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Atomic Structure

In 1809, Dalton suggested that atom is the smallest particle of the element and it is
indivisible. But in the beginning of 20th century Rutherford, J.J. Thomson and more
suggested that atom is divisible and made up of electrically charged particles.

Electron

The electron is a fundamental particle of an atom which carries a unit negative charge.
It was discovered by J.J. Thomson in 1897.

Proton

It is a fundamental particle of an atom carrying a unit: positive charge. It was

discovered by Rutherford and Goldstein in 1886.

Neutron

It is a fundamental particle of an atom carrying no charge. It was discovered by

Chadwick in 1932.

Properties of Cathode Rays

They travel in straight lines. They cast shadow of solid objects placed in their path.
They cause mechanical motion, i.e., they consists of material particles. They carry
negative charge. These rays are deflected when magnetic field is applied on them. They
produce heating effect. They cause ionization of gas through which they pass. They
affect the photographic plates. They have penetrating power.

Properties of Anode Rays

They travel in straight lines, however, their speed in much less than that of cathode
rays. They are made up of material particles. They are positively charged. They deflect
in electric and magnetic field.

Properties of Nucleus

Nucleus of an atom consists of protons and neutrons, which are collectively known as
nucleons. Density of nucleus is enormous and is of order of 1014 g/cm. Instability of
the nucleus is due to high neutron proton ratio
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Nuclear Reaction

A nuclear reaction is one in which a nucleus bombarded with an elementary particle

(like neutron, proton, etc.) or with another nucleus to produce other products in a very
short time span. The First nuclear reaction was discovered by Rutherford in 1919, when
he bombarded nitrogen with alpha particles.

Nuclear Fission

Nuclear fission is the fragmentation of a large nucleus into two smaller nuclei and the
liberation large amount of energy. In 1939 the German scientists Otto Hahn and F
Steersman observed that when uranium was bombarded with slow neutrons, then two
smaller products were obtained with a tremendous amount of heat. The splitting of
uranium was called nuclear fission.
Types of Nuclear Fission

Controlled nuclear fission

Carried out in nuclear reactors in which rate of fission reaction is reduced and energy
produced can be used for constructive purposes.

Uncontrolled nuclear fission

In an atom bomb uncontrolled fission takes place. A very large amount of heat is
produced and the process continues until the entire amount of fissionable material is
exhausted.

First Atom Bomb On August 6, 1945, an atom bomb was dropped on Hiroshima city in
Japan.

The second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki, another city of Japan on August 9, 1945.
The bomb was made of plutonium - 239.

Nuclear Fusion

It is nuclear reaction in which lighter nuclei fuse to form a nucleus of greater mass. In
this reaction also an enormous amount of heat is produced. By carrying on nuclear
fusion under controlled conditions, the large amount of energy could be made available
for useful purpose.

Atomic Energy (Nuclear Energy)

Energy produced by nuclear fission or nuclear fusion is called nuclear energy or atomic
energy. In nuclear reactions there is loss of mass. This mass is converted into energy.
It can be transformed into electrical and mechanical energy which can be used for
various peaceful purposes.

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Basic nature of amine-salts are ionic solids

Wlliamson synthesis use primary halides as secondary and tertiary halides undergo
elimination reaction

Arylhalide and sodium alkoxide not used for phenol ethers due to less reactivity of aryl
halide towards Nu substance

Ether are bent structure and dipole is more than one so there is polar nature

Boiling point of ether is less than alcohol, so no hydrogen bond is formed and there is
weak dipole-dipole interaction

Solubility of ether is approximately same as alcohol so it forms hydrogen bond with

water
Ether is used as solvent due to its inert nature

Cleavage in phenolic ether is difficult than alkyl oxygen bond due to partial double bond
characteristics due to resonance

Ether in contact to air and light undergo oxidation as peroxides are formed which are
unstable compounds and explode on heating
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Portland Cement

The approximate composition of Portland cement is : Calcium oxide (CaO) - 62% Silica
(SiO2) - 22% Alumina (Al2O3) - 7.5% Magnesia (MgO) - 2.5% Ferric oxide (Fe2O3) -
2.5%

The above compounds are provided by the two raw materials (a) Limestone, (b) Clay

Cement containing excess amount of lime cracks during setting while cement containing
less amount of lime is weak in stength. Setting of cement is an exothermic process. A
small amount of gypsum is added to slow down the setting of cement. Cement with
excess of silica shows slow setting and that having an excess of alumina shows quick
setting. Cement containing no iron is white but hard to burn.

Glass

Ordinary glass is solid mixture of silica, sodium silicate and calcium silicate. Glass is a
super cooled liquid hence; it has no definite crystal structure and melting point. We can
say that glass is a mixture, not a compound.
Types of glass

Soft Glass

It is soda lime silicate glass. It melts at low temperature. It is used in manufacturing of

bottles, test tubes and glass of windows etc.

Hard Glass

It is potash lime silicate. It melts at high temperature in comparison to soft glass and is
used in manufacturing of flask, etc.

Flint Glass

It is lead-potash silicate and is used in manufacturing of prism and lens of optical

instruments

Pyrex Glass

It is a mixture of sodium aluminum borosilicate. It has high percentage of Silica, about

80%. It is used in manufacture of high quality equipment in laboratory because it does
not melt at very high temperature.

Quartz Glass

It is obtained from pure silica. It has a low coefficient of expansion and does not break
even when plunged in water while red hot.

Ground Glass

It is prepared by grinding ordinary sand (soft) glass by emery and turpentine oil.

Reinforced Glass

It has a network of wires embedded in and does not shatter easily.

Safety Glass

It is also known as Shatter Proof glass. It is prepared by placing a layer of transparent

plastic glass (usually a sheet of vinyl acetate resin) between two layers of glass by
means of a suitable adhesive.
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Matter:

Anything that occupies space and has weight is called matter. In general matter exists
is three states, Solids have definite volume, a definite shape and are rigid. Liquids have
definite volume, but no definite shape and non-rigid. Gases have neither definite shape,
nor definite volume and are non-rigid. It is the simplest state and shows great
uniformity in behavior.
Elements:

An element is a substance which can neither be broken nor built from two or more
simple substances by any physical or chemical method. Or in other words an element is
a pure substance which contains only one kind of atom, e.g., Fe (Iron), Na (Sodium),
etc.

Types of Elements: (i) Metals, (ii) Non-metals, (iii) Metalloids

Compounds

A compound is a pure substance which contains more than one kind of element or atom
in fixed proportion by weight e.g., NaCl (Sodium chloride), SO2 (Sulphur dioxide), etc.

Types of Compounds

Organic compounds

Inorganic compounds

The properties of a compound are completely different from the those of its
constituents.

Mixtures

A material containing two or more elements or compounds in any proportion is a

mixture. It can be separated into its constituents, e.g.. air, milk, paints, cements,
cements etc.

Types of Mixtures Mixture can be either Homogeneous or Heterogeneous A mixture is

said to be homogeneous if its composition in form throughout. A mixture is said to be
heterogeneous if its composition is not uniform. The properties of a mixture are the
properties of its constituents. A mixture with definite noting point is known as use inter
profit mixture