United States Office of Research EPA/625/R-96/004

Environmental Protection and Development September 1996

Agency Washington, DC 20460

1EPA Manual
Best Management
Practices for Pollution
Prevention in the
Textile Industry
makes shorter runs on continuous equipment more eco-
nomically feasible (13). Further information about color
kitchens appears in Section 4.18, Support Work Areas.
4.10.5.3 More Efficient Washing
Washing operations consume most of the water used in
textile wet processing, and water conservation is, in
large part, related to proper control of washing. Impor-
tant aspects of washing are discussed in depth in Sec-
tion 2.2.7, Water Conservation. Continuous dyeing
machines can be made more water efficient through the
use of flow restrictors, which control water volume. In
addition, countercurrent washing and recycle of clean
water are important features of continuous dyeing and
printing operations (46).
4.10.6 General Pollution Prevention
Measures
This section discusses general pollution prevention
techniques that are applicable to both batch and con-
tinuous dyeing. The most important general pollution
prevention strategies for dyeing operations, based on a
computer simulation model of dyeing processes, include
(65):
Operating at the lowest possible bath ratio. This leads
to reductions in direct operating costs, water and
chemical use (because chemicals are added as a
percentage of water volume), energy use (less liquor
to heat or pump), and less effluent discharge (lower
volume being treated and lower chemical concentra-
tions). The cost of dyes remains essentially the same
because dyes are added as a percentage of the
weight of the fabric.
Minimizing strip/redye procedures.
Avoiding shading additions.
4.10.6.1 Minimize Use of Auxiliaries
Numerous auxiliary chemicals are used in dyebaths to
improve the efficiency of the dyeing process (see Sec-
tion 4.3, Dyes). Selecting dye auxiliaries that do not
interfere with dye exhaustion can improve the process
reliability of dye operations (66). Dyebath auxiliaries
typically contain surfactants that reduce dye fixation,
however, and this contributes to color in the wastewater.
Use of auxiliaries should be minimized, not only to save
the pollution associated with the chemical itself but also
to increase color yield, which in turn produces more
consistent shade repeats and fewer reworks with less
pollution.
Auxiliaries are often added to compensate for inadequa-
cies in process, equipment, or substrate design. One
way to reduce the need for auxiliaries is to optimize
processes and machinery to decrease such variation.
186
This improves the reliability and efficiency of the process
and minimizes the generation of pollutants (46). If aux-
iliary chemicals are used in dyeing, care should be taken
to control dispensing by accurately weighing all dyes
and chemicals.
4.10.6.2 Right-First-Time Dyeings
Without question, the most effective pollution prevention
practice is right-first-time dyeing. Corrective measures
such as reworks, redyes, stripping, shade adjustments,
top-ups, or adds are chemically intensive and have a
much lower chance of achieving desired quality than
right-first-time dyeing (65, 67). In most cases, the great-
est costs in reprocessing are the costs associated with
dyes and chemicals. Studies have shown that the cost
of dyeing can increase by as much as 30 percent when
dye additions are required (68). Right-first-time dyeing
leads to increases in productivity and more efficient use
of fixed capital and labor, which increases profitability.
Using data from the United Kingdom, Glover and Hill
(65) showed that a 10-percent improvement in right-first-
time production can produce a 1.7-percent decrease in
product waste and a $2.00 reduction in cost per 100
kilograms of fabric dyed.
Much of the success of efficient, right-first-time dyeing
hinges on good fabric preparation. Proper fabric prepa-
ration results in higher fixation and less repair work.
Poor preparation is a major cause of reworks and dye
corrections. Fabric preparation is reviewed in more de-
tail in Section 4.9, Preparation.
4.10.6.3 Improved Dye Fixation
Improved dye fixation is an important key to pollution
prevention in the dyehouse (14). Mills can improve fixa-
tion and reduce chemical requirements overall by mer-
cerizing cotton yarn or fabric during the preparation
process, thus increasing dye uptake and reducing the
need for chemical accelerants (69). Mercerizing can
therefore reduce the amount of dye needed to achieve
a given shade and decrease the amount of color in the
wastewater. The tradeoff is that mercerization uses
highly concentrated (22 percent) sodium hydroxide,
which is a pollution concern. The exact shade used in
the dye process is key to the decision of whether to
mercerize.
4.10.6.4 Pad-Batch Dyeing
Pad-batch dyeing is a cold method used for dyeing
cellulosics (mainly 100-percent cotton and polyes-
ter/cotton blends) that can achieve large reductions in
pollution, energy requirements, and costs. The basic
technique is to saturate the prepared fabric with a pre-
mixed dye liquor and pass it through a padder, which
forces the dyestuff inside the fabric for greater penetra-
tion while removing excess dye solution. The fabric is
then stored, or batched, on rolls or in boxes for 4 to 12
hours. Typically, the batches are covered with a plastic
film to prevent carbon dioxide absorption and water
evaporation. While in batching, the dyestuff reacts with
and penetrates the fabric, resulting in even, consistent
color. After the reaction is complete, the fabric is washed.
Pad-batch dyeing offers several advantages over con-
ventional dyeing processes:
No salt or chemical specialty agents are needed.
Eliminating these chemicals reduces waste as well
as chemical and wastewater treatment costs.
More efficient use of dye leaves less color in the
wastewater and reduces water and energy consump-
tion. Wagner (14) reports fixation ratios for pad-batch
dyeing of 92 to 97 percent compared with 42 to 80
percent for reactives at a 10:1 exhaust dyeing bath
ratio.
Dye quality is more consistent. Compared with rope
dyeing, pad-batch dyeing can attain more even color
absorbency, greater colorfastness, and much lower
defect levels (when the fabric is correctly prepared).
High-reactivity dyes used in pad-batch dyeing have
rapid fixation and stability, resulting in shade reliability
and repeatability. With highly reactive dyes, cleanup
is easy and frequent shade changes present little
problem.
Pad-batch dyeing can be used on wovens or knits in
many constructions. Certain tubular knit styles may
develop edge marks at the fold, but new methods in
development will reduce this problem in heavyweight
styles (52).
The simplicity and flexibility of the system allow for
use of available equipmentbecks, beams, and con-
tinuous equipment for washing (63).
Pad-batch dyeing requires a low capital investment
and offers overall cost savings, in dyes, chemicals,
labor, water, and other areas.
The following checklist serves as a reference to avoid
some of the problems common to pad-batch dyeing:
Maintain good alkali control: The generally accepted
method is to mix the required amount of dye in 80
percent of the total necessary water, then mix the
alkali into the other 20 percent. A dual-piston pump
feeds the dye and alkali through a static line mixer
in a 4:1 ratio to create the proper mix in the pad
trough. This metering must be accurate and cali-
brated on a regular basis.
Keep good data on bath ratios: This facilitates adjust-
ing exhaust dye recipes. If the dyer has good infor-
mation about the dyes being used, the formulas can
be adjusted to compensate for bath ratio.
187
Prepare fabric well: Effective preparation is neces-
sary to obtain consistent dyeing side-to-side and end-
to-end. The fabric should be scoured and/or bleached
with a residual pH of 7 or slightly less, and all residual
alkali, starch, and knitting oils must be removed (11).
Maintain good temperature control: Feed only cold
fabric to the pad to avoid temperature increases. Hot
weather may necessitate keeping the mix cool by using
a cooling jacket or by feeding plain ice into the mix.
Dye Requirements
Pad-batch dyeing requires highly reactive cold dyeing
fiber reactive dyes. Table 4-40 contains a list of dyes that
have gained prominence (13).
Table 4-40. Examples of Dyes Used in Pad-Batch Dyeing (11)
Dye Manufacturer
Altafix CX Atlantic
Cibacron F Ciba
Drimarine K Sandoz
Intracron C C&K
Levafix E(A) Mobay
Procion MX ICI
Remazol Hoechst
Sumafix Wright
Equipment Requirements
The equipment needed for pad-batch dyeing includes a
padding unit; a batcher or material handling system; a
dye/alkali mixing device; A-frames, storage racks, and
storage boxes; and a washoff device (beam, beck, con-
tinuous).
Cost Comparison
Smith (13) compared the capital and annual operating
costs of pad-batch systems with those of conventional
exhaust dyeing based on becks. Table 4-41 shows this
comparison. Capital costs of the pad-batch equipment
are less than one-third the cost of comparable becks,
and operating costs (excluding dyes) are approximately
one-fifth. Table 4-42 compares the dye chemical costs
and reveals that pad-batch costs are generally lower, by
as much as 40 percent.
Sommerville (52) developed economic models of dye-
house costs for running 100-percent cotton and cot-
ton/polyester blends on batch, continuous, and
pad-batch equipment. The models incorporate knowl-
edge of the labor, equipment, power, steam, and chemi-
cal costs associated with each method of dyeing.
Simulated runs of various load sizes were performed to
calculate total costs and costs per pound for each
Table 4-41. Cost Comparison of Pad-Batch Dyeing Machines Continuous: As lot size on the continuous range in-
With Conventional Exhaust Dyeing Machines (13)a
creases, the cost per pound of fabric drops sharply
Cold-Dyeing Conventional and levels off to a fairly constant value. For short lots,
Reactives on Exhaust
Cotton Pad-Batch/ Dyeing the costs associated with downtime and changes be-
Two-Beam 100% Cotton come a significant component of total costs.
Description Washoff Stands (19 Becks)
Pad-batch: In pad-batch dyeing, the cost per pound
Capital Costs of fabric increases very little as lot size decreases.
Dye pad for knits, $160,000 Downtime costs are minor and contribute little to the
two-beam washoff stands overall cost per pound.
19 atmospheric becks, $570,000
1,000-lb capacity each Figures 4-16 and 4-17 show cost-curve comparisons for
Installation (estimated to $48,000 $171,000 pad-batch versus jet dyeing and pad-batch versus con-
be 30%) tinuous dyeing. Costs per pound for pad-batch are lower
Operating Costs than for continuous ranges for runs of up to approxi-
Labor costs $79,560 $256,360 mately 4,500 pounds mainly because of the high down-
Fuel costs $52,000 $272,000 time costs of the continuous process. For all three batch
Extra drying $48,300 processes examined (jet, beck, and jig), pad-batch dye-
Water costs $8,700 $98,500 ing was more economical over the entire range of load
Dye costs (see Varies Varies sizes.
Table 4-42)
Chemical costs
Salt $0 $337,840 100 Pad-Batch
Alkali $19,112 $82,820 Jet
Total Costs
First-year capital and $415,672 $1,450,680 80
operating costs
(exclusive of dye costs)
Subsequent yearly $207,672 $1,047,520 60
operating costs
(exclusive of dye costs)
a
Assumes processing of 193,050 lb per week of 100% cotton. 40

Table 4-42. Comparison of Typical Dye Costs for Pad-Batch

Versus Beck Dyeing (13)a 20

Pad-Batch Beck Dyeing

Color (/lb) (/lb)
0
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000
Powder blue 30 40
Dark red 50 63 Figure 4-16. Cost curves comparing pad-batch dyeing and jet
Bright yellow 35 50 dyeing (52).

Bright red 48 75 100 Pad-Batch

Bright blue 55 70 Continuous

Light blue 37 58
80
Dark green 46 70
Navy 30 53
a 60
Assumes use of cold reactive dyes for exhaust dyeing.

method to determine the lot sizes over which various 40

techniques are most competitive. The following general
observations were made:
20
Batch: For batch dyeing (jig, beck, jet), the costs per
pound decrease with lot size until machine capacity
is reached. Processing additional fabric, however, re- 0
quires adding another machine. The cost curve for 0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000

batch techniques is thus characterized by a series of Figure 4-17. Cost curves comparing pad-batch dyeing and con-
steps. tinuous dyeing (52).

188