A Colour Guide To The Petrography of Carbonate Rocks
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A Colour Guide To The Petrography of Carbonate Rocks
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INTRODUCTION I
A Color Guide to the
Petrography of
Carbonate Rocks:
Grains, textures, porosity, diagenesis
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!BOUT THE !UTHOR3
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0ETER ! 3CHOLLE RECEIVED HIS "3 IN 'EOLOGY FROM 9ALE 5NIVERSITY IN !FTER
SPENDING A YEAR ON A &ULBRIGHT
$!!$ FELLOWSHIP AT THE 5NIVERSITY OF -UNICH IN 'ER
MANY AND ANOTHER YEAR AT THE 5NIVERSITY OF 4EXAS AT !USTIN MAINLY TAKING PETROGRAPHY
CLASSES FROM "OB &OLK HE WENT TO 0RINCETON 5NIVERSITY RECEIVING HIS 0H$ IN GEOLOGY
IN (IS DISSERTATION WORK ON DEEP
WATER CARBONATE TURBIDITES IN THE )TALIAN !PEN
NINES WAS SUPERVISED BY !L &ISCHER
0ETERS PROFESSIONAL CAREER HAS COVERED A WIDE RANGE OF EMPLOYMENT INCLUDING STATE
AND FEDERAL GOVERNMENT THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY AND ACADEMIA (E WORKED FOR lVE YEARS
FOR VARIOUS OIL COMPANIES #ITIES 3ERVICE 'ULF AND #HEVRON AND CONSULTED FOR OTHER OIL
COMPANIES FOR MANY YEARS .INE YEARS WERE SPENT WITH THE 5 3 'EOLOGICAL 3URVEY IN
2ESTON 6! AND $ENVER #/ INCLUDING THREE YEARS AS CHIEF OF THE /IL AND 'AS "RANCH
(E TAUGHT AT THE 5NIVERSITY OF 4EXAS AT $ALLAS FOR THREE YEARS AND WAS !LBRITTON 0ROFES
SOR OF 'EOLOGY AT 3OUTHERN -ETHODIST 5NIVERSITY IN $ALLAS FROM TO !T 3-5
HE TAUGHT COURSES IN GEOLOGY ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND OCEANOGRAPHY AND DEVELOPED
COMPUTER
BASED INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA (E ALSO HAD THE GOOD FORTUNE TO TEACH lELD SEMINARS
IN CARBONATE SEDIMENTOLOGY AND REEF ECOLOGY IN PLACES SUCH AS THE #AYMAN )SLANDS "AR
BADOS AND THE "AHAMAS 3INCE HE HAS BEEN AT THE .EW -EXICO )NSTITUTE OF -IN
ING AND 4ECHNOLOGY IN 3OCORRO WHERE HE IS THE 3TATE 'EOLOGIST AND $IRECTOR OF THE .EW
-EXICO "UREAU OF 'EOLOGY AND -INERAL 2ESOURCES THE STATE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
0ETER ALSO DEVOTED MUCH OF HIS TIME IN THOSE JOBS TO CARBONATE RESEARCH AND WRITING (IS MAJOR INTERESTS WERE AND REMAIN IN DEEP
WATER CARBONATES ESPECIALLY CHALKS AS WELL AS THE DIAGENESIS AND PETROLEUM POTENTIAL OF 0ERMIAN CARBONATE AND EVAPORITE DEPOSITS
IN MANY AREAS OF THE WORLD (E HAS WORKED IN NEARLY COUNTRIES AND HAS WRITTEN COAUTHORED OR EDITED EIGHT BOOKS MORE THAN
PAPERS AND ABSTRACTS #$
2/-S AND A NUMBER OF OTHER COMPUTER OR AUDIO
VISUAL PRODUCTS 0ETER HAS BEEN A MEMBER OF !!0'
AND 3%0- SINCE
HE IS A '3! &ELLOW AND A MEMBER OF )!3 !!3' !)0' AND SEVERAL LOCAL SOCIETIES (E WAS AN !!0'
$ISTINGUISHED ,ECTURER
AND RECEIVED THE !!0' 0RESIDENTS AWARD TWICE THE 3PROULE -EMORIAL !WARD AND THE !!0' #ER
TIlCATE OF -ERIT (E SERVED AS PRESIDENT AND SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS EDITOR OF 3%0- AND IS NOW AN HONORARY MEMBER OF THAT SOCIETY
$ANA 3 5LMER
3CHOLLE DEVELOPED AN EARLY LOVE OF CARBONATE ROCKS AND FOSSILS WHILE
GROWING UP ON THE CLASSIC 5PPER /RDOVICIAN OUTCROPS AROUND #INCINNATI /HIO 3HE RE
CEIVED A "3 DEGREE IN FROM THE 5NIVERSITY OF #INCINNATI UNDER THE TUTELAGE OF $RS
7AYNE 0RYOR AND 0AUL 0OTTER 7HILE AT THE 5NIVERSITY OF #INCINNATI AN !MOCO &ELLOW
SHIP PROVIDED HER WITH AN OPPORTUNITY TO WORK AT !MOCO /IL AND 'AS #O EACH SUMMER
DURING HER UNDERGRADUATE CAREER $ANA COMPLETED AN -3 DEGREE AT 3OUTHERN -ETHODIST
5NIVERSITY IN $ALLAS 48 IN WORKING ON THE -ISSISSIPPIAN !RROYO 0EASCO 'ROUP
OF .EW -EXICO WITH 2OBERT ,AURY !FTER A STINT WORKING FOR !2#/ %XPLORATION #O
SHE RETURNED TO 3-5 FOR A 0H$ RECEIVED IN (ER DISSERTATION RESEARCH DONE WITH
0ETER 3CHOLLE AND 2OBERT ,AURY CONCENTRATED ON EVAPORITE
RELATED DIAGENESIS IN UPPER
0ALEOZOIC CARBONATE ROCKS FROM .EW -EXICO 7YOMING AND 'REENLAND
$ANA HAS WORKED OR CONSULTED FOR A NUMBER OF COMPANIES INCLUDING !2#/
%XPLORATION !2#/ )NTERNATIONAL -OBIL 2ESEARCH AND -AERSK /IL AND 'AS 3HE WAS
THE TECHNICAL EDITOR FOR 3%0- 3PECIAL 0UBLICATIONS FROM
AND MANAGED
3-5S STUDENT COMPUTER LABS FOR SEVERAL YEARS WHERE SHE DEVELOPED AN INTEREST IN
COMPUTER
BASED LEARNING 3HE HAD CO
LED STUDENT TRIPS TO THE #AYMAN )SLANDS AS WELL AS
!!0' &IELD 3EMINARS WITH 0ETER AND 2OBERT 'OLDSTEIN TO THE 0ERMIAN 2EEF #OMPLEX
IN 7EST 4EXAS.EW -EXICO AND -ISSISSIPPIAN AND 0ENNSYLVANIAN BIOHERMS IN .EW
-EXICO $ANA IS A 3ENIOR 2ESEARCH 3CIENTIST AT THE .EW -EXICO )NSTITUTE OF -INING
AND 4ECHNOLOGY AND IS AN ADJUNCT FACULTY MEMBER IN THE $EPARTMENT OF %ARTH AND %NVIRONMENTAL 3CIENCES 3HE CURRENTLY TEACHES
CARBONATE
RELATED COURSES INCLUDING PETROGRAPHY DEPOSITIONALDIAGENETIC MODELS AND lELD STUDIES (ER RESEARCH INTERESTS CONTINUE
TO INCLUDE CARBONATE SEDIMENTOLOGY AND DIAGENESIS PETROGRAPHY LOW
TEMPERATURE ISOTOPE AND TRACE ELEMENT GEOCHEMISTRY mUID
INCLUSION ANALYSIS AND mUID mOW HISTORIES IN CARBONATE ROCKS 3INCE ARRIVING AT .EW -EXICO 4ECH HOWEVER SHE HAS ALSO BECOME
INVOLVED IN ENVIRONMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS THAT INCLUDE HEAVY
METALS BIOREMEDIATION
4!",% /& #/.4%.43
)NTRODUCTION VI
0RIMARY #ONSTITUENTS
3KELETAL 'RAINS"IOCLASTS
-ICROBES AND #ALCAREOUS !LGAE
#ALCIMICROBES AND CYANOBACTERIA
-ARINE GREEN ALGAE
#HAROPHYTES
2ED ALGAE
0HYLLOID ALGAE
&ORAMINIFERS
!GGLUTINATED FORMS
3MALL CALCAREOUS BENTHICS
,ARGE BENTHICS
%NCRUSTING FORMS
0LANKTICS
/THER -ICRO
AND .ANNOFOSSILS
#ALPIONELLIDS
#OCCOLITHOPHORESCALCAREOUS NANNOPLANKTON
#ALCISPHERES
4UNICATE SPICULES
2ADIOLARIANS
$IATOMS AND OTHER SILICEOUS ALGAE
$INOmAGELLATES AND RELATED GROUPS
!NNELIDS AND 2ELATED 'ROUPS
3ERPULIDS AND SABELLARIIDS
#ORNULITES TENTACULITES AND STYLIOLINIDS
3PONGES AND 2ELATED 'ROUPS
!RCHAEOCYATHS
3PONGES
3TROMATOPOROIDS
#ORALS /CTOCORALS AND (YDROZOANS
4ABULATE CORALS
2UGOSE CORALS
3CLERACTINIAN CORALS
/CTOCORALS
(YDROZOANS
"RYOZOANS
"RACHIOPODS
-OLLUSKS
'ASTROPODS
"IVALVES PELECYPODS
#EPHALOPODS
3CAPHOPODS
%CHINODERMS
%CHINOIDS
#RINOIDS
"LASTOIDS
(OLOTHURIANS
!STEROIDS AND OPHIUROIDS
!RTHROPODS
4RILOBITES
/STRACODES
"ARNACLES
0ROBLEMATICA
2ECEPTACULITIDS
.UIA
0ALAEOAPLYSINA
4UBIPHYTES
,ITHOCODIUM
(ENSONELLA
6ERTEBRATE AND 0LANT 2EMAINS
6ERTEBRATE BONES TEETH AND SCALES
#ONODONTS
7OODY PLANT REMAINS
3PORES POLLEN AND ORGANIC MATTER
.ON
SKELETAL 'RAINS
/OIDS 0ISOIDS AND /THER #OATED 'RAINS
/OIDS
0ISOIDS AND OTHER COATED GRAINS
)NTRACLASTS AND %XTRACLASTS
0ELLETS AND 0ELOIDS
.ON
CARBONATE #ONSTITUENT 'RAINS
4ERRIGENOUS GRAINS
'LAUCONITE
0HOSPHATE
)RON MINERALS
-ATRIX
-ICRITE MICROSPAR AND MICRITIC PRECIPITATES
0RIMARY 3EDIMENTARY &ABRICS3TRUCTURES
"URROWS
"ORINGS
'EOPETAL FABRICS
&ENESTRAL FABRICS
,AMINATIONS
#ARBONATE #LASSIlCATION
#ARBONATE 2OCK3EDIMENT #LASSIlCATIONS
&OLK
$UNHAM %MBRY AND +LOVAN 7RIGHT
%XAMPLES
#ARBONATE 0OROSITY 4YPES AND #LASSIlCATION
$IAGENESIS
$IAGENETIC 0ROCESSES AND 4ERMINOLOGY
3YNGENETIC%OGENETIC -ARINE $IAGENESIS
"IO
ALTERATION AND MICRITE ENVELOPES
(IGH
-G CALCITE CEMENTS
!RAGONITE CEMENTS
(ARDGROUNDS
)NTERNAL SEDIMENT
"OTRYOIDAL CEMENTS
/THER CEMENTS
%OGENETIC -ETEORIC $IAGENESIS
6ADOSE FABRICS
0HREATIC FABRICS
#ALCRETECALICHEPALEOSOLPALEOKARST FABRICS
4RAVERTINES AND OTHER FABRICS
-ESOGENETIC4ELOGENETIC "URIAL $IAGENESIS
-ECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL COMPACTION FEATURES
&RACTURES
#EMENTS
0ARAGENETIC RELATIONSHIPS
$OLOMITE AND 3IDERITE
$OLOMITE
"AROQUE SADDLE DOLOMITE
,EACHED ANDOR CALCITIZED DOLOMITE
3IDERITE
3ULFATES AND #HLORIDES
3ILICA 2EPLACEMENT AND #EMENTATION
/THER $IAGENETIC -ATERIALS
3ULlDES AND OXIDES
&LUORITE
0HOSPHATE AND GLAUCONITE
!UTHIGENIC FELDSPAR
(YDROCARBONS
4ECHNIQUES
3TAINING PEELS IMPREGNATION AND ILLUMINATION TECHNIQUES
#ATHODOLUMINESCENCE MICROSCOPY
%PI
mUORESCENCE MICROSCOPY
&LUID INCLUSION STUDIES
3%- 8
RAY DISPERSIVE ANALYSIS
%LECTRON MICROPROBE ANALYSIS
8
RAY DIFFRACTION ANALYSIS
3TABLE ISOTOPIC GEOCHEMISTRY
3TRONTIUM ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY
'LOSSARY
)NDEX
VIII PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
).42/$5#4)/.
