S1

Food production
INTRODUCTION TO FOOD PRODUCTION DEPARTMENT
COOKERY: Cookery is defined as a chemical process involving the application and withdraws of
heat; proper mixing of ingredients decision-making and technical knowledge and skill but with the
changing definition cooking is defined as both an art as well as technology. In French the word
cuisine means the art of cooking and preparing dishes and the place kitchen where they are
prepared. The art of cooking is ancient and generally originated when by chance a chunk of meat fell
into fire and came out to be more tasty and tender and it was from this point only that cooking has
evolved to reach the present level of sophistication.

There are 3 classes of professional cookery associated with the craftsmen and they are graded
according to the quality of material used

CUISINE SIMPLE/PLAIN COOKERY

Here the basic necessities are used and the craftsmen prepare the dishes of highest standard with
the minimum materials.

CUISINE BOURGEOISE
This is a type of cookery, which provides better raw materials to produce the dishes of better quality.

HAUTE CUISINE/HIGH CLASS COOKERY

In this cookery the best possible raw materials are used and the best quality dishes are prepared.

A. LEVEL OF SKILLS AND EXPERIENCES

SKILLS may be grouped into 3 general categories.

1) SUPERVISOR: The head of the food service, whether called Executive chef or head chef or
kitchen director, must have management and supervisory skills as well as through knowledge of
food production.

He should be able to:

Organize and motivate people under him.
Planning menus and production procedures.
Controlling costs and managing budgets.
Purchasing food supplies & equipment.
Must be an experienced chef in order to schedule food production.
Train and instruct workers.
Control quality.

2) TECHNICALLY: The cooks are the backbone of the kitchen. These workers carry out the actual
food production. They must have knowledge of and experience in cooking techniques. They must be
able to function well with their fellow workers and co-ordinate with other departments. Food
production is a team activity.
3) ENTRY LEVEL: This level of workers usually requires no particular skills & experience. The jobs
assigned to them are stewarding or basic pre-preparation of vegetables. As their knowledge, skill &
experience increases, they may be given more complex task which will eventually make them skilled
chefs. Many ex-chefs begin their career as pot washers. Beginning in an entry level position and
working ones way up has been the traditional way of advancing in a food service career. Today
however, who are a graduate from hotel management start at entry level already possessing a
general knowledge of food production practices, which would give them a head start over other
beginners who have no knowledge.

B. ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIUR IN THE KITCHEN

LA CUISINE` means the kitchen. Also Art Of Cooking`

C Care of equipment.

U Understanding the basic method (to achieve quality).

I Integrity in handling & serving food (would I eat the food prepared by me).

S Safety in handling equipments.

I Initiatives you will have to take.

N Neatness during work & presentation.

E Efficiency of yourself.

BE POSITIVE AND THINK POSITIVE

The emphasis of a food service education is on learning a set of skills. But ATTITUDES are more
important because a good attitude will help you not only to learn skills but also to preserve and
overcome many difficulties you will face in your career. The successful foodservice workers follow an
unwritten code of behavior and set of attitudes, which may we call professionalism.

Set of qualities are:-

1. Positive Attitude Towards The Job: In order to be a good professional chef you must like cooking
and want to do it well. Satisfaction of doing your job well and making everything run smoothly will
give you enjoyment, which you will always cherish. A chef with a positive work quickly, efficiently,
neatly and safely. Professionalism has pride in their work and wants to make sure that the work is
some thing to be proud of.

2. STAYING POWER: A food service personnel requires good health, physical and mental stamina
and a willingness to work.

3. ABILITY TO WORK WITH PEOPLE: Works as a team & it is essential to be able to work well as a
team and to co-operate with your colleagues.

4. COMMUNICATION:

With your supervisors: let them know your difficulties.

With your colleagues: share knowledge and learn from them. No body knows everything.

With your subordinates: respect them & be courteous.

With the food & beverage staff: control your temper.

5. EAGERNESS TO LEARN: There is more to learn about cooking than you will learn in a life time.
The food service industry is changing so rapidly that it is vital to be open to new ideas. No matter
how good your techniques are, you might learn an even better way.

6. MUST DEVELOP A FULL RANGE OF SKILLS: A chef must not only a good cook, but is also
important to develop and maintain other skills that are necessary for the profession.

Must be able to understand and manage food cost and other financial matters

Manage and maintain proper inventories.

Deal with suppliers.

Understand personnel management.

7. EXPERIENCE: There is no substitute for year of experience. Practice more & more to gain more
experience.

8. AIMING FOR A QUALITY: What ever you do must have a distinctive sign of quality.

9. CREATIVITY: Sky is a limit Nouvelle Cuisine.

10. RETURN TO BASIC: Experiments and innovation needs good understanding of basics.

11. CARE OF EQUIPMENT: Equipment has been put to your disposal to help you. TAKE CARE OF
IT, treat it as your own, even if it does not belong to you, for others will also be using it.

12. SAFETY : Kitchens can be dangerous place injurious can occur by cuts, burns, handling of
machines and equipment, falling etc. think about yours as well as others.

NEVER RUN IN KITCHEN ALWAYS WALK

C. PERSONAL HYGIENE.
A hygienic appearance of professional is indicated by high standards of personal cleanliness and is
shown by cleanliness of hair, hands, face, clothing and shoes.Good personal hygiene helps prevent
food borne disease; therefore these points must be put into practice.
Shower or bath daily

Wear clean clothes and uniform.

Do not work if suffering from a communicable disease.

Handle food as little as possible.

Wash hands before and during work and after using the toilet.

Keep hair clean and do not handle.

Keep fingernails clean & shorter.

Do not touch nose & mouth with hands.

Do not cough or sneeze over food, use a tissue.

Do not wear rings, earrings, jewellery & watches.

Do not smoke in food areas.

Taste food with a clean spoon.

Do not sit on a work surface.

Footwear should be clean and safe.

Chef cap should always be worn when handling food.

Open cuts, burns etc. must be covered with waterproof dressing.

Persons suffering from diarrhea, sore throat, vomiting, cold etc. must not handle food.
If a person becomes aware that they are suffering from or are carrier of typhoid, paratyphoid,
salmonella or staphylococcal infection, the parson responsible for the premises must be informed,
who then must inform the Medical Officer of Health.

HYGIENE IN HANDLING FOOD

1. DRY FOOD STORAGE: Avoid moisture, air tight container, avoid insect & rodent.

2. FREEZER STORAGE: Well packed food with label store at -18 C, follow FIFO & thaw properly
before use.
3. COLD ROOM STORAGE: Cooked items away from raw item. Store everything in container. Chill
food before refrigeration. Keep temperature under 7 C.

4. HOT FOOD STORAGE: Do not reheat in Bain Marie. Cover all the food. Keep food above 65 C.

5. FOOD HANDLING:

Work with fresh & safe food

Use clean equipment & work table.

Wash & wipe tools (knives, chopping board etc.) after every use.

Wash ingredients.

Re boil stocks, sauces, soups, milk before re use.

Do not mix batches of cooked food.

Use separate tools for vegetables & meats.

Use separate tools for raw & cooked food.

Quickly chill all high risk food for cold storage.

Keep work area clean.

D. KITCHEN UNIFORMS & PROTECTIVE CLOTHING

CHEF CAP

Should cover the hair.

Retain sweat on the face.

SCARF

Retaining sweat around the neck.

Decreases risk of catching cold when going inside a walk in.

Also brings neatness to uniform.

CHEF COAT
 Protect the chest from heat (double press, cotton).

White colour ( shows when dirty, less heat absorber)

APRON

Protect chef coat & trouser.

Not used to wipe hands.

TROUSER

Generally black or black & white check.

SHOES

Ankle high shoes.

Low heal

Leather with rubber or wooden sole.

Always wear black socks.

E. SAFETY PROCEDURE IN HANDLING EQUIPMENT

Safety procedure in handling of equipment

Do not wash equipment unless you understand the operation.

Use all guards & safety devices on equipment.

Do not touch or remove food, from any kind of equipment, while it is running.

Remove particles of food with cloth, palette knife, needle or brush from cutting machine.

Unplug electrical equipment before disassembling or cleaning.

Make sure the switch is off before plugging in equipment.

Do not touch or handle electrical equipment including switches, if your hands are wet or if you are
standing in water.

Test that it is properly assembled, plug in and switch on.

 Wear properly fitting clothing and tuck in apron string to avoid getting caught in machinery.

Use equipment only for the purpose intended.

Stack pots, pans and other equipment properly on racks so that they are stable and not likely to
fall.
KITCHEN EQUIPMENT

In early kitchens the equipment consisted of an open fire for cooking, which was generally placed on the floor,
the fuel being coal, wood, sundried cow dung cakes or balls lighted between two or three bricks on which the
cooking vessel is placed. This is still practiced in rural India.

The need for a piece of equipment which could be moved in and out of the house led to the development of the
galvanized iron bucket with a grill on the top followed by the smokeless chullah, the tandoor or traditional
Indian oven which was followed by the gas and electric stove and finally the cooking range and the solar
cooker. This is but an example of one type of cooking equipment, but the last few decades have seen a
complete revolution in the catering equipment industry, which now provides for the modern caterer a range
varying from very simple easy-to-use gadgets to extremely complicated automatic devices. This development
has been in response to the needs of the different types and sizes of catering units varying from the simple
fresh fruit kiosk to the streamlined restaurant, which have sprung up to satisfy the ever increasing demands of
people for eating out. Catering equipment for food service establishments is basically not very different from
that used for cooking and serving food at home except that, because of the volume of food cooked and served,
and the greater degree of handling required, it is constructed for greater quantity, durability, speed, efficiency
and economy.

Over the years, the activities of catering establishments have become more and more professional and the
objectives have been constantly directed towards utilizing equipment for maximum efficiency, and at the same
time maintaining a service that is clean and attractive to both worker and viewer.

Thorough knowledge of equipment is essential for success in the kitchen. Few food service operations depend
on nothing more than range and oven, an assortment of pots and pans, and knives and other hand tools.
Modern technology continues to develop more and more specialized and technically advanced tools to reduce
kitchen labour.

Much of this equipment is so complex or so sophisticated that only first-hand instruction and practice will
teach you how to operate it effectively and safely. Other items, especially hand tools, is simple, and need no
explanation, but require much practice to develop good manual skills.

There is a vast array of specialized equipment that is available for todays kitchens. It would take a large book,
not just a short chapter, to explain all of the many items you will come in contact with in your career items
such as pasta machines, crpe machines, burger formers, breading machines, cookie droppers, beverage
machines, Greek gyro broilers, doughnut glazers, conveyor fryers, and so on. In this technological age, nearly
every year brings new types of tools to simplify various tasks.

INTRODUCTION TO QUANTITY FOOD EQUIPMENT

Food Equipment can be Dangerous. Modern cooking and food processing equipment has an extraordinary
capacity to burn, cut, smash, mangle, and amputate various parts of the tender human body. It is not meant to
intimidate you or scare you but to inspire a healthy respect for the importance of proper safety and operating
procedures.
Not All Models Are Alike. Each manufacturer introduces slight variations on the basic equipment. While all
convection ovens operate on the same basic principles, each model is slightly different, if only in the location
of the switches. It is important to study the operating manual supplied with each item or to be broken in by
someone who already knows that item well and has operate it.

Cleaning Is Part Of The Operating

Procedure
Thorough, regular cleaning of all equipment is essential. Most large equipment can be partially disassembled
for cleaning. Again, every model is slightly different. Operating manuals should give these procedures in
detail. If a manual is not available, you must get the information from someone who knows the equipment.

Conserve Energy
At one time it was standard procedure for the chef to turn on the ovens and ranges first thing in the day and
keep them on all day. Today high-energy costs have made such practices very expensive. Fortunately, modern
equipment has shorter preheating times. Know the preheating time for all your cooking equipment, so you
dont need to turn it on before its necessary. Plan production so that high energy using equipment is not in
use.

Your Hands Are Your Best Tools

Machines are intended to be labour saving devices. However, the usefulness of specialized processing
equipment often depends on the volume of food it handles. It takes less time for a cook to slice a few pounds
of onions by hand than to set up a slicing attachment, pass the onions through it, and then break down and
clean the equipment. This is why it is so important to develop good manual skills.

COOKING EQUIPMENT
Range Tops
The range is still the most important piece of cooking equipment in the kitchen, even though many of its
functions have been taken by other tools, such as steamers, steam kettles, tilting skillets, and ovens.

Ovens
The oven and the range top are the two workhorses of the traditional kitchen, which is why the two are so often
found in the same units. Ovens are enclosed spaces in which food is heated usually by hot air or, in some
newer kinds of ovens, by microwaves or infrared radiation.

In addition to roasting and baking, ovens can do many jobs normally done on the range top. Many foods can be
simmered, stewed, braised, or poached in the oven, freeing the range top and the chefs attention for other
tasks.

There are many other kinds of ovens beyond those discussed here, but many of them are for specialty or high-
volume uses. These include conveyor ovens, which carry foods through the oven on a steel conveyor belt;
holding ovens or warmers, which are designed to hold many types of foods at serving temperatures for
extended periods without drying out or overcooking (this category includes ovens that also cook the food, then
automatically switch to holding temperature); and high-volume roll-in ovens, with large doors into which one
can roll carts loaded with trays of food.

Conventional Ovens
These ovens operate simply by heating air in an enclosed space. The most common ovens are part of the range
unit, although separate oven units or ovens as part of a broiler unit are also available. Stack ovens are units that
consist of individual shelves arranged one above the other. Pans are placed directly on the oven deck rather
than on wire shelves. Temperatures are adjustable for each separate unit.

Convection Ovens
These ovens contain fans that circulate the air and distribute the heat rapidly throughout the interior. Because
the forced air, foods cook more quickly at lower temperatures. Also, shelves can be placed closer together than
in conventional ovens, without blocking the heat flow.

Revolving Ovens
These large ovens, also called reel ovens, are large chambers containing many shelves or trays on a ferris-
wheel type attachment. This oven eliminates the problem of hot spots or uneven baking, because the
mechanism rotates the foods throughout the oven. Revolving ovens are used in bakeshops and in high volume
operations.

Slow-Cook-and-Hold ovens
While the traditional oven is nothing more than a heated box equipped with a thermostat, some modern ovens
have more sophisticated features, such as computerized, electronic controls and special probes that sense when
a roast is done and tell the oven to switch from cooking temperature to holding temperature. Many of these
ovens are designed to be especially useful for low-temperature roasting. The sensitive controls make it possible
to cook at steady, reliable temperatures of 200oF (95oC) or lower and to hold foods at 140oF (60oC) for long
periods. Large cuts of meat take many hours to roast at a low temperature like 200oF (95oC). By setting the
controls in advance, the operator can even let meats roast overnight, unattended. These ovens are available as
convection ovens and as regular, stationary-air ovens.

Combination Steamer Ovens

A relatively new kind of oven is one that can be operated in three different modes: as a convection oven, as a
convection steamer, and, with both functions on at once, as a high-humidity oven. Injecting moisture into an
oven while roasting meats can help to reduce shrinkage and drying.

Barbecue Ovens or Smoke Ovens

Barbecue ovens are like conventional ovens, but with one important difference: they are able to produce wood
smoke, which surrounds the food and flavours it while it bakes or roasts. Special woods, such as hickory,
mesquite, or various fruit woods such as apple or cherry, must be added to the smoke-producing part of the
oven, according to the manufacturers instructions. This device is usually nothing more complicated than an
electric heating element that heats small blocks or chips of the wood so that they are hot enough to smoke but
not hot enough to burst into flame. Depending upon on the model, various cooking features are available.
Thus, ovens may have smokeless roast/bake cycles, cold-smoke cycles (with the smoke element on but the
oven off), holding cycles, and broiling capabilities.

Infrared or Reconstituting Ovens

These units contain quartz plates that generate intense infrared heat. Infrared ovens are used primarily for
reconstituting frozen foods. They bring large quantities of foods to serving temperature in a short time. The
heat is even and controllable.

Microwave Ovens
In these ovens, special tubes generate microwave radiation, which creates heat inside the food. Microwave
cooking is discussed in detail as a separate chapter.

Broilers and Salamanders

Broilers are sometimes called overhead broilers to avoid confusing them with grills. Overhead broilers
generate heat from above; food items are placed on a grate beneath the heat source. Broiling is a favourite way
of preparing steaks, chops, chicken, and many other items. Heavy-duty broilers produce very high heat and
consume vast quantities of energy. Some broilers are said to go as high as 2000oF (1100oC) at the burner.
Foods must be watched closely to avoid burning. Cooking temperature is adjusted by raising or lowering the
grate that holds the food. Salamanders are small broilers used primarily for browning or glazing the tops of
some items. They may also be used for broiling small quantities during off-peak hours. Salamanders are
usually mounted above the range.

Grills
Grills are used for the same cooking operations as broilers, except the heat source is below the grid that holds
the food rather than above it. Many people favour the taste of grilled foods, because of the charcoal taste that
is actually created by smoke from meat fats that drip into the heat source. Although smoke from meat creates
the taste that people associate with grilled foods, actual wood smoke flavours, such as hickory or mesquite
smoke flavour, and can be added to foods if those woods are burned in the grill under the food. In order to do
this, you must use a grill designed to burn such fuels.

