calls for a more complete look at
the stability studies. For the study presented in the paper,
the applied fault was not in the half-wave system but in the
receiving end equivalent. Therefore, the half-wave line was not
opened. Another transient stability study was made for a 3-
phase fault of 5-cycle duration at the sending end of the line
(transformer high-voltage side). It showed that reclosure is
required at 17 cycles (12 cycles after clearing) in order to main-
tain the tie. The synchronizing force is so great that the genera-
tor output, and correspondingly the center of line voltage, jumped
to three times full-load value at time of reclosing.
Should it be desirable to construct two outgoing circuits,
instead of a single circuit, there would be virtually no stability
problem. Reliability can be further improved by having no
intermediate switching station, which reduces the system re-
liability and by widely separating the rights of way.
The half-wave system effective impedance does double with
one circuit out; however, the prefault impedance is so low that
even when doubled, it is still lower than the impedance of a two
circuit 300 system with no outage.
We have considered the P2R losses. With low-loss reactors
and with all lines in, the full-load losses are identical to the losses
of a 300 system. The economical conductor size and voltage
are determined in the same manner for both systems. Similar
conductor and voltage produce similar losses.
Concerning the short-circuit voltage, we have revised our
thinking and now believe the transformer should be at the
system's ends. In addition to reducing the possibility of ferro-
resonance, the tuning equipment (low-pass filters) will prevent
lightning surges from impinging the transformer. Only the first
inductor on the line side would require a high BIL. By employ-
ing Pi sections instead of T sections, the insulation level of even
the first inductor could be reduced if the capacitors are grounded
wye-connected. There is some question as to whether lightning
arresters would be needed since a capacitor bank connected in
wye with the neutral grounded has the ability of sloping off
the front and reducing the crest of lightning surges. Finally,
half-wave systems do not have any high-voltage switching surges,
973
 further reducing the system's insulation requirements.
In his discussion, Mr. Stillman has presented a detailed
analysis of mismatch loading. However, the receiving network
of a long power transmission line consists of generators, in addi-
tion to the loads, which absorb all fluctuations of the load.
These generators hold the frequency and voltage relatively
constant at the receiving end network. Because of this, power
flow on a half-wave line is easily controlled at the sending end,
watts by the governor and vars by the voltage regulator. No
problem is encountered transmitting SIL at unity PF.
The 13.5 percent overvoltage that concerned Mr. Stillman on
the high side bushing is present because the line was designed for
Sheath Overvoltages in High-Voltage Cables
Resulting from Special Sheath-Bonding
Connections
E. H. Ball E. Occhini G. Luoni
Abstract: Systems of sheath bonding which eliminate sheath
losses in single-core cables cause sheath overvoltages as a result
of transients and faults. Equations for transient sheath voltages
are derived for the first incident wave, through the use of equiva-
lent circuits to represent bonding points. The method is ex-
tended to subsequent reflections with a digital computer; cal-
culated results are given for several values of the relevant param-
eters, and the effect of these parameters is discussed. Transient
sheath voltages can be limited by the surge diverter described in
this paper; and the necessary sheath insulation levels, with and
without surge diverters, are discussed. Equations for sheath
overvoltages caused by external steady-state faults are given.
Calculated and measured sheath voltages when compared, show
reasonable agreement for both transient and steady-state cases.
The rapid growth of loads to be transmitted bv power cables
in recent years has directed the attention of cable engineers in
Great Britain to the advantages of special sheath-bonding
connections. These special methods of connection are
applicable to single-core cables and replace the traditional
method of bonding and earthing the sheaths at both ends of
the cable route. They have the object of eliminating or
greatly reducing the circulating currents in the sheaths and,
hence, the sheath losses. As a result, thev considerably
increase the current rating of the cables.
While those bonding methods are not new and some have
been widely used in the United States, they were not intro-
duced in Great Britain until six or seven years ago, but are now
firmly established. Some of the load transmission require-
ments of the Central Electricity Generating Board at 275 kV
or 400 kV could not be met by a single circuit without some
method of eliminating sheath losses.
It has been recognized that the introduction of special
sheath-bonding methods brings disadvantages as well as
advantages. The disadvantages, mainly associated with the
- by- the Insulated
Paper 31 TP 65-128, recommended and approved
Conductors Committee of the IEEE Power Group for presentation
at the IEEE Winter Power Meeting, New York, N. Y., January 31-
February 5, 1965. Manuscript submitted November 6, 1964;
made available for printing January 4, 1965.
E. H. BALL is with the Pirelli General Cable Works, Ltd., South-
amptonl, England; and E. OCCHINI and G. LUTONI are with Pirelli,
S.p.A., Milan, Italy.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS
0.82-pu current, not 1 pu, as he indicated.
The authors no longer feel that the tuning equipment should
be on the low-voltage side. However, the statement in the paper
"additional benefits in reduced insulation are realized" applied
to the tuning equipment and not the transformers.
In design number two, Ferranti voltages are not possible
since at power frequencies the lumped capacitors at 100-mile
intervals behave as if the capacitance were distributed uni-
formly along the entire length of the section. If the capacitors
are grounded wye-connected, high-frequency currents such as
are produced by lightning surges are bled off to ground through
the relatively low-impedance capacitors.
fact that appreciable voltages may arise at various points
of the sheath circuit because of transients or faults, will be
discussed i this paper which iS a sequel to [1], which dealt
with earlier phases of the work presented here. Some of the
material in the earlier paper is repeated here if it seems vital
to provide a complete picture. Hence, the present paper
supersedes rather than supplements the prevous one.
Types of Sheath Bonding Considered
The following section describes the principal methods, used
in Great Britain, of bonding the sheaths of single-core cables
to eliminate sheath losses.
SINGLE-POINT BONDING
Short cable circuits, mostly interconnections within a sub-
station or terminations of an overhead line into a substation,
have frequently been dealt with by bonding and earthing
the three sheaths at only one point along the cable route.
This point is normally at one end or at the center.
The British Electricity Boards have imposed limitations on
sheath voltages resulting from full-load current in the cable
conductors which, until recently, have been 10 volts at an
exposed termination and 50 volts for an underground sheath.
The first limitation was recently raised to 25 volts; the second
is under review for possible revision.
The difference between these two limitations has initiated
the use of a further type of single-point bonding in which
sheaths are earthed at the terminations and interrupted at
some point along the lengths, usually the center. This per-
mits employment of longer cable lengths inasmuch as the
limitation of sheath voltage is not so severe.
These bonding methods are variations of single-point bond-
ing in that each length of sheath is earthed at only one point
~~~~~andthere are no connections between sheaths except at the
earth point.
CROSS BONDING
Longer cable circuits have been dealt with by the Kirke-
Searing type of cross bonding [2], [3] adapted to cables laid
in flat formation by combining transposition and sheath bond-
VOL. PAS-84a NO. 10 OCTOBER, 1965