#ARBONATE PETROGRAPHY THE STUDY OF LIMESTONES DOLOMITES VARIETY OF SHELL MORPHOLOGIES AND WALL STRUCTURES 4HE CHANGING
AND ASSOCIATED DEPOSITS UNDER OPTICAL OR ELECTRON MICROSCOPES ASSEMBLAGES OF ORGANISMS THROUGH TIME SEE DIAGRAM NEAR THE
GREATLY ENHANCES lELD STUDIES OR CORE OBSERVATIONS AND CAN END OF THIS INTRODUCTION COUPLED WITH THE RANDOMNESS OF THIN
PROVIDE A FRAME OF REFERENCE FOR GEOCHEMICAL STUDIES 0ETROGRAPHY SECTION CUTS THROUGH COMPLEX SHELL FORMS ADD TO THE DIFlCULTY OF
IS AN ESPECIALLY POWERFUL TOOL BECAUSE IT ENABLES THE IDENTIlCATION IDENTIFYING SKELETAL GRAINS &URTHERMORE BECAUSE MANY PRIMARY
OF CONSTITUENT GRAINS THE DETAILED CLASSIlCATION OF SEDIMENTS AND CARBONATE GRAINS ARE COMPOSED OF UNSTABLE MINERALS ESPECIALLY
ROCKS THE INTERPRETATION OF ENVIRONMENTS OF DEPOSITION AND THE ARAGONITE AND HIGH
-G CALCITE DIAGENETIC ALTERATION COMMONLY
DETERMINATION OF THE OFTEN COMPLEX HISTORY OF POST
DEPOSITIONAL IS QUITE EXTENSIVE IN CARBONATE ROCKS 4HE VARIABILITY OF INORGANIC
ALTERATION DIAGENESIS 4HE LAST OF THESE THE ABILITY TO DETERMINE AND BIOGENIC CARBONATE MINERALOGY THROUGH TIME HOWEVER
THE TIMING OF DIAGENETIC EVENTS SUCH AS CEMENTATION OR SECONDARY COMPLICATES PREDICTION OF PATTERNS OF DIAGENETIC ALTERATION
POROSITY DEVELOPMENT RELATIVE TO THE EMPLACEMENT OF HYDROCARBONS
OR METALLIC ORES MAKES PETROGRAPHY AN IMPORTANT COMPONENT OF 4HIS BOOK IS DESIGNED TO HELP DEAL WITH SUCH CHALLENGES )T
GEOCHEMICAL AND SEDIMENTOLOGIC STUDIES IN ENERGY
AND MINERAL
IS BY NO MEANS A COMPLETE TREATISE OR TEXTBOOK THAT WOULD
RESOURCE EXPLORATION APPLICATIONS AS WELL AS IN ACADEMIC RESEARCH BE ESSENTIALLY IMPOSSIBLE IN A SINGLE VOLUME )T DOES HOWEVER
INCLUDE A WIDE VARIETY OF EXAMPLES OF COMMONLY ENCOUNTERED
4HE PETROGRAPHIC STUDY OF CARBONATE ROCKS IS PARTICULARLY SKELETAL AND NONSKELETAL GRAINS CEMENTS FABRICS AND POROSITY
USEFUL BECAUSE CARBONATE GRAINS UNLIKE CLASTIC TERRIGENOUS ONES TYPES )T ALSO ENCOMPASSES A NUMBER OF NONCARBONATE GRAINS THAT
NORMALLY ARE PRODUCED IN CLOSE PROXIMITY FROM LESS THAN A METER OCCUR AS ACCESSORY MINERALS IN CARBONATE ROCKS OR THAT MAY PROVIDE
TO HUNDREDS OF METERS TO THE SITE OF THEIR ULTIMATE DEPOSITION IMPORTANT BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC OR PALEOENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION IN
)N ADDITION CARBONATE GRAINS ARE FORMED MAINLY BY ORGANISMS CARBONATE STRATA 7ITH THIS GUIDE STUDENTS AND OTHER WORKERS
AND THUS THE GRAINS CONVEY ECOLOGICAL INFORMATION ABOUT THE WITH LITTLE FORMAL PETROGRAPHIC TRAINING SHOULD BE ABLE TO EXAMINE
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION AS WELL AS STRATIGRAPHICAL INFORMATION ON THIN SECTIONS OR ACETATE PEELS UNDER THE MICROSCOPE AND INTERPRET
THE AGE OF THE DEPOSIT THE MAIN ROCK CONSTITUENTS AND THEIR DEPOSITIONAL AND DIAGENETIC
HISTORY
)N SOME WAYS CARBONATE PETROGRAPHY IS NOT A VERY COMPLEX
UNDERTAKING ESPECIALLY WHEN COMPARED TO THE PETROGRAPHY OF #ARBONATE PETROGRAPHY IS PRIMARILY A QUALITATIVE SKILL /NE MUST
CLASTIC TERRIGENOUS DEPOSITS -OST CARBONATE ROCKS ARE DOMINATED LEARN TO RECOGNIZE THE DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS OF SKELETAL
BY JUST ONE OR TWO COMMON CARBONATE MINERALS MAINLY CALCITE AND GRAINS OF VARIOUS AGES CUT IN VARIOUS ORIENTATIONS AND PRESERVED
DOLOMITE PLUS A LIMITED NUMBER OF ACCOMPANYING MINERALS IN VARIOUS STAGES OF ALTERATION 4HERE ARE NO SIMPLE DIAGNOSTIC
SILICA DETRITAL GRAINS PHOSPHATE GLAUCONITE AND A FEW EVAPORITE TESTS SUCH AS MEASURING BIREFRINGENCE OR AN OPTIC lGURE THAT
PRECIPITATES 4HE DIAGRAM BELOW SHOWS THE GENERAL COMPOSITIONS CAN BE USED TO IDENTIFY A BRYOZOAN FOR EXAMPLE )T IS SIMPLY A
OF THE FULL SPECTRUM OF CARBONATE MINERALS FOUND IN MODERN AND QUESTION OF EXPERIENCE #OMPARISON OF GRAINS IN THIN SECTIONS WITH
ANCIENT STRATA PHOTOGRAPHS OF IDENTIlED GRAINS IN THIS AND OTHER BOOKS ALLOWS
GEOLOGISTS TO READILY IDENTIFY THE MAJORITY OF THE ROCK
FORMING
GRAINS IN THEIR SAMPLES ! SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY IS PROVIDED TO
PERMIT THE INTERESTED READER TO PURSUE DETAILS THAT ARE ONLY BRIEmY
COVERED IN THIS BOOK AND TO SUPPLEMENT THE INTERPRETIVE ASPECTS
OF PETROGRAPHIC WORK ! CHART IS ALSO PROVIDED AT THE END OF THIS
CHAPTER TO FACILITATE ACCURATE ESTIMATION OF ABUNDANCES OF GRAINS
&OR GREATER ACCURACY HOWEVER QUANTITATIVE POINT COUNTING OR
IMAGE ANALYSIS SHOULD BE DONE AND REFERENCES TO THESE METHODS ARE
PROVIDED IN THE 4ECHNIQUES CHAPTER
-OST PICTURES IN THIS BOOK WERE CHOSEN TO ILLUSTRATE TYPICAL RATHER
THAN SPECTACULAR BUT UNUSUAL EXAMPLES OF GRAINS AND FABRICS
&OR EXAMPLE GRAINS THAT WERE ORIGINALLY COMPOSED OF ARAGONITE
NORMALLY UNDERGO WHOLESALE DIAGENETIC ALTERATION AND EXTENSIVE
DESTRUCTION OF PRIMARY STRUCTURAL FEATURES 4HEREFORE WE SHOW
EXAMPLES OF THESE GRAINS IN THEIR EXTENSIVELY ALTERED STATE BECAUSE
THAT IS THE NORM FOR WHAT THE USER WILL ENCOUNTER )NTRODUCTORY
TEXT IN EACH CHAPTER PROVIDES THE READER WITH DETAILS ABOUT ORIGINAL
GRAIN MINERALOGIES IN ORDER TO HELP THE READER ANTICIPATE SUCH
PRESERVATION PROBLEMS %XAMPLES ALSO WERE SPECIlCALLY CHOSEN
)N OTHER WAYS HOWEVER CARBONATE PETROGRAPHY CAN BE QUITE FROM A VARIETY OF COUNTRIES BASINS AND UNITS TO PROVIDE A SENSE
COMPLICATED -ANY DIFFERENT ORGANISMS PRODUCE CARBONATE OF THE GLOBAL CONSISTENCY OF CARBONATE FABRICS &URTHERMORE
MATERIAL AND THAT REQUIRES LEARNING HOW TO RECOGNIZE A WIDE EXAMPLES HAVE BEEN INCLUDED FROM ROCKS OF 0RECAMBRIAN TO
INTRODUCTION IX
(OLOCENE AGE BECAUSE OF THE ENORMOUS EVOLUTIONARY CHANGES IN 2,
REmECTED LIGHT
ORGANISMS AND THEREFORE CARBONATE DEPOSITS AND THEIR ALTERATION '0
GYPSUM PLATE 1UARTZ 2ED ) PLATE INSERTED
THROUGH TIME /3
ORGANIC MATTER STAINED
!3
CALCITE STAINED RED WITH !LIZARIN 2ED 3
)N TERMS OF THE OVERALL COSTS OF ENERGY EXPLORATION OR ACADEMIC !&E3
STAINED WITH A COMBINATION OF !LIZARIN 2ED 3 AND
GEOSCIENCE TODAY THE lNANCIAL INVESTMENT NEEDED FOR PETROGRAPHIC POTASSIUM FERRICYANIDE
WORK IS RELATIVELY INSIGNIlCANT ! BASIC POLARIZING MICROSCOPE #93
STAINED WITH #LAYTON 9ELLOW FOR -G
CALCITE
CAN BE PURCHASED CURRENTLY FOR TO DEPENDING ON "3%
BLUE
OR GREEN
DYED EPOXY lLLING POROSITY
OPTICAL QUALITY ACCESSORIES AND OTHER FACTORS 4HIN SECTIONS CAN #,
CATHODOLUMINESCENCE PHOTOMICROGRAPH
BE PURCHASED FOR TO EACH FROM A NUMBER OF COMMERCIAL &,
mUORESCENCE PHOTOMICROGRAPH
LABS !CETATE PEELS SEE TECHNIQUE SECTION OF THE BIBLIOGRAPHY -0
MICROPROBE BACK
SCATTERED ELECTRON IMAGE
CAN BE MADE IN ANY OFlCE IN MINUTES FROM POLISHED ROCK SLABS 3%-
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROGRAPH IMAGE
AND CAN PROVIDE A REMARKABLE AMOUNT OF INFORMATION /UTCROP -AC
MACROSCOPIC PHOTOGRAPH OF ROCK SLAB OR OUTCROP
SAMPLES CONVENTIONAL CORES SIDEWALL CORES AND CUTTINGS SAMPLES
ALL CAN BE EXAMINED MICROSCOPICALLY ALTHOUGH THE QUALITY OF 0HOTOGRAPHIC 3CALES
TEXTURAL INFORMATION DECREASES WITH DECREASING SAMPLE SIZE %VEN
THE INVESTMENT OF TIME INVOLVED IN PETROGRAPHIC WORK NEED NOT !LL DIMENSIONS ARE GIVEN AS (! XX WHERE (! IS THE FULL
BE GREAT RELATIVE TO THE POTENTIAL FOR PROBLEM SOLVING &EW OTHER HORIZONTAL AXIS OF THE PHOTOGRAPH INCLUDING FOR THE SAKE
TECHNIQUES ARE AS VALUABLE AND ACCURATE FOR THE IDENTIlCATION OF OF UNIFORMITY ANY BORDERS WITHIN THE PICTURE AREA , AND
PRESERVED DESTROYED OR CREATED POROSITY OR THE PREDICTION OF 2 ARE USED WHERE LEFT AND RIGHT PICTURES OCCUPY THE FRAME
DEPOSITIONAL AND DIAGENETIC TRENDS 4 AND " REFER TO TOP AND BOTTOM PICTURES $IMENSIONS ARE
GIVEN IN MICROMETERS M OR MILLIMETERS MM 4HERE ARE
2ESEARCH CONDUCTED OVER THE PAST SEVERAL DECADES HAS OUTLINED MICROMETERS IN A MILLIMETER
MANY PRINCIPLES OF DEPOSITION AND DIAGENESIS IN CARBONATE
SEDIMENTS &ACIES MODELS HAVE BEEN ESTABLISHED FOR MODERN AS !CKNOWLEDGMENTS
WELL AS ANCIENT REEFS AND OTHER BANK
MARGIN DEPOSITS FOR TIDAL
mAT
AND SABKHA SEDIMENTATION FOR BASINAL DEPOSITION AND FOR OTHER %NORMOUS THANKS GO TO 0HILIP 7 #HOQUETTE !LFRED ' &ISCHER
ENVIRONMENTS $IAGENETIC STUDIES HAVE POINTED OUT THE INmUENCE OF 2OBERT , &OLK .OEL 0 *AMES , 'REER 0RICE AND 7ILLIAM $ 2AATZ
SYNDEPOSITIONAL MARINE CEMENTATION EARLY FRESHWATER DIAGENESIS FOR REVIEWING THE ENTIRE BOOK OR LARGE PORTIONS THEREOF )NDIVIDUAL
AND LATER SUBSURFACE COMPACTION
DISSOLUTION PHENOMENA 4HIS CHAPTERS WERE REVIEWED BY *ACK ! "ABCOCK ALGAE -ERLYND
WORK HAS CLEARLY SHOWN THAT ALTHOUGH CARBONATE DEPOSITIONAL AND AND 'ALINA .ESTELL FORAMINIFERS *EREMY 9OUNG MISCELLANEOUS
DIAGENETIC PATTERNS MAY BE COMPLEX COMMONLY THERE IS A LARGE MICROFOSSILS 3TANLEY ! +LING SILICEOUS MICROFOSSILS #ARL
VOLUME OF INFORMATION RECORDED IN THE ROCKS WHICH CAN BE USED TO 7 3TOCK STROMATOPOROIDS 2ONALD ! *OHNS SPONGES *AMES
DECIPHER THIS RECORD % 3ORAUF CORALS 2OGER * #UFFEY BRYOZOANS *ED % $AY
BRACHIOPODS ' ,YNN "REWSTER
7INGARD MOLLUSKS "RUCE 2
0ETROGRAPHY WHEN USED IN CLOSE CONJUNCTION WITH WELL
LOG 7ARDLAW CONODONTS ,EANNE 0YLE SKELETAL GRAINS ( #URTIS
ANALYSIS SEISMIC INTERPRETATION REGIONAL GEOLOGY AND OTHER -ONGER SOIL FABRICS AND .ELIA 7 $UNBAR TECHNIQUES "OTH
STUDIES CAN BE AN INVALUABLE TOOL FOR APPLYING THESE RECENTLY GROUPS OF REVIEWERS CAUGHT MANY POTENTIAL ERRORS AND MADE
DEVELOPED PRINCIPLES OF CARBONATE SEDIMENTOLOGY TO ANCIENT EXCELLENT SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVEMENTS .OEL 0 *AMES WAS AN
ROCKS &URTHERMORE IT IS BEST APPLIED BY THE EXPLORATIONIST WHO INVALUABLE HELP IN SENDING LARGE NUMBERS OF PICTURES IN HELPING TO
IS DEEPLY INVOLVED IN TECHNIQUES OTHER THAN PETROGRAPHY FOR THAT ORGANIZE THE BOOK AND AS A PARTNER IN THE PRODUCTION OF INTERACTIVE
PERSON IS IN THE BEST POSITION TO ASK THE RIGHT QUESTIONS QUESTIONS DIGITAL PRODUCTS THAT WILL SUPPLEMENT THIS VOLUME 2OGER * #UFFEY
THAT PETROGRAPHY MAY BE ABLE TO ANSWER 4HAT IS THE GOAL OF THIS BRYOZOANS 2EINHOLD 2 ,EINFELDER ,ITHOCODIUM #ARL 7 3TOCK
VOLUME STROMATOPOROIDS AND 'RAHAM 2 9OUNG TABULATE CORALS WERE
WONDERFULLY GENEROUS IN PROVIDING MATERIALS FOR THE DIGITAL PROJECTS
%XPLANATION OF #APTIONS AND ALLOWING US TO USE THEM IN THIS BOOK THOSE SECTIONS OWE MUCH
TO THEIR GUIDANCE -ANY OTHER SCIENTISTS ALSO VERY KINDLY CONTRIBUTED
%ACH PHOTOGRAPH IN THIS BOOK HAS A DESCRIPTION IN STANDARD PHOTOGRAPHS EACH ACKNOWLEDGED INDIVIDUALLY IN SPECIlC lGURE
FORMAT 4HE lRST LINES GIVE THE STRATIGRAPHIC UNIT INCLUDING CAPTIONS &INALLY WE WOULD LIKE TO EXPRESS OUR APPRECIATION TO THE
GEOLOGIC AGE AND STATE OR COUNTRY OF ORIGIN 3AMPLE LOCALITIES PETROGRAPHERS WHO SPENT MANY HOURS LOOKING DOWN A MICROSCOPE
ARE IN THE 5NITED 3TATES OF !MERICA UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED WITH US AND WHOSE TEACHING AND RESEARCH DEDICATION MADE THIS
4HIS IS FOLLOWED BY A DESCRIPTION OF THE PHOTOGRAPH 4HE VOLUME POSSIBLE ! ' &ISCHER 2 , &OLK AND 2 ' # "ATHURST
LAST LINE OF THE CAPTION GIVES THE TYPE OF LIGHTING USED ANY FOR 0 ! 3 AND 0 % 0OTTER 2 " +OEPNICK AND $ % %BY FOR $ 3
STAINING OR IMPREGNATION OF THE THIN SECTION AND THE SCALE OF THE 5
3 7E CAN ONLY HOPE THAT THIS BOOK WILL AID ANOTHER GENERATION
PHOTOGRAPH 4HE FOLLOWING CAPTION ABBREVIATIONS ARE USED OF PETROGRAPHERS AS EFFECTIVELY AS WE WERE HELPED
3OME PHOTOGRAPHS IN THIS BOOK HAVE BEEN ELECTRONICALLY EDITED
00,
PLANE
POLARIZED LIGHT OR ENHANCED TO ACCENTUATE CONTRAST IMPROVE FOCUS OR REMOVE
80,
CROSS
POLARIZED LIGHT UNWANTED BLEMISHES AIR BUBBLES OR SCRATCHES FOR EXAMPLE
080,
PARTIALLY CROSS
POLARIZED LIGHT .ONE OF THE RELEVANT STRUCTURES HOWEVER WERE ALTERED
X PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
5SEFUL 'ENERAL 2EFERENCES #ARBONATES ;$EVELOPMENTS IN 3EDIMENTOLOGY = .EW 9ORK %LSEVIER
3CIENTIlC 0UBL #O P
4HESE BOOKS PROVIDE GENERAL BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON -URRAY * 7 ED !TLAS OF )NVERTEBRATE -ACROFOSSILS .EW 9ORK
CARBONATE PETROGRAPHY CARBONATE SEDIMENTATION PALEONTOLOGY *OHN 7ILEY 3ONS P
AND RELATED SUBJECTS THAT ARE USEFUL FOR WORKING WITH CARBONATE 2EEDER 2 * ED #ARBONATES -INERALOGY AND #HEMISTRY
ROCKS AND SEDIMENTS UNDER THE MICROSCOPE AND INTERPRETING THEIR 7ASHINGTON $# -INERALOGICAL 3OCIETY OF !MERICA 2EVIEWS IN
-INERALOGY 6OL P
ORIGIN AND SIGNIlCANCE
3CHOLLE 0 ! ! #OLOR )LLUSTRATED 'UIDE TO #ARBONATE 2OCK
!DAMS ! % AND 7 3 -AC+ENZIE ! #OLOR !TLAS OF #ARBONATE #ONSTITUENTS 4EXTURES #EMENTS AND 0OROSITIES 4ULSA /+ !MERICAN
3EDIMENTS AND 2OCKS 5NDER THE -ICROSCOPE .EW 9ORK *OHN 7ILEY !SSOCIATION OF 0ETROLEUM 'EOLOGISTS -EMOIR P
3ONS P 3COFlN 4 0 !N )NTRODUCTION TO #ARBONATE 3EDIMENTS AND 2OCKS
"ATHURST 2 ' # #ARBONATE 3EDIMENTS AND THEIR $IAGENESIS .EW 9ORK #HAPMAN (ALL P
;$EVELOPMENTS IN 3EDIMENTOLOGY = .EW 9ORK %LSEVIER P 3ORBY ( # /N THE STRUCTURE AND ORIGIN OF LIMESTONES 0ROCEEDINGS
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"RASIER - $ -ICROFOSSILS "OSTON 'EORGE !LLEN 5NWIN P 4UCKER - % #ARBONATE 0ETROLOGY !N )NTRODUCTION ND EDITION
#AROZZI ! 6 #ARBONATE 2OCK $EPOSITIONAL -ODELS ! -ICROFACIES /XFORD "LACKWELL 3CIENTIlC 0UBLICATIONS P
!PPROACH %NGLEWOOD #LIFFS 0RENTICE
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#AYEUX - , ,ES 2OCHES 3DIMENTAIRES DE &RANCE 2OCHES 4HE FOLLOWING BOOKS ARE MORE LIMITED IN THEIR TEMPORAL OR
#ARBONATES CALCAIRES ET DOLOMIES 0ARIS -ASSON P
AREAL SCOPE BUT HAVE MANY HIGH
QUALITY PETROGRAPHIC PLATES THAT
#AYEUX , #ARBONATE ROCKS LIMESTONES AND DOLOMITES
3EDIMENTARY ROCKS OF &RANCE ;TRANSLATED AND UPDATED BY ! 6 #AROZZI= EFFECTIVELY SHOW ASSEMBLAGES OF ORGANISMS THROUGH TIME
$ARIEN #4 (AFNER 0UBLISHING #OMPANY P "ISSELL ( * 0ETROLOGY AND 0ETROGRAPHY OF ,OWER 4RIASSIC -ARINE
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INTRODUCTION XI
"!
" !
" " "!
" !
$"!
!
" " !
!
$ % !
!
##!
!" !
!
!
!
"!
!" !
!
% ! %
A diagram summarizing the uctuations in approximate DIAGRAM WAS ADAPTED FROM (OROWITZ AND 0OTTER AND OTHER
diversity and abundance of the major groups of marine SOURCES )T SHOULD BE USED ONLY AS A GENERAL GUIDE TO THE TYPES OF
carbonate-producing organisms through time. 4HE ORGANISMS LIKELY TO BE ENCOUNTERED IN ROCKS OF ANY PARTICULAR AGE
XII PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Visual comparison charts for estimating abundances of
constituents in thin section, peels, and photographic or
>V}*>}i -ODERN DOMAL SUBTIDAL TO LOWER INTERTIDAL
digital images. !DAPTED FROM "ACCELLE AND "OSELLINI
/THER SUCH CHARTS CAN BE FOUND IN &LGEL AND 3WANSON MICROBIAL STROMATOLITES FROM #ARBLA 0OINT 3HARK "AY 7EST
!LL CITATIONS GIVEN AT THE END OF #HAPTER 4ECHNIQUES ERN !USTRALIA 3TROMATOLITE HEADS ARE CM IN DIAMETER
'2!).3 3KELETAL &RAGMENTS
CALCIMICROBES AND CALCAREOUS ALGAE
Calcimicrobes/
cyanobacteria
C Marine green
H algae
A
P
T
Charophytes
E
R Red algae
1 Phylloid algae
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
#!,#)-)#2/"%3#9!./"!#4%2)! ",5%
'2%%. !,'!%
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
#YANOBACTERIAL STROMATOLITES USUALLY ARE GROUPED IN THE 0HYLUM #YANOPHYTA 0RECAMBRIAN !RCHEAN
2ECENT
#LASSIl CATION OF OTHER MICROBES IS COMPLEX UNCERTAIN AND EVER CHANGING GENERALLY PLACED UNDER THE 0ROKARYOTES
BUT MOST OF THESE ORGANISMS ARE REALLY BEST CONSIDERED AS hMICROPROBLEMATICAv /RGANISMS ONCE TERMED
BLUE
GREEN ALGAE ARE NOW GENERALLY TERMED CYANOBACTERIA
2ANGES OF SOME SPECIl C CALCIMICROBES DEPICTED IN THIS SECTION
'IRVANELLA #AMBRIAN
MID #RETACEOUS %OCENE
%PIPHYTON #AMBRIAN
$EVONIAN
2ENALCIS #AMBRIAN
$EVONIAN
&RUTEXITES ,ATEST #AMBRIAN
$EVONIAN
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
-ANY ARE PHOTOSYNTHETIC AND THEREFORE REQUIRE LIGHT NON
PHOTOSYNTHETIC MICROBES ALSO ARE IMPORTANT ESPECIALLY
IN CRYPTIC SETTINGS 2ECOGNITION OF PHOTOSYNTHETIC FORMS IS ESPECIALLY CRITICAL IN PALEOENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
7IDE SALINITY TOLERANCE FROM STRONGLY HYPERSALINE TO FRESHWATER RARE AS DOMINANT SEDIMENT FORMERS IN MODERN
NORMAL
SALINITY MARINE ENVIRONMENTS
7IDE TEMPERATURE TOLERANCE SUB
GLACIAL TO HOT SPRINGS SETTINGS MOST COMMON IN TEMPERATE
TO WARM
WATER
MARINE SETTINGS
-ARINE STROMATOLITES RANGE FROM SUBTIDAL TO INTERTIDAL SETTINGS INTERTIDAL FORMS PREDOMINATE TODAY
! PROGRESSIVE SHIFT OCCURRED FROM NORMAL
SALINITY ENVIRONMENTS IN THE 0RECAMBRIAN TO HIGHLY STRESSED ENVIRONMENTS
TODAY POSSIBLY DUE TO THE 0HANEROZOIC INCREASE IN GRAZING ORGANISMS OR INTERSPECIl C COMPETITION #ENOZOIC
MICROBIAL CARBONATE DEPOSITS ARE PREDOMINANTLY PERITIDAL
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
-ARINE FORMS ARE MAINLY ARAGONITIC INCORPORATED DETRITAL COMPONENTS CAN HAVE ANY CARBONATE OR TERRIGENOUS
MINERALOGY LACUSTRINE FORMS ARE MOSTLY CALCITIC
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
-OST ARE UNCALCIl ED AND THE REMAINDER HAVE hNONSKELETALv OR hEXTRASKELETALv CALCIl CATION LARGELY INCIDENTAL TO
THEIR GROWTH #ALCIl CATION RESULTS FROM BIOCHEMICAL PROCESSES REMOVAL OF #/ BUT GENERALLY IS NOT NECESSARY
FOR OR BENEl CIAL TO THE ORGANISMS SURVIVAL
#ALCIMICROBIAL DEPOSITS THUS HAVE NO CLEARLY DEl NED AND CONSISTENT SKELETAL MORPHOLOGIES HENCE THE DIFl CULTY
OF CLASSIFYING THESE MICROPROBLEMATICA #ALCIMICROBIAL DEPOSITS ARE RECOGNIZED BY OVERALL SEDIMENT STRUCTURE
BY EXTERNALLY CALCIl ED l LAMENTS OR SPHERICAL BODIES AND BY TRAPPED SEDIMENT &LAT
LYING LAMINATED SEDIMENT
DOMAL STROMATOLITES OR CLOTTED l NGER
LIKE THROMBOLITE STRUCTURES ARE CHARACTERISTIC SHAPES VARY WITH
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS WATER DEPTH CURRENT STRENGTH AND OTHERS
,AMINATION IN STROMATOLITES REm ECTS MICROBIAL GROWTH THROUGH DAY
NIGHT CYCLES AND TIDAL CYCLES THOSE ORGANIC
LAMINAE COMMONLY ARE INTERSPERSED WITH MICRITIC OR PELOIDAL CARBONATE OR TERRIGENOUS DETRITUS THAT WAS
DEPOSITED DURING EPISODIC STORMS
.ON
STROMATOLITIC CALCIMICROBES TYPICALLY FORM LUMPY ENCRUSTATIONS OR SMALL UPRIGHT hSHRUBSv
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
3IZE 3TROMATOLITES ARE CM TO METERS IN HEIGHT LAMINAE ARE MM
TO CM
SIZED
! GENERAL ABSENCE OF WELL
DEl NED SKELETAL FEATURES OTHER THAN POSSIBLE CARBONATE
ENCASED l LAMENTS OR TUBULES
3TROMATOLITES CAN HAVE AN ABUNDANCE OF TRAPPED GRAINS ESPECIALLY PELLETSPELOIDS BUT ALSO
CLASTIC TERRIGENOUS
MATERIALS IN MANY CASES
3TROMATOLITES ARE CHARACTERIZED BY PLANAR OR CONTORTED LAMINATIONS WITH ALTERNATIONS OF ORGANIC
RICH AND
GRAINY OR MICRITIC LAYERS OTHERS HAVE VAGUELY CLOTTED THROMBOLITIC STRUCTURE
3TROMATOLITES COMMONLY HAVE FENESTRAL FABRICS ELONGATE PORES PARALLELING LAMINATION
0LANAR STROMATOLITES ARE ASSOCIATED IN 0HANEROZOIC ARID SETTINGS WITH EARLY DIAGENETIC EVAPORITES
-ANY MICROBES CAN FORM BRANCHING GROWTHS OF MICRITIC PELOIDS OR MICRITIC TUBULES
3OME FORM l NELY LAMINATED MICRITIC OR PHOSPHATIC ENCRUSTATIONS WITH DIGITATE STRUCTURE
3OME CALCIMICROBES FORM COATED GRAINS ONCOIDS WITH SCALLOPED OR IRREGULAR COATINGS AND WITH OR WITHOUT
TUBULAR OR l LAMENTOUS STRUCTURE
#ALCIMICROBES ALSO CAN FORM LUMPY MICRITIC LOCALIZED ENCRUSTATIONS OF OTHER ORGANISMS
CHAPTER 1: CALCIMICROBES AND CALCAREOUS ALGAE
Recent algal preparation
! STAINED BIOLOGICAL PREPARATION OF !NABAENA
SP 4HESE SPHERICAL CYANOBACTERIAL BODIES FOR
MERLY TERMED BLUE
GREEN ALGAE ARE LINKED UP
INTO CHAINS 3UCH COCCOID MICROBES IN COMBI
NATION WITH l LAMENTOUS FORMS ARE COMMON IN
MODERN STROMATOLITES 4HE OVERSIZED PURPLE
STAINED CELLS ARE NITROGEN
l XING HETEROCYSTS
00, /3 (! MM
Recent algal preparation
! STAINED BIOLOGICAL PREPARATION OF 2IVULARIA
SP A l LAMENTOUS CYANOBACTERIA 4HE INDI
VIDUAL CELLS ARE STAINED PURPLE AND THE MUCILAG
INOUS SHEATHS ARE STAINED GREEN ! MESHWORK
OF SUCH INTERLOCKING l LAMENTS IS EFFECTIVE IN
THE TRAPPING OF TERRIGENOUS ANDOR CARBONATE
PARTICLES IN MICROBIAL MATS THROUGH A BAFm ING
EFFECT AS WELL AS BY ADHESION TO THE SLIGHTLY
STICKY MUCILAGINOUS SHEATHS
00, /3 (! MM
Holocene travertine, north of
Durango, Colorado
!N 3%- IMAGE OF AN ARAGONITIC hDUMB BELLv
THAT IS BELIEVED TO HAVE FORMED AROUND A CLUMP
OF BACTERIA 3IMILAR STRUCTURES HAVE BEEN
PRODUCED BY BACTERIAL ACTION UNDER CONTROLLED
LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS ,ARGE CALCITE CRYSTALS
ARE VISIBLE IN THE BACKGROUND 0HOTOGRAPH
COURTESY OF (ENRY 3 #HAFETZ FROM #HAFETZ
ET AL
3%- (! M
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Holocene travertine, Clark County,
Idaho
!N 3%- IMAGE OF A LIGHTLY ETCHED TRAVER
TINE DISPLAYING PROBABLE BACTERIAL RODS WELL
DISPLAYED IN THE AREA INDICATED BY THE BLACK
ARROW THAT WERE ENCASED WITHIN CALCITE CRYS
TALS "ACTERIAL FOSSILS ARE RELATIVELY RARE THEIR
PRESERVATION POTENTIAL IS POOR AND THEY HAVE
BEEN CONCLUSIVELY IDENTIl ED ONLY IN SHRUB
AND SHRUB RELATED STRUCTURES THUS SHRUBS
SHOWN LATER ARE THE MOST DIAGNOSTIC BACTERIAL
STRUCTURES 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF (ENRY 3
#HAFETZ FROM #HAFETZ AND &OLK
3%- (! M
Neoproterozoic Shaler Gp., Glenelg
Fm., Victoria Island, Northwest
Territories, Canada
! CHERT NODULE FROM A SUPRATIDAL MICROBIAL
LAMINITE SHOWING SILICIl ED CYANOBACTERIAL
l LAMENTS BLACK ARROW POINTS TO ONE OF MANY
EXAMPLES AND COCCOID CELLS WHITE ARROW
-ICROBIAL REMAINS HAVE BEEN IDENTIl ED FROM
MANY LOCALITIES IN 0RECAMBRIAN ROCKS EXTEND
ING WELL BACK INTO THE !RCHEAN 0HOTOGRAPH
COURTESY OF "RIAN 2 0RATT
00, (! MM
Common microbial stromatolite
growth forms
-ODERN AND ANCIENT STROMATOLITIC STRUCTURES
ARE FOUND IN A WIDE VARIETY OF GROWTH FORMS
4HE MAIN TYPES ARE SHOWN SCHEMATICALLY IN
THIS CLASSIl CATION BY ,OGAN ET AL
-OST STROMATOLITES ARE COMPOSED OF LAMI
NAE OF TRAPPED CARBONATE ANDOR TERRIGENOUS
SEDIMENT GENERALLY THEY ARE EASIER TO REC
OGNIZE ON OUTCROP OR IN POLISHED SLABS
THAN IN THIN SECTION 3KELETAL ELEMENTS ARE
RARELY FOUND IN STROMATOLITES ALTHOUGH THEY ARE
ORGANOSEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES PROBABLY CRE
ATED PRIMARILY BY SEDIMENT TRAPPING MICROBIAL
MATS
CHAPTER 1: CALCIMICROBES AND CALCAREOUS ALGAE
Triassic Dachstein Ls., Lofer
facies, Tirol, Austria
! WELL DEVELOPED ANCIENT EXAMPLE OF A LAMI
NATED AND CONTORTED STROMATOLITE LOFERITE
4HE DARK REDDISH
BROWN COLOR REm ECTING
SIGNIl CANT PRESERVATION OF ORGANIC MATTER
SLIGHTLY PELLETAL TEXTURE IRREGULAR LAMINATION
AND ELONGATE hBIRDSEYEv OR FENESTRAL PORES
ARE CHARACTERISTIC OF STROMATOLITES BUT ARE
NOT ALWAYS THIS CLEARLY DISPLAYED !LTHOUGH
THE STROMATOLITE FABRIC MOST LIKELY REPRESENTS
GROWTH AND SEDIMENT TRAPPING IN AND ON A MI
CROBIAL MAT NO MICROBES WERE RECOGNIZABLE IN
THIS DEPOSIT AS IN MOST SUCH STROMATOLITES
00, (! MM
Recent sediment, Crane Key,
Florida Bay, Florida
$ETAILED TEXTURE OF A TYPICAL INTERTIDAL
STROMATOLITE WITH INTERLAMINATION OF ORGANIC
ZONES CYANOBACTERIAL l LAMENTS MANGROVE RE
MAINS AND OTHER ORGANIC DETRITUS AND ZONES OF
TRANSPORTED AND TRAPPED DETRITUS 4HE TRAPPED
MATERIALS INCLUDE CARBONATE FECAL PELLETS AND
MICROBIAL PELOIDS AS WELL AS VARIOUS SKELETAL
FRAGMENTS ESPECIALLY BIVALVES GASTROPODS
AND BENTHIC FORAMINIFERS .OTE THE PRO
NOUNCED FENESTRAL FABRIC THAT IS CHARACTERISTIC
OF SUCH INTERTIDAL STROMATOLITE DEPOSITS
00, (! MM
Recent sediment Deep Lake, Yorke
Peninsula, South Australia
! STROMATOLITE FROM A HYPERSALINE LAKE A
COASTAL SALINA .OTE MICROBIAL PELOIDS AND
ENCRUSTED l LAMENTS FORMING SMALL INCIPIENT
BRANCHING STRUCTURES 0ELOIDAL hSHRUBSv NOR
MALLY ARE NOT SO WELL PRESERVED BUT MORE TYPI
CALLY DISAGGREGATE CONTRIBUTING TO THE PELOID
CONTENT OF SUCH MAT DEPOSITS
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Precambrian, northern Wisconsin
! COLUMNAR STROMATOLITIC BOUNDSTONE OR
BIOLITHITE ORIGINAL UP DIRECTION TOWARD THE
RIGHT $IGITATE OR COLUMNAR STROMATOLITES ARE
TYPICALLY OF SUBTIDAL ORIGIN UNLIKE THE NEARLY
PLANAR MATS OF PREVIOUS IMAGES THAT FORM PRI
MARILY IN INTERTIDAL SETTINGS 4HE LAMINATION IN
BOTH TYPES OF MATS HOWEVER RESULTS MAINLY
FROM ALTERNATING EPISODES OF MICROBIAL GROWTH
AND ENTRAPMENT OF TRANSPORTED SEDIMENT 3AM
PLE FROM 2OBERT ,AURY
00, (! MM
Oligocene-Miocene hardground,
Oamaru, Otago, New Zealand
! STROMATOLITIC CRUST ATOP A MARINE HARDGROUND
4HE LUMPY DIGITATE LAMINATED CRUST IS LARGELY
PHOSPHATIC HENCE THE BROWNISH COLOR IN PLANE
POLARIZED LIGHT AND THE NEARLY ISOTROPIC AP
PEARANCE IN CROSS
POLARIZED LIGHT !LTHOUGH
A BIOTIC ORIGIN OF SUCH STRUCTURES IS LIKELY IT IS
DIFl CULT TO PROVE IN THE ABSENCE OF PRESERVED
MICROBIAL REMAINS
00,80, (! MM EACH
Up. Permian (lo. Umian) Lower
Solikamskaya Suite, Perm Region,
Russia
! STROMATOLITIC OR THROMBOLITIC DEPOSIT SHOW
ING TYPICAL CONTORTED LAMINATIONS THAT WERE
SUBSTANTIALLY DISRUPTED BY THE GROWTH OF
EVAPORITES )NTERTIDAL STROMATOLITES THAT GROW
IN ARID REGIONS ARE COMMONLY ASSOCIATED WITH
GYPSUM ANHYDRITE OR HALITE CRYSTALS OR CRYSTAL
FRAGMENTS FORMED BY THE EVAPORATIVE CONCEN
TRATION AND INl LTRATION OF WATER TRAPPED ON
ORIGINAL MAT SURFACES
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 1: CALCIMICROBES AND CALCAREOUS ALGAE
Up. Devonian (Frasnian) Sadler
Fm., Canning Basin, Western
Australia
-ICROBIAL GROWTH CAN FORM NODULAR STRUC
TURES AS IN THIS 'IRVANELLA ONCOID A PISOID
OF BACTERIALALGAL ORIGIN PARTICULARLY IN
AREAS OF AT LEAST EPISODICALLY STRONG WAVE OR
TIDAL ACTION 4HE IRREGULARITY AND CONTORTION
OF LAMINATIONS AND THE PRESERVATION OF INTERNAL
l LAMENTOUS FABRICS SEE FOLLOWING PHOTOGRAPH
ARE THE MAIN CLUES TO A MICROBIAL PROBABLY
CYANOBACTERIAL ORIGIN OF SUCH GRAINS
00, (! MM
Up. Devonian (top Frasnian) Simla-
Blue Ridge Fm., Alberta, Canada
! CLOSE UP VIEW OF A 'IRVANELLA ONCOID DIS
PLAYING WELL DEVELOPED TUBULAR STRUCTURE .OTE
THE INTERl NGERING OF INDIVIDUAL l LAMENTS AND
THE SELECTIVE PRECIPITATION OF DENSE MICRITIC
CARBONATE AROUND THE l LAMENT SHEATHS )T IS
NECESSARY TO VIEW THIN SECTIONS AT MAXIMUM
MAGNIl CATIONS IN ORDER TO SEE SUCH l LAMENTOUS
STRUCTURES AND DEMONSTRATE A PROBABLE MICRO
BIAL ORIGIN FOR PARTICULAR PISOIDS
00, (! MM
Oligocene Deborah Volcanic Fm.,
Oamaru, Otago, New Zealand
4HESE ARE PELOIDAL CALCITIC PROBABLY MICROBIAL
BRANCHING GROWTHS THAT FORMED IN ASSOCIATION
WITH BASALTIC PILLOW LAVAS 4HE MICROBES GREW
ATOP GLASSY ZEOLITIC PILLOW RINDS THE YELLOW
MATERIAL AT THE BOTTOM OF THE PHOTOGRAPH
AND EXTENDED INTO OPEN INTER PILLOW CAVITIES
4HESE SHRUB LIKE GROWTHS WERE LATER ENCASED IN
SPARRY CALCITE CEMENT BUT WHERE UNCEMENTED
THEY COMMONLY FALL APART GENERATING LARGE
VOLUMES OF SMALL MICRITIC PELOIDS
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Lo. Cambrian (Tommotian)
Pestrotsvet Fm., Siberian Platform,
Russia
$ENDRITIC GROWTH FORMS OF THE WIDESPREAD
CALCIMICROBE OR MICROPROBLEMATIC ORGANISM
%PIPHYTON 4HIS GENUS HAS DISTINCTIVELY THICK
SOLID BRANCHES )T COMMONLY FORMS UNUSUALLY
LARGE GROWTHS THAT CAN BE A SUBSTANTIAL ROCK
FORMING ELEMENT IN ASSOCIATION WITH OTHER
FRAMEWORK ORGANISMS 3AMPLE FROM .OEL 0
*AMES
00, (! MM
Lo.-Mid. Ordovician Cow Head Gp.,
Newfoundland, Canada
!NOTHER VIEW OF DENDRITIC GROWTHS OF
%PIPHYTON A POSSIBLE CYANOBACTERIAL ORGAN
ISM 4HIS GENUS IS QUITE COMMON IN #AMBRIAN
AND /RDOVICIAN CARBONATE STRATA AND HAS BEEN
DESCRIBED FROM ROCKS AS YOUNG AS $EVONIAN
3AMPLE FROM .OEL 0 *AMES
00, !&E3 (! MM
Up. Devonian (Frasnian) Pillara Ls.,
Canning Basin, Western Australia
,UMPY PELOIDAL ACCUMULATIONS OF THE MI
CROPROBLEMATIC GENUS 2ENALCIS A POSSIBLE
CYANOBACTERIAL ORGANISM HERE ENCRUSTING A
l NGER SHAPED STROMATOPOROID 4HIS GENUS
IS WIDESPREAD IN #AMBRIAN THROUGH $EVO
NIAN STRATA AND FORMED SMALL SELF SUPPORTING
GROWTHS AS WELL AS ENCRUSTATIONS THAT MAY HAVE
HELPED TO BIND OTHER FRAMEWORK ORGANISMS
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 1: CALCIMICROBES AND CALCAREOUS ALGAE
Up. Devonian (Famennian) Piker
Hills Fm., Canning Basin, Western
Australia
! SMALL BRANCHING CLUSTER OF 2ENALCIS IN AN
ALLOCHTHONOUS BLOCK OF REEF WITHIN MARGINAL
SLOPE DEPOSITS .OTE THE CHARACTERISTIC DENSE
MICRITE WITHIN THE STACKED BRANCHING DOMAL
GROWTH STAGES 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF 0HILLIP
% 0LAYFORD
00, (! MM
Up. Devonian (basal Famennian)
Virgin Hills Fm., Canning Basin,
Western Australia
! BIOLITHITE WITH IRON AND IRIDIUM RICH CALCI
l ED DIGITATE GROWTHS OF &RUTEXITES A POSSIBLE
CYANOBACTERIAL FORM 4HIS DEPOSIT FORMED JUST
ABOVE THE &RASNIAN &AMENNIAN BOUNDARY A
TIME OF WIDESPREAD EXTINCTION OF MANY HIGHER
ORGANISMS
00, (! MM
Up. Permian (Kazanian?)
Karstryggen Fm., Jameson Land,
East Greenland
#ALCIl ED MICROPROBLEMATIC DENSELY BRANCH
ING GROWTHS 3UCH CALCIl ED ARBORESCENT RE
MAINS HAVE BEEN CONSIDERED AS MICROBIAL BY
SOME WORKERS AND AS GREEN ALGAL BY OTHERS
4HE EXAMPLES SHOWN HERE WERE FORMED AND
PRESERVED IN SHALLOW MARINE AREAS WITH EXCEP
TIONALLY HIGH RATES OF MARINE CEMENTATION
00, !3 (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Jurassic Morrison-Sundance Fms.,
Park Co., Wyoming
-ANY STRUCTURES FORMED BY MICROBIAL ORGAN
ISMS HAVE PROBLEMATIC PHYLETIC ASSIGNMENTS
!S NOTED EARLIER SOME OF THE MOST CHARAC
TERISTIC MICROBIAL FABRICS ARE BRANCHING OR
SHRUB LIKE FEATURES )N THIS EXAMPLE AN /RTON
ELLA TYPE ALGA HAS FORMED A RADIATING CLUSTER OF
CALCIl ED TUBULES ! NUMBER OF SIMILAR SPECIES
WITH TUBULAR STRUCTURES ARE DIFFERENTIATED MAIN
LY BY THEIR BRANCHING PATTERNS AND ARE CLASSED
BY SOME AS MICROBIAL STRUCTURES BUT BY MOST
WORKERS AS CODIACEAN GREEN ALGAE SEE 7RAY
00, !&E3 (! MM
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Capitan
Fm., Eddy Co., New Mexico
! CLOSE UP VIEW OF !RCHAEOLITHOPORELLA AN
IMPORTANT ENCRUSTING MICROPROBLEMATIC ORGAN
ISM IN 0ERMIAN REEFS COMMONLY IN CLOSE AS
SOCIATION WITH 4UBIPHYTES AND INTERLAMINATED
WITH SYNSEDIMENTARY MARINE CEMENTS )T
HAS BEEN CLASSED AS A CALCIMICROBIAL DEPOSIT
BY SOME WORKERS AND AS A RED ALGA BY OTHERS
0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF 3AL * -AZZULLO
80, (! MM
Eocene Green River Fm., Laney
Mbr., Sweetwater Co., Wyoming
&INGER SHAPED TO DOMAL STROMATOLITES OF A
LACUSTRINE ALGA #HLORELLOPSIS COLONIATA DE
SCRIBED AS FORMED BY UNICELLULAR COCCOID ALGAE
OF UNCERTAIN AFl NITIES BY "RADLEY 4HE
LAMINATED DOMAL OR DIGITATE STRUCTURES ARE
TYPICAL OF STROMATOLITES CREATED BY THE TRAPPING
AND BINDING ACTION OF ORGANIC MATS EVEN IF THE
SPORANGIAL FEATURES THE LAYERS OF SMALL SPHERI
CAL BODIES VISIBLE THROUGHOUT THE COLUMNS ARE
NOT 4HE ENTIRE ROCK HAS BEEN REPLACED BY CHERT
IN THIS EXAMPLE
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 1: CALCIMICROBES AND CALCAREOUS ALGAE
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Tansill
Fm., Eddy Co., New Mexico
! COLONY OF #OLLENELLA GUADALUPENSIS FORMING
A l NGER
LIKE OR DOMAL SKELETAL STRUCTURE THAT IS
PART OF THE REEF TO NEAR
BACKREEF FRAMEWORK
4HE COLUMNS WHICH ARE COMPOSED OF PRE
CIPITATED NOT TRAPPED CALCIUM CARBONATE ARE
SURROUNDED BY TYPICALLY FOSSILIFEROUS SHELF
MARGIN CARBONATE DETRITUS !LTHOUGH VIEWED
AS A MICROBIAL DEPOSIT BY SOME IT HAS BEEN
DESCRIBED AS A PROBABLE STROMATOPOROID BY
OTHERS * ! "ABCOCK WRITTEN COM
MUN 4HIS GENUS IS KNOWN ONLY FROM 5PPER
0ERMIAN STRATA
00, "3% (! MM
Lo. Jurassic (mid. Liassic)
limestone, Central High Atlas
region, Morocco
!N EXAMPLE OF hCLOTTEDv FABRIC POSSIBLE
BACTERIAL CRUSTS IN A SPONGE REEF 0ATCHY
DARK MICRITIC OR PELOIDAL ACCUMULATIONS COM
MONLY FOUND IN ASSOCIATION WITH SPONGES OR
OTHER FRAMEWORK ORGANISMS ARE FREQUENTLY
INTERPRETED AS MICROBIAL PRECIPITATES ALTHOUGH
ABSOLUTE EVIDENCE OF A MICROBIAL ORIGIN IS VERY
HARD TO l ND 4HE DARKER PATCHES OF MICRO
BIAL MATERIAL ARE SURROUNDED HERE BY NORMAL
MICRITIC CARBONATE SEDIMENT
00, (! MM
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
$ENSE MICRITIC MASSES DARK MATERIAL THAT
MAY HAVE FORMED AROUND NOW LEACHED OR DE
COMPOSED GRAINS 4HIS MICROPROBLEMATICUM
HAS BEEN CLASSIl ED AS 4HARTHARELLA SP AND IT
MAY BE A CYANOBACTERIAL PRODUCT ALTHOUGH
AS WITH MOST PROBLEMATIC FORMS IT COULD ALSO
HAVE OTHER ORIGINS 3UCH MICRITIC AND PELOIDAL
ENCRUSTATIONS ARE ESPECIALLY COMMON IN ROCKS
OF THIS AGE ALTHOUGH THEY CAN BE FOUND ESSEN
TIALLY THROUGHOUT THE 0HANEROZOIC ROCK RECORD
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
-!2).% '2%%. !,'!%
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
0HYLUM #HLOROPHYTA
&AMILY #ODIACEAE /RDOVICIAN
2ECENT
&AMILY $ASYCLADACEAE #AMBRIAN
2ECENT
2ANGES OF SOME SPECIl C GENERA DEPICTED IN THIS SECTION
(ALIMEDA
#RETACEOUS
2ECENT
-IZZIA
0ERMIAN
-ASTOPORA
/RDOVICIAN
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
0HOTOSYNTHETIC AND THUS REQUIRE LIGHT 'REEN ALGAE GENERALLY ARE MOST COMMON AT DEPTHS OF TO M BUT SOME
HEAVILY CALCIl ED MODERN CODIACEANS ARE MOST ABUNDANT AT DEPTHS OF
M A FEW FORMS EXTEND INTO WATER
DEPTHS GREATER THAN M
7IDE SALINITY TOLERANCE RANGING FROM STRONGLY HYPERSALINE TO BRACKISH -OST CALCIl ED FORMS GROW MAINLY IN
WARM TEMPERATE TO TROPICAL AREAS WITH NEAR
NORMAL SALINITY WATERS !LSO COMMON IN REEF AND NEAR
BACKREEF
AREAS AND CAN EVEN FORM BIOHERMAL THICKETS OR MOUNDS
)MPORTANT CONTRIBUTORS TO SAND
AND MUD
SIZED FRACTIONS OF MODERN AND ANCIENT CARBONATE DEPOSITS OF WARM
WATER REGIONS
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
6IRTUALLY ALL ARAGONITE BUT SOME CALCITIC FORMS MAY HAVE EXISTED IN THE PAST
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
-ODERN CODIACEAN GREEN ALGAE (ALIMEDA 0ENICILLUS AND OTHERS FORM UPRIGHT TYPICALLY SEGMENTED SHRUBBY
PLANTS ABOUT
CM HIGH 4HE SEGMENTS ARE COMPOSED OF EXTREMELY SMALL NEEDLE
LIKE ARAGONITE CRYSTALS
ABOUT M LONG ESPECIALLY IN SURl CIAL AREAS 4HE NEEDLES MAY BE DISPERSED INTO THE SEDIMENT UPON DEATH
FORMING A MAJOR SOURCE OF CARBONATE MUD MICRITE /THER CODIACEANS DISAGGREGATE INTO INTACT ELONGATE PLATES
WITH ORGANIZED TUBULAR OR l LAMENTOUS STRUCTURE THAT MAY OR MAY NOT BE PRESERVED AFTER DIAGENESIS 0ALEOZOIC
CODIACEANS ALSO INCLUDED NODULAR OR CRUSTOSE FORMS
$ASYCLADACEAN GREEN ALGAE EG #YMOPOLIA ALSO CONSIST OF SEGMENTED BRANCHING SHRUBS THAT STAND SEVERAL
CENTIMETERS TALL -OST SEGMENTS SEPARATE ON DEATH OF THE ORGANISM AND FORM ISOLATED GENERALLY SPHERICAL
HOLLOW GRAINS WITH RADIALLY
ORIENTED TUBULES OR WALL PERFORATIONS UTRICLES
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
!RAGONITIC MINERALOGY GENERALLY RESULTS IN POOR PRESERVATION IN ANCIENT LIMESTONES
4YPICALLY FOUND AS MOLDS OR l LLED MOLDS WITH ONLY TRACES OF THE ORIGINAL TUBULAR FABRIC OR OTHER INTERNAL
STRUCTURES 2ECOGNITION IS FACILITATED WHERE TUBULES WERE l LLED WITH -G
CALCITE MARINE CEMENT OR WHERE
MICRITIC SEDIMENT INl LTRATED THE PLATES AND WAS LITHIl ED PRIOR TO DISSOLUTION OF ARAGONITE FROM THE PLATES
)N SUCH CASES THE STRUCTURE OF GREEN ALGAL GRAINS MAY BE A REVERSE OF THE ORIGINAL ONE PORES l LLED WITH
CARBONATE MATERIAL AND FORMER PLATES LEACHED TO PRODUCE VOIDS OR SECONDARILY
l LLED FORMER VOIDS
'ENERALLY FOUND AS SMALL MM
SIZED DISARTICULATED SEGMENTS RATHER THAN COMPLETE PLANTS
7ELL
DEl NED TUBULAR ANDOR l LAMENTOUS STRUCTURES WHERE PRESERVED
$IFFERENT STRUCTURES OCCUR IN THE CORTEX AND MEDULLA REGIONS OF MANY CODIACEAN GREEN ALGAE
2ADIAL SYMMETRY IN DASYCLADACEANS OUTWARDLY
ORIENTED UTRICLES IN SOME CODIACEANS
3OME CALCISPHERES SMALL SPHERICAL SINGLE
OR DOUBLE
WALLED CALCAREOUS BODIES AND LARGE VOLUMES OF CARBONATE
MUD MAY BE OF GREEN ALGAL ORIGIN
0(/4/ 3#!,%3 !.$ !""2%6)!4)/.3 !2% %80,!).%$ ). 4(% "//+3 ).42/$5#4)/.
CHAPTER 1: CALCIMICROBES AND CALCAREOUS ALGAE
Typical codiacean green algal
structure
4HIS DIAGRAMMATIC VIEW OF (ALIMEDA SP
DEPICTS AN INDIVIDUAL PLATE SEGMENT AND ITS RE
LATIONSHIP TO THE FULL PLANT 0LATE WALLS CORTEX
AREAS ARE PERFORATED WITH SMALL TUBES UTRICLES
AND ARE HEAVILY CALCIl ED 4HE PLATE CENTERS
MEDULLA REGIONS ARE ONLY WEAKLY CALCIl ED
AND HAVE COMPLEXLY INTERTWINED l LAMENTS
!DAPTED FROM 7RAY AND OTHER SOURCES
4HE APPROXIMATE SCALE OF THE WHOLE BUSH LEFT
IS APPARENT FROM THE PHOTOGRAPH BELOW
Recent sediment, Florida reef tract,
southern Florida
$RIED SAMPLES OF FOUR COMMON GREEN ALGAE THAT
ARE SIGNIl CANT SEDIMENT PRODUCERS IN MODERN
#ARIBBEAN SHELF SETTINGS &ROM LEFT TO RIGHT
(ALIMEDA 0ENICILLUS 5DOTEA 2HIPOCEPHALUS
(ALIMEDA IS A PROLIl C CARBONATE SAND FORMER
0ENICILLUS IS A MAJOR CARBONATE MUD FORMER
AND THE OTHER TWO ARE MORE WEAKLY CALCIl ED
MINOR MUD PRODUCERS
-AC (! CM
Holocene sediment (beachrock),
Grand Cayman, Cayman Islands,
B.W.I.
! COMPLETE SINGLE PLATE SHED BY (ALIMEDA SP
A GREEN ALGA LEFT SIDE IN PICTURE ABOVE .OTE
THE CHARACTERISTIC YELLOWISH TO REDDISH
COLORED
MATERIAL THAT IS l LLED WITH MINUTE ARAGONITE
NEEDLES AND A SERIES OF TUBULES UTRICLES
LARGE ONES IN THE CENTER OF THE GRAIN MAINLY
ORIENTED PARALLEL TO THE LONG AXIS OF THE GRAIN
AND SMALLER ONES NEAR THE EDGES ORIENTED
LARGELY PERPENDICULAR TO THE GRAIN MARGINS
4HE TUBULES HAVE BEEN PARTIALLY l LLED WITH
SYNDEPOSITIONAL MARINE CEMENT
00, "3% (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Recent sediment, Great Bahama
Banks, Bahamas
! CLOSE UP VIEW OF A (ALIMEDA SP PLATE 4HE
REDDISH BROWN ORGANIC TISSUE IS SUBSTANTIALLY
CALCIl ED BUT CONSISTS OF EXTREMELY SMALL CRYS
TALS OF ARAGONITE A MINERAL LIKELY TO BE DIS
SOLVED DURING LATER DIAGENESIS 4HE UTRICLES
ARE CLEARLY VISIBLE AND HERE HAVE NOT BEEN l LLED
WITH SYNDEPOSITIONAL MARINE CEMENT
00, (! MM
Recent sediment, Belize
!N 3%- IMAGE SHOWING A CROSS SECTION
THROUGH A BROKEN (ALIMEDA SP PLATE .OTE THE
TUBULAR PASSAGEWAYS UTRICLES ORIGINALLY OC
CUPIED BY PLANT TISSUES AND INTERVENING CALCI
l ED AREAS EQUIVALENT TO THE BROWNISH COLORED
AREAS IN PREVIOUS PHOTOGRAPHS 4HE CALCI
l ED AREAS CONSIST OF ABUNDANT INTERLOCKED
PREDOMINANTLY RANDOMLY ORIENTED ARAGONITE
NEEDLES THAT CONSTITUTE THE PRESERVABLE PORTION
OF THE (ALIMEDA PLATE
3%- (! M
Recent sediment, Belize
! HIGHER MAGNIl CATION 3%- IMAGE OF A
(ALIMEDA SP PLATE SHOWING DETAILS OF THE
INTERLOCKING ARAGONITE NEEDLES SEEN IN THE PRE
VIOUS PHOTOGRAPH .EEDLES SUCH AS THESE ARE
FOUND IN MANY SPECIES OF GREEN ALGAE INCLUD
ING 0ENICILLUS 5DOTEA (ALIMEDA AND OTHERS
7HEN THE ALGAE DECOMPOSE THE NEEDLES MAY
BE SCATTERED AND ADD SIGNIl CANTLY TO THE LOCAL
PRODUCTION OF CLAY SIZED PARTICLES CARBON
ATE MUD 4HE POROUS STRUCTURE THE UNSTABLE
MINERALOGY AND THE SMALL CRYSTAL SIZE MAKE IT
LIKELY THAT (ALIMEDA PLATES WILL BE SUBSTAN
TIALLY ALTERED DURING DIAGENESIS
3%- (! M
CHAPTER 1: CALCIMICROBES AND CALCAREOUS ALGAE
Pleistocene Miami Ls., Dade Co.,
Florida
!N EXTENSIVELY ALTERED ROUGHLY YEAR
OLD (ALIMEDA SP PLATE .OTE THE l LLING OF
ORIGINAL TUBULES UTRICLES WITH BLOCKY METEOR
IC CALCITE BUT RETENTION OF DARK ORGANIC RICH IN
CLUSIONS IN AREAS OF NEOMORPHOSED ARAGONITE
00, (! ^ MM
Pleistocene Key Largo Ls., Florida
Keys, Monroe Co., Florida
! CLOSE UP VIEW OF AN EVEN MORE ALTERED
(ALIMEDA SP PLATE AGAIN FROM A YEAR
OLD UNIT (ERE THE TUBULES AND GRAIN EXTERIOR
ARE OUTLINED WITH CEMENT BUT THE ENTIRE ORIGINAL
MINERALIZED PART OF THE GRAIN HAS BEEN LEACHED
GENERATING SUBSTANTIAL INTRAGRANULAR SECONDARY
POROSITY 3TRUCTURAL PRESERVATION IN THIS EX
AMPLE LARGELY WAS DUE TO THE SYNSEDIMENTARY
FORMATION OF MICRITE ENVELOPES CREATED BY
EPIPHYTIC OR EPILITHIC CYANOBACTERIA AFTER THE
(ALIMEDA PLATES FELL TO THE SEA m OOR
00, (! MM
Up. Miocene (Messinian) Upper
Coralline Limestone Fm., Ghar
Lapsi, Malta
!N OLDER EXAMPLE OF LEACHED (ALIMEDA GRAINS
IN A LIMESTONE IN WHICH GREEN ALGAL PLATES FORM
A SUBSTANTIAL PART OF THE TOTAL SEDIMENT .OTE
THE PARTIAL PRESERVATION OF UTRICLES AND GRAIN
OUTLINES THAT STILL ALLOW THE IDENTIl CATION OF
THE GRAINS DESPITE THE COMPLETE LEACHING AND
POROSITY FORMATION IN THE AREAS OF ORIGINAL
ARAGONITE MINERALIZATION 3UCH LEACHED PLATY
ALGAL DEPOSITS CAN BE PROLIl C HYDROCARBON
RESERVOIRS
00, "3% (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Typical dasycladacean green algal
structure
$ASYCLADACEAN ALGAE ARE FAR MORE WIDELY REC
OGNIZED IN THE GEOLOGIC RECORD THAN CODIACEAN
FORMS 4HIS DIAGRAM ADAPTED FROM 7RAY
OF #YMOPOLIA SP SHOWS COMMON CHAR
ACTERISTICS OF DASYCLADACEANS A SMALL UP
RIGHT PLANTS HAVING ITS THALLUS OR BODY STRUCTURE
RADIALLY ARRANGED AROUND A CENTRAL AXIS WITH
WHORLS OF LATERAL BRANCHES 7HOLE PLANTS CAN
DISARTICULATE INTO INDIVIDUAL SEGMENTS
Oligocene Suwanee Ls., Citrus Co.,
Florida
! PROBABLE DASYCLADACEAN GREEN ALGAL GRAIN
.OTE THE INl LLING OF ORIGINAL PORES AND OUTLIN
ING OF THE GRAIN WITH MICRITIC SEDIMENT OR PRE
CIPITATES THAT ALLOWS RECOGNITION OF THE GRAIN
)N THE ABSENCE OF SUCH hPORE CASTINGv OF THE
STRUCTURE PRIOR TO DISSOLUTION THE ORIGIN OF THIS
GRAIN WOULD PROBABLY NOT BE DISCERNABLE
00, (! MM
Cretaceous, Albian-Cenomanian
Tamabra Ls., San Luis Potosi,
Mexico
! TRANSVERSE CROSS SECTION THROUGH A
DASYCLADACEAN GREEN ALGA 3HOWS THE RADIAL
SYMMETRY OF ELEMENTS ABOUT THE CENTRAL CAVITY
4HE CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES WHICH ALLOW IDENTI
l CATION ARE THE PRESENCE OF RADIATING TUBES AND
A CENTRAL CAVITY COUPLED WITH POOR PRESERVA
TION OF WALL STRUCTURE
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 1: CALCIMICROBES AND CALCAREOUS ALGAE
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Tansill
Fm., Eddy Co., New Mexico
! CLUSTER OF SEGMENTS OF -IZZIA SP ANOTHER
DASYCLADACEAN GREEN ALGAE 4HIS ALGA HAS
HOLLOW SPHERICAL SEGMENTS PERFORATED BY
TUBULES THAT ARE ORIENTED PERPENDICULAR TO THE
INNER AND OUTER WALLS 0RESERVATION IS DUE TO
SYNSEDIMENTARY INl LL OF THE TUBULES AND COAT
ING OF THE GRAIN WALLS RATHER THAN THE PRESENCE
OF MINERALIZED PARTS OF THE ORIGINAL ORGANISM
00, "3% (! MM
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Tansill
Fm., Culberson Co., Texas
4HREE -IZZIA GREEN ALGAL GRAINS WITH SUB
STANTIAL INTRAPARTICLE POROSITY .OTE THE RADI
ALLY SYMMETRICAL TUBULES THAT CHARACTERIZE
DASYCLADACEAN ALGAL REMAINS 4HIS SPECIES WAS
A MAJOR CARBONATE SAND PRODUCER IN THE NEAR
BACK REEF SETTING A SETTING SIMILAR TO THAT OC
CUPIED BY SOME SPECIES OF MODERN CODIACEAN
ALGAL GENUS (ALIMEDA
00, "3% (! MM
Ordovician Chambersburg Ls.,
Shenandoah Co., Virginia
!N EARLY DASYCLADACEAN GREEN ALGA -ASTOPORA
SP SHOWING RADIALLY ARRANGED CORTICAL CUPS
ALONG THE GRAIN MARGIN BUT WITH NO PRESERVA
TION OF ANY OTHER WALL STRUCTURE .OTE THE LARGE
SPARRY CALCITE l LLED CENTRAL CAVITY OF THIS ALGA
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
#(!2/0(94%3
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
#HAROPHYTES ARE A GROUP OF GREEN ALGAE THAT APPARENTLY SHARE A COMMON ANCESTOR WITH LAND PLANTS 2.! AND
$.! EVIDENCE INDICATES THAT CHAROPHYTES ARE THE CLOSEST NON
PLANT RELATIVE OF LAND PLANTS
4RADITIONALLY PLACED IN THE 0HYLUM #HAROPHYTA AND SEPARATED FROM OTHER GREEN ALGAE BY PLACEMENT IN THE #LASS
#HAROPHYCEAE ,ATE 3ILURIAN
2ECENT
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
0HOTOSYNTHETIC AND THUS REQUIRE LIGHT FOR GROWTH
-ODERN EXAMPLES ARE FOUND IN FRESH TO BRACKISH WATERS WITH RARE OCCURRENCES IN SALINE WATERS CHAROPHYTES
ARE MOST COMMON IN LACUSTRINE SETTINGS ESPECIALLY CLEAR
WATER ALKALINECALCIUM
RICH LAKES &OSSIL FORMS ARE
WIDELY DISTRIBUTED IN NONMARINE ROCKS ESPECIALLY IN SHALES AND LIMESTONES BUT ALSO EXTEND INTO ROCKS DEPOSITED
IN BRACKISH AND PERHAPS EVEN MORE SALINE ENVIRONMENTS 2ACKI )T SHOULD ALSO BE REMEMBERED THAT
CALCIl ED REPRODUCTIVE PARTS OOGONIA CAN BE READILY TRANSPORTED INTO MARINE WATERS BY RIVERS AND STREAMS
#HAROPHYTES CAN BE SIGNIl CANT ROCK
FORMING ELEMENTS AS WELL AS USEFUL BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC MARKERS ESPECIALLY IN
#ENOZOIC LACUSTRINE DEPOSITS
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
!LMOST ALL ARE LOW
-G CALCITE BUT ARAGONITE HAS ALSO BEEN RECORDED LOW
-G CALCITE IS ALSO THE DOMINANT INORGANIC
CEMENT AROUND PLANT STEMS IN LACUSTRINE SETTINGS
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
-ODERN CHAROPHYTES COMMONLY KNOWN AS STONEWORTS OR BRITTLEWORTS GROW AS BUSHY PLANTS UP TO CM TALL WITH
WHORLS OF SHORT BRANCHES AND ATTACHED OOGONIA
#ARBONATE CAN BE PRECIPITATED AS PLANT STEM ENCRUSTATIONS IN THE SAME WAY THAT MANY OTHER PLANTS MAY
GET ENCRUSTED IN SHORELINE OR SPRING
RELATED TRAVERTINES BUT THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS TERMED OOGONIA OR
GYROGONITES ARE THE ONLY PARTS THAT ARE SUBSTANTIALLY CALCIl ED BY THE ORGANISM THEMSELVES
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
#ALCIl ED OOGONIA ARE GENERALLY THE ONLY CLEARLY IDENTIl ABLE CHAROPHYTE FORMS
/OGONIA ARE RECOGNIZABLE AS OVOID TO CIRCULAR BODIES ROUGHLY TO MM IN DIAMETER WITH SPIRALLY ARRANGED
TUBULES THAT FORM EXTERNAL RIDGES
-OST COMMON APPEARANCE IS AS A LARGE CENTRAL CAVITY RINGED BY SMALLER CIRCULAR TO OVOID FEATURES THAT REPRESENT
CUTS THROUGH THE EXTERNAL SPIRAL TUBULES 7IDE SEPARATIONS BETWEEN ADJACENT CHAROPHYTE TUBULES AND THEIR
SPIRAL ARRANGEMENT HELP TO DISTINGUISH CHAROPHYTE REMAINS FROM THOSE OF DASYCLADACEAN GREEN ALGAE
7HEN FOUND THEY COMMONLY OCCUR IN LARGE NUMBERS
CHAPTER 1: CALCIMICROBES AND CALCAREOUS ALGAE
Characteristic features of a typical
charophyte alga
4HE STRUCTURE OF A MODERN CHAROPHYTE #HARA
SP IS SHOWN ON THIS DIAGRAM ADAPTED FROM
7RAY 4HE OOGONIA ARE CALCIl ED
AND THUS THEY ARE THE MOST LIKELY PARTS TO BE
PRESERVED IN SEDIMENTS 3TEMS MAY ALSO BE
ENCASED IN EXTERNALLY PRECIPITATED CALCITE TRAV
ERTINE FOR EXAMPLE AND THUS MAY BE PRESERVED
AS CASTS 3CALE OF PLANT IS ILLUSTRATED IN PHOTO
GRAPH BELOW
Holocene of Green Lake,
Fayetteville, New York and Blue
Hole, Ohio
-ACROSCOPIC VIEWS OF CHAROPHYTE DEPOSITS A
LIVING CHAROPHYTE #HARA SP CONTAINING ABOUT
DRY WEIGHT #A#/ RIGHT AND CARBONATE
MUD THAT CONSISTS MOSTLY OF LOW -G CALCITE DE
RIVED FROM CHAROPHYTES LEFT 4HE RIGHT HAND
PICTURE SHOWS LOW -G CALCITE ENCRUSTATIONS
AROUND CHAROPHYTE STEMS 0HOTOGRAPHS COUR
TESY OF 7ALTER % $EAN
-AC , (! ^ CM 2 (! ^ CM
Up. Pleistocene lacustrine
sediment, U.S.A.
!N 3%- IMAGE OF THE CALCAREOUS OUTER COVER OF
THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURE OOGONIUM
OF A CHAROPHYTE .OTE THE SPIRALLY ARRANGED EX
TERNAL CORTICAL TUBES THAT GIVE THE GRAIN A RIBBED
APPEARANCE 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF 7ALTER %
$EAN TAKEN BY 2ICHARD - &ORESTER
3%- (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Recent lacustrine sediments,
U.S.A.
! CROSS SECTION THROUGH A SINGLE ORGANICALLY
STAINED OOGONIUM OF #HARA SP THAT IS STILL
ATTACHED TO THE PLANT STEM .OTE THE HOLLOW
CENTRAL CAVITY BLACK SURROUNDED BY CORTICAL
TUBES THAT ARE SPIRALLY ARRANGED AROUND THE
OOGONIUM
00, /3 (! MM
Up. Devonian Yaosoo Fm., Dushan,
Guizhou Province, Peoples
Republic of China
#ALCIl ED GYROGONITES OOGONIA ARE ALSO REC
OGNIZABLE IN THIN SECTION 4HESE ARE EXAMPLES
OF SOME VERY EARLY PROBABLE CHAROPHYTES THEY
SHOW DISTINCTIVE OUTLINES WITH VERTICAL RIBBING
AND THE WELL PRESERVED FABRIC OF ORIGINALLY
CALCITIC GRAINS 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF !LBERT
6 #AROZZI SEE #AROZZI REFERENCE GIVEN
IN REFERENCE LIST AT END OF THIS BOOKS )NTRODUC
TION
00, (! MM
Up. Jurassic, Portlandian
(Purbeckian), Salve, France
! CALCAREOUS MUDSTONE WITH #HARA SP OOGONIA
SHOWING CHARACTERISTIC WALL STRUCTURE WITH SPI
RAL ARRANGEMENT OF CORTICAL TUBES 0HOTOGRAPH
COURTESY OF !LBERT 6 #AROZZI SEE #AROZZI
REFERENCE GIVEN IN THE )NTRODUCTION SEC
TION OF THE BOOK
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 1: CALCIMICROBES AND CALCAREOUS ALGAE
Lo. Cretaceous Newark Canyon
Fm., Nevada
! TRANSVERSE SECTION THROUGH A CALCIl ED GY
ROGONITE OOGONIUM OF A CHAROPHYTE SHOWING
THE CHARACTERISTIC CENTRAL TUBE WITH SURROUND
ING CORTICAL TUBES 4HE DISTINCTNESS OF THE
INDIVIDUAL CORTICAL TUBE WALLS AND THE QUAL
ITY OF THEIR PRESERVATION HELPS TO DISTINGUISH
SUCH CHAROPHYTE GRAINS FROM SIMILAR APPEAR
ING DASYCLADACEAN GREEN ALGAL REMAINS )N
THIS SECTION AND THE ONE BELOW HOWEVER THE
CHARACTERISTIC SPIRALING OF THE TUBULES IS NOT
DISCERNABLE
00, (! MM
Lo. Cretaceous Newark Canyon
Fm., Nevada
/BLIQUE SECTIONS THROUGH THE REPRODUCTIVE
PARTS OF TWO CHAROPHYTES AGAIN SHOWING VARIA
TIONS IN VIEWS OF THE CENTRAL CAVITY AND SUR
ROUNDING CORTICAL TUBES
00, (! MM
Recent sediment, Elk Lake,
Clearwater Co., Minnesota
!N 3%- IMAGE OF 0HACOTUS SP A PLANK
TONIC LACUSTRINE ORGANISM !LTHOUGH NOT A
CHAROPHYTE IT IS BOTH A GREEN ALGA AND ONE OF
THE FEW CALCAREOUS PLANKTONIC ORGANISMS THAT
CONTRIBUTES CARBONATE TO LACUSTRINE SEDIMENTS
)T THUS IS COMMONLY FOUND IN ASSOCIATION WITH
CHAROPHYTES IN SUCH DEPOSITS 0HOTOGRAPH
COURTESY OF 7ALTER % $EAN
3%- (! M
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
2%$ !,'!%
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
0HYLUM 2HODOPHYTA #AMBRIAN
2ECENT
&AMILY #ORALLINACEAE *URASSIC
(OLOCENE POSSIBLE LATE 0ALEOZOIC FORMS
&AMILY 3OLENOPORACEAE #AMBRIAN
0ALEOCENE -IOCENE
&AMILY 3QUAMARIACEAE 0ENNSYLVANIAN
(OLOCENE
&AMILY 'YMNOCODIACEAE 0ERMIAN
#RETACEOUS
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
0HOTOSYNTHETIC REQUIRE LIGHT BUT ARE THE ALGAL GROUP BEST ADAPTED TO USE THE BLUE LIGHT THAT PENETRATES INTO DEEP
WATERS 4HUS SOME MAY BE FOUND TO DEPTHS OF M OR MORE
$OMINANTLY MARINE ABOUT LIVE IN FRESH WATER MOST LIVE IN WATERS WITH SALINITIES RANGING FROM
PPT
7IDE TEMPERATURE LATITUDE ALLOWS THEM TO BE AN IMPORTANT COMPONENT OF BOTH COLD
AND WARM
WATER
CARBONATES AND THEREFORE MAKES THEM DIFl CULT TO USE AS PALEOCLIMATE INDICATORS
&RAGILE BRANCHING FORMS ARE FOUND IN MODERATE WAVE ENERGY AREAS %NCRUSTING NODULAR AND ROBUST BRANCHING
FORMS CAN WITHSTAND VERY HIGH WAVE ENERGY )NDEED RED ALGAL ENCRUSTERS ARE THE DOMINANT BINDING ORGANISMS
IN MOST #ENOZOIC TO MODERN REEFS
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
#ORALLINE RED ALGAE AREWERE COMPOSED OF VERY HIGH
-G CALCITE TO MOLE -G SQUAMARIACEANS ARE
DOMINANTLY ARAGONITE
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
2ED ALGAL GRAINS TYPICALLY ARE CM
SIZED ALTHOUGH CRUSTOSE FORMS CAN REACH DECIMETER SIZE
-EMBERS OF THE RED ALGAE HAVE SEVERAL GROWTH HABITS A AS FRAGMENTS OF ENCRUSTING NODULAR AND RIGID BRANCHING
PLANTS B AS ERECT ARTICULATED BRANCHING OR ARBORESCENT FORMS C AS MASSIVE ENCRUSTERS AND BINDERS AND D
AS COATINGS ON OTHER GRAINS FORMING RHODOIDS OR RHODOLITHS
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
4HE HEAVY CALCIl CATION AND ORIGINAL HIGH
-G CALCITE COMPOSITION OF MANY RED ALGAE LEADS TO VERY GOOD
PRESERVATION OF BOTH INTERNAL STRUCTURES AND EXTERNAL OUTLINES
#ORALLINE RED ALGAE AND MOST OTHER RED ALGAE ARE MOST EASILY IDENTIl ED BY THEIR VERY l NE
SCALE RETICULATE
CELLULAR OR LATTICEWORK INTERNAL STRUCTURE THAT REm ECTS THE l LAMENTOUS FABRIC OF THESE ORGANISMS (IGH
MAGNIl CATION ANDOR ULTRA
THIN SECTIONS MAY BE NEEDED FOR RECOGNITION OF THIS STRUCTURE
2EPRODUCTIVE SPORE PRODUCING BODIES COMMONLY ARE PRESENT IN CORALLINE RED ALGAE 3MALL INDIVIDUAL
SPHERICAL CAVITIES ARE TERMED SPORANGIA SOMETIMES THESE CAN BE MERGED INTO A LARGER CAVITY TERMED A
CONCEPTACLE
4HERE IS A CLEAR DIFFERENTIATION BETWEEN EXTERNAL PERITHALLUS AND INTERNAL HYPOTHALLUS STRUCTURAL LAYERS IN
MANY CORALLINE RED ALGAE
3OLENOPOROIDS ARE CHARACTERIZED BY RADIATING OR SUB
PARALLEL TUBULAR OR l LAMENTOUS STRUCTURES CELLS SHOW
POLYGONAL SHAPES IN TRANSVERSE SECTION THEY LACK CONCEPTACLES AND ARE FOUND AS ENCRUSTING ROUNDED OR
NODULAR MASSES
3QUAMARIACEAN RED ALGAE HAVE POORLY
PRESERVED STRUCTURE DUE TO THEIR ARAGONITIC COMPOSITION STRUCTURE IS
VISIBLE MAINLY WHERE EARLY SEDIMENT INl LTRATION OR CEMENTATION OCCURRED ILLUSTRATED IN THE FOLLOWING SECTION
ON PHYLLOID ALGAE
0(/4/ 3#!,%3 !.$ !""2%6)!4)/.3 !2% %80,!).%$ ). 4(% "//+3 ).42/$5#4)/.
CHAPTER 1: CALCIMICROBES AND CALCAREOUS ALGAE
Characteristic structures of a
representative coralline red alga
4HE CRUSTOSE CORALLINE ALGAE ILLUSTRATED HERE
BY ,ITHOPHYLLUM SP ARE THE MOST HEAVILY CAL
CIl ED OF THE MODERN RED ALGAE 4HEY HAVE A
RETICULATE CELLULAR l LAMENTOUS STRUCTURE WITH
AN EXTERIOR LAYER PERITHALLUS THAT IS DIFFERENTI
ATED FROM THE INTERIOR HYPOTHALLUS AS SEEN IN
THIS DIAGRAM ADAPTED FROM 7RAY 2E
PRODUCTIVE ORGANS SPORANGIA OR CONCEPTACLES
MAY ALSO BE PRESENT #ORALLINE RED ALGAE WERE
IMPORTANT SEDIMENT FORMERS FROM THE *URASSIC
TO THE 2ECENT
Characteristic structures of a
representative segmented red alga
.OT ALL CORALLINE ALGAE ARE ENCRUSTERS OR RIG
IDLY BRANCHED ARTICULATED FORMS SUCH AS THE
#ORALLINA SP SHOWN HERE IN A DIAGRAM ADAPTED
FROM 7RAY ALSO ARE COMMON 4HEIR
CALCIl ED SEGMENTS DISARTICULATE UPON DEATH
AND ARE CONTRIBUTED TO THE SEDIMENT
Recent sediment, St. Peters
Parrish, Barbados
4HIS MODERN CRUSTOSE CORALLINE RED ALGAL GRAIN
SHOWS DIFFERENTIATION OF CELLULAR STRUCTURE
IN INNER AND OUTER LAYERS 4HE OUTER LAYER
PERITHALLUS HAS DENSER STRUCTURE AND CELLS
ORIENTED OUTWARD THE INNER LAYER HYPOTHALLUS
HAS A SERIES OF LIGHT AND DARK BANDS AND CELL
STRUCTURE ORIENTED PARALLEL TO THE LONG AXIS OF
THE GRAIN #OMPARE WITH DIAGRAM AT TOP OF
PAGE
00, "3% (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Pliocene-Pleistocene limestone,
Boca Grandi, Aruba
! CRUSTOSE CORALLINE RED ALGAL GRAIN SHOWING
DIFFERENTIATION OF CELLULAR STRUCTURE THE
HYPOTHALLUS IN THE LOWER PART OF THE PHOTOGRAPH
AND THE PERITHALLUS WITH A REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN
TERMED A CONCEPTACLE IN THE UPPER PART 4HE
REGULAR AND EXTREMELY SMALL SCALE BOXWORK
STRUCTURE OF BOTH LAYERS IS THE MOST DIAGNOSTIC
FEATURE FOR RECOGNITION OF RED ALGAE
00, (! MM
Recent sediment, Grand Cayman,
Cayman Islands, B.W.I.
! MODERN CRUSTOSE CORALLINE RED ALGAL GRAIN
SHOWING BOTH DIAGNOSTIC CELLULAR STRUCTURE AND
A SERIES OF REPRODUCTIVE BODIES SPORANGIA
SOME OF WHICH ARE POROUS WHEREAS OTHERS HAVE
BEEN l LLED WITH SPARRY CALCITE 4HE HIGH -G
CALCITE COMPOSITION OF CORALLINE RED ALGAE GEN
ERALLY LEADS TO EXCELLENT PRESERVATION OF THEIR
SKELETAL STRUCTURE
00, "3% (! MM
Oligocene Lower Coralline
Limestone Fm., Malta
!N IRREGULARLY SHAPED CRUSTOSE CORALLINE RED
ALGAL NODULE TERMED A RHODOID SHOWING
CHARACTERISTIC l NE SCALE CELLULAR STRUCTURE WITH
DISTINCT LIGHTER COLORED ROWS OF SMALL SPORE
BEARING REPRODUCTIVE BODIES SPORANGIA
00, "3% (! MM
CHAPTER 1: CALCIMICROBES AND CALCAREOUS ALGAE
Eocene Totara Fm., Up. Rhodolith
Ls., northern Otago, New Zealand
! CLOSE UP VIEW OF IRREGULAR SHEET LIKE
CRUSTOSE CORALLINE RED ALGAL ENCRUSTATIONS IN A
RHODOID 4HE SPAR l LLED GAPS BETWEEN SUCCES
SIVE LAYERS OF RED ALGAL ENCRUSTATIONS ARE QUITE
COMMON IN RHODOIDS 4HE SPHERICAL RHODOID
GRAINS IN THE ROCK FROM WHICH THIS EXAMPLE IS
TAKEN ARE TO CM IN DIAMETER
00, (! MM
Up. Miocene (Tortonian-Messinian)
Upper Coralline Limestone Fm.,
Malta
! COOL
WATER SEDIMENT WITH MULTIPLE LAYERS OR
PLATES OF RED ALGAL MATERIAL PROBABLY -ESO
PHYLLUM OR ,ITHOPHYLLUM FORMING SHEET
LIKE
SEAm OOR ENCRUSTATIONS #RUSTOSE CORALLINE RED
ALGAE ARE A VERY IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTOR TO COOL
WATER CARBONATE DEPOSITS EXTENDING EVEN INTO
POLAR WATERS $ESPITE BEING PHOTOSYNTHETIC
ORGANISMS RED ALGAE ARE FOUND EVEN AT WATER
DEPTHS IN EXCESS OF M 4HE SURROUNDING
SEDIMENT IS A SILTY DETRITAL LIMESTONE
00, "3% (! MM
Mid. Eocene Naranjo Fm., Coamo
Springs Mbr., Ponce-Coamo area,
Puerto Rico
!N EXAMPLE OF A BRANCHING CRUSTOSE CORALLINE
RED ALGA 3UCH FORMS ARE QUITE BRITTLE AND SUB
JECT TO BREAKAGE MAKING THEM SUBSTANTIAL CON
TRIBUTORS OF FRAGMENTAL MATERIAL IN REEF
SLOPE
BACK
REEF OR SHELFAL SETTINGS 3AMPLE FROM %
! 0ESSAGNO *R
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Recent sediment, San Juan harbor,
Puerto Rico
3OME GENERA OF RED ALGAE THE SEGMENTED
CORALLINES ARE ARTICULATED WITH INDIVIDUAL
HARD SEGMENTS HELD TOGETHER BY SOFT TISSUE SEE
DIAGRAM AT THE BEGINNING OF THE RED ALGAL SEC
TION 4HIS EXAMPLE SHOWS BOTH LONGITUDINAL
AND TRANSVERSE CUTS THROUGH AN INTACT MODERN
SEGMENTED RED ALGA PROBABLY *ANIA SP 4HESE
ORGANISMS CAN BE PROLIl C CONTRIBUTORS TO THE
SAND SIZED FRACTION OF CARBONATE SEDIMENTS
00, "3% (! MM
Pleistocene (125 ky) Coral Rock
Fm., St. Philip Parish, Barbados
!N EXAMPLE OF PIECES OF A POSSIBLE SEGMENTED
RED ALGA IN NEAR
REEF SEDIMENT .OTE THE PRO
NOUNCED GROWTH BANDING AND l NE
SCALE CELLU
LAR STRUCTURE
00, "3% (! MM
Cretaceous (Albian-Cenomanian)
Tamabra Ls., San Luis Potosi,
Mexico
.OT ALL PRESERVED ANCIENT RED ALGAE ARE
CORALLINES 4HIS EXAMPLE SHOWS SEVERAL
TYPES OF ENCRUSTING ALGAE 4HE LARGE TUBULAR
ENCRUSTING FORM MAY BE A SOLENOPOROID RED
ALGA WHEREAS THE DARK MICRITIC IRREGULAR
FORMS ABOVE AND TO THE LEFT ARE OTHER RED ALGAL
CYANOBACTERIAL AND POSSIBLY OTHER ENCRUSTA
TIONS 4HIS ILLUSTRATES THE COMPLEX INTERGROWTH
OF ALGAL TYPES AND THEIR IMPORTANCE IN STABILIZ
ING REEF MATERIAL SUCH AS THE POORLY PRESERVED
RUDISTID FRAGMENTS SEEN ALONG THE BOTTOM EDGE
AND THE UPPER LEFT AND RIGHT CORNERS OF THE IM
AGE
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 1: CALCIMICROBES AND CALCAREOUS ALGAE
Mid. Ordovician Black River Gp.,
Kingston, Ontario, Canada
4HE CHARACTERISTIC SIMPLE UNDIFFERENTIATED
ELONGATE CELLULAR OR TUBULAR FABRIC OF THE RED
ALGA 3OLENOPORA SP IS WELL SHOWN IN THIS EX
AMPLE OF A RELATIVELY EARLY FORM 3AMPLE FROM
.OEL 0 *AMES
00, !3 (! MM
Cretaceous (Albian-Cenomanian)
Tamabra Ls., San Luis Potosi,
Mexico
0RESERVATION IN SOME CALCAREOUS ALGAE IS POOR
INDICATING A PROBABLY ARAGONITIC ORIGINAL COM
POSITION !LTHOUGH MOST RED ALGAE WERE CAL
CITIC A FEW MODERN AND ANCIENT FORMS ARE OR
WERE ARAGONITIC 4HIS POORLY PRESERVED GRAIN
IS CLEARLY OF ALGAL ORIGIN BUT COULD BE EITHER A
RED OR A GREEN ALGA
00, (! MM
Pennsylvanian Marble Falls Ls.,
San Saba Co., Texas
! VIEW OF A BRANCHING RAMIFYING MICROPROB
LEMATIC ORGANISM -AZLOVIPORIDIUM SP SYN
#RIBROPORIDIUM #ONTORTOPORIDIUM CONSID
ERED BY SOME WORKERS TO BE A RED ALGA )T IS
CONl NED TO -IDDLE #ARBONIFEROUS STRATA AND
PROBABLY FORMED UPRIGHT BRANCHING THICKETS
$ESPITE THE MODERATELY GOOD PRESERVATION
OF THIS SAMPLE IT IS CONSIDERED TO HAVE BEEN
ORIGINALLY ARAGONITIC 'ROVES AND -AMET IN
4OOMEY AND .ITECKI
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
0(9,,/)$ !,'!%
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
#OMPLEX AND PROBLEMATIC TAXONOMY SOME MAY HAVE BEEN RELATED TO MODERN SQUAMARIACEAN RED ALGAE OTHERS
MAY HAVE BEEN CODIACEAN GREEN ALGAE BECAUSE OF THEIR ABUNDANCE AND SIGNIl CANCE AS RESERVOIR ROCK
FORMERS
THEY ARE PRESENTED HERE AS A SEPARATE GROUPING 4HE TERM PHYLLOID ALGAE IS DESCRIPTIVE RATHER THAN GENETIC
AND IS ESPECIALLY USEFUL BECAUSE SUCH ALGAE GENERALLY WERE STRONGLY ALTERED BY DIAGENESIS AND EXHIBIT FEW
DIAGNOSTIC FEATURES )NDEED THE TERM hPHYLLOID ALGAEv WAS SPECIl CALLY COINED TO DESCRIBE THE FULL SPECTRUM OF
,ATE 0ALEOZOIC POORLY PRESERVED PLATY CALCAREOUS ALGAL REMAINS THAT CANNOT BE IDENTIl ED TO GENERIC LEVEL
0ENNSYLVANIAN ,ATE #ARBONIFEROUS
,ATE 0ERMIAN
%NVIRONMENTAL 2ANGE
0HOTOSYNTHETIC REQUIRED LIGHT AND PROBABLY GREW IN VERY SHALLOW WATER SOME MODERN CODIACEAN GREEN ALGAE
OF SIMILAR SHAPE HOWEVER ARE FOUND IN ABUNDANCE IN WATER DEPTHS GREATER THAN M
!LL ARE MARINE GENERALLY IN NORMAL SALINITY ENVIRONMENTS
#OMMON IN SHALLOW
SHELF SETTINGS FORMED BIOHERMAL TO BIOSTROMAL BUILDUPS AND ARE ALSO FOUND ISOLATED WITHIN
SHELF SEDIMENTS
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
-AINLY ARAGONITE BUT A FEW FORMS ARE INFERRED TO HAVE BEEN HIGH
-G CALCITE
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
'REW AS INDIVIDUAL PLATY LEAF
LIKE OR CUP
SHAPED STRUCTURES PROBABLY MUCH LIKE THE MODERN GREEN ALGA 5DOTEA
SP ILLUSTRATED ON P TYPICALLY A TO CM IN LENGTH AND ONLY ABOUT TO MM IN THICKNESS
-OST PHYLLOID ALGAE APPARENTLY STOOD UPRIGHT BUT ARE ONLY PRESERVED THAT WAY WHERE STABILIZED BY EXTENSIVE
MARINE CEMENTATION -ORE TYPICALLY THEY ARE FOUND AS FALLEN ANDOR AS REWORKED AND FRAGMENTED PLATES
2ECONSTRUCTIONS OF SOME OF THE MORE ELABORATE GROWTH FORMS ARE SHOWN BELOW BUT MOST PHYLLOID ALGAE HAD
MUCH SIMPLER LEAF
LIKE OR BLADED FORMS
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
4HIN PLATY GRAINS TYPICALLY A FEW CM LONG AND A MM OR LESS IN THICKNESS
0HYLLOID ALGAL GRAINS ARE SIMILAR TO BIVALVE FRAGMENTS HOWEVER PHYLLOID ALGAL GRAINS HAVE MORE IRREGULAR
SHAPES WAVY CORN m AKE OR POTATO CHIP
LIKE FORMS RATHER THAN THE REGULAR CURVATURE OF BIVALVES AND DO NOT
HAVE THE HINGE STRUCTURES SEEN IN BIVALVES
%NDS OF PHYLLOID ALGAL PLATES IN SOME SPECIES THICKEN SLIGHTLY UNLIKE BIVALVE SHELLS THAT THIN AT NON
HINGE
EDGES
'ENERALLY LITTLE OR NO PRESERVATION OF INTERNAL STRUCTURE DUE TO ORIGINAL ARAGONITE MINERALOGY MOST OFTEN
ONLY A MICRITIC RIM IS VISIBLE BUT IN SOME CASES ONE CAN STILL SEE A SERIES OF MUD
OR CEMENT
l LLED TUBULES WITHIN
THE EXTERIOR PORTIONS OF THE GRAINS
Reconstructions of complex
phylloid algae
,EFT !RTISTS RECONSTRUCTION OF COMPLEX CUP
LIKE PHYLLOID ALGAE THAT FORMED BIOHERMAL
BUILDUPS IN THE ,OWER 0ERMIAN 7OLFCAMPIAN
OF .EW -EXICO /THER PHYLLOID ALGAE MOST
LIKELY HAD SIMPLER PLATY OR LEAF LIKE MORPHOLO
GIES #OURTESY OF 2OBERT " (ALLEY
2IGHT 2ECONSTRUCTION OF A PHYLLOID ALGA
%UGONOPHYLLUM %XTERNAL SHAPE OF ORGANISM
SUPPLIED BY #ROSS AND +LOSTERMANN
BASED ON SERIAL SLABBING OF NEOMORPHOSED
THALLI )NTERNAL MORPHOLOGY ADDED BY +IRKLAND
ET AL BASED ON THIN SECTIONS OF BROKEN
STILL ARAGONITIC THALLI
CHAPTER 1: CALCIMICROBES AND CALCAREOUS ALGAE
Characteristic fabrics of three
common phylloid algae
4HE ORIGINALLY ARAGONITIC PHYLLOID ALGAE
TYPICALLY SHOW POOR STRUCTURAL PRESERVATION RE
GARDLESS OF WHETHER THEY HAD GREEN OR RED ALGAL
AFl LIATIONS 4HIS DIAGRAM ADAPTED FROM 7RAY
SHOWS THREE IMPORTANT PHYLLOID ALGAL
GENERA OF PROBABLE GREEN ALGAL AFl NITY #AL
CIFOLIUM HAD A SIMPLE UNDIFFERENTIATED MONO
STROMATIC ARRANGEMENT %UGONOPHYLLUM AND
)VANOVIA WERE DIFFERENTIATED INTO MEDULLARY
AND CORTICAL REGIONS 4HE DARKER COLORS ON
THE DIAGRAM REPRESENT AREAS WITH MORE INTENSE
CALCIl CATION AND THEREFORE GREATER PROBABIL
ITY OF STRUCTURAL PRESERVATION ALTHOUGH MOST
PRESERVED STRUCTURE RESULTED FROM SECONDARY
MICRITIC INl LLING OF PRIMARY TUBULES
Up. Pennsylvanian (Virgilian) Upper
Magdalena Gp., El Paso Co., Texas
! MODERATELY WELL PRESERVED PHYLLOID ALGA
SHOWING SEVERAL CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES
l LLED PRIMARY TUBULES PRESERVED ALONG SOME
OF THE GRAIN MARGINS A m ARED END TO ONE OF THE
PLATES AND SOMEWHAT IRREGULAR GRAIN SHAPES
AND SIZES 4HESE GRAINS CLEARLY WERE ORIGINALLY
ARAGONITIC AND THE STRUCTURE WAS PRESERVED
ONLY THROUGH l LLING OF TUBULES AND OR OUTLIN
ING OF EXTERNAL FORMS BY MICRITIC SEDIMENT OR
CEMENT
00, (! MM
Up. Pennsylvanian (Virgilian) Upper
Magdalena Gp., El Paso Co., Texas
!NOTHER EXAMPLE OF A FAIRLY WELL PRESERVED
PHYLLOID ALGA %XTENSIVE INl LLING OF MAR
GINAL TUBULES WITH MICRITIC SEDIMENT OR
APHANOCRYSTALLINE CEMENT HAS GIVEN THE MORE
CALCIl ED GRAIN MARGIN A CHARACTERISTIC SCAL
LOPED APPEARANCE
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Pennsylvanian (Missourian)
Canyon Gp., Winchell Ls., near
Ranger, Texas
! CLOSE UP VIEW SHOWING DETAILS OF A MODER
ATELY WELL PRESERVED PHYLLOID ALGAL PLATE )N
THIS SPECIES LONG AND STRAIGHT MARGINAL TUBULES
WERE PARTIALLY CEMENTED AT AN EARLY STAGE 3UB
SEQUENT DISSOLUTION OF THE PRIMARY ARAGONITE OF
THE ALGAL PLATE LEFT THE TUBULES HANGING INTO
VOID SPACE 4HAT SPACE WAS LATER l LLED WITH
SPARRY CALCITE CEMENT BUT IN OTHER EXAMPLES
LEACHED PHYLLOID ALGAL PLATES WERE NOT INl LLED
AND NOW MAKE OUTSTANDING HYDROCARBON RESER
VOIRS 3AMPLE FROM 2OBERT ,AURY
00, (! MM
Pennsylvanian (Desmoinesian)
Minturn Fm., Robinson Mbr., Eagle
Co., Colorado
! MORE TYPICAL EXAMPLE OF POSSIBLE PHYLLOID
ALGAE WITH VERY POORLY PRESERVED WALL STRUC
TURE $ESPITE THE ABSENCE OF INTERNAL FABRICS
THE SQUARED AND SLIGHTLY m ARING ENDS OF THE
GRAINS ALLOW THEIR DIFFERENTIATION FROM OTHER
WISE SIMILAR LOOKING NEOMORPHOSED ORIGI
NALLY ARAGONITIC BIVALVE SHELLS
00, (! MM
Lo. Permian (Wolfcampian) Hueco
Ls., Doa Ana Co., New Mexico
4HE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN PHYLLOID ALGAE AND
OTHER ALGAL GROUPS ARE PROBLEMATIC SOME
PROBABLY WERE RED ALGAE OTHERS MOST LIKELY
WERE GREEN ALGAE AND MANY ARE IMPOSSIBLE TO
CLASSIFY DEl NITIVELY 4HIS NODULE RHODOID OR
RHODOLITH FOR EXAMPLE WAS CONSTRUCTED BY AN
UNUSUAL ENCRUSTING PLATY ANCESTRAL CORALLINE
RED ALGA !RCHAEOLITHOPHYLLUM LAMELLOSUM
3UCH IRREGULAR PLATY FORMS ARE VERY SIMILAR TO
SOME FREE
STANDING PHYLLOID ALGAE SHOWING A
PROBABLE LINKAGE BETWEEN RED ALGAE AND AT LEAST
SOME PHYLLOID ALGAE
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 1: CALCIMICROBES AND CALCAREOUS ALGAE
Pennsylvanian limestone, west of
Fort Worth, Texas
! VIEW OF TWO PROBABLE !RCHAEOLITHOPHYLLUM
SP PLATES THE SAME GENUS AS SHOWN IN THE
PREVIOUS PHOTOGRAPH 4HESE RED ALGAE HAVE
FAIRLY WELL PRESERVED INTERNAL CELLULAR STRUC
TURE 4HESE EXAMPLES HOWEVER ARE NOT EN
CRUSTING BUT RATHER HAD THE FREE STANDING PLATY
MORPHOLOGY TYPICAL OF PHYLLOID ALGAE
00, (! MM
Pennsylvanian limestone, west of
Fort Worth, Texas
! CLOSER VIEW OF AN EXAMPLE OF THE
!RCHAEOLITHOPHYLLUM SP FROM THE SAME THIN
SECTION DEPICTED IN THE PREVIOUS PHOTOGRAPH
.OTE THE EXCELLENT PRESERVATION OF INTERNAL
CELLULAR STRUCTURE WHICH DOES NOT CLOSELY RE
SEMBLE THE MARGINAL TUBULES OF THE PHYLLOID
ALGAE DEPICTED EARLIER
00, (! MM
Recent sediment, Bermuda
! PLAN VIEW OF THE OVERLAPPING FOLIOSE SHEETS
OF LIVING SQUAMARIACEAN RED ALGAE OF THE
GENUS 0EYSSONNELIA FROM
M WATER DEPTH
4HESE ARAGONITIC ALGAE ARE CONSIDERED BY SOME
WORKERS TO BE THE CLOSEST MODERN RELATIVES OF
0ALEOZOIC PHYLLOID ALGAE 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY
OF .OEL 0 *AMES *AMES ET AL
-AC (! CM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Recent sediment, Bahamas
!N 3%- IMAGE OF 0EYSSONNELIA SP A MODERN
SQUAMARIACEAN RED ALGA 3HOWN ARE A VERTICAL
SECTION OF CELLULAR THALLUS ABOVE PERITHALLIUM
AND BASAL HYPOTHALLIUM AND DENSE HYPOBASAL
ARAGONITE BELOW 4HE HOLES IN THE HYPOBASAL
LAