1.

Title of Experiment

Experiment 5.2: Hall Effect in p-germanium with Cobra4 Mobile-Link

2. Objectives

To study the Hall voltage as a function of temperature and magnetic field, the energy of
band gap, specific conductivity, the type of charge carrier and the mobility of the charge
carriers.

3. Theory

If a current carrying conductor placed in a perpendicular magnetic field, a potential

difference will generate in the conductor which is perpendicular to both magnetic field
and current. This phenomenon is called Hall Effect. In solid state physics, Hall effect is
an important tool to characterize the materials especially semiconductors. It directly
determines both the sign and density of charge carriers in a given sample.
Consider a rectangular conductor of thickness t kept in XY plane. An electric field is
applied in X-direction using Constant Current Generator (CCG), so that current I flow
through the sample. If w is the width of the sample and t is the thickness. There for
current density is given by

Jx=I/wt

Figure 3.1: Schematic representation of Hall effect in a conductor.

where,
CCG Constant Current Generator
JX current density
electron
B applied magnetic field
t thickness
w width
VH Hall voltage

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If the magnetic field is applied along negative z-axis, the Lorentz force moves the
charge carriers (say electrons) toward the y-direction. This results in accumulation of
charge carriers at the top edge of the sample. This set up a transverse electric field Ey in
the sample. This develop a potential difference along y-axis is known as Hall
voltage VH and this effect is called Hall Effect.
The term "band gap" refers to the energy difference between the top of the valence band
and the bottom of the conduction band. Electrons are able to jump from one band to
another. The energy of a band gap is related to the intrinsic conductivity which the
equation is shown below

= exp( )
2
where

The Hall constant, also is given by the equation below

= ( )( )

where

The conductivity at room temperature can be calculated from the equation

=

2
 where

The Hall mobility equation is given below

where

4. Apparatus

Below are the apparatus and their functions that is used in this experiment.

Apparatus
Cobra4 Mobile-Link set
Cobra4 Sensor Tesla
Coil (600 turns)
Connecting cord
Digital multimeter
Hall effect module.
Hall probe
Iron core
Pole piece plane
Power supply
Tripod base
Functions
To display the measurement of the magnetic flux
on the circuit.
To measure the magnetic flux on the circuit.
To add the magnetic field.
To connect the power supply to the circuit.
To measure the voltage.
To provide an adjustable constant current for the
sample and for the integrated sample heater
For measuring narrow air gaps in long coil.
For mounting of coil to set up the electromagnet.
To generate a homogeneous magnetic field for
Hall effect carrier boards.
Supply power to the circuit.
To hold the Hall effect module.

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5. Procedure

Figure 5.1: Hall effect set up diagram

The experimental set up is shown as in Figure 4.1 above. The piece of the board was
tested by putting into Hall-effect-module via the guide-groove. The module is directly
connected to the 12 V power supply. The Hall voltage and the voltage across the
samples are measured with a multimeter. The magnetic field is measured using Cobra4
Sensor Unit Tesla via a Hall probe.

Task 1: To determine the Hall voltage as a function of the current.

The magnetic field was set to a value of 250 mT by changing the voltage and
current on the power supply. The multimeter was connected to the Hall voltage on the
front side of the module. The display of the module was set to the current-mode. The
Hall voltage was measured as a function of the current from -30 mA up to 30 mA.

Task 2: To determine the sample voltage as a function of the positive magnet induction.

The control current was set to a value of 30 mA. The multimeter was connected to
the sample voltage on the front side of the module. The sample voltage was determined
as a function of the positive magnet induction B up to 300 mT.

Task 3: To determine the change in voltage dependent on the change in temperature.

The Hall effect module was set to temperature mode. The current was set to a value
of 30 mA. The magnetic field was off. The multimeter was connected to the front side
of the module. The experiment begins by activating the heating coil with the on/off
knob on the backside of the module. The change in voltage was recorded when the
temperature display at 30 oC as to observe the dependent on the change in temperature
for a range of room temperature to a maximum of 130 C.

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 Task 4: To determine the Hall voltage as a function of the magnetic induction.

The current was set to a value of 30 mA. The multimeter was connected to the Hall
voltage on the front side of the module. The Hall voltage was measured as a function of
the magnetic induction. The polarity of the coil-current was changed and the magnetic
induction was increases in steps of nearly 20 mT from -300mT. At zero-point, the
polarity was changed back.

Task 5: To determine the Hall voltage as a function of temperature.

The current at the Hall effect module was set to a value of 30 mA and the magnetic
induction was set to 300 mT. The Hall probe was removed as to prevent from damaging
the probe during heating the p germanium. The Hall voltage was measured as a
function of the temperature. The display was set to temperature mode. The experiment
begins by taking reading of the Hall voltage at temperature 33oC and followed with
40oC, 500C until maximum at 130oC. Then, start activating the heating coil with the
on/off knob on the backside of the module.

6. Data, Result and Analysis

Task 1: To determine the Hall voltage as a function of the current.

Table 6.1 below shows the data of current and Hall voltage in order to obtain the
relationship between the current and the Hall voltage.

Table 6.1:Data for the Hall voltage as a function of the current.

Current, I (mA) Hall Voltage UH (mV)

-30 -24.8
-25 -21.5
-20 -18.5
-15 -15.8
-10 -12.5
-5 -9.3
0 -5.8
5 -2.4
10 0.6
15 3.6
20 6.9
25 9.8
30 12.7

Based on the data above, a graph of current against Hall voltage was plotted to determine
the relationship between the current and Hall voltage.

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 Current vs Hall Voltage
15
y = 0.6312x - 5.9231
10 R = 0.9996
5

Hall Voltage, V (mV)

0
-40 -30 -20 -10 -5 0 10 20 30 40

-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
Current, I (mA)

Figure 6.1: Hall voltage as a function of current

From the graph in Figure 6.1, the relationship between current and Hall voltage can
be write as,

Where =

Task 2: To determine the sample voltage as a function of the positive magnet

induction.

Table 6.2 below show the data of sample voltage as a function of the positive magnetic
induction in order to determine the relationship of change in resistance and the magnetic
field.

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Table 6.2:Data of sample voltage as a function of the positive magnet induction.

Magnetic Flux Voltage Sample, VS Resistance (R-Ro)/Ro

B (mT) mV V R (Ohm)
7 1671 1.671 2.3 -0.2068
27 1678 1.678 2.3 -0.2068
47 1682 1.682 2.3 -0.2068
67 1688 1.688 2.3 -0.2068
87 1698 1.698 2.3 -0.2068
107 1711 1.711 2.4 -0.1724
127 1719 1.719 2.4 -0.1724
147 1728 1.728 2.4 -0.1724
167 1734 1.734 2.4 -0.1724
187 1757 1.757 2.5 -0.1379
207 1766 1.766 2.5 -0.1379
227 1772 1.772 2.5 -0.1379
247 1775 1.775 2.5 -0.1379
267 1780 1.78 2.6 -0.1034
287 1795 1.795 2.6 -0.1034
307 1815 1.815 2.6 -0.1034

Graph below show the plotted data of sample voltage as a function of the positive magnetic
induction, in order to determine the relationship of change in resistance and magnetic field.

Magnetic Flux vs (R-Ro)/Ro

1840
1820
1800
1780
1760
1740
1720
1700
1680
1660
0 100 200 300 400

Figure 6.2: Change of resistance as a function of magnetic induction

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 Based on the graph in Figure 6.2, it can be seen that the change of resistance is
linearly proportional to the magnetic induction with gradient of 0.474.

Task 3: To determine the change in voltage dependent on the change in temperature.

Table 6.3 below show the change in voltage dependent on the change in temperature in
order to determine the energy band gap of p-germanium.

Table 6.3:Data of the change in voltage dependent on the change in temperature.

Temperature 1/T Sample Voltage 1/VS(V-1) ln (1/VS)

(C) (K) ( 103 1) (V) (V-1)
30 303 3.300 16.0 0.063 -2.773
40 313 3.195 16.9 0.059 -2.827
50 323 3.096 17.8 0.056 -2.879
60 333 3.003 18.6 0.054 -2.923
70 343 2.915 19.1 0.052 -2.950
80 353 2.833 19.0 0.053 -2.944
90 363 2.755 18.0 0.056 -2.890
100 373 2.681 15.6 0.064 -2.747
110 383 2.611 12.6 0.079 -2.534
120 393 2.545 10.0 0.100 -2.303
130 403 2.481 7.5 0.133 -2.015

Graph in Figure 6.3 below show the change in voltage dependent on the change in
temperature in order to determine the energy band gap of p-germanium.

1/Vs vs 1/T
0.140

0.120

0.100
1/V (V)

0.080

0.060

0.040
2.400E-032.600E-032.800E-033.000E-033.200E-033.400E-03
1/T (K)

Figure 6.3: Graph of 1/VS versus 1/T

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Graph in Figure 6.4 below show the change in ln voltage dependent on the change in
temperature in order to determine the energy band gap of p-germanium

1/T vs ln (1/Vs)
-1.800
2.400E-03 2.600E-03 2.800E-03 3.000E-03 3.200E-03 3.400E-03
-2.000

-2.200
ln (1/V) (V)
-2.400

-2.600

-2.800

-3.000
1/T (K)

By using the intrinsic conductivity equation:

= exp( )
2
1
ln = ln +
2

Since the value constant for k is 8.625 105 /, therefore the energy of ban gap,
is determine.

=
2

= 2

= (3.48 103 ) 2(8.625 105 )

= .

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Task 4: To determine the Hall voltage as a function of the magnetic induction.

Table 6.4 below show the Hall voltage as a function of the magnetic induction in order to
determine the Hall constant, Hall mobility and carrier concentration.

Table 6.4:Data of the Hall voltage as a function of the magnetic induction.

Polarity Magnetic Flux Hall Voltage

B (mT) VH (mV)
-+ -300 -58.0
-280 -54.6
-260 -50.9
-240 -47.2
-220 -43.5
-200 -39.7
-180 -35.8
-160 -31.7
-140 -27.6
-120 -23.5
-100 -19.3
-80 -15.2
-60 -10.8
-40 -6.4
-20 -2.1
0 2.2
+- 20 6.5
40 10.9
60 15.2
80 19.4
100 23.8
120 27.0
140 32.1
160 36.0
180 40.0
200 44.0
220 47.9
240 51.2
260 55.1
280 58.8
300 62.2

Graph in Figure 6.4 below shows the Hall voltage as a function of the magnetic induction,
in order to determine the Hall constant, Hall mobility and carrier concentration.

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 Magnetic Flux vs Hall Voltage
65.0
y = 0.2059x + 2.129

Hall Voltage, UH (mV)

45.0
R = 0.9995
25.0
5.0
-310 -210 -110 -15.0-10 90 190 290
-35.0
-55.0
-75.0
Magnetic Flux, B (mT)

Figure 6.4: Change in direction of field

From the graph in Figure 6.4, the linear connection between Hall voltage and
magnetic field can be written as

= +

The value of gradient, from the graph in Figure 5.4 is 0.2059 VT-1 where the Hall
constant equation is

= ( )( )

The given sample of p Germanium thickness = 0.001 and = 0.03

= . /

The conductivity at room temperature is calculated from the sample length, , the
sample cross-section and the sample resistance

With the measured value, = 0.02, = 35.0, = 1 105 2

= 57.141 1

The Hall mobility of the charge carrier can now be determined from

= = . /

The hole concentration p of p-doped samples is calculated from

11

= = .

Task 5: To determine the Hall voltage as a function of temperature.

Table 6.5 below show the Hall voltage as a function of temperature in order to obtain the
relationship between Hall voltage and temperature.

Table 6.5:Data of the Hall voltage as a function of temperature.

Temperature, T (C) Hall Voltage, VH (mV)

33 69.1
40 64.5
50 62.9
60 59.5
70 50.2
80 40.5
90 26.0
100 12.4
110 4.0
120 0.0
130 -1.5

From the data above, a graph of temperature is plot in order to determine the relationship
between Hall voltage and temperature.

Temperature vs Hall Voltage

68.0
58.0
Hall voltage, VH (mV)

48.0
38.0
28.0
18.0
8.0
-2.0
30 50 70 90 110 130
Temperature, T (Celcius)

Figure 6.5: Temperature variation

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 From the graph in Figure 6.5, it shows that as the temperature increases, the Hall
voltage decreases. Since the measurements were made with constant current, it is to
be assumed that it is attributable to an increase in the number of charge carrier and
the associated reduction in drift velocity.

7. Discussion

8. Conclusion

9. Error And Suggestion

10. References

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