Griddles
Griddles are flat, smooth, heated surfaces on which food is cooked directly. Pancakes, French toast,
hamburgers and other meats, eggs, and many potato items are the foods most frequently cooked on a griddle.
Griddles are available as separate units or as apart of a range top. Clean griddle surfaces after every use, so that
they will cook at peak efficiency. Polish with a griddle stone or griddle cloth until the surface shines. Follow
the grain of the metal to avoid scratching. Condition griddles after each cleaning or before each use, to create a
no-stick surface and to prevent rusting. Procedure: spread a thin film of oil over the surface and heat to 400oF
(200oC). Wipe clean and repeat until griddle has a smooth, no-stick finish.

Rotisseries
Rotisserie broilers cook meats and other foods by turning them slowly in front of electric or gas-powered
heating elements. Even though classical cooking theory categorizes spit cooking as roasting, these cookers are
more closely related to broilers, because the foods are cooked by the infrared heat of the elements. Although
they are especially suitable for chicken and other poultry, rotisseries can be used to cook any meat that can be
fastened to a spit. Both enclosed (oven like) rotisseries and open or unclosed units are available. Small units
hold about 8 chickens and size range all the way to very large models that can hold as many as 70 chickens.
Because the heating elements are on the side (or sometimes above), the fats and juices dont drip into the
flames as they do with grills. Drip pans catch juices, which can be used for basting or gravy making.

Deep Fryers
A deep fryer has only one use to cook foods in hot fat. Yet because of the popularity of fried foods, this
function is an important one. Automatic deep fryers are powered by either gas or electricity and have
thermostatic controls that maintain fat at preset temperatures. Automatic fryers remove food from the fat
automatically after a present time. Pressure fryers are covered fry-kettles that fry foods under pressure. Foods
cook faster, even at a lower temperature.

Tilting Skillet
The tilting skillet, also known as the tilting brazier and tilting fry pan, is a versatile and efficient piece of
equipment. It can be used as a griddle, fry pan, brazier, stew pot, stock pot, steamer, and bain marie or steam
table. The tilting skillet is a large, shallow, flat-bottomed pot. Or, to look at it another way, it is a griddle with
6-inch high sides and a cover. This skillet also has a tilting mechanism that enables liquids to be poured out of
it. Power may be gas or electric. Clean the skillet immediately after each use, before food has time to dry on.
Add water, turn on the skillet to heat it, and scrub thoroughly.

Steam-Jacketed Kettles
Steam-jacketed kettles, or steam kettles, are sometimes thought of as stockpots that are heated not just on the
sides as well. This comparison is only is only partly accurate, because steam kettles heat much more quickly
and have more uniform and controllable heat than pots on the range.

Steam Cookers
Steam cookers are ideal for cooking vegetables and many other foods rapidly and with minimum loss of
nutrients and flavour. For this reason, they are becoming more common in both large and small kitchens.

PROCESSING EQUIPMENT
Mixers
Vertical mixers are important and versatile tools for many kinds of food mixing and processing jobs, both in
the bakeshop and in the kitchen.

Food Cutter
The food cutter or food chopper, familiarly known as the buffalo chopper, is a common piece of equipment
used for general chopping of foods. A variety of attachments make it a versatile tool.

Slicer
The slicer is a valuable machine because it slices foods more evenly and uniformly than can be done by hand.
Thus it is valuable for portion control and for reducing cutting loss.
Vertical Cutter/Mixer and Food Processor
The vertical cutter/mixer (VCM) is like a large, powerful, high-speed blender. It is used to chop and mix large
quantities of foods very rapidly. It can also be used for pureing (soups, for example) and for mixing liquids.

HOLDING AND STORAGE EQUIPMENT

Hot Food Holding Equipment
Several types of equipment are used to keep food hot for service. This equipment is designed to prevent the
growth of bacteria that can cause disease. Because food continues to cook at these temperatures, it should be
held for as short a time as possible.

1. Steam tables are standard holding equipment for serving lines. Standard-size counter pans or hotel pans are
used as inserts to hold the foods. Flat or domed covers may be used to cover the foods.
2. A bain marie is a hot water bath. Containers of foods are set on a rack in a shallow container of water, which
is heated by electricity, gas, or steam. The bain marie is used more in the production area, while the steam
table is used in the service area.
3. Overhead infrared lamps are used in service areas to keep plated food warm before it is picked up by the
service staff. They are also used for keeping large roasts warm.

Cold Food Storage Equipment

The quality of the food you serve depends to a great degree on refrigeration equipment. By keeping foods cold,
usually below 40oF (5oC), the refrigerator (known in the trade as the cooler or the box) guards against
spoilage and bacterial growth. Freezers are used to hold foods for longer times, or to store foods purchased in
frozen form. There are so many sizes, models, and designs of refrigeration equipment that it would be futile to
try to describe them all.
To enable refrigerators and freezers to work at top efficiency, observe the following rules:
1. Place items far enough apart and away from inside walls of refrigerator so that cold air can circulate.
Freezers, on the other hand, work most efficiently when they are full.
2. Keep the door closed as much as possible. When storing or removing an item, do it quickly and shut the
door.
3. Keep stored foods well wrapped or covered, to prevent drying and transfer of odours.
4. Keep refrigerators spotlessly clean.

POTS, PANS, AND CONTAINERS

Metals and Conductivity
A good cooking utensil should distribute heat evenly and uniformly. If it does not, it will develop hot spots that
are likely to burn or scorch the food being cooked. Two factors affect a pans ability to cook evenly:

Thickness of the metal. A heavy-gauge pot cooks more evenly than one made of thin metal. Thickness is most
important on the bottom.

Kinds of metals. Different metals have different conductivity, which means the speed at which they transfer
heat.

Pots and Pans and Their Uses

1. Stock pot. A large, deep, straight-sided pot for preparing stocks and simmering large quantities of liquids.
Stockpots with spigots allow liquid to be drained off without disturbing the solid contents or lifting the pot.
2. Sauce pot : Round pot of medium depth. Similar to stock pots, but shallower, making stirring or mixing
easier. Used for soups, sauces, and other liquids. Sizes: 6 to 60 quarts (or liters)
3. Brazier. Round, broad, shallow, heavy-duty pot with straight sides. Used for browning, braising and stewing
meats. Sizes: 11 to 30 quarts (or liters)
4. Sauce pan. Similar to a small. Shallow, light sauce pot, but with one long handle instead of two loop
handles. May have straight or slant sides. Used or general rangetop cooking. Sizes: 1 to 15 quarts (or liters)
5. Saut pan, straight sided. Similar to a shallow, straight-sided saucepan, but heavier. Used for browning,
sauting, and frying. Also used for cooking sauces and other liquids when rapid reduction is required, because
of broad surface area. Sizes 2 to 5 inches (65-130mm) deep, 6 to 16 inches (160-400 mm) in diameter.
6. Saut pan, slope sided. Also called fry pan. Used for general sauting and frying of meats, fish, vegetables,
and eggs. Sloping sides allow the cook to flip and toss items without using a spatula, and they make it easier to
get at the food when a spatula is used. Sizes: 6 to 14 inches (160-360mm) top diameter.
7. Cast iron skillet. Very heavy, thick-bottomed fry pan. Used for pan frying when very steady, even heat is
desired.
8. Double boiler. Lower section, similar to a stockpot, holds boiling water. Upper section holds foods that must
be cooked at low temperature and cannot be cooked over direct heat. Size of top section: 4 to 36 quarts (or
liters)
9. Sheet pan or bun pan. Shallow (1inch or 25 mm deep) rectangular pan for baking cakes, rolls, and cookies,
and for baking or broiling certain meats and fish. Sizes: 18x36 inches (full pan), 18x13 inches (half pan)
(46x66 cm and 46 x33 cm, respectively).
10. Bake pan. Rectangular pan about 2 inches deep. Used for general baking. Comes in a variety of sizes.
11. Roasting pan. Large rectangular pan about 2 inches deep. Used for general baking. Comes in a variety of
sizes.
12. Hotel pan also called counter pan, steam table pan, or service pan. Rectangular pans usually made of
stainless steel. Designed to hold foods in service counters. Also used for baking and steaming, and foods can
then be served from same pan. Also used for storage. Standard size: 12x20 inches. Fractions of this size (,
1/3, etc) are also available. Standard depth: 2 inches (65 mm). Deeper sizes are also available. (standard
metric pan is 325 x 530 mm)
13. Bain marie insert, usually called simple bain marie. Tall, cylindrical stainless steel containers. Used for
storage and for holding foods in bain marie (water bath (. Sizes 1 to 36 quarts (or litres)
14. Stainless steel bowl. Round bottom bowl. Used for mixing and whipping, for production of hollandaise,
mayonnaise, whipped cream, egg white foams. Round construction enables whip to reach all areas. Comes in
many sizes.

MEASURING DEVICES
The following equipment is discussed in terms of U.S measurements. Comparable items in metric units also
available.
1. Scales: most recipe ingredients are measured by weight, so accurate scales are very important. Portion scales
are used for measuring ingredients as well as for portioning products for service.
2. Volume measures used for liquids have lips for easy pouring. Sizes are pints, quarts, half gallons, and
gallons. Each size is marked off into fourths by ridges on the sides.
3. Measuring cups are available in 1-, , 1/3, and -cup sizes. They can be used for both liquid and dry
measures.
4. Measuring spoons are used for measuring very small volumes: 1 tablespoon, teaspoon, and teaspoon.
They are used most often for spices and seasonings.
5. Ladles are used for measuring and portioning liquids. The size, in ounces, is stamped on the handle.
6. Scoops come in standard sizes and have a lever for mechanical release. They are used for portioning soft
solid foods. The number of the scoop indicates the number of level scoop-fuls per quart (or liter). In actual use
a rounded scoop-ful is often more practical, so exact weights will vary.
7. Thermometers measure temperatures. There are many kinds for many purposes.
a. A meat thermometer indicates internal temperature of meats. It is inserted before cooking and left in the
product during cooking.
b. An instant read thermometer will give readings within a few seconds of being inserted in a food product. It
reads from 0oF to 220oF. Many chefs carry these in their jacket pockets like a pen, ready whenever needed.
Instant-read thermometers must not be left in meats during roasting, or thy will be damaged.
c. Fat thermometers and candy thermometers test temperatures of frying fats and sugar syrups. They read up to
400oF
d. Special thermometers are used to test the accuracy of oven, refrigerator, and freezer thermostats.

KNIVES, HAND TOOLS, AND SMALL EQUIPMENT

Knife Materials

The metal that a knife blade is made of is an important consideration, since the metal must be able to take and
hold a very fine edge.
1. Carbon steel is the traditional favorite, because it can be honed to an extremely sharp edge. Its disadvantages
are that it corrodes and discolors easily, specially when used with acid foods and onions. Also, it discolors
some foods (such as hard- cooked eggs) and may leave a metallic taste.
2. Stainless steel will not rust or corrode, but it is much harder to sharpen.
3. High carbon stainless steel is a restively new alloy that combines the best aspects of carbon steel and
stainless steel. It takes an edge almost as well as carbon steel, and it will not rust, corrode, or discolor. Knives
made of this material are highly prized and are relatively expensive.

Knife Handles

The tang is the portion of the metal blade that is inside the handle. The best quality most durable knives have a
full tang, which means that the tang runs the full length of the handle.

Knives and Their Uses

1. French knives or chefs knife Most frequently used knife in the kitchen, for general purpose chopping,
slicing, dicing and so on. Blade is wide at the heel and tapers to a point, blade length of 10 inches (260 mm) is
most popular for general work. Larger knives are for heavy cutting and chopping. Smaller blades are for more
delicate work.
This is your most important tool, so you must learn to handle it and care for it well.
2. Utility or salad knife Narrow, pointed knife 6 to 8 inches (160 200 mm) long. Used mostly for pantry
work, cutting and preparing lettuce, fruits, and so on. Also useful for carving roast chicken and duck.
3. Paring knife Small pointed blade 2 to 4 inches (50-100 mm) long. Used for trimming and paring
vegetables and fruits.
4. Boning knife Thin, pointed blade about 6 inches (160 mm) long. Used for boning raw meats and poultry.
Stiff blades are used for heavier work. Flexible blades are used for lighter work and for filleting fish.
5. Slicer Long, slender, flexible blade up to 14 inches (360mm) long. Used for carving and slicing cooked
meats.
6. Serrated slicer- like a slicer, but with serrated edge. Used for cutting, breads, cakes, and similar items.
7. Butcher knife- heavy, broad, slightly curved blade. Used for cutting, sectioning, and trimming raw meats in
the butcher shop.
8. Scimitar or steak knife- curved, pointed blade. Used for accurate cutting of steaks.
9. Cleaver Very heavy, board blade. Used for cutting through bones.
10. Oyster knife Short, rigid, broad bladed knife with a slight edge. Used for opening oysters.
11. Clam knife Short, rigid, broad bladed knife with a slight edge. Used for opening clams.
12. Vegetable peeler Short tool with a slotted, swiveling blade. Used for peeling vegetables and fruits.
13. Steel Not a knife, but an essential part of the knife kit. Used for truing and maintaining knife-edges.
14. Cutting board This is an important partner to the knife. Hard wood boards are favored by many chefs.
Hard rubber or plastic boards are thought to be more sanitary, but there is some evidence that bacteria survive
longer on plastic and rubber than wood. Cutting boards must be kept very clean.

Hand Tool and Small Equipment

1. Ball cutter, melon ball scoop, or parisienne knife Blade is a small, cup shaped half sphere. Used for cutting
fruits and vegetables into small balls.
2. Cooks fork heavy, two-pronged fork with a long handle. Some for lifting and turning meats and other
items. Must be strong enough to hold heavy loads.
3. Straight spatula or palette knife A long flexible blade with a rounded end. Used mostly for spreading icing
on cakes and for mixing and bowl scraping.
4. Sandwich spreader A short, stubby spatula. Used for spreading fillings and spreads on sandwiches.
5. Offset spatula broad blade, bent to keep hand off hot surfaces. Used for turning and lifting eggs, pancakes,
and meats on griddles, grills, sheet pans, and so on. Also used as scraper to clean bench or griddle.
6. Rubber spatula or scraper Broad, flexible rubber or plastic tips on long handle. Used to scrape bowls and
pans. Also used for folding in egg foams or whipped cream.
7. Pie server A wedge shaped offset spatula. Used for lifting pie wedges from pan.
8. Bench scraper or dough knife A broad, stiff piece of metal with a wooden handle on one edge. Used to cut
pieces of dough and to scrape workbenches.
9. Pastry wheels or wheel knife A round, rotating blade on a handle. Used for cutting rolled out dough and
pastry and baked pizza.
10. Spoons: solid, slotted, and perforated Large stainless steel spoons, holding about 3 ounces. Used for
stirring, mixing, and serving. Slotted and perforated spoons are used when liquid must be drained from solids.
11. Skimmer Perforated disc, slightly supped, on along handle. Used for skimming forth from liquids and for
removing soled pieces from soups, stocks and other liquid.
12. Tongs spring type or scissors type tools used to pick up and handle foods.
13. Wire whip Loops of stainless steel wire fastened to a handle. There are two kinds of whips :
a) Heavy whips are straight, stiff, and have relatively few wires. Used for general mixing, stirring, and beating,
especially heavy liquids.
b) Balloon whips or piano wire whips have mainly flexible wire. Used for whipping eggs, cream, and
hollandaise, and for mixing thinner liquid.
14. China cap Cone shaped strainer. Used for straining stock, soups, sauces and other liquids.
Pointed shaped allows the cook to drain liquids thorough a relatively small opening.
Fine china cap or chinois (shee-nwah) China cap with very fine mesh. Used when great clarity or smoothness
is required in a liquid.
15. Strainer Round-bottomed, cup-shaped strainer made of screen-type mesh or of perforated metal. Used for
straining pasta, vegetables, and so on.
16. Sieve Screen-type mesh supported in a round metal frame. Used for sifting flour and other dry ingredients.
17. Colander Large perforated bowl made of stainless steel or aluminum. Used to drain washed or cooked
vegetables, salad greens, pasta, and other foods.
18. Food mill A tool with a hand-turned blade that forces foods through a perforated disk. Interchangeable
disks have different coarseness or fineness. Used for pureing foods.
19. Grater A four-sided metal box with different sized grids. Used for shredding and grating vegetables,
cheese, citrus rinds, and other foods.
20. Zester Small hand tool used for removing the colored part of citrus peels in thin strips.
21. Channel knife Small hand tool used mostly in decorative work.
22. Pastry bag and tubes Cone-shaped cloth or plastic bag with open end that can be fitted with metal tubes or
tips of various shapes and sizes. Used for shaping and decorating with items such as cake icing, whipped
cream, duchesse potatoes, and soft dough.
23. Pastry brush Used to brush items with egg wash, glaze, etc.
24. Can opener Heavy-duty food service type can openers are mounted on the edge of the workbench. They
must be carefully cleaned and sanitized every day to prevent contamination of foods. Replace worn blades,
which can leave metal shavings in food.

CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF EQUIPMENT

All equipment large or small, heavy or light, requires care in handling, use and storage on order to extend its
life to the maximum, minimize depreciation and maintain it in a reasonably attractive and efficient condition
while in use. In small catering establishment the care and maintenance is generally entrusted to those who
operate the equipment as the types invested on are generally small or medium duty pieces. In larger
establishments where heavy-duty equipment predominates, a maintenance department performs this function.
In the case of small pieces like cutlery, some metals need less care than others do. Stainless steel is the most
non-corrosive and easy to-care for material, while plated cutlery tends to get scratched easily and with time
requires replating.

With kitchen tools like the chefs knives, choppers, etc. care is limited to preventing the blades from rusting in
the case of iron blades, by keeping them dry and covered. It is also common practice to rub them with a little
cooking oil to protect them from rusting through contact with air. With whisks and beaters it is the rotating
parts or the wiry ends which need special attention. It is good practice to prevent food materials from on drying
on the rotatory parts and posing a cleaning problem.

With heavier and larger pieces of equipment general cleanliness of the item and its environment is the guiding
principle. The schedule below is a guide to the general care of most equipment.

SCHEDULE FOR CARE OF EQUIPMENT

1. Keep all equipment clean.
2. Wash all removable parts of equipment with suitable detergent and hot water after each use. In tropical
summers this is not necessary, as the water in the taps is usually warm to hot, depending on the environmental
temperature. After washing wipe equipment completely dry before replacing.
3. All small equipment like cutlery, ladles, chopping boards, kitchen tools, etc. should be washed after use in
(2) and replaced in drawers and racks built for the purpose and covered to prevent them from dust or dirt
during storage.
4. Check that all pieces are in working order. Close supervision at work is necessary to ensure a careful
handling and to detect any deviations from effective operation, like an unusual sound, or fusing of warning
lights, or ineffective thermostatic controls.
5. Repairs must be attended to without delay to prevent the equipment from giving way and disrupting work
for any period of time.
6. A weekly, fortnightly or monthly programme for oiling or servicing the equipment to maintain movable
parts or machinery in order is important. The service instructions provided by the manufacturer along with the
equipment are a good guide to the service procedure that should be followed. It is useful to prepare an
instruction card for every equipment carrying the manufacturers instruction in as simple a form as will be
understood by the operators of the equipment. This card could be kept near each major piece of equipment.
7. All electrical inputs to the equipment should be checked periodically to ensure that proper electrical load is
available for efficient functioning.
8. Insulations, plumbing, and other connections need periodic checks to keep equipment at optimum
efficiency.
9. Make full use of warranty periods to help train organization staff to learn regular maintenance procedures
from the manufactures engineers.
10. Assign the care of each machine to one responsible person.

Money, time and effort spent on care helps to maintain equipment in continuous working order, while that
spent on repair can mean interruption in work causing unnecessary strain on staff, in addition to extra costs.

It is beneficial to keep records of all amounts spent on care and maintenance of every large equipment. This
helps to estimate the depreciation every year. Excessive costs shown through records for a particular year can
help to draw attention to high maintenance costs, which weighed against the cost of the equipment may result
in a decision to change the model for a more efficient one. Records can also help to detect inefficient in
operation, or defects in design or manufacture.

Thus, if equipment is cared for systematically and proper procedures followed, maintenance follows on its own
to prolong the life and optimum usage of the equipment. The cleaning schedules for some commonly used
equipment in small food service establishments are given under their respective heads:

Cooking Equipment: (Hot plates, gas stoves or ranges)

1. Wipe the top daily while still warm, using wet cloth or sponge.
2. Any foods spilled and burnt while cooking may require the use of mild detergent or scouring pad.
3. For open burners, a weekly boil in warm soapy water will help remove any food particles that may have
been the cause of blockade leading.
4. Wipe dry with slightly oiled cloth.

Ovens
1. Wash, rinse and outer surfaces daily, after every meal.
2. Use liquid wax for enamel finished parts.
3. Brush the inside to remove any sediments due to food particles charred during cooking. Any sticky areas
may be wiped with a wet cloth after washing the oven and then switching it off.
4. Clean all plastic knobs with cloth and wipe dry.

Refrigerators
1. The outside surfaces should be cleaned as for oven daily.
2. A weekly cleaning of the insides of a refrigerator is sufficient especially if the establishment is small. For
this the machine should be disconnected, doors opened and the shelves removed and washed in warm water
according to manufacturers instructions.

Preparation Equipment
1. All parts, which are removable, should be cleaned after every use with light detergent.
2. Sharp edges should be carefully handled for cleaning, drying and replacing immediately for use.

Coffee Urn
1. Urns should be emptied after each meal and the insides cleaned with hard brush using a solution of sodium
bicarbonate.
2. Outer surfaces as for any other equipment.

Note: In general, it is good policy to follow manufactures instructions for care and maintenance of any
equipment.

Maintenance Costs
The cost of maintaining any equipment should be determined on the basis of the following factors:
(a) Cost savings in terms of fuel consumption, as compared with the fuel bill prior to the installation of the
piece.
(b) Cost of servicing and regular cleaning which would involve the cost of cleaning materials and detergents.
(c) Rate of depreciation calculated over the expected life of the equipment.
(d) Any savings that the installation would have resulted in, in terms of better utilization of raw materials and
prevention of waste.
(e) Any savings brought about due to elimination of daily wage workers, as in the case of people being
employed seasonally for peeling of vegetables for establishments which function for a limited period in the
year, as for school meals, college canteens, and the like.
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF COOKING FOOD
What does cooking mean?
Can cuchumbers and salads be called cooked foods?

Cooking means exposing food materials to heat. The medium of transfer of heat from its source
could be water, air or oil. This will be dealt with in detail at a later stage. First let us understand why
we need to cook food.

In the ancient times, human beings ate / consumed raw meats and other foods like roots and fruits. It
was much later after the fire was invented that the concept of cooking was known. It is believed that
food accidentally fell in the fire and thus the discovery of cooked food. Today we do eat some food in
the uncooked (raw) form; though, mostly we associate food with its cooked form.
A. Aims and objectives of cooking food:
1. Making food safe for consumption Cooking sterilizes food partially. The growth of bacteria gets
restricted at 40oC (104oF). Non-sporing bacteria are killed at temperatures above 60oC (140oF).
For example, pasteurization milk is made safe by holding it at 63oC (145oF) for 30 minutes or at
72oC (161oF) for 15 seconds. Boiling kills living cells. Spore-bearing bacteria take 4-5 hours of
boiling to be destroyed.
2. Making food more digestible Complex foods are split into simpler substances during cooking.
The human body can absorb and utilize these more readily.
3. Increasing palatability
4. Making food look better Heat brings about changes in colour, texture and overall appearance of
the food, making it more appetizing.
5. Introducing variety A single ingredient may be used in many different ways, cooked by different
methods and bring about changes in the meal.
6. Balancing a meal Different ingredients combined in one dish make it easier to provide a
balanced meal i.e. providing all the required vital nutrients to the consumer.
B. Various textures:
As explained above, raw foods get exposed to some form of heat and then are called cooked for
consumption. The term TEXTURE is used to describe the characteristics of a finished (ready-to-eat)
food product. The final product will have a certain texture depending on
the order in which ingredients are added
the way of mixing
the method of cooking
A correct texture has to be brought about in the food. The chef should not only know the correct
texture, but should be able to produce the same in the food. The various textures which are listed
down, are difficult to explain in words, they should be felt and understood better. There are very thin
differences between some of these, which one should learn better during practical.
1. Firm and close biscuits and plain short pastries can explain this texture. Raising agents are
used while preparing these, but they do not make the product very light or brittle. In fact they are
hard as a result of many tiny air bubbles created by raising agents. But the biscuits are not too hard
either, because of the fat included.
2. Short and crumbly nankhatai and tarts are good examples of this texture. Fat included is more
than that in biscuits, so it breaks more easily into smaller particles.
3. Spongy Swiss rolls, sponge cakes, idli and dhokla are spongy. A soft, elastic texture due to
incorporation of more air results in this texture.
4. Light Madeira cake has plenty large holes in it, making it light. It is firm, but not hard and tough.
It is neither as short as a tart nor as spongy as a Swiss roll.
5. Flaky chiroti, lacchha paratha, chicken or veg puffs and khara biscuits are flaky. Thin, crisp
layers are formed by spreading fat in between two layers of dough which get separated during
baking / frying and remain separated due to air pockets. The flakes by themselves should not be
tough / hard. Ideally the layers break easily and melt in the mouth.
6. Coarse large and uneven holes are a result of too much of the raising agent or too little liquid.
This is not a good texture to have in food; in fact, it is something to be avoided. Such cakes and
other products are sunken at the centre.
7. Tough too much liquid, over mixing, incorrect mixing, too little fat and long cooking time could
result in toughness in food. Mostly, like the coarse texture, this also is to be avoided.
8. Hard another texture which should be avoided as far as possible. In fact, it is considered to be a
fault in the product. Too much pressure while mixing, excessive liquid in the product and incorrect
quantity of fat result in this texture. Air that is incorporated gets removed out of the mixture, making
the final product hard.

C. Various consistencies:
Like different textures found in solid foods (which are mentioned above), different consistencies are
found in liquid foods.
Some substances flow readily, others resist flow and some require force or weight application to
start flow. The concept of consistency is closely related to viscosity.
Factors affecting consistency of liquid are
concentration (of thickening agent)
temperature
degree of dispersion
mechanical treatment
time (how long is it after preparing)
Generally speaking, the following consistencies could be found in liquid foods
A. Pouring like water and milk. These do not show any resistance and flow easily / readily. Stocks
and some thin soups like consomm are examples of cooked liquids having pouring consistency.
B. Coating when a starchy thickening agent is mixed with a liquid, and the mixture is heated, the
starch gelatinizes. In case of a protein as a thickening agent, it coagulates when exposed to heat. In
both these cases, the liquid starts to thicken. If a spoon is dipped in this mixture, it starts coating the
spoon. A thin film of the mixture could be seen in the beginning. Later on it goes on becoming visibly
thicker. Depending upon one / more factors listed before, the thickening will take place up to a
certain point. While making basic custard, this will be understood better. Here, liquid is milk and
thickening is egg yolk. Similar coating consistency could be observed in kadhi where liquid is
buttermilk and thickening is gram flour (besan)
The liquid is proportionately more than the flour or thickening agent.
C. Dropping when a liquid is added to dry flour, it forms lumps as only some flour (granules) gets
combined with liquid. Later, when added more liquid, it converts into dough and with some more
liquid, it turns into batter. Here, the amount of solid (flour) is more than the liquid. For example, a
cake mixture of fat, sugar, egg and flour is moistened with water or milk. Only that much liquid is
required which will make the mixture fall out in a big moist smooth lump. The liquid should be
dispersed well to get a smooth mixture. When you make cake batter in the bakery class, you will
understand it better. Also, next time when you are waiting for your (batata)vada-pav, dont forget to
observe the vender making and using the batter.

D. Techniques used in pre-preparation:

Raw materials used in food production are mostly natural products. They are available in various
shapes and weights. For example, no two potatoes or onions will be same in size, shape and weight.
No two red pumpkins will be of the same size, shape and weight. Preparing a finished product calls
for basic uniformity in size, shape and weight. This is the base for uniformity in cooking and also the
appearance of the food. Breaking down the raw materials into required form is called
prepreparation. Following are a few prepreparation techniques
Washing superficial dirt is removed during washing. Vegetables, fish, meat and sometimes even
eggs are washed with cold water before any other process. These days this is done at the very
entrance of the store to prevent any dirt and mud entering in the store / kitchen / workplace. Water
soluble vitamins and minerals are lost if they are soaked for a long period of time or washed after
cutting.
Peeling and scraping spoilt, soiled and inedible portions are removed. Skins of potatoes, carrots,
radish or fruits can be removed by peeling. Smaller ingredients like ginger, galangal are scraped.
Peel off as little of the fleshy part as possible. If vegetables like carrots are washed well, their peels
could be used for making stocks.
Paring remove surface layers by using a circular motion as in paring an apple.
Cutting reducing to smaller parts with a knife or a pair of scissors. When a chopping knife or a
food chopper is used, it is termed as chopping.
Cutting into even size cubes --- --- --- dicing.
Cutting into very fine pieces --- --- --- mincing.
Cutting (especially green leafy vegetables &
cabbage) into fine, long pieces --- shredding.
Cutting into slightly thicker, flat pieces --- slicing.
Grating reducing to fine particles by rubbing over a rough, sharp surface.
Grinding reducing to fine fragments by crushing in a mill, a grinding stone or an ostirizer.
Mashing breaking up soft foods like cooked potatoes. {SMASHes are in boxing, NOT is food
production}
Sieving passing through a mesh to remove impurities or to break down into even parts or to
enclose air.
Milling used for cereals, to remove husk.
Steeping extracting colouring or / and flavouring by allowing ingredients to stand in water at a
simmering temperature.
Centrifuging Separate two parts of a substance by application of whirling force like separation of
cream from milk.
Emulsification Blending or mixing to non-mixable (insoluble) liquids by application of force.
Evaporation / Reduction removal of moisture by heating.
Homogenization subdivision of large drops into smaller ones by forcing them through a small
opening under great pressure.

E. Techniques used in preparation:

When raw materials are ready to be cooked, they are sent to the preparation area or hot section of
the kitchen where it gets exposed to heat. Following are some of the techniques in preparation. List
may be enriched as and when you start actual cooking.
Stirring this mixes two or more ingredients as they get cooked. Wooden / stainless steel flat
spoons, round spoons, perforated spoons etc. of various sizes could be used. Liquids as well as
solid and semi-solid ingredients need stirring. Generally it helps in even dispersion of heat leading to
even cooking.
Masking to prevent food from getting burnt in case of baking / roasting, it needs to be masked
with some other food material. It can also be done to get a desired colour and appearance.
Coating or dipping in batter as mentioned earlier, batter is a mixture of flour and liquid (mostly
equal quantities). Certain foods are dipped in batter and deep fried. The most apt example would be
potato vadas. The batter should coat the stuffing fully and not expose any stuffing. This needs skill,
because food should be dropped in hot oil immediately after dipping in batter. So, in a split of a
second, the process has to be completed. Thus, the consistency of the batter plays a very important
role.
Basting this is a technique which goes hand in hand with roasting. This means to apply fat /
butter on the food while being roasted. It helps by protecting the surface from going dry and also by
giving a pleasant brown colour to the roasted food.
Tadka / baghar these terms and technique are used in Indian cuisine. Oil is heated to the
required temperature and certain spice ingredients are added to it (which should crackle,) then the
food (like cooked dal or chopped vegetables) are combined with this. It develops additional taste and
flavour to the dish. A peculiar flavour which is the characteristic of the dish can be added through the
ingredients in the tempering.
Sometimes, continental dishes, especially rich soups and sauces are also tempered; but the
technique is applied for a different purpose and using different ingredients. A mixture of egg yolk and
cream (liaison) is added to a dish to enrich it, to give it a glaze and to make it smooth. A little of the
hot soup / sauce is first mixed with the liaison, and then it is slowly stirred into the larger quantity of
soup / sauce.
Seasoning seasonings bring about the natural taste and flavours of the ingredients. No dish can
be complete without seasonings.
Flavouring these are those ingredients which impart additional flavours in the dishes. Nutmeg
powder in creamed potatoes, cardamom powder in Indian sweets like kheers, vanilla essence in
vanilla buns are some of the examples. Flavourings could be added in various forms powders,
drops or whole spices (which are removed before serving the dish to guest).
VEGETABLE AND FRUIT COOKERY

Vegetable: Vegetables refers to all plants or parts of plants which can be eaten raw, cooked or
preserved in some form. Vegetable are of great important in our diet and especially with regard to
the present trend when the people are shifting towards the vegetarian side. These play a very
important role in our diet properly choose, properly cooked or raw. They make an invaluable
contribution towards the supply of vitamins and minerals. Whenever possible, we should serve two
vegetable in our diet also salads should be given the importance and hence must be made in both
the meals. Generally vegetables have high water content, which ranges from 70-90%.

The various components of vegetables are:

1. Carbohydrates: carbohydrates are present in the form of starch, sugar, cellulose & pectin
substances. Starch is the chief nutrients of roots & tubers & the content of sugar is highest in
beetroot, carrots & turnips. Cellulose is a source of roughage and become coarse & tough with age.

2. Minerals and vitamins: also the vegetable contain minerals and vitamins.

There are certain elements in the vegetable which do not have a food value but constitute an
important part of vegetable.

A. Flavouring substances: many volatile and non-volatile acids contributed to the flavour.

B. pigments: four pigments are in the vegetables:

i. Chlorophyll: it is present in all green coloured vegetables such as cabbage, spinach, green beans,
broccoli, peas etc.
ii. Carotenoids: it is present in orange coloured vegetables such as carrots, pumpkins, sweet
potatoes, corns, tomatoes etc
iii. Flavons: it is present in white coloured vegetables such as cauliflower, turnips, potatoes, onion
etc.
iv. Anthocyanins: it is present in red & purple coloured vegetables. Beet roots, red cabbage (not
tomatoes).

C. Tannins: tannins are the complex organic compounds which are widely distributed in plants. They
are responsible for astringent (sharp flavour) properties. Tannin is also responsible for discolouration
in vegetable when they are cut or cooked.

NUTRITIONAL AND OTHER BENEFITS OBTAIN FORM VEGETABLES

Vegetables contains good amount of vitamins and minerals. All the green, yellow, orange vegetables
are rich source of calcium, magnesium, potassium, vitamin B complex, Vitamin C, Vitamin A and
Vitamin K .
Vegetable contain soluble as well as insoluble dietary fibres like cellulose , gums, pectin etc.
 Green Beans : Low in calories and contain no saturated fat but good source of vitamin, minerals
and fibres.
Cauliflower : Low in calories , low in fat and no cholesterol.
Bell Pepper: Fresh bell pepper are rich source of vitamin C and also contain good level of vitamin
A.
Beet Root : Low in calorie and fat but rich in dietary fibres, Vitamins and minerals.
Bitter Gourd: Rich in dietary fibres, minerals, vitamins and anti oxidant.
Carrot: Rich source of carotenes and vitamin A.
Cucumber : Cucumber peel is a good source of dietary fibres that helps reduce constipation. It is
very good source of potassium.

CLASSIFICATION OF VEGETABLES

1. CABBAGE FAMILY: Consist of vegetables used for their head, leaves or flowers also known as
BRASSICA. E.g. Cabbage, Brussels Sprouts, Cauliflower, Kohlrabi, Broccoli etc
2. STALK VEGETABLE : Stalk vegetables are plant stems that are high in cellulose. E.g. Asparagus,
Celery, Bok Choy etc.
3. LEAFY VEGETABLES: Leafy vegetables are plant grown specifically for their edible leaves. E.g.
Spinach, Kale, Sorrel etc.
4. SALAD GREENS: Endive, Lettuce
5. SEEDS, EDIBLE PODS AND YOUNG SHOOTS: This is a broad category of vegetables it
includes Peas, Snow peas, All types of beans, Bean sprout, Corn etc.
6. VEGETABLE FRUITS : Botanically vegetable fruit are considered fruits, however they are used in
the kitchen as vegetables. E.g. Cucumber, Okra, Egg plant, Tomatoes, Pepper, Squash etc.
7. BULBS: Bulbs are stems holding A food reserve in the fleshy, overlapping which give shape to the
vegetable. E.g. Onion, Scallion, Green onion, Shallots, Garlic etc.
8. FUNGI: Mushrooms are not actually vegetables. They are an edible fungus. There are over
38,000 kinds of mushrooms. Three quarter of these are edible. E.g. Mushroom, Morel, Truffles etc.
9. TUBERS : These are formed from underground stems, which extend from the root of the plant.
E.g. Jerusalem Artichoke, Carrot, Potatoes, Raddish, Turnips etc.
10. SPATIALITY VEGETABLES : There are vegetables which do not fit it any other category. E.g.
Artichoke, Rhubarb etc.

Reasons for which vegetables are cooked

I. To soften the product.

II. To improve the flavour.
III. To increase the digestibility.
IV. To preserve the vegetables.

Effects of heat on vegetables

Cooking is the application of heat to food in order to make it safer to eat, digestible and more
palatable. Cooking also change the appearance of the food. Heat breaks down the cellulose and the
starches present, changes and blend flavour with in the food , and also destroy bacteria in order to
make food digestible.

CARBOHYDRATES: CARAMELIZATION AND GELATINIZATION. Both sugar and starch are

carbohydrates. Caramelization is browning of sugars and Vegetables get softened by the
gelatinization of the starch.
VEGETABLE FIBERS: Fibbers are a group of complex substances that give structure and firmness
to plant. they cannot be digested. Heat break down the fibers. Alkali make fiber softer but make them
mushy and lose essential vitamins.
MINERALS, VITAMINS, PIGMENTS AND FLAVOUR COMPONENTS : Minerals dissolve in water
during cooking. Vitamins and pigments may also be destroyed by prolonged cooking. Pigment and
flavour may also determine whether the food is appetizing enough to eat or not.
PROTEIN : When heat is applied to protein they become firm or they start to coagulate with heat.
Protein become tough and dry when exposed to high heat.

VARIOUS RULES FOR VEGETABLE PREPARATION

1. Do not let the vegetable soak in water unless necessary.

2. Wash the vegetables just before peeling.
3. Cook or bake the vegetable in their skin.
4. Use the minimum amount of liquid during boiling.
5. Use the water in which the vegetables are boiled (pot liquor).
6. Use the correct cooking medium which can be acidic, alkali or neutral.
7. Cut the vegetable as near to the cooking time as possible.
8. Serve the food as soon as it is ready for the service.
9. Keep the oxygen away from the vitamin rich foods by covering them with water.
10. For uniform doneness, cut into uniform sizes before cooking.
11. If vegetable must be cooked in advance, slightly undercook them, cool rapidly in cold water,
drain and refrigerate, then reheat to order.

SHELF LIFE: leafy vegetables : 2 days

Root vegetables : 2-3 days
Tubers : 1 week
Bulbs : 2 weeks

Suggestive cooking for different vegetables

Boiling: this is the most common method of cooking vegetables. For green vegetables such as
peas, french beans etc. The vegetables are put in boiling water and cooked for minimum time
possible and refresh to avoid over cooking. Green vegetables while boiling should not be covered;
otherwise their colour will be changed to olive green. Root vegetables should be placed in cold water
and the pot should be covered by a lid, the water is brought to boiling point then simmered till the
vegetables are cooked.
Steaming: vegetables are cut into even size after washing and placed in steamer for cooking. This
method helps in the maximum preservation of the nutrients and good for peas, beans, cauliflower,
cabbage etc.
Braising: vegetables after blanching are laid on aromatic to be braised such as cabbage, onion etc.
Baking: vegetables baked in baking oven suitable for potatoes, tomatoes, pimentos etc.
Roasting: some vegetables can be roasted. They are placed in a hot pan containing oil and
condiments suitable for potatoes, onions and parsnips etc.
Shallow frying: it is applicable for mushrooms, onions, pepper, tomatoes etc.
Deep frying: vegetables such as potatoes, brinjals and onions can be deep fried but loss of
vitamins takes place in this method of cooking.
Grilling: small potatoes can be grilled to give colour.
Stewing: vegetables such as marrows, peas etc. Can be stewed.

How to Retain the colour of Green Vegetables

Cook Them uncovered to allow the vegetables volatile acid to escape. when the vegetables are
cooked with a cover, the plants natural acid in leeched into the cooking liquid and is trapped there
creating an acidic cooking medium. This combined with the heat present and destroys the pigment.
Cook them quickly until just Al Dente, Extended exposure to heat will destroy the colour.
Steam Green vegetables whenever possible, this shorten the cooking time, allows for less acid
build up and retain more colour.

ACTIONS OF ACIDS AND ALKALIS

Pigment or colour Salt or neutral Acidic medium Alkali medium Over cooking
Flavons (white) Yellowish White Yellow Grey
Anthocyanins (red) Faded red Bright red Blue Green
Carotenoids (orange, yellow) Fades Same Loss of nutrients Fades
Chlorophyll (green) Bright green Olive green Bright but mushy Faded olive green

VEGETABLE YIELDS: yield percentage and quality of some vegetables:-

S.no Vegetable Yield % Quality

1. French beans 85% Firm, evenly green & should break at 90 bent.
2. Beetroot 45 % Firm, small, round & leaves on head.
3. Cabbage 80 % Firm & heavy.
4. Celery 60 % Bright green, tender & have a green leafs.
5. Corn 25 % Moist & green husk.
6. Cucumber 70 % Firm & crisp.
7. Brinjals 90 % Dark purple & heavy.
8. Garlic 80 % White firm & dry skin.
9. Leeks 80 % Outside should be green & fresh.
10. Cauliflower 50 % Should have tight bubs & white in colour.
11. Mushrooms 90% White cap, firm.
12. Lady finger 90% Small bright green.
13. Onions 90% Firm & bright skin.
14. Herbs 80% Bright green & crisp.
15. Peas 40-50% Fresh & firm pods.
16. Capsicum 80% Bright green & shiny.
17. Raddish 90% Firm, tender & crisp.
18. Potatoes 80% Pale, yellow, dry skin.
19. Spinach 50% Dark green.
20. Tomatoes 90% Bright red, firm & heavy.
21. Turnips 65% Small, firm & heavy.
22. Lettuce 60% Outer leaves should be fresh & green.
23. Spring onions 70 % Bright, unblemished green ends & firm bulbs.
24. Pumpkin 60 % Heavy firm & hard rind.
25. Carrots 70 % Fresh, crisp, hard & not too big.

STANDARD VEGETABLES CUTS

1) Brunoise: vegetables are cut into fine dices.

2) Macedoine: vegetables are cut into cm dices.
3) Julienne: vegetables are cut into very thin strips (1 long).
4) Jardinire: vegetables are cut into baton shape (1 x x ).
5) Paysanne: vegetables are cut into small triangles, circles and squares- uniform shape.
6) Wedges: tomato or lemon cut into four or six pieces.
7) Mirepoix: vegetables mixed (onions, carrots, celery, leeks) cut into rough dices.
8) Chiffonade: Shredded leafy vegetables.
9) Matignon: Evenly cut root vegetables.
10) Chateau: Turning of vegetables into barrel shape.

FRUITS
Fruits are pulpy in character, often juicy & generally developed from flowers of plants & consist of a
ripened seed or seeds with some edible tissues attached.
Types of fruits
Type of fruit Main characteristics E.g. Uses
Stoned fruits These have got a single prominent seed present in the middle. Apricots, cherries,
peaches, plums. Used in jams, pies, puddings and sweet dishes.

Hard fruits These have got hard layer of fibers & generally firm when touched. Apple, pears etc.
Used in pastries, apples are used for garnishing meat dishes, salads, sauces etc., waldrof salad,
apple sauce serve with roast meat etc.
Soft fruits These have got soft layer of fibers and should be handled very carefully. Black & red
currants, berries etc. Generally stewed and are used in pies and puddings. Also used for jams and
as flavouring
Citrus fruits These are the fruits which have got acids present in them. Lemons, limes, oranges etc.
They are not cooked usually but are generally used for flavouring and garnishing purposes. They are
used to prepare fruit salad.
Tropical fruits These generally grow in the hot region where the temperatures might sore upto 50c
Guavas, bananas, dates, figs, mango, papaya, pineapple, litchis etc. They are used to prepare fruit
salad, flavouring and garnishing. Mango used for jams
Other fruits These are the fruits which do not fall into any category given above. Cranberries,
melons, grapes etc. They are used to prepare fruit salad, flavouring and garnishing.

STORAGE OF FRUITS
v Hard fruits such apples should be stored in boxes.
v Soft fruits such as strawberries, raspberries should be left in their own punnets.
v Stoned fruit are stored in a tray and must be individually placed so that any damaged fruit can be
discarded easily.
v Peaches and citrus fruits are left in the delivery tray only.
v Bananas should not be stored in cool places because their skin turns black.

QUALITY AND PURCHASING POINTS FOR FRUITS

v Soft fruits should not be damaged or overripe.

v Soft fruits should appear fresh without signs of mould, witting and shrinkage.
v Certain fruits are purchased on the basis of appearance such as strawberries, cherries etc.
v Hard fruits should not be bruised.

PRESERVATION OF FRUITS

1. Drying: it is used for apples, apricots, bananas, figs, peaches, plums etc. (dried plums = prunes
and dried grapes = currants, sultanas, raisins)
2. Canning: almost every fruit can be canned except apple which is packed in water.
3. Bottling: it is mainly used for cherries bottled in maraschinos.
4. Candied fruits: fruits are put in the sugar syrup and then dried for e.g. Pineapples, oranges and
lemon peel.
5. Quick freezing: it is preserving food by dropping the temperature to 0 c for e.g. Strawberries,
apples, plums, grapefruit etc.
6. Sulphuring: it is carried out by spraying fruits with sulphur dioxide (so2) and blocking the contact
with air for e.g. It is used for grapes before preparing wine.
7. Jams and jellies: it is prepared by making a puree of boiled fruits along with flavouring.

SALADS

A salad is derived from the italian word insalata. Insalata means a dish steeped in salt or brine
solution. Salads are made up of meat, poultry, fish, game, shellfish, eggs, vegetables, fruit and milk
products and normally serve cold. They can be made out of single ingredients or a combination of
ingredients. Salads are generally served as an accompaniment to a dish but can be served as a
course itself, an appetizer, sweet course (fruit salad).

THE SALAD COMPRISES OF FOUR PARTS

1. The under liner or base: these are generally greens either shredded or in large pieces. The
greens must be crisp and chilled. This can be done by storing them in refrigerator. E.g. Lettuce
leaves, cabbage leaves, watercress leaves etc. The main purpose is to keep the plate or bowl from
looking bare and to provide contrast colour to the other parts of the salad.
2. The body or heart of the salad: this is the major component and can be made of one ingredient or
a combination of ingredients. Ingredient should be fresh. Body constituents are the major portion of
the salad. The salad gets its name from the ingredients that are used for the body.
3. Garnish: the purpose of garnish is to give eye appeal to the salad, though it often adds to the
flavour as well. It should not be elaborate or dominate the salad. Garnish should harmonize with the
rest of the salad ingredients and, be edible. Any of the fruit and vegetable, cut into simple,
appropriate shapes, may be used as garnish.
4. Dressings: these make the salad more appetizing, although diet conscious people today eat salad
without dressing. Various kinds of dressing are used in the preparation of salad depending upon the
kind of salad to be made. It adds flavour, provides food value, helps in digestion and improves
palatability and appearance. A dressing is in a liquid or semi liquid form.

SALAD DRESSINGS

A. Vinaigrette can be made by three ways:-

I. French: 3 parts oil 1 part vinegar, french mustard and seasoning.
II. English: 1 part oil 2 parts vinegar, mustard and seasoning.
III. American: equal quantities of vinegar and oil, seasoning and sugar.
B. Lemon dressing: same as vinaigrette dressing using lemon juice instead of vinegar.
C. Acidulated cream: 3 parts cream 1 part vinegar and seasoning.
D. Mayonnaise
E. Thousand island dressing: mayonnaise, hard boiled eggs, tomato ketchup, chopped gherkins,
chopped onions, pimentos, olives and paprika powder.
F. Russian dressing: mayonnaise, chilly sauce, horseradish, minced onion.
G. Roquefort dressing: French dressing with cheese.
H. Piquant dressing: French dressing, dry mustard, chopped onion and paprika powder.
I. Anchovy dressing: french dressing with chopped anchovies.
J. Honey lemon dressing: honey with lemon juice.

Salads are of two types:

I. Simple salad: generally consist of a single kind of vegetable one or two ingredients are used for
garnish.
Examples:
v Celery salad: chopped celery with vinaigrette.
v Cabbage salad: shredded cabbage with vinaigrette.
v Cucumber salad: cucumber roundels with vinaigrette.
v Potato salad: dice/ roundels (parboiled) with vinaigrette or mayonnaise.
v Tomato salad: sliced tomato with parley and vinaigrette.

II. Compound salad:

These are elaborate salads consisting of more than one ingredient which are sub divided into four
groups:
v Vegetable based: coleslaw, andalouse, nicoise, aida.
v Poultry, game, meat based: carmen, hongroise, bagration.
v Fish based: parisienne, fish mayonnaise, favourite.
v fruit based: creole, japonnaise, dalila, eve, waldrof
SOUPS
CLASSIFICATIONS OF SOUPS

Soups can be divided into three basic categories: clear or un-thickened soups, thick Soups, and
special soups that dont fit the first two categories. Most of these soups, no matter what their final
ingredients may be, are based on Stock. thus, the quality of the soup depends on the stock-making
skills

Clear soups
Clear soups are all based on a clear, un-thickened broth or stock. They may be served Plain or
garnished with a variety of vegetables and meats.
1. Broth and bouillon are two terms used in many ways. In general, they both refer to Simple, clear
soups without solid ingredients. We have already defined broth as a flavorful liquid obtained from the
simmering of meats and/or vegetables. E.g. Scotch Broth
2. Vegetable soup is a clear, seasoned stock or broth with the addition of one or more vegetables
and, sometimes, meat or poultry products and starches.
3. Consomm is a rich, flavorful stock or broth that has been clarified to make it perfectly Clear and
transparent, a well-made consomm is one of the greatest of all soups. Its sparkling clarity is a
delight to the eye, and its rich, full Flavor, strength, and body make it a perfect starter for an elegant
dinner.

Thick soups
Unlike clear soups, thick soups are opaque rather than transparent. They are thickened either by
adding a thickening agent, such as a roux, or by pureing one or more of their Ingredients to provide
a heavier consistency.
1. Cream soups are soups that are thickened with roux, beurre mani, liaison, or other added
thickening agents, plus milk and/or cream. They are similar to velout and bchamel saucesin
fact, they may be made by diluting and flavoring either of these two leading sauces. Cream soups
are usually named after their major ingredient, such as cream of Chicken or cream of asparagus.
2. Pures are soups that are naturally thickened by pureing one or more of their ingredients. They
are not as smooth and creamy as cream soups. Pures are normally based on starchy ingredients.
They may be made from dried legumes (such as split pea soup) or from fresh vegetables with a
starchy ingredient Such as potatoes or rice added. Pures may or may not contain milk or Cream.
E.g. Puree de lentils
3. Bisques are thickened soups made from shellfish. They are usually prepared like Cream soups
and are almost always finished with cream. The term bisque is sometimes used on menus for a
variety of vegetable soups. In these cases, it is really a marketing term rather than a technical term,
so it is impossible to give a definition that covers all uses.
4. Chowders are hearty soups made from fish, shellfish, and/or vegetables. Although they are made
in many ways; they usually contain milk and potatoes. E.g. Calm Chowder
5. Veloute is a thick soup, which is thickened with a blond roux, prepared in the same way as a
veloute sauce and Liaison is added.

