Capili EB, ACS Ibay and JRT Villarin, 2005. Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation on Philippine Coasts.

Proceedings of the International Oceans 2005 Conference. 19-23 September 2005, Washington D.C., USA.
Pp. 1-8.

Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation on Philippine Coasts

E. B. Capili
klima Climate Change Center, Manila Observatory
Ateneo de Manila University Campus, Loyola Heights
Quezon City, Philippines 1108

A. C. S. Ibay
klima Climate Change Center, Manila Observatory
Ateneo de Manila University Campus, Loyola Heights
Quezon City, Philippines 1108

J. R. T. Villarin
Xavier University, Corrales Avenue
Cagayan de Oro City, Philippines, 9000

Abstract - The Philippine archipelago, which has one of the
longest coastlines in the world, will not be spared of the adverse
impacts of sea-level rise and extreme climate events that are
expected to happen in a warmer world. This study aims to
review climate change impacts on Philippine coastal
communities and to set directions for possible adaptation
measures on both local and national levels. The erratic changes
in the climate system have affected various coastal ecosystem
and communities. Among which coral bleaching, changes in
productivity, changes in plankton dynamics, alterations in
seagrass and sea weed reproduction patterns, shoreline erosion
and retreat, changes in trophic dynamics as well as aggravation
of marine diseases are just a few. Apparently, the most
significant impact is on coastal fisheries yield and community
welfare. Existing climate change initiatives in the country
include Integrated Coastal Zone Management System (ICZM),
coastal policies and regulations (e.g. Fisheries Code), disaster
management strategies among others. However, there is lack of
integration for these initiatives in the context of climate change.
Several points were raised as suggestions and solutions. An
improved network of strategies should be created and a multi-
sectoral approach should be adapted. Macro and micro-level
adaptation measures should be defined and evaluated to ensure
effective dissemination and implementation. The national
government embodies the authority for governance and policies.
On the other hand, local government should focus on
implementation in collaboration with the academe (technical
support), non-government organizations (advocacy,
information, education and communication), private, and
financial institutions (financial assistance). Recent observations
on climate change impacts are sufficient evidence to raise this
issue as a national concern. Recognizing and accepting that
climate is indeed altering the planet is crucial and a change of
mindset should begin within us.
I. INTRODUCTION
Climate change or global warming has been the “buzz”
word for years. By definition, climate change pertains to the
changes in our climate system over a period of time [27].
This includes both natural (e.g. circulation patterns, El Niño
phenomena) and anthropogenic (greenhouse gas emissions)
causes. These processes result in the production of heat-
trapping greenhouse gases or GHGs released in the
atmosphere of which carbon dioxide (CO2) makes the largest
percentage. Changes in our climate translate to temperature
rise affecting the planet’s various dynamic processes.
A change in climate will affect ecosystems especially the
terrestrial and aquatic. One critical area that will most likely
be susceptible is the coastal zone. Most countries in mid-
latitudes or near the equator are composed of coastal
systems. The Philippines, found in the Indo-Pacific area, is
composed of 32,400 kms of discontinuous coastline [20]. It
is an archipelago made of 7,100 islands and considered as a
haven for various reef and reef-associated flora and fauna.
Most of the people living in coastal areas are highly
dependent on coastal fishing, seaweed farming, and
mangrove lumber. The country’s coral reefs provide annual
economic benefits estimated at US$1.1 billion per year [4].
The Philippine coastal zone is generally composed of
mangrove areas, beach areas, seagrass beds and coral reefs.
Estuaries and coastal wetlands are also found along the
coasts. A typical coastal zone in the Philippines is illustrated
in Fig. 1. Mangrove systems provide valuable resources (e.g.
timber, food and coal) and serve as buffer systems holding
sediments from directly accumulating to other parts of the
coastal zone and protect from wave surges [17]. The total
mangrove area in the country is 1,200 km2. Some of the
world’s finest beaches are found here like those in Boracay
and Panglao Islands in the Visayas. Tourist attractions
provide additional income and livelihood for local
communities and contribute to the country’s treasury [14].

1
Capili EB, ACS Ibay and JRT Villarin, 2005. Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation on Philippine Coasts.
Proceedings of the International Oceans 2005 Conference. 19-23 September 2005, Washington D.C., USA.
Pp. 1-8.
Seagrass beds are found in almost every coast and spread
discontinuously along the shallow coastlines. Fortes (2002)
estimated a total of 978 km2 of seagrass beds measured in 96
sites in various parts of the country. Fisheries supported by
Fig. 1. A typical coastal zone in the Philippines [7].
this ecosystem contribute about $540,000 annually for the
country [25]. Coral reefs are everywhere and regarded as
one of the most admired diving sites in the world. They
serve as habitats for a great diversity of plants and animals,
protecting shorelines from storms and erosions, and provide
economic resource for tourism and fisheries.
The warming of ocean waters has damaged the coastal
areas. The most disastrous effect was the bleaching of corals
during the 1997-1998 El Niño [1]. This affected the coral-
associated fishes thus resulting to loss of shelter and food,
and mortality. However, fish catch decline is not solely
attributed to the warming of the oceans but also to intense
fishing pressure and other anthropogenic stresses [21].
Unfortunately, warm conditions will increase susceptibility
to stress.
As warming intensifies in shorter periods of time, there
will be great implications for coastal communities. Perez
[21] comprehensively reviewed climate change impacts on
the Philippine coastal system with emphasis on the physico-
chemical and ecological effects as well as discussing
recommendations for management. The present study aims
reinforce the above-mentioned review by documenting
impacts and discussing more detailed plans of action to
address the concern. The roles of both national and local
governments will be identified along with the other sectors
involved in the strategy. Results will provide a better handle
in understanding the coastal dynamics of climate change and
serve as baseline information for local parties concerned.
This will also be the basis for analyzing impacts, developing
mitigation measures, and policy formulation.
II. METHODOLOGY
Studies on climate change impacts in the Philippine
coastal system were compiled and comprehensively
reviewed. Records of climate change initiatives in the
country were also noted and assessed to determine the
current status of the country’s capacity to face climate
change issues and concerns. Given these trends,
recommendations were carefully built to suit the present
2
needs of the country in formulating adaptation and mitigation
measures for climate change impacts and facilitate policy-
making process catering to the coastal zone.
III. IMPACTS ON PHILIPPINE COASTS:
NATURAL SYSTEM
The changing climate has kept increasing ocean
temperature. Increase in sea-surface temperature (SST) from
1976 to 2000 has a rate of 0.14 °C for every 10 years [15].
Among the world’s waters, tropical oceans will be
significantly affected since they receive greater amounts of
solar heat input attributed to earth’s physical intrinsic
properties [24]. It will increase evaporation and precipitation
in these regions and also enhance the El Niño Southern
Oscillation (ENSO) wherein every two to seven years, strong
westward-blowing trade winds subside and warm water
slowly moves back eastward across the Pacific causing
waters to shift and redistribute rains with flooding and
droughts [10]. Analysis of General Circulation Models
(GCMs) based on emissions scenarios in the Philippines
showed that the minimum temperature in the 21st century is
expected to be higher than the 1961-90 baseline thereby a
much warmer environment is projected [5].
A. Ocean Currents and Circulation
Large scale ocean currents are primarily driven by
density differences. Warming disrupts the differences
causing changes in ocean current circulations. Coastal
regions and adjacent landmasses will experience differential
increases in temperature. Ultimately, such increase will also
strengthen along-shore winds resulting to enhanced
upwelling. ENSO cycles in the central Pacific ocean will
also increasing in frequency and intensity [13]. In the
Philippines, SST variations due to ENSO resulted to reduced
inflow of cold water in the northern portion that in turn
reduces upwelling and weakened seasonal variation. The
Northeast monsoon influences the South China Sea (SCS)
whereas latitudinal differences prevail in the Philippine Sea
with or without ENSO. Also changes in the prevailing local
wind system of SCS during ENSO periods influence basin
circulation leading to warming of surface waters [22].
B. Marine Biogeochemistry
The ocean decreases its capacity to dissolve CO2 as it
warms [13] leading to a decrease in biological carbonate
formation (essential for reef-building) in tropical oceans by
14 to 30% in 50 years. Intense warming will change primary
production rates and enhance Dimethyl sulfide (DMS)
production that has a cooling effect and may affect climate in
return [13].
Capili EB, ACS Ibay and JRT Villarin, 2005. Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation on Philippine Coasts.
Proceedings of the International Oceans 2005 Conference. 19-23 September 2005, Washington D.C., USA.
Pp. 1-8.
The thermocline (zone in the water column where
temperature drops rapidly) lowers into deeper waters,
changing the dynamics of plankton productivity and
disrupting upwelling in some areas. Waters will be forced to
evaporate faster allowing colder, nutrient-rich waters to
surface enhancing productivity. Although high productivity
may have positive effects, there will be chances of toxic
micro-organism blooms. The recurrence of toxic algal
blooms in Manila Bay has been attributed to the increased
SSTs. The dominant alga, Pyrodinium bahamense var
compressum, has a development pattern easily affected by
major climate changes.
C. Mangroves
For mangrove forests, sea-level rise will decrease
precipitation and run-off and increase salinity resulting to a
lesser mangrove production [13]. These areas maintain the
balance with fresh and salt waters. Climate change will
certainly disrupt the balance. Prolonged warming will force
associated flora and fauna to endure the heat and become
more susceptible to other stresses. This may also affect their
reproductive patterns thus deviating from their normal
seasonality. If these organisms can’t cope, mortality will
most likely result.
D. Estuaries
Estuaries are enclosed bodies of water with a direct link
to the sea and an input of freshwater. These are considered
to be one of the most biologically productive areas and serve
as nursery grounds for juvenile fishes and shell fishes.
Intensive heat may also disrupt salt and fresh water balance
such that changes in freshwater inflow rates and evaporation
alter salinity. In effect, the warmer or less saline water
remains in the upper water column thereby reducing water
mixing and O2 will be depleted in deeper waters.
Furthermore, these may result to the blocking of normal
migration routes outside the estuary and may lead to a
mismatch between the plankton blooms and juvenile fishes
that depend on these blooms for food [13].
E. Seagrasses
Too much warming exposure will make seagrasses
susceptible to other stresses leading to mortality. Warm
waters primarily alter their growth rates and physiological
functions as well as change distributions and patterns of
reproduction. Increased concentrations of atmospheric CO2
will also enhance primary production for carbon limited
seagrass areas. Impacts of increased CO2 concentration will
vary among species but will most likely disrupt competition
among species and between seagrass and algal populations
[23].
Sea-level rise will lead to increased water depths, tidal
variation, water movement alterations, and increased
seawater intrusion into estuaries and rivers. These would
3
also reduce light in seagrass beds decreasing their
productivity. Ocean current patterns enhanced by erosion
alter near shore seagrass areas and affect breeding and the
ecosystem’s nursery functions. Salinity changes result to
alterations of plant distribution, changes in seed germination,
propagule formation, photosynthesis, growth, and biomass.
F. Beaches and shorelines
The predicted global sea-level rise between 1990 and
2100 is 0.09 to 0.88 m [15]. Beaches and shorelines may
erode and this increases storm surge susceptibility for coastal
areas especially in Eastern Philippines. Apart from the
tourism and livelihood losses, safety and security are issues
that should also be considered. Not to mention the
possibility of salt water intrusion into ground water and
flooding of coastal habitats [13]. Low lying small islands
like Pag-asa Island, Kalayaan Island Group will mostly suffer
from erosion and salt water intrusion [19]. Flooding may
also result to inundation leading to displacement of people
and increase environmental refugees [18].
The flooding potentials of Manila Bay were determined
using projected sea-level rise scenarios. A 1.0m rise will
entail inundation of more than 5000 ha of land in 19
municipalities of Manila, Bulacan and Cavite [21]. The
coastal ecosystems can’t cope with the rising sea-level with
the current high sediment loading and pollution. Areas that
are mostly affected by flooding during high tides and heavy
rains will be submerged in water in this condition. A worst
case scenario of 2.0m rise will aggravate riverine flooding in
most of the bay’s tributaries particularly Pampanga and Pasig
rivers. Coincidentally, these areas are densely populated and
poverty driven [21] and coping with the situation might be a
difficulty.
G. Coral Reefs
Reef-building corals are the major components of coral
reefs. They have symbiotic algae living inside them
enhancing growth and nutrient recycling. However,
increased sea-surface temperature brings out stress and
bleaching. In the recent years, reefs in poor condition
increased to 40% in the last 20 years [26] and one probable
cause is ocean warming. The extent of decrease attributed to
warming is yet to be established. In the last few years, there
has been an increase in temperature induced bleaching
occurrence, disease incidence, elevated sea-level, and
lowered ocean pH threatening coral reef survival around the
globe. Coral bleaching and fish kills were observed in
Silaqui Island, Bolinao, Philippines but coastal areas in the
Visayas were mostly affected by bleaching [16]. High SST
is believed to be the major cause of bleaching coinciding
with ENSO occurrence and aggravated by other factors such
as solar irradiance, current, wave energy, tidal fluctuations
and reef morphology resulting to greater susceptibility. A
significant decrease (up to 46%) in live coral cover was
Capili EB, ACS Ibay and JRT Villarin, 2005. Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation on Philippine Coasts.
Proceedings of the International Oceans 2005 Conference. 19-23 September 2005, Washington D.C., USA.
Pp. 1-8.
observed after the 1997-98 bleaching event in the country.
The northwestern part of the Philippines was found to be
highly susceptible to elevated sea temperatures [1].
Bleaching of giant clams in the land-based nurseries in
Bolinao, Pangasinan was also attributed to high SSTs [9].
These may have implications in stock enhancement and
breeding of giant clams for conservation and reseeding.
The increase in temperature shifted the abundance and
distribution of plankton species (autotrophs) and affected the
abundance of herbivores, fishes and other organisms
occupying higher trophic levels in the food web. Plankton
decrease will result in exponential fisheries yield decrease.
Temperature changes will also have significant effects on
their thermal habitats leading to redistribution of fish
populations and disrupt the migration patterns of pelagic
fishes. Indeed, increasing temperature combined with fishing
pressure may reinforce fishery collapse [13]. More than 50%
of the reef sites in the Philippines, with the exception of the
Sulu Sea, surveyed between 1991 and 2004 are in the very
low and low categories due to over-fishing [26]. Coupled
with increasing SSTs, the number of over-fished reefs may
increase. Also, fish species associated with live corals
showed relatively lower recruitment at bleached sites
compared to the same sites prior to bleaching or to recovered
sites. It was evident that species diversity and assemblage
structure of recruits has changed [3]. Other organisms like
marine mammals, considered as key stone species, may also
suffer from habitat destruction, fragmentation of population
and disruption of their trophic dynamics.
IV. IMPACTS ON PHILIPPINE COASTS:
SOCIAL SYSTEM
Any change in the natural systems will also alter the
dynamics of coastal communities. Coral bleaching and
mortality, changes in the chemistry and physical dynamics of
the waters plus disruption of migratory and reproductive
patterns of marine organisms translate to significant changes
in coastal fishery demands. Fish decline will surely affect
productivity. The demand for searching other means of
livelihood will increase migration in other places and shifting
of livelihood sources. In other words, these will create a
domino effect by changing people’s way of coastal living and
sustainability.
Analysis of the 1998 bleaching effects on fisheries and
tourism in various parts of the country showed difficulties in
attributing the loss due to climate change since over-fishing
effects have clouded the values [6]. Highly bleached areas in
the country coincided with areas of poverty and dense
populations [16]. It is important to note that these areas will
certainly have difficulties in facing the consequences and
problems brought about by climate change.
4
One of the major impacts of warm temperatures in the
country is decrease in fisheries yield. After the 1998-99
ENSO event, the total estimated loss was 7.248 billion pesos.
The aquaculture sub-sector suffered approximately 85% (~6
million pesos) economic loss followed by marine fisheries
(14.78% ~ 1 million pesos) and inland fisheries (0.26% ~
18,000 pesos). On the other hand, open water fisheries
through the marine municipal (subsistence) fishing sub-
sector lost 18,401 tons (PHP 850,000) while commercial
fishing in marine waters lost 4,522 tons (~ 1 million pesos)
and inland fishing had a loss of 599 tons [11].
Aside from shortage, health related impacts are also
expected. Toxic micro-organism blooms will cause dietary
constraints and even poisoning due to contaminated food.
Heat stroke has been rampant during the height of summer
and El Niño days. Vector borne diseases are also expected to
multiply because the environment is very optimal for
propagation.
Shelter and security are also issues of concern especially
in areas affected by sea-level rise. In cases where
construction of man-made barriers will not suffice, relocation
of inhabitants will be the most likely option. Coastal erosion
has been observed along the 60 km long coast of southern La
Union, Philippines. The local communities responded either
by temporarily evacuating, relocating, building ripraps or
sandbags, or by constructing seawalls [2].
V. CLIMATE CHANGE INITIATIVES IN THE
PHILIPPINES
Given the various impacts resulting from climate change,
it is significant to know the extent of damage and casualties.
Apparently, any change in the natural system will
automatically affect the dynamics of the social system.
Mitigation and adaptation measures may offset the negative
impacts of climate change [13]. Therefore, it is but crucial to
determine measures to adapt and mitigate.
In the Philippines, numerous efforts on addressing the
issue of climate change have already been implemented.
However, only a few concentrate on the impacts of climate
change in the coastal system. The current initiatives include
the Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) that is
being done in Lingayen Gulf, Davao Gulf, Cebu and
Batangas Bay. In the long run, this program aims to change
the resource use patterns from single to multiple uses and
will be achieved through governance and community
participation. However, this lacks the appropriate responses
to present-day climatic variability and natural hazards, and
climate change impacts on coastal resources [21]. Other
initiatives such as Coastal and Fisheries resources
management, Environmental impact assessment (EIA)
system, Disaster management system, Fisheries sector and
Coastal Environment programs (being spearheaded by the
Capili EB, ACS Ibay and JRT Villarin, 2005. Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation on Philippine Coasts.
Proceedings of the International Oceans 2005 Conference. 19-23 September 2005, Washington D.C., USA.
Pp. 1-8.
National government) are also being implemented. Despite
their existence, it still necessary to include detailed measures
addressing climate change impacts on coasts.
Given these initiatives, several points are raised to
determine the impacts and adaptation options for climate
change related events. Key points include prioritization of
coastal areas, identifying local, cultural, sociological issues
to account for and initiatives that can be continued and
adapted in other areas. It is a fact that these initiatives were
not planned solely to address the detailed impacts of climate
change in coastal communities thereby lacking the
integration of climate change related problems. In other
words, an integrated assessment for all coastal initiatives
with detailed implementing measures on climate change
impacts, identification of priority areas, and problems
encountered, should be developed. In addition, information
education and communication efforts are needed to
complement the strategies.
VI. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Addressing climate change issues in the country seems to
be insufficient to cope with future climate projections.
Several initiatives are currently implemented however,
integration is missing. Also, they do not solely focus on the
issue but rather serve other purposes. The challenge now is
to create integrated and holistic strategies to ensure
everyone’s security when facing the challenges that climate
will bring.
The right direction to take is utilizing a multi-sectoral
approach in addressing the issue. Climate change affects
everything on earth. It is therefore necessary to promote
cooperation among institutions in making this endeavor a
success. In the Philippines, both national and local strategies
are necessary. There will be involvement of different sectors
such as private and financial institutions, academe/research,
and non-government organizations. The national and local
government will play lead roles in ensuring well-developed
and effective strategy formulation. If, and only if, all these
sectors will perform at their best capacity, we will have better
chances of facing the consequences of climate change.
A. National Level
The challenge is to embrace the timescale of climate
change within the scale of decision-making [21]. The
National government is responsible for policy formulation
and governance specifically creating a national framework on
strategies to address climate change impacts in the coastal
system. This is very crucial since planning and strategy
formulation should be anchored on a sound basis and
suggested measures should ensure effectiveness. It is very
5
important to pool all experts to come up with a holistic
strategy.
Perez [21] classified the strategies into two major
categories. The “no regret” strategies involve solutions that
can be applied to address the present concerns as well as
future issues, which may or may not include climate change
while the “co-benefits” strategies are designed to address
climate change related vulnerability while also producing
corollary benefits that are not related to climate change.
These may serve as a guiding principle in planning and
strategy formulation. What we are suggesting at this point is
the recognition of two primary areas of concern:
conservation and disaster management. These are important
components that should be prioritized in the advent of
climatic changes in the coasts.
In planning for conservation strategies, the government’s
role must be emphasized in the creation, enhancement or
strict implementation of coastal laws, regulations, and
programs. Other strategies are given below as recommended
by Perez [21]:
• Formulation of ICZM guidelines and legislation
(include land use planning in coastal zones).
• Institutionalization of mangrove resources
development through formulation of additional
policies and regulations or amending existing
policies on sustainable mangrove management.
• Emphasis of massive reforestation of degraded
mangrove systems through a community-based
approach.
• Inclusion of coastal wetlands, swamps, and
marshes in the National Integrated Protected
Areas System and there should be efforts in
classifying wildlife sanctuary and unique
ecosystems.
• Strict implementation of mining laws and
reforestation of denuded watersheds to reduce
river and coastal erosion.
• Incorporate evaluation of geological, hydro-
meteorological, and structural engineering
evaluation in the environmental impact
assessment prior to coastal development.
The creation of marine protected areas is also another
option. However, there is a need to include climate change-
integrated conservation strategies [12] that cover range shifts
and projections, changing biogeography, need for expanded
time horizons, recognition of system dynamics, immediacy
of climate change impacts, extent of present protection and
dynamics of connectivity. Although numerous coastal and
coral reef reserves are in existence, they still fall short on
comprehensive coverage [12]. Management actions parallel
Capili EB, ACS Ibay and JRT Villarin, 2005. Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation on Philippine Coasts.
Proceedings of the International Oceans 2005 Conference. 19-23 September 2005, Washington D.C., USA.
Pp. 1-8.
to those that have been developed for coral reefs to be
applied in other marine systems are also necessary.
On the other hand, strategies in disaster management will
involve institutional actions such as creation and
implementation of policies and regulations on habitation and
construction away from hazard-prone areas. The following
suggestions are highlighted by Perez [21]:
• Conducting assessments of current practices on
crisis management and promote awareness of
climate change and variability to policy makers
for creation of coastal sectoral policies.
• Development of multi-hazard mitigation or
protection plans for natural coastal hazards with
a priority on the maximum reduction in threat
to life, structures, and economic production.
• New anticipatory approaches are needed to
increase the resilience of vulnerable areas to
improve their recovery from future disasters.
• Discourage government subsidies or tax
incentives to support the development of land
sensitive to sea-level rise, such as barrier
islands, coastal wetlands, estuarine shorelines
and critical wildlife habitats, must be
discouraged.
• Encourage insurance and banking industries to
factor risks of climatic variability into
investment decisions.
• Implement structural measures (e.g. building
dikes, sea walls and other engineering options,
observational infrastructures) and non-
structural measures (i.e. policies on natural
resource conservation, environmental
management, land-use policies and building
codes).
• Complementing environmental management
with disaster management in the community
level.
There is a necessity in creating national body or
implementing agency (that may fall under the jurisdiction of
the Inter-agency Committee on Climate Change or IACCC)
to integrate all evaluation reports from the local units and
come up with a status report to capture the whole picture.
There is an urgent need to review and integrate all measures,
policies and management plans to avoid costly duplication
and to increase coordination among stakeholders.
B. Local Level
The local government units’ main role is the
implementation of strategies in their areas of responsibilities.
They will coordinate with various institutions to build a core
group tasked to gather base-line information, plan local
activities and evaluate the implemented schemes at their
6
level. Also, they will carry the task of capacity-building
allowing transfer of knowledge and expertise to local parties.
It is given that poorer developing countries will not be able to
afford such gigantic engineering projects [13]. It is then a
challenge to create innovative measures using local
resources. Developed strategies must be site-specific and
must be done only after a thorough impact analysis of the
area. Selective protection measures (e.g. dikes or sea walls)
must be constructed only after thorough cost-benefit studies.
Issues and concerns on both the short- and long-term needs
must be brought to the attention of the community who are
the direct targets of the impacts, and of the policymakers who
will direct strategies for adaptation. Most importantly,
significant stakeholders must be consulted and involved from
the planning stages until implementation. They have to
consider reserving foreshore areas for recreation/tourism
purposes and other public uses and be excluded from
disposition, strengthen ICZM program through monitoring
changes and device possible options in cases when structural
measures are not feasible (e.g. retreat or relocation can be an
option for highly vulnerable areas) [21].
C. Private sector and Financial institutions
Private sectors may welcome local projects and provide
financial support or venues for conduct of research and
applied programs. Their support is significant and is a key
factor in propelling the government’s programs. Resort
owners can provide venues for coastal activities such as
coastal clean-up campaigns in support for information
dissemination. Likewise, they can participate in
stakeholders’ discussion on coastal planning and strategy
formulations.
D. Academe and Research Institutions
Research institutions and the academe may provide
technical assistance to the implementors by gathering
baseline information and monitoring changes, give
recommendations based on scientific findings, and assist in
providing technical expertise for capacity building. They
may be the ones to provide timely information and current
useful and relevant scientific findings for decision-makers
and the public. These can be done by conducting studies that
include patterns, projections and consequences of both
climate variability and change. Also, associated uncertainties
and knowledge gaps that would lead to informed-decision or
environmental protection, socio-economic development and
enhancement, and vulnerability reduction must be identified.
Generation of localized models for predicting local/regional
climate considering topography, land-use patterns, and the
surface hydrologic cycle is deemed important as basis for
decision-making. Also, utilization of proxies (e.g.
seagrasses) to determine climate variability will be
invaluable tools in understanding climate dynamics [8].
There are still large knowledge gaps especially here in the
Philippines, on the coastal and marine ecosystems’ dynamics
Capili EB, ACS Ibay and JRT Villarin, 2005. Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation on Philippine Coasts.
Proceedings of the International Oceans 2005 Conference. 19-23 September 2005, Washington D.C., USA.
Pp. 1-8.
and their responses to climate change and variability.
Clearly, we need more research efforts on these areas (i.e.
bleaching and algal blooms) including other resources, such
as the response of mangroves, seagrasses, and marine
mammals among others [21].
E. Non-government organizations (NGOs)
These organizations and other supporting institutions
have a crucial role to play in information dissemination
especially translating technical information for public
understanding. They are also actors in conducting capacity
building activities in collaboration with the local government
units and the research/academic institutions. Information,
education and communication are very much essential along
the technical and scientific efforts to achieve a well-balanced
adaptation plan. This will entail promotion of awareness
about the science of climate change, impacts, and solutions.
Communication specialists are also needed to help raise the
level of awareness of the public on ways to contribute in the
adaptation efforts, and at the same time, influence policy and
decision makers and the community leaders to action.
As social beings we have responsibilities to be involved
in these issues. Several adaptation measures are options for
us to address the situation. But evidently, these should entail
a holistic, multi-sectoral approach complemented with a
personal level initiative. A change of mind set is necessary.
Figures are facts. No matter how we treat this in a
conservative manner, we can not ignore the impacts of
climate change. Responding with responsibility must start
with the individual. However, we have the option to be on
the safer side. Climate change is one phenomenon that is
real. We do not need more evidences to prove that the planet
is indeed getting warmer. True enough, we are facing this
change and we should act with urgency.
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank WY Licuanan, N Palomar-
Abesamis, MCC Quibilan, IU Baula, JA Canivel, J Ong, P
Zamora and the UP-NIGS Marine Geology Laboratory for
providing references; klima team, T Malaga, J Tiu-
Maquiling, RC Geronimo, AB Capili for the invaluable
suggestions and moral support; USAID Philippines, klima
Climate Change Center, Manila Observatory and OCEANS
2005 Organizers for financial assistance.
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