Specialty and national soups

This is a catch-all categories that includes soups that dont fit well into the main categories And
soups that are native to particular countries or regions.
Minestrone : Italy
French Onion Soup : France
Gazpacho : Spain
Scotch Broth : Scotland
Specialty soups are distinguished by unusual ingredients or methods, such as turtle Soup, gumbo,
peanut soup, and cold fruit soup.
Cold soups are sometimes considered specialty soups, and, in fact, some of them Are. But many
other popular cold soups, such as jellied consomm, cold cream of cucumber Soup, and vichyssoise
(vee shee swahz) are simply cold versions of basic clear And thick soups.

Standard portion sizes

Appetizer portion:6 to 8 oz (200 to 250 ml)
Main course portion:10 to 12 oz (300 to 350 ml)

Temperature
Serve hot soups hot, in hot cups or bowls.
Serve cold soups cold, in chilled bowls or even nested in a larger bowl of Crushed ice.

Commonly used garnishes for soups

Croutons dices or other shapes made from bread, toast, pastry.
Profitroles prepared from chou paste. They are miniature cream puffs which may be filled or used
plain.
Cereals rice or barley.
Cheese cheese balls, or grated parmesan served with croutons on one side.
Cream unsweetened whipped cream or sour cream.
Meats usually small dices or juliennes.
Poultry same as meat.
Seafood diced or flaked. Large enough pieces distinguishable.
Pastas noodles, spaghetti, other pasta products such as star letters, cornets, etc.
Vegetables cut in various sizes, shapes-juliennes, round slices, dices of spring vegetables

CONSOMM (basic)
Consomm are clear soups made using beef, veal, poultry, and game or fish stocks. They are often
made using a combination of beef or veal and poultry. Having clarified the soup (as below) the
consomm should be fat free, crystal clear, amber in colour with good flavour. To avoid producing
too dark a consomm a combination of white and brown stock may be used

BASIC BEEF CONSOMM

Brown stock 1.5 lt

White of eggs 2
Onions 50 g
Celery 50 g
Minced meat 500 g
Carrots 50 g
Leeks 20g
Bouquet garni
Salt to taste

Method
1. Place the minced meat in a saucepan; add the salt, whites of eggs and dices vegetables mixed
thoroughly with a little cold stock.
2. Gradually add the remainder of the cold stock. Bring to the boil slowly, stirring from time to time
with a wooden spoon.
3. When just boiling remove spoon and allow to simmer gently for 2 hours. Do not disturb the
contents during cooking.
4. Strain through 4 layers of damp muslin.
5. Reboil and remove all fat with absorbent paper.
6. Correct the colour, seasoning and garnish as required.

Notes:
1. To improve the quality and strength of this soup brown stock and chicken stock may be used.
2. The stock for this recipe has been increased by 20% to allow for evaporation during the long
cooking process.
3. When large quantities are cooked a stockpot with a tap should be used to facilitate straining.

Note. Do not use vegetables such as cabbage, turnips, potatoes, swedes or parsnips when
producing and clarifying consomm, as they will spoil the clarity and flavour. To some extent they
may be used a garnish items. During the preparation, cooking and final stages of making consomm
there are several faults, which may occur if proper care and attention is not paid to the recipes and
methods used.
These can be prevented by awareness and may or may not be rectified.

Consomm Variation :

Name Ingredients / Garnish

1. Consomm Royale Dices savory egg custard

2. Consomm Julienne Julienne of vegetables
3. Consomm Brunoise Brunoise of vegetables
4. Consomm Celestine Julienne of thin pan cake
5. Consomm Breton Juliennes of celery, onion and leeks
6. Consomm Dubbary Flowerets of cauliflower
7. Consomm Florentine Juliennes of blanched spinach
8. Consomm St. Germain Fresh green peas
9. Consomm Cereals Rice and barley
10. Consomm Madrilne Flavoured with tomato and celery, garnished with tomato flesh
Sauce notes

Derivatives of Basic Sauces

BROWN OR ESPAGNOLE SAUCE

Demi-Glaze : 50% of brown stock + 50% (Fr. Demi-glace) of brown sauce Reduced to half.

Piquant : Chopped shallots + vinegar, +white wine + demi-glaze and strain, garnish with gherkins, chervil,
chopped tarragon and pepper. Chopped onions sauted + white wine + vinegar + pepper reduced + demi-glaze
+ mustard to finish.

Bercy : Demi-glaze + meat glaze + minced shallots + white wine + sliced bone marrow.

Madeira : Demi-glaze + Madeira wine.

(Madere Fr.)

Chasseur : Minced mushrooms, sauted chopped shallots +, white wine reduced + demi-glaze + butter +
chopped parsley.

Devil (Diable) : Chopped shallots + white wine + vinegar + Peppercorns, salt, reduced + demi-glaze strained +
chopped parsley (prominent flavour of pepper).

Charcutiere : Robert sauce, garnished with juliennes of gherkins.

Bordelaise : Chopped shallots + Mignonette pepper+ thyme + bay leaves + Red wine.

Chaudfroid : Demi-glaze + aspic jelly + essence of truffles + Madeira.

BECHAMEL SAUCE

Scotch egg (Escossaise)sauce : Thin Bchamel sauce, mixed with hard-bailed yolk, sieved, garnished with
white of eggs cut into strips.

Mornay : Bchamel + Parmesan and Gruyere + cream + egg yolks.

Cream : Bchamel + fresh cream + butter.

Soubise : Bchamel + sauted, minced onions + pepper + nutmeg and strained.

Cardinal : Bchamel + fish stock + truffle essence + lobster butter + cayenne pepper.

Parsley : Bchamel + fresh cream+ butter + chopped and blanched parsley.

Mustard : Bchamel + fresh cream + butter + mustard (also prepared with Hollandaise).

Anchovy : Bchamel + anchovy essence+ anchovy fillets + cream + butter + lemon juice (also prepared with
fish veloute).

Onion sauce : Bchamel + minced onions cooked in milk + seasoning + nutmeg.

CHICKEN VELOUTE

Allemande : Chicken veloute + egg yolks+ mushroom trimmings + cream + juice of lemon.

Supreme : Chicken veloute + white wine + parsley + shallots + mushroom trimmings and strain. Add fresh
cream + yolk of eggs + juice of lemon.

Mushroom Sauce : supreme + sliced button mushrooms.

Hongroise : Chicken veloute + paprika + white wine + cream.

Ivory Sauce : supreme + meat glaze.

Aurore : Chicken veloute + tomato sauce + butter.

White chaudfroid sauce : Chicken veloute + chicken glaze + cream.

Chivry : Chicken veloute + tarragon + parsley + chives + strain + green butter.

Curry Sauce : Dices of onions + apples sauted in butter + curry powder + coconut milk + add veloute + strain.

FISH/MEAT VELOUTE

Shrimp : Fish veloute + fish fumet + cream+ shelled shrimp tails + shrimp butter.

Normande : Fish veloute + mushrooms + oyster liquor + fish fumet + finish with egg yolks, cream + shelled
shrimp tails + shrimp butter.

Joinville : Normande sauce + crayfish + cooking liquor of shrimps, juliennes of truffles.

Vin blanc : Thin fish veloute + yolk of eggs and finished with butter (pour the butter in mixture in a double
boiler).

Nantua : Fish veloute + fried mirepoix fish in crayfish butter.

Diplomat : Normande sauce + lobster butter, garnished with dices of lobster and truffles.

Caper : Mutton veloute + capers.

Bercy : Allemande sauce + chopped shallots + white wine + meat glaze + butter, garnished with dices of
marrow and chopped parsley.

Ravigote : Veal veloute + white wine + vinegar + shallot butter, garnished with chervil chives and tarragon.

Poulette : Allemande sauce + mushroom essence + lemon juice + chopped parsley.

TOMATO SAUCE

Bretonne : Tomato sauce + sauteed chopped onions + white wine reduced, strained + butter + chopped parsley.

Tomato Chaudfroid : Tomato sauce + aspic jelly.

Provencale : Thin tomato sauce + sauted sliced mushrooms + chopped parsley + garlic + tomato concasse +
sugar.

Portugaise : Tomato sauce + white wine + tomato concasse + garlic.

Italienne : Tomato sauce + demi-glaze + chopped shallots + mushrooms +lean ham + fine herbs.

Barbecue : Tomato sauce + ketchup + vinegar+ sugar.

HOLLANDAISE

Mousseline : Hollandaise sauce mixed with stiffly whipped cream.

Maltaise : Hollandaise sauce + zest + juice of blood oranges.

Noisette : Hollandaise + nut brown cooked butter.

Bearnaise : Hollandaise sauce + chopped tarragon + chervil.

Choron : Bearnaise sauce + tomato puree.

Foyot : Bearnaise sauce + meat glaze.

Mustard : Hollandaise sauce + mustard

MAYONNAISE

Chantilly : Mayonnaise + lemon juice instead of vinegar, mixed with whipped cream.

Gribiche : Mayonnaise + chopped hard boiled eggs + mustard, garnished with chopped gherkins, capers,
chervil, tarragon.

Cambridge : Pounded hard-boiled eggs +anchovy fillets + capers +chervil+ tarragon + chives +vinegar +
Cayenne pepper, addoil gradually as for mayonnaise, strain + chopped parsley.

Gloucester : Mayonnaise + sour cream + lemon juice + chopped fennel + Worcestershire sauce.

Remoulade : Mayonnaise + mustard garnished with capers, parsley, gherkins, chervil, tarragon and finished
with anchovy essence.

Andalouse : Mayonnaise + tomato puree garnished with sweet capsicums.

Tartare : Mayonnaise + hard yolk of eggs, garnished with finely chopped onion and chives.

Green Sauce : Mayonnaise sauce mixed with puree of blanched herbs, spinach, water parsley, chervil,
tarragon. Pass through very fine sieve.

Vincent : Half tartare sauce + half green sauce mixed together.

Thousand Island Dressing : Mayonnaise + hard-boiled eggs + tomato ketchup + chopped gherkins + onions +
pimentos, olives + paprika powder.

Cocktail : Mayonnaise + tomato ketchup + Worcester sauce + tabasco +cream+ lemon juice.

Sauces, a Class of their Own

These sauces have an individuality of their own in colour and flavour. They blend with the food items they
accompany or give a contrasting sharpness. The sauces are bread, apple, mint, cranberry and horse-radish
sauces.
Butter Sauces

They are served melted, in a liquid form or as hard butter sauces. Butter is mixed with different ingredients, set
and cut in fancy shapes and served with food items. They are placed on the hot food items, just before serving
and allowed to melt. It can be served separately, along with the dish in a sauce-boat and crushed ice. The other
name for butter sauces is compound butter, e.g. anchovy, Colbert, brown butter, Garlic butter etc.

Gravy is made from meat juices which congeal and caramelize in the bottom of roasting pan. For red meat
gravy should be dark brown and for poultry it should be a golden colour.
STOCKS
DEFINITION: - Stock is a flavored liquid, which forms the basis of many dishes, particularly soups
and sauces. Stock is prepared by simmering particular vegetables or meats along with herbs in
water, to extract flavor.

CLASSIFICATION: -
Fond de Cuisine (Kitchen Stock); Fond means bottom or foundation.
Fond de vegetal or Fond de Legumes (Vegetable Stock). Also known as Neutral stock or Fond
maigre; simmered for 30-40 minutes.
Fond Blanc (White Stock) made from chicken, beef or veal bones; simmered for 3 hours.
Fond Blanc de Mouton : - White Mutton Stock
Fond Blanc de Volaille: - White Chicken Stock
Fond Blanc de Veau: - White Veal Stock
Fond Brun or Estouffade(Brown Stock) made from chicken, beef or veal bones; simmered for 6
hours
Fond de Poisson or Fumet (Fish Stock) made from non oily fish bones ; simmered for 30-40 minutes
Fond de Champignon (Mushroom Stock) made from roughly chopped mushrooms ; simmered for
30-40 minutes
Fond de Gibier: - Game Stock

CULINARY TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH STOCK: -

1. Bouquet garni / Faggot: - A bundle of herbs and aromatics tied within sections of leek with cooking
twine and simmered in stock to add flavor and aroma.
Can also add celery, fresh thyme, parsley stems and bay leaves.
2. Sachet de Epices: - A small cheesecloth sack containing herbs and spices used to flavor stocks,
translates literally to a bag of spices.
3. Mirepoix: - Roughly cut vegetables like onions, carrots and celery in the ratio of 50:25:25
respectively.
4. Depouiller: - day poo yay; This term signifies the process of skimming a stock for the first time
while it is simmering.
5. De-glazing: - A technique by which liquid is poured into the pan and heated, stirred with a wooden
spoon to remove the caramelized residue after roasting the meats and vegetables, and then adding
the floating residue to the simmering stock.
6. Broth / Bouillon: - When any meat, poultry, game or fish stock is simmered with a fresh round of
nutritional and aromatic ingredients, the result is an ultra clear, highly flavored broth.
7. Consomm: - Clarified clear stock or broth is known as consomm. Clarification takes place by
adding egg whites and minced meat to the simmering stock or broth.
8. Aspic: - When a consomm is reduced by 30%, this reduction effectively increases its gelatin
content and flavor. Combined with a wine such as Madeira, Port or Sherry, consomm gets
converted to Aspic. Aspic is used to coat individually served foods such as pate, poached eggs, cold
cuts etc.
9. Glazes (Fr. Glaces): - When a consomm is reduced by 90% to such a consistency that it coats a
wooden spoon evenly when dipped in the reduced consomm, the final product obtained is known
as a Glaze.
10. Essences: - An essence is made by simmering a liquid with the addition of an aromatic
ingredient. Typically essences are created using celery, garlic, mushrooms, tarragon and truffle.
Liquid + aromat are reduced by 75% and the essence is used to impart finishing touches to the
particular dish.
E.g. Celery essence is used to finish cream of celery soup.
11. Remouillage: - ray moo yay; A second stock preparation, prepared using the same
ingredients of the first stock. This results in a weak stock but is flavorful than water. It can be used to
cook products which require a mild flavor.

PRINCIPLE STEPS DURING PREPARATION OF STOCK

Although the ingredients are simple and the method simplistic, you must use great care. This is a
base from which you will create a wide variety of dishes, so the stock must be right. As with any
other preparation, you must start with quality stock are:

The four principle steps in producing stock are:

1. Start with cold liquid.
2. Allow natural clarification to occur.
3. Skim carefully.
4. Simmer, do not boil.

COLD LIQUID TO START

Beginning with a cold liquid prevents the sealing of the items. This makes it possible to release the
flavours of the food, enhancing the liquid. This is a form of cooking by interchange. The flavours of
meat, bones, poultry, etc. are transferred to the liquid surrounding them.
This interchange occurs whether the bones and vegetables are browned or not. However, when they
are browned an additional flavour is added. This is caused by the caramelization of the natural
sugars, which occurs during browning. It adds a richness of flavour and colour, not achieved
otherwise.
NATURAL CLARIFICATION
A high quality stock has a clear clean appearance. This requires that it be clarified. Pouring the
cooked stock through a fine sieve is not the kind of clarification that we mean here. It is the removal
of the many minute particles, which form, in the cooking process. Albumin is a protein complex found
in muscles, blood, milk, egg white, and many vegetable tissues, such as leeks. It is soluble only in
cold water. Albumin is valued for its property of clarification by coagulation (forming a mass) when
exposed to heat. The slower the application of heat, the better the removal of cloudiness from liquid.
Bringing stock slowly to a boil gives the albumin time to pass into the solution. As its proteins
coagulate, they attract particles in the liquid. The action is similar to that of a magnet. However, as
with the magnet, when disturbed they will drop the particles. Cloudiness normally is the result of
stock being boiled for too long and fast over high heat. This extended boiling breaks down the
texture of the bone fibers. When this happens, the particles become blended and suspended in the
liquid. This makes it difficult, if not impossible, to clarify. A slight amount of cloudiness is normal in
stock. The lack of blood in the bones used in stock creates a lack of albumin. There is not sufficient
protein to all the particles.
SKIMMING
As the stock cooks and the albumin coagulates, fat and scum will rise to the top of the pot. It is
important to remove all of it. This removal is called skimming, carefully lifting fat and scum from the
surface. The mirepoix of vegetables is finely cut for the best flavour extraction. This and the
aromatics float on the top of the pot. This can make it difficult to skim properly. To make it easier to
skim, add the mirepoix and the aromatics after about of the cooking time has lapsed. The largest
accumulation of fat and scum will occur in the early cooking of the stock. Once the mirepoix and
aromatics are added, do not skim unless necessary. Let the stock cook undisturbed.

SIMMERING
This very simple operation is often misunderstood. Improper application of it generates most of the
burned stocks and sauces. Simmering is when liquid is hot enough to form small bubbles that rise
from bottom of the pan. The bubbles break, just below the top surface of the liquid. As they rise and
break a slight turbulence occurs. When the temperature is too high, this turbulence is too great. If the
temperature is too low, there is little or no movement in the liquid. Simmering, when correct, creates
a slight roll in the liquid. Simmering is important in the cooking of sauces, when the slight roll of the
simmer is not present, the coarser particles and sediments will settle on the bottom of the pan. This
creates an insulating layer between the heat and the stock, which will burn. When it burns, it imparts
an unwanted burnt flavour to the stock. Too much action in the liquid can harm stock. The heavy
rolling action of a high boil will break up the scum and fat. This makes it difficult to skim the stock.
The fast rolling action also does not allow the albumin to gather the fine particles. Improper
placement of the pot on the fire can limit the simmering action and make it difficult to skim the stock.

GLAZE USES: -
Glazes serve four basic purposes in cooking. In most cases, there are advantages to be gained from
using a glaze instead of an essence.
1. Glazes give a brilliant shine and moist coating to a finished dish.
2. They reinforce the quality and tone of sauces.
3. Glazes strengthen the flavour and body of preparation made from weak stock.
4. Glazes can act as sauces when used properly buttered or creamed to match the dish they are to
be used with.

COURT BOUILLON
Court bouillon is not actually a stock preparation. However, it is used in a similar manner. It is a
flavorful poaching liquid used for fish and shellfish and some other items, such as sweetbreads. A
court bouillon is made up of these elements: Aromatics and spices; salt, and liquid. The mixture is
not complete in nutritional elements. The flavor of the bouillon is created when fish are poached in it,
it is then reduced and added to the sauce or possibly kept for future poaching.

STOCKS
Definition of a stock: A stock is a liquid that has been formed by extracting flavours, nutrients and
salts during the cooking process from bones, vegetables and aromatic herbs.

Clear in appearance

Delicate flavour

Clear of grease

The basic ingredient for most soups and sauces is a good stock and this is why a stockpot should
be maintained in every kitchen. Stock is obtained by simmering bones and selected vegetables in
water to extract their flavour. The preparation of the basic stock is not a difficult process and
although weights and measures are given in the recipes that follow, such quantities should be
regarded as flexible, permitting variations within fairly broad limits. The kitchens stockpot should not
be misused and made into a receptacle for every kind of trimming and leftover.

Fat, which derives from skimming, is an important by-product. It should always be retained and
clarified for first grade dripping. Bones that have boiled for more than six hours are of no further
value and should be washed, dried and disposed of as salvage. It is important to note that nay stock
remaining at the end of the day should be reboiled, cooled within 90 minutes and stored in the
refrigerator or cold area.

The 7 principles of stock making:

1. Cold water: Cover the ingredients with clean, cold water. Starting in this manner allows the blood
and proteins to dissolve. As the temperature rises, the proteins coagulate (solidify) and float to the
surface where they can be skimmed off. If they were started in hot water, the proteins would solidify,
stick to the bones and then disperse into the stock making it cloudy and "muddy tasting".

2. Simmer, never boil: A stock should be brought to a boil and then immediately reduced to a
simmer. (approximately 185 f) at a simmer, the ingredients release the maximum flavor without
breaking down into particulate matter. If a stock boils for even a few minutes, the fat will emulsify into
the stock and the stock will become cloudy, making for a poor performance, a "muddy taste" and a
"greasy" finish. This type of texture will spoil soups and sauces.

3. Skim frequently: Skimming the coagulated masses off the surface of the stock throughout the
cooking process, decreases the likelihood of "clouding" the stock.

4. Strain carefully: This involves a china cap set inside of a chinois. In order to use the stock, you
must separate the solids from the liquid. While doing so it is important not to disturb the solids in the
bottom of the pot.
Use the following procedure:

A. Skim the fat from the surface

B. Remove the stock from the heat and carefully ladle the stock out of the pot without stirring the
stock.

C. Pour the stock through a china cap set inside of a chinois, into a sanitized metal container.

5. Cool quickly: It is of the utmost importance that stocks are cooled quickly and with a minimum
amount of agitation.

6. Store properly:
6.1. Store in a plastic storage container and label the container indicating the contents, date and the
session that started the stock. (Ex: 1 dec. /intro am /vegetable barley soup)

6.2. Store in the container in the refrigerator. (as the stock chills the remaining fat will rise and
solidify, forming the fat cap. The fat cap provides an extra barrier against contamination and aerobic
bacterial growth.)

7. Degrease: Before using the stock, carefully lift the fat cap off of the surface of the stock, scraping
off all the small bits of fat. It is always easier to degrease your stock when it is chilled. All
preparations depend on the use of fat-free stocks!

Type of stocks

White beef stock white stocks should have no color and sometimes use a white mirepoix where
carrots are replaced by parsnips and leeks replace half the onions. Blanching the bones is also
common. Blanch by bringing bones and water just to the boil then skim the surface and discard the
water.

Brown beef stockbrown stocks rely on good color. To achieve this color the bones and mirepoix are
caramelized (caramelization is the browning of surface sugars and occurs around 310 ) if the color
is not right a onion burlee, (burnt onion), is used to darken the stock.

Vegetable stock

Chicken stock

Fish stock

STORAGE OF STOCKS.
When cooked stocks must be strained and cooled within 90 minutes and stored in a fridge, stocks
can be frozen.

All stocks must be re-boiled after storage prior to being used.

Tips on stocks

Never season a stock.

Never boil a stock.

Never add potatoes, swede, turnip etc.

Always re-boil stocks.

Faults in stock production

Stock cloudy.

Incorrect ingredients, poorly prepared.

Incorrect cooking.

Stock not skimmed.

Old stock.

Stock lacks flavour.

Incorrect ratio of ingredients to liquid.

Cooking time too short
METHODS OF COOKING

TRANSFERENCE OF HEAT TO FOOD

All methods of cooking depend on one or more of the following principles.

RADIATION
Heat passes from its source in direct rays until it falls on an object in its path such as in grilling.

CONDUCTION
This is the transferring of heat through a solid object by contact. Some materials for example metal
used for pans, transfer heat more quickly than wood used for wooden spoon. Conduction is the
principle involved in the solid electric ranges.

CONVECTION
This is the movement of heated particles of gases or liquid. On heating, the particles expand,
become less dense and rise. The colder particles sink to take their place, thus causing convection
currents which distribute heat, this principle is used in heating a gas oven and in the heating of the
liquids.

THE EFFECT OF HEAT ON FOOD

PROTEIN
It coagulates in heating. Over heating makes it tough, unpalatable and shrunken. For example when
heat is applied to egg white, it thickens, becomes opaque and then firm. This characteristic
coagulation of protein when heated is employed in its use as a coating for deep and shallow fried
foods and in the development of crust in bread formed by the protein gluten in wheat.

CARBOHYDRATES
MOIST HEAT on starch causes the starch grains to soften and swell. Near boiling point the cellulose
framework bursts, releasing the starch which thickens the liquid.

DRY HEAT causes the starch to change color from creamy white to brown and after prolonged heat
will carbonize and burn. Water is given off during heating and the starch on the surface is changed
to dextrin, a form of sugar, as in toast.

MOIST HEAT causes sugar to dissolve in water-more rapidly in hot water than in cold. On heating it
becomes syrup; on further heating it colours, than caramelizes and will eventually turn to carbon and
ash.

DRY HEAT causes sugar to caramelize quickly and burn.

FATS
They melt to oils when heated. Water is given off with a bubbling noise as heating continues when
all the water has been driven off a faint blue haze appears; further heating will result in smoking and
burning. The unpleasant smell of burning fat is caused by the presence of fatty acids.

VITAMINS

VITAMIN A and CAROTENE are insoluble in water so they are not lost by moist methods of cooking,
such s boiling and steaming, or by soaking. Therefore boiled vegetables contain same amount of
carotene as raw vegetables.

VITAMIN D is not destroyed by heat or lost by solubility.

THIAMINE (VITAMIN B1) is very soluble in water and about 50% will dissolve in the cooking liquid.
High temperatures e.g. pressure cooking, destroy VITAMIN B1 and alkali (Baking powder) will cause
some destruction.

RIBOFLAVIN (VITAMIN B2) is soluble in water and will dissolve out in the cooking liquid; some is
lost in normal cooking but more losses occur in pressure cooking.

NICOTINIC ACID (NIACIN) is soluble in water and dissolves to some extent in the cooking liquid. It
is stable in the presence of heat but is easily oxidized, which means that the chemical process of the
products is adversely affected by taking in oxygen.

VITAMIN C is lost or destroyed very easily in cooking. It is soluble in water. Vitamin C oxidizes to
form a substance which is useless to the body; to minimize oxidation cook with a lid on. Food
containing Vitamin C should be cooked for short periods and must be used as fersha s possible.

WAYS OF COOKING FOOD

Moist (Medium of liquids)

1. BOILING

DEFINITION
It is the cooking of prepared foods in a liquid at boiling point. This could be water, court- bouillon,
milk or stock.

PURPOSE
The purpose of boiling is to cook food so that it is:
 Pleasant to eat with as agreeable flavor
Of a suitable texture, tender or slightly firm according to the food.
Easy to digest and safe to eat.

EFFECTS OF BOILING

Gentle boiling helps to break down the tough fibrous structure of certain foods which would be less
tender if cooked by other methods .Cooking must be slow in order to give time for the connective
tissue in tough meat to be changed into soluble gelatine., so releasing the fibres and making the
meat tender .Gentle heat will ensure coagulation of the protein without hardening.

ADVANTAGES OF BOILING

Older, tougher, cheaper joints of meat and poultry can be made palatable and digestible.
It is appropriate for large scale cookery and is economic on fuel.
Nutritious, well- flavoured stock can be produced.
Labour saving, as boiling needs little attention.

a) he advantages of food started slowly in cold liquid brought to the boil and allowed to boil gently:
Helps to tenderize the fibrous structure(meat), extracts starch(vegetable soups) and flavour from
certain foods(stocks)
Can avoid damage to foods which would lose their shape if added to boiling liquid e.g whole fish.

b) Adding food to boiling liquid:

Seals in the natural juices as with meat.

2. POACHING

METHODS
There are two ways of poaching: shallow and deep.
Shallow poaching. Foods to be cooked by this method, such as cuts offish and chicken, are cooked
in the minimum of the liquid, that is, water, stock milk or wine. To prevent the liquid boiling, bring to
the boil on top of the stove and complete the cooking in a moderate hot oven, approximately
Deep poaching: Eggs are cooked in approximately 8cm of gently simmering water. Whole fish, e.g
salmon: slices of fish on the bone e.g turbot, grilled cod, salmon and whole chicken may be deep
poached.

EFFECTS OF POACHING
Poaching helps to tenderize the fibrous structure of food, and the raw texture of the food becomes
edible by chemical action.
TEMPERATURE AND TIME CONTROL
Shallow poaching is just below simmering point (and may be carried out in an oven);
Deep poaching is just below gentle simmering.

3. STEWING

PURPOSE
Because stewing is both economical and nutritional, cheaper cuts of meat and poultry, which would
be unsuitable for roasting and grilling, can be made tender and palatable. Stewing also produces an
acceptable flavour, texture and eating quality.

EFFECTS OF STEWING
In the slow process of cooking in gentle heat the, the connective tissue in meat and poultry is
converted into a gelatinous substance so that the fibres fall apart easily and become digestible. The
protein is coagulated without being toughened unlike boiling, less liquid is used and the cooking
temperature is approximately 5 degree Celsius lower.

TEMPERATURE AND TIME CONTROL

The ideal cooking temperature for stewing on top of the stove is approximately 82 degree Celsius.

4. STEAMING

METHODS OF STEAMING
Atmospheric and low pressure steaming
Direct: in a steamer or in a pan boiling water(steak and kidney pudding);
Indirect: between two plates over a pan of boiling water
High pressure steaming
Equipment, which doesnt allow the steam to escape, therefore enabling steam pressure to build up,
thus increasing the temperature and reducing cooking time.
Vacuum cooking in pouch: this is known as sousvide, a method of cooking in which food contained
in vacuum sealed plastic pouches is cooked by steam.

ADVANTAGES OF STEAMING
These include:
High-pressure steaming enables food to be cooked or reheated quickly because steamed is forced
through the food, thus cooking it rapidly;
Labour saving and suitable for large scale cookery.
High speed steamers used for batch cooking enable the frequent cooking of small quantities of
vegetables throughout the service, keeping vegetables freshly cooked retaining colour, flavour and
nutritive value;
With steamed fish, the natural juices can be retained by serving with fish making the accompanying
sauce;
Steaming is economical on fuel as a low heat is needed and multitiered steamer can be used.
TIME AND TEMPERATURE CONTROL
For high pressure steaming, foods should be placed in the steamer when the pressure gauge
indicates the required degree of pressure. This will ensure that the necessary cooking temperature
has been reached.

Cooking times will vary according to the equipment used and the type, size and quality of food to be
steamed. Manufacturers instructions are an essential guide to successful steaming.

5. BRAISING

A method of cooking food in a closed vessel with very little liquid at a low temperature and for a long
time .braising is used mostly for tougher cuts of meat, certain vegetables (cabbage, chicory (endive),
artichoke and lettuce) and large poultry.
Braising is also a method of cooking certain firm fleshed fish (monkfish, carp, and salmon): the fish is
poached in the oven, in a small amount of liquid containing herbs, and basted during cooking.
When cooking was carried out directly on the hearth, braising meant cooking slowly in hot embers.
The cooking container had a lid with the rim on which embers. The cooking container had a lid with a
rim on which embers could be placed, so that heat came from both above and below.

Dry

1. BAKING

METHODS

Baking with heat modifications: placing food in a container of water ( bain-marie),such as baked egg
custard , modifies the heat so that the food cooks more slowly, does not over heat and lessens the
possibility egg mixture overcooking.

EFFECTS OF BAKING
Chemical action caused by the effect of heat on certain ingredients, such yeast and baking powder,
changes the raw structure of many foods to an edible texture.

ADVANTAGES OF BAKING
A wide variety of sweet and savoury foods can be produced
Bakery products yields appetizing goods eye-appeal and mouth-watering aromas.

TIME AND TEMPERATURE CONTROL

Accurate timing and temperature control are essential to baking. The required oven temperature
must reached before each additional batch of goods is placed in the oven. This is known as recovery
time.
2. BROILING

A method of cooking by intense heat, the nourishing juice being sealed into the meat by the crust
form on the surface .the fuel traditionally used for grilling in France is small charcoal, when
thoroughly alight, is spread out to form a bed in grill pan with a well regulated draught this bed of the
charcoal varies in depth according to the size and kind of meat to be grilled. Nowadays there are
also gas and electric grills, both of which are very good and extremely practical.
The grill must be scrupulously clean and heated before the meat is laid upon it or under it. The food
to be grilled must be basted with clarified butter, oil, or fat, and seasoned. Meat should be gently
flattened and trimmed before cooking.
Fish should scored with a knife, well coated with butter and oil and seasoned .fish which is rather dry
has a tendency to stick to the bar of the grill, and should therefore be floured before being coated
with butter or oil .this will form a covering which will enable the fish to cook without becoming to dry
.turn grilling meat or fish over once or twice during cooking, and baste frequently with the butter or
oil, using a brush.
Grilled food is ready when it resists pressure if lightly touched with the finger tip .tiny pinkish droplets
appearing on the browned surface are another indication that the fish is properly cooked .grilled
white meat should be less browned than red meat and a less intense heat should be used .grill fish
at a moderate heat, and baste frequently.
Grill poultry fish if it is to be cooked in breadcrumbs. When three-parts cooked, cover with butter or
oil and roll in the breadcrumbs.

Medium of Fat

1. GRILLING

BARBECUING
This is grilling on preheated, greased bars over a fierce heat (gas, charcoal or wood).

EFFECTS OF GRILLING
Because of the speed of cooking there is maximum retention of nutrients and flavour. Grilling is only
suitable for certain cuts of best quality meat; inferior meat would be tough and inedible. The effect of
fierce heat on the surface of the meat rapidly coagulates and seals the surface protein, thus helping
to retain the meat juices. Grilled meats lose less of their juices than meat cooked by any other
method provided they are not pierced with a fork while cooking.

GENERAL RULES FOR EFFICIENT GRILLING

Smaller, thinner items require cooking quickly.
Seal and colour food on the hot part of the grill then move to a cooler part to complete cooking.
Basting of food and oiling of bars prevents dryness.

2. DEEP FRYING
METHODS
Protect the surface of food from intense heat;
Prevent the escape of moisture and nutrients;
Modify the rapid penetration of the intense heat.
Partial deep frying is known as blanching.

EFFECTS OF DEEP FRYING

Deep frying of items coated with milk or egg seals the surface by coagulation of protein, with
minimum absorption of fat.

ADVANTAGES
Blanching or partial cooking, enable certain foods to be held for cooking later, which helps during
busy service and saves time.
Coating foods enables a wide variety to be cooked by this method.
Foods can be cooked quickly and easily handled for service.
Coated foods are quickly sealed, thus preventing the enclosed food becoming greasy.

TEMPERATURE AND TIME CONTROL

Timing is important: if thicker pieces of food are being cooked, the temperature must be lowered to
allow for sufficient cooking time otherwise the food will be overcoloured and undercooked. The
reverse is also true: the smaller the pieces of food the hotter the frying temperature and shorter the
cooking time.

GENERAL RULES
Never overfill fryers with fat or oil or food to be cooked.
When using free standing fryers without a thermometer never allow smoke to rise from the fat; this
will give a disagreeable taste and smell to food being fried.
Reduce frying temperatures during slack periods to conserve fuel
Restrict holding time to a minimum fried food soon lose their crispness.
Oil and fat should be strained after use, otherwise remaining food particles will burn when the fat is
next heated thus spoiling the appearance and flavour of the food.
Always cover oil or fat when not in use to prevent oxidation.

SAFETY
Always only half fill fryers with fat or oil.
Never overload fryers with food.
Dry foods, such as potatoes, thoroughly before frying, otherwise they will splutter and cause burns.
Always place food carefully in the fryer away you. If it is added towards you, hot fat could splash
and burn.
Always have a frying basket and spider to hand in case food is required to be lifted out of the fryer
quickly. A combination of the fats being too hot, fat almost ready for discarding and the food being
damp can result in the fat boiling over. If it is freestanding friture on the stove then there is a risk of
fire.
Move free-standing fryers with great care so as not to jar them spill fat on the stove.
Ensure that correct fire prevention equipment is to hand and that you are familiar with the fire drill
procedure.
Keep sleeves rolled down at all times when handling fryers.
Use clean, dry, thick, sound cloths when handling fritures.
Allow fat to cool before straining.

2. ROASTING

Cooking meat, poultry, game or fish by exposing it to the heat of a naked flame or exposing it to the
heat of a naked flame or grill (spit-roasting) or to the radiant heat of the oven (oven roasting).
Spit roasting is considered best, but it is more difficult. Some cooks consider that oven-roasted meat
is spoiled because it is subjected to humidity it is a mistake to add water to roasting pan, because
when this evaporate it tends to give a boiled taste to the meat .to ensure that the roast does not dry
out or get to brown, particularly when it is to be cooked for a long time, it may be barded .the other
preliminary processes are interlarding and larding. Many joints can also be stuffed before roasting.
Whichever method is used, the meat is first exposed to a high heat, which produces a surface crust
and concentrates the juice inside the meat, conserving al its flavour .the meat should not be pierced
while it is cooking or the juice will run out. The cooking temperature will depend on the type and the
size of the joint.

SPIT-ROASTING

The intensity of heat must always be proportionate to the type of meat to be cooked : red meat , full
of juices, should first be seized and then cooked at a steady heat to make sure that it is cooked right
through .for white meat and poultry ,the heat must be regulated so that the inside is cooked without
outside getting to brown .the meat should be basted frequently with the fat which collects in the dip
tray ,but not with meat juices underneath the fat cooked in this way ,the meat will be tender and a
good colour.

TANDOOR

METHOD
Meat(small cuts small joints), poultry(small cuts and whole chickens) and fish, such as prawns
usually placed vertically in the oven. No fat or oil is used. The food is cooked quickly and the flavour
is similar to that of barbecued food.The distinctive flavour of tandoori- cooked food comes from both
the marinade and the cooking process.

OVEN-ROASTING
The meat should be put into a very hot oven to seal the surface .it should rest on a rack ,to keep it
out of its own fat and juices ,and should be basted as for spit-roast meat .
If roast beef, mutton, and game are to be served rare, a few drops of deep pink blood should be
basted as for spit roast meat.
If roast beef ,mutton and game are to be served rare ,a few drops of deep pink blood should be
emitted when the surface is lightly pricked :for a medium-rare roast ,the blood should be pale pink
.with veal young lamb and pork ,the juices should run clear .poultry should be lifted from the pan
tilted over a plate :it is done when the juice runs out clear: if there are still traces of pink ,the bird is
not sufficiently cook .
As a rule, a roast should be served, with its strings and barding removed, as soon as it is taken out
of the oven or off the spit: in the case of red meat however, it is better to leave the roast to rest for a
few minutes in a warm place before serving .the meat then easier to cut.
The accompanying gravy is made by pouring into the roasting pan either a little water or a light stock
and scrapping and mixing in all the juices and bits adhering to the pan. Some of the fat is poured of f
the gravy is then served separately in a sauce boat with a special spout which retains the remaining
fat when the
Gravy is poured.

POT
Pot roasting is cooking on a bed of root vegetables in a covered pan. Known also as poele, this
method retains maximum flavour of all ingredients. When pot roasting, place the food on a bed of
root vegetables and herbs, coat generously with butter or oil, cover with a lid and cook in an oven.
Cheaper cuts of meat are usually pot roasted.
Advantages
Maximum flavour retained
Retains nutrients
Cheaper cuts of meat can be used
Vegetables used in pot roating can be served as an accompaniment
Disadvantages
Slow method of cooking
PAPER BAG COOKING
Known as papillotte, this is method of cookery in which food is tightly sealed in oiled grease proof
paper or foil so that no steam escapes during cooking and maximum natural flavour and nutritive
value is retained
Definition of an Egg:
"An egg is a round or oval body laid by the female of any number of different species, consisting of an ovum
surrounded by layers of membranes and an outer casing, which acts to nourish and protect a developing
embryo and its nutrient reserves. Most edible eggs, including bird eggs and turtle eggs, consist of a protective,
oval eggshell, the albumen (egg white), the vitellus (egg yolk), and various thin membranes.
*) Lecithin Protein in Yolk
*) Albumen Protein in White
*) Eggs available commercially are all unfertilized eggs.
*) Hen starts laying eggs once they are 5 weeks old.
*) Mating not necessary to produce eggs.
*) Hen lays 1 egg daily, depending on the amount of light available & age of the hen.
Types of Eggs:-
Quail 18g.
Guinea Fowl 25g.
Pheasant 25g.
Hen 50g. - 60g.
Turkey 75g.
Duck 90g.
Goose 200g.
Ostrich 450g.

Size of Eggs & Grading: -

Peewee 35g. or below
S 40g.
M - 45g.
L 53g.
XL 63g.
Jumbo 73g.

1000 Year Old Egg: - Also known as Century Eggs, is a Chinese delicacy cured for 100 days. These Duck
Eggs are coated with a mixture of lime, salt, tea ashes & charcoal and are buried in the ground to mature. They
are served shelled and sliced.
When is National Egg Month? Observed the whole month of May!
The egg industry holds National Egg Month in May.
What is this holiday about?
This holiday is a reminder to everyone about the many benefits of the egg.
Did you know that more eggs are sold in America during the Easter season usually in April than at any other
time of the year? Then, sales go down, but the hens keep on laying eggs. After Easter, because the supply of
eggs is normal but the demand for eggs is less, their price ordinarily goes down. Starting in May and running
through the summer, eggs are usually an even better bargain than they are the rest of the year.
EGG COOKERY
Eggs are nourishing & easily digestible. The ideal storage temperature for the egg is 2 to 5 c. Eggs produce
meals, which saves time and are important source of energy. The average weight of an egg is 50 gm, according
to Indian standards & 75 gm, according to international standards and the calorific value is 70 calories.
v Eggs provide all the amino acids which are required by our body.
v The egg yolk contains iron, fats & vitamins, yellow colour by ferruginous pigment
v Egg white made up of two parts . A thick white surround the yolk and A thinner more liquid part is between
the membrane and thicken egg white. Egg white contains protein (albumin), iron, vitamin a & d and sulphur.
Clear when raw and white, firm when coagulated.
v Eggs shell is made up of calcium carbonate.
v Over all the egg contain 73% water by volume.
v Egg tends to coagulate at 60-65 c & yolk coagulates at 65-70 c.
v Egg also contains chalazae (two white strands), which has an importance that it keeps egg yolk in centre.
v Membrane lines the shell & forms a air shell at the large end of shell.

Nutritional value
Eggs are important for nutrition. They contain vitamin A,D,E,K and B complex. They are high in iron and one
egg equal to 28g lean meat, Fish or poultry. One large egg provide 15% of the recommended daily allowance
for protein. Egg are low in saturated fat and one egg gives approximate 70 calories.
Chicken eggs are the most commonly eaten eggs. They supply all essential amino acids for humans, and
provide several vitamins and minerals, including (vitamin A), (vitamin B2), Folic acid ,iron, calcium, ,
phosphorus and potassium All of the egg's vitamin A, D and E are in the egg yolk. The egg is one of the few
foods to naturally contain vitamin D.
The major concern with egg is cholesterol. One large egg gives average 213 mg of cholesterol. To reduce the
cholesterol content use egg white instead of whole egg.
Cooked eggs are easier to digest, as well as having a lower risk of contamination.

MARKET FORMS
1. Fresh eggs or shell eggs. These are most often used for breakfast cookery and are the main subject of this
section.
2. Frozen eggs.
Whole eggs
Whites
Yolks
Whole eggs with extra yolks
Frozen eggs are usually made from high-quality fresh eggs and are excellent for use in scrambled eggs,
omelettes, French toast, and in baking. They are pasteurized and are usually purchased in 30-pound (13.6-kg)
cans. These take at least two days to thaw at refrigerator temperatures.
3. Dried eggs.
Whole eggs
Yolks
Whites
Dried eggs are used primarily for baking. They are not suggested for use in breakfast cookery. Unlike most
dehydrated products, dried eggs are not shelf-stable and must be kept refrigerated or frozen, tightly sealed.
GENERAL COOKING PRINCIPLES
The most important rule of egg cookery is simple: Avoid high temperatures and long cooking times. In other
words, do not overcook. This should be a familiar rule by now. Overcooking produces tough eggs, causes
discoloration, and affects flavour.
COAGULATION
Eggs are rich in protein, so the principle of coagulation is important to consider.
Eggs coagulate at the following temperatures:
Whole eggs, beaten about 156F (69C)
Whites 140 to 149F (60 to 65C)
Yolks 144 to 158F (62 to 70C)
Custard (whole eggs plus liquid) 175 to 185F (79 to 85C)
Note that whites coagulate or cook before yolks do. This is why it is possible to cook eggs with firm whites but
soft yolks.
SULPHUR
The familiar green ring you often see in hard-cooked eggs is caused by cooking at high temperatures or
cooking too long. The same green colour appears in scrambled eggs that are overcooked or held too long in the
steam table. This ring results when the sulphur in the egg whites reacts with the iron in the yolk to form iron
sulphide, a compound that has a green colour and a strong odour and flavour. The best way to avoid green eggs
is to use low temperatures and short cooking and holding times.
FOAMS
Beaten egg whites are used to give lightness and rising power to souffls, puffy omelettes, cakes, some
pancakes and waffles, and other products.
The following guidelines will help you handle beaten egg whites properly.
1. Fat decreases foaming. When separating eggs, be careful not to get any yolk in the whites. Yolks contain
fats. Use very clean equipment when beating whites.
2. Mild acids help foaming. A small amount of lemon juice or cream of tartar gives more volume and stability
to beaten egg whites. Use about 2 teaspoons cream of tartar per pound of egg whites (20 ml per kg).
3. Egg whites foam better at room temperature. Remove them from the cooler 1 hour before beating.
4. Do not overbeat. Beaten egg whites should look moist and shiny. Overbeaten eggs look dry and curdled and
have lost much of their ability to raise souffls and cakes.
5. Sugar makes foams more stable. When making sweet puffed omelettes and dessert souffls, add some of the
sugar to the partially beaten whites and continue to beat to proper stiffness.(This will take longer than when no
sugar is added.) The souffl will be more stable before and after baking.
SELECTION OF EGGS
Check for cracks in the shell which could let bacteria in and contaminate the eggs.
Freshness of egg can be check by following method:
How to test the freshness of an egg
I. Water test: put the egg in water
Bad egg : it will float.
Good egg : it will sink in bottom.
II. Spread test or egg break test: just break the egg
Bad egg : egg white will be thin & spread greatly and yolk is flat & broad.
Good egg: egg will be a thick and yolk will be on the centre, round & high.
III. Candle test: check against the flame of candle
Bad egg : it will be almost transparent.
Good egg : it will be opaque.

Uses of eggs
1) Binding agent: eggs are used as binding agents for example croquettes.
2) Leavening agent: this property is exhibited by the eggs when we whip the egg white, the air gets entrapped
inside the egg white & hence the egg acts as leavening agent for example sponge.
3) Coating agent: egg acts as coating agent in various dishes such as cutlets, poulet maryland etc.
4) Emulsifying agent: eggs act as emulsifying agents in case of emulsion such as mayonnaise (oil & water).
5) Thickening agent: eggs act as a thickening agent in gravies, sauces, soups etc.
6) Clarifying agent: in case of consomm, the egg acts as clarifying agent, where it clarifies the soup by
entrapping impurities present in the soup.
7) Eggs are also used for decoration & garnishes of egg dishes & egg forms an important part of breakfast
menu.
8) Eggs are also used for desert preparation like Custards, souffl etc.
9) Used for Shining in Bread rolls.
10) Use for beverage preparation.

Method of cooking eggs

1) Simmering: the hard & soft boiled egg prepared in same manner but with a difference of cooking time.
3-5 min. : soft boiled
8-10 min. : hard boiled
v Use fresh eggs.
v Use egg at room temperature.
v Bring the water boil, reduce the temperature and put the egg.

2) Poaching: (93-95 c)
v Use fresh eggs.
v Bring to simmer a solution of vinegar & water in a ratio of 1:9.
v Break the egg one by one in a cup & slide them in simmering water.
v fold egg white on egg yolk, leave for 3-4 min.
v Remove in cold water & drain in a cloth.
v Use immediately or store in iced water for 24 hours.

3) Frying:
v Use fresh eggs.
v The oil should be hot or the egg will become greasy.
v Cook the order i.e., according to the guest requirement whether underdone or well-done.
4) Scrambled eggs:
v Use medium fresh eggs.
v Season, beat lightly then add butter.
v Add beaten egg on pan & stir on moderate heat continuously with wooden spoon.
v Cook till creamy consistency.
v Scrambled egg can be made with milk also.

5) Omeletes:
v Beat the egg (2-3) per person with salt & pepper using a fork.
v Heat 10 gm. Butter in a pan
v Pour the egg mixture; shake the pan while stirring the egg.
v stop when set & roll away from the handle at 45 (crescent shape).
v Fold completely both the edges.
v Should be lightly brown.
v Served in hot plate.

Certain important points handling eggs

1. Accept only fresh eggs.
2. Interest should be shown in using clean shelled eggs (because if the shell is porous it may be contaminated
from salmonella bacteria)
3. Store at 2c to 5 c
4. Do not keep the shells on service table.
5. Check the egg shell before simmering.
6. Do not store the egg wash for more than 24 hours.
7. Store unwashed with the pointed end down in the egg tray in the refrigerator.
8. Wash carefully all the equipments while handling with eggs.

Egg grades

AA: Clean unbroken. The yolk is firm, well centered and rounder in shape and the area covered by the white is
small. There is a large proportion of thick white to thin white.
Grade A Egg covers a relatively small area. The yolk is fairly centered, round and upstanding.
Grade B Egg spreads out more. The yolk is flattened and there is about as much, (or more), thin white than
thick white. Clean to slightly Stained.
UNDERSTANDING FISH

Marine and fresh water fish were an important part of mans diet long before the cultivation of
vegetables or the rearing of poultry and other domestic animals. Fish provides vitamins and protein,
and were easy to catch and prepare it is even likely that a large proportion was eaten raw. In
Egypt, fish was abundant and cheap, cheaper than even bread! Even in early history, people of the
Iberian peninsula were catching fish like anchovies and sardines and exporting them to as far away
as Asia Minor. In Europe, pike provided both sport and food and in 17th Century Scotland, salmon
was so common that it was forbidden by law for employers to give their workers salmon more than
three times a week. Carp, a fish that was often reared in ponds and lakes in Europe, the Middle
East, China and Japan often provided inspiration for cooks and poets alike! The most valuable fish
of all time is the herring, which still constitutes 1/3rd of the worlds catch, approx. 20 million tons.
Cod, mackerel and tuna follow close behind.

The introduction of refrigerated air transport in the 1960s precipitated a revolutionary change in the
fish industry. This made fresh fish available anywhere a jet could fly. Another revolutionary change in
the fish industry is aqua-culture. Although it has been practiced in limited forms for centuries, it has
expanded widely only in the last few years. Fish is still regarded as an important source of food for
man. One cubic acre of ocean can produce 3,000 pounds of edible product, which far exceeds the
capacity of an acre of tillable soil. Trout, salmon, shrimps and prawns are now being widely
cultivated. Consistency of flavor and texture is a benefit of farmed fish.

COMPOSITION & STRUCTURE

The edible flesh of fish, like that of meat and poultry, consists of water, protein, fats, small amounts
of vitamins and minerals. The differences are however more important than the similarities. Fish has
very little connective tissue. Therefore:

1. Fish cooks very quickly.

2. Fish is naturally tender.
3. Cooked and uncooked fish must be handled very carefully or it will fall apart.

CLASSIFICATION OF FISH

Fish and seafood may be grouped into categories by their structure. Depending upon the structure,
the method of cooking the various categories of fish will also vary. There are hundreds of varieties of
fish all over the world but only a few are acceptable for human consumption.

HOW TO SELECT FISH:

The following points must be borne in mind while buying fish:

1. There should be no unpleasant fishy odor.
2. The fish should look fresh and shiny.
3. The gills under the dorsal fin should be red, not gray in color.
4. The tail should be stiff (you should be able to hold small fish upright!).
5. The flesh should be firm and not flabby.
6. No impressions should be left when touching the flesh.
7. The scales if any should be plentiful.
8. The eyes of the fish should be bright and shiny and not sunken.
9. If a piece of a large fish is involved, it should not be falling off the bone.
10. The flesh of a large piece of fish should not be discolored and yellowish.

In the case of Shell fish:

11. They should preferably be bought alive.

12. If not, they should be heavy for their size.
13. The eyes of crustaceans must be bright and protruding.
14. The tail of prawns, shrimp and lobster should be springy and not limp.
15. Bi valves such as oysters and clams should be tightly shut.

STORAGE OF FISH:

C. Fish should be cooked soon after cleaning and marinating. Certain fish such as clams need
special storage (in salt water). Proper attention must be paid to the storage of fish, as it tends to
deteriorate and spoil very quickly. When storing fish in the refrigerator, take care that other foods
such as milk do not absorb the fishy odors!F) and must never be re frozen after defrosting. For very
short time storage, fish must be stored at refrigerated temperatures of 3-5C (-18Ideally, fish should
be consumed as fresh as possible to retain its flavor and texture. However, most fish can be frozen
for later use but only after cleaning it of all internal organs. Freezing must take place at 0

COOKING OF FISH
Boiling: Can be done to obtain a court bouillon or when the fish needs to be flakes for a salad or for
cutlets.
Steaming: Is ideal for large fish and to retain nutritive value.
Grilling: Usually oily fish is good for grilling, as it possesses natural fats.
Frying: White fish and be pan, shallow or deep fried normally with a coating.
Baking: Is suitable for medium and large fish and can be stuffed.

THE CUTS OF FISH

FILLET

DARNE

TRONCON

SUPREME

GOUJONS

DELICE

PAUPIETTE

ROULADE

EN TRESSE & EN LORGNETTE

Nutritive value of fish

Doctors suggests that fish, instead of meat, should be used as the protein source several times a
week because of the possible benefits of fish oils for coronary artery diseases.
Fish is a high-quality protein. Fish and shell-fish contain about 19% protein that is similar in amino
acid composition to that found in muscle meats. The content varies from 1 to 20% depending upon
the species and the season of the year. This is a substantially lower fat content than beef.
Fish contains protein of high biological value, essential minerals, vitamins and fats. Shellfish and
salt-water fish are rich in iodine and fluorine, in addition to appreciable traces of cobalt, and for that
reason make a valuable contribution the diet.
Fish is also a satisfactory source of magnesium, phosphorus, iron and copper. Shellfish generally
have a higher calcium and iodine content that fish. Herring and oysters are exceptionally high in
zinc.
A serving of fatty fish such salmon, mackerel and sardine will supply about 10% of the daily
allowance of Vitamin D. The natural oil found in canned fish should be used, since it too is valuable
source of these vitamins. An average serving of either fatty or lean fish will supply about 10% of
thiamin, 15% riboflavin and 50% of the niacin required daily.
Fish and shellfish have high levels of poly-unsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), especially Omega-3 fatty
acids, which tend to lower blood cholesterol by depressing low density lipoprotein (LDL)
concentration Omega-3 fatty acids appear to also reduce levels of plasma triglyceride, in particular
very low density lipoprotein (VLDL). The mechanism by which PUFA in diet lowers plasma lipid,
especially cholesterol, is unclear.
Fish and shellfish are excellent source of easily digestible protein of high nutritional value. Tests
have shown that 85% to 95% of the protein is assimilable.
Based on these facts, it is recommended that fish should be used as the protein source, instead of
meat, several times a week because of the possible benefits of fish oils for coronary artery disease.
Studies have indicated that by consuming more fish and oils (such as salmon or mackerel), cardiac
mortality can be reduced and possible underlying coronary atherosclerosis improved.

Fish also contains important vitamins and minerals

Fish is an excellent source of the B vitamin niacin (Niacin assists in the functioning of the digestive
system, skin, and nerves. It is also important for the conversion of food to energy) and B12 (Vitamin
B12 is critical to building DNA and RNA, the maintenance of the nervous system, fatty acid
synthesis, homocysteine metabolism and energy production), and in general is a better source of
Vitamins D and A than beef, pork or chicken. The Vitamin D is vital for the formation of bones. Fish
can also contribute appreciable amounts of dietary calcium, home iron and zinc, nutrients that tend
to be low in people's diets. Fish is among the best sources of dietary selenium.

Fish and allergies

A food allergy is an immune system response to a food that the body mistakenly believes is harmful.
Once the immune system decides that a particular food is harmful, it creates specific antibodies to it.
The next time the individual eats that food, the immune system releases massive amounts of
chemicals, including histamine, in order to protect the body. These chemicals trigger a cascade of
allergic symptoms that can affect the respiratory system, gastrointestinal tract, skin, or
cardiovascular system.
At the present time, there is no cure for food allergy. Avoidance is the only way to prevent an
reaction.
Allergic reactions to fish and shellfish are commonly reported in both adults and children. It is
generally recommended that individuals who have had an allergic reaction to one species of fish or
positive skin tests to fish avoid all fish. The same rule applies to shellfish. If you have a fish allergy
but would like to have fish in your diet, speak with your allergist about the possibility of being
challenged with various types of fish.
Fish-allergic individuals should be cautious when eating away from home. They should avoid fish
and seafood restaurants because of the risk of contamination in the food-preparation area of their
"non-fish" meal from a counter, spatula, cooking oil, fryer, or grill exposed to fish.
Meat and Poultry
MEAT

Meat includes edible portion of the mammals, the chief one being cattle

Structure

Meat comprises of three parts:

1. Lean or flesh part: It is composed of microscopic fibres which are tube like and tapering at the
ends and vary in size. These fibres are held together by the CONNECTIVE TISSUES. Fats, blood
cells and nerves are found in the connective tissue. Individual fibre is made up of outer walls and the
cell contents. Muscles are composed of bundles of microscopic fibre and each bundle is enclosed in
a sheath of connective tissue which extends beyond the muscle to form a tendon and ligament.
Tendon hold muscles to bony framework.

2. Fatty Tissue: fat globules lie embedded in a network of connective tissues. The distribution of the
fatty tissue is inter and intra- muscular under the skin.

3. Bones: long shafts of the bones are composed of compact bony tissue. A center canal is filled
with yellow marrow. Contain red marrow which has get blood cells.

Rigor mortis: after the animals are killed, the muscles become stiff and hard. This is due to the
clotting of the MYOSIN (a protein present in meat) which is converted to lactic acid. This condition is
called RIGORMORTIS and has its importance in food production because of the fact that the meats
are not cooked while they are in the state of Rigor Mortis. When the meats are held for certain time
duration at a temperature of 2 to 5 C for 12 to 24 for hours, the Rigor Mortis disappears making the
meat tenderer. Veal and Pork should not be hung. Veal due to lack of fat results in excessive drying
and pork has high fat content which goes rancid if hung for a longer time.

RIPENING OF MEATS This term is applied to the changes which occur in the meat as they are hung
in the cold storage. These changes are due to enzymatic action which makes the meat juicy and
improve the flavour and tenderness to long ripening time, also result in strong bad flavour / odours.
Ageing does not improve veal and pork but beef and lamb are generally ripened. Veal due to lack of
fat results in excessive drying and pork has high fat content which goes rancid if hung for a longer
time.

Meats are generally divided into two categories:

1. White Meat: Veal, Pork and Poultry.

2. Red Meat: Beef, Mutton, Lamb

Composition

The tenderness of meat depends upon the age, feeding of the animals, hanging and preparation of
killing of the animal. The fat present in the muscle structure has an effect on the tenderness and
texture of the meat. Skeletal muscles are made up of the fibres which are composed of the proteins
MYOSIN (insoluble in water but are soluble in salty solutions) and ALBUMIN (soluble in both the
solution). The fibres are grouped together in parallel lines and are surrounded by the sheaths of
heavier connective tissues.

There are two kinds of connective tissues.

1. COLLAGEN / WHITE CONNECTIVE TISSUE: Insoluble in nature but converted to gelatine by

moist heat.

2. ELASTIN/ YELLOW CONNECTIVE TISSUE: Insoluble and should be discarded in the earlier
stages.

In most of the cases, young flesh is sweeter and tenderer. Longer the meat is hung; stronger is its
flavour owing to some chemical changes. Meat should always be hung at 2 to 5 C after the animal
is dead, to develop the acids which tenderise the flesh and makes Rigor Mortis disappear, thus,
making the flesh tender and suitable for consumption.

Meat flavour depends upon

1. Age, Sex, Species and Degree of maturity when eaten.

2. Fat content: Fat should be evenly distributed throughout the body (pork and mutton are selected
on the fat content)

3. Amount of sugar in the meat: Because it caramelises during cooking and improves flavour and
colour.

4. MARBLINGS: It is the fat which is dispersed between the meat and the fibres of connective tissue.
It helps the meat to remain moist when dry methods are applied. Meat having small amount of
connective tissues should be cooked by dry methods and long cuts which require longer cooking
time should be stewed or braised.

FACTORS TO MAKE MEAT TENDER

1. MOIST HEAT: With application of moist heat, white connective tissue changes to gelatin and
yellow remain unaffected.
2. TENDERIZERS: Raw papaya (papain, enzyme which make meats tender and is present in
papaya), vinegar, tomatoes , curds, lemon and tamarind.

3. RIPENING / AGEING: By hanging the meat in cool conditions 2-5 C to improve colour, flavour
and tenderness.

4. MECHANICAL POUNDING AND GRINDING: This is done to break down the connective tissue.
This process tears the connective tissue and thereby tenderizes it and makes it easy for cooking.

Lamb

1. Aged less than 1 year when slaughtered.

2. Flesh light red in colour and finely grained.

3. White or creamy white fat, bones are soft and porous.

4. Carcass should be evenly fleshed with even coating of fat.

5. Hung for 4 - 7 days after slaughtering

Mutton

1. Aged 1 to 3 years when slaughtered.

2. Flesh darker red then lamb.

3. Fat is white and brittle, bones harder then lamb.

4. Hung for 4 - 7 days after slaughtering.

Quality Points

1. Bones porous, with slight bluish tinge.

2. Fat evenly distributed hard brittle, flaky and clear white in colour.

3. Lean flesh firm dull red, with fine texture or grain.

4. Before preparation, carcasses should be hung in a cool, dry area (cold room) for up to five or six
days. This will improve taste, texture and tenderise the meat.

Storage
1. Carcasses of lamb should be hung by the leg.

2. Joints should be stored in well drained trays, which should be changed daily, under refrigeration
3C to 5C for a maximum of 5 days. Smaller joints and cuts deteriorate quicker than a whole lamb
carcass.

3. Frozen joints should be stored in a deep freeze at -18C with an appropriate wrapping and
defrosted in a refrigerator at 3C to 5C for 24 hours.

Pork

1. Flesh light pink in colour and finely grained.

2. Skin should be thin, smooth and dry.

3. Fat not excessive in proportion to the flesh.

4. Use within 7 - 10 days of slaughtering.

Quality Points

The following list indicates the quality points to look for when purchasing pork.

1. Moist, firm and pale pink flesh.

2. There should be no excessive fat.

3. The fat should be white and firm.

4. The skin should be smooth, hairless and undamaged.

5. The carcass should have a pleasant smell.

6. Pork keeps less well than other meats, and needs very careful handling, preparation and cooking.

7. It may contain parasitic worms, which are destroyed by thorough cooking. Always serve pork well
done, never under-cook pork.

8. Pork should be cooked for 25 mins per 450 gms weight and 25 mins over.
9. Pork joints should be well fleshed without excessive fat.

10. The flesh should be pale pink, firm, finely textured and not too moist. Look for smooth skin an
pliable bones.

11. There should not be any unpleasant smell or odours.

12. The handling of pork should be efficient and hygienic.

Storage

1. Pork is not hung before preparation.

2. Sides of pork should be hung by the leg.

3. Joints should be stored in deep trays, which should be changed daily, under refrigeration 3C to
5C for a maximum of 3 to 4 days.

4. The smaller the joint the more rapidly it deteriorates.

5. Frozen joints should be stored in a deep freeze at -18C with an appropriate wrapping and
defrosted in a refrigerator

at 3C to 5C for 24 hours.

Bacon is obtained from the sides of a baconer pig. The meat is cured (salted in brine) and
sometimes smoked. Green bacon is a name often used to describe un smoked bacon .

Ham comes from the hind leg of a baconer pig, cut round on the bone. Cured and Smoked or Cured
and Un smoked (Green).

Gammon comes from the hind leg of baconer pig, cut square on the bone.

Cooking Hams & Gammons

Hams and gammons must be soaked before cooking to remove excess salt.

Hams should be soaked for at least 24 hours: gammons overnight.

Weigh the soaked joint, scrub off any bloom (green mould on meat face) which is the hallmark of a
naturally cured ham in perfect condition.

Place the ham in a pan of fresh, cold water, bring slowly to the boil, At the end of the cooking
period turn off the heat and leave the ham or gammon in the stock for one hour, or until cool.

Beef / Boeuf (Aged over 1 year but under 3 years when slaughtered.)

Quality points of Beef.

Moist, firm with bright red flesh.

There should be no excessive fat.

The lean meat should be flecked with fat which is known as marbling.

The fat should be dry, creamy white in colour and odourless.

The bones should not be brittle and when cut should have a bloody interior.

The quality of meat & poultry is influenced by factors such as the breed of animal, the way it has
been reared, its sex, age at the time of slaughtering, the conditions at the abattoir and the way it is
then processed as either fresh or frozen meat.

Quality descriptions such as Prime, Choice and Standard are used to grade various meats but in
general quality can be judged by the compact shape and the amount of lean meat of a particular cut.

Hung for 12 - 14 days after slaughtering.

Storage

Beef is purchased in hind or fore quarters and must be hung in a chilled temperature for up to 14
days.

During this period the meat becomes tender and the flavour develops as a result of an enzymic
reaction and the natural relaxation after rigor mortis.

The period of hanging is longer than with other types of meat because the animal is older when
slaughtered.

Joints should be stored in deep trays under refrigeration and the surplus blood drained from the
trays regularly.
 Frozen joints of beef must be kept at a temperature of 18C and correctly defrosted before use.

Nowadays it is common to purchase chilled vacuum packed joints and cuts of beef. When required
the clear wrapping is removed and the meat allowed to stand in a refrigerator until the colour
becomes normal.

Once opened this type of meat must be used quickly. Vacuum packed meat should be stored at
0C.

Chateaubriand (double fillet steak).

Cut from the head of the fillet, and for more than two portions between 300 gms 1 kg (12 ozs 1
lb) can be obtained.

Fillet steak.

4 5 steaks can be obtained each of 100 150 gms (4 6 ozs).

Tournedos steaks.

Approximately 6 8 at 100 gms (4 ozs). Each steak should be tied to form a regular shape.

Tail of fillet.

This is cut into julienne or minced according to its intended use.

2. Sirloin.

Minute steaks.

Cut each steak approximately 1 cm thick and flatten with a cutlet bat making it as thin as possible. If
necessary trim to a regular shape.

Sirloin steaks.

Cut into 1 2 cm slices and trim to about (entrecotes) 150 gms (6 ozs).

Porterhouse and T-bone Steaks.

Porterhouse steaks are cut including the bone from the rib end of the sirloin.
T-bone steaks are cut from the rump end of the sirloin including bone and fillet

Rump.

The middle portion from each slice is considered to produce the best steak and is known as point
steaks.

Some menus feature a 'plank steak'. This is a complete slice for more than two customers and is
divided into portions after cooking.

Offals

Livers A good clean colour with no discoloured patches on the surface.

Kidneys No smell of ammonia present. Should have a good clean colour, be firm to the touch, with
no stickiness.

Hearts Bright in colour, not too much fat and be just moist to the touch.

Sweet breads Little fat showing, any signs of blood should be bright red.

Tongues Firm to the touch, no sign of stickiness

Tails Meaty parts bright red with no over abundance of fat and not too yellow.

Tripe Normally bought dressed (cleaned and blanched) Light creamy colour, no greenish or dark
discoloration and should be moist with no signs of stickiness or bad smell.

VEAL

Up to 12 weeks old. Diet of mothers milk delicate flesh, creamy white to pale pink in color If the meat
is darker in color, soak overnight in milk to remove blood and soften the meat

Major Cuts of Veal

POULTRY is the collective term applied to domestic birds reared for human consumption and
includes duck, goose, turkey and guinea fowl.

Types of Poultry

Chicken
 Turkey

Duck

Goose

Squab

Pheasant

Quail

Guinea Fowl

SIZES OF FRESH CHICKENS

NAME
WEIGHT
PORTIONS

Single baby
250 gms
1

Double baby
400 gms
2

Small roasting
800 gms
3-4

Medium roasting
1.5 kg
4

Large roasting
2.5 kg
8

Capon
3.5 kg
12

Old fowl

3.5 kg

Quality points of Chicken

Plump breasts

White unbroken skin

Pliable breast bone

Pleasant smell

Dry to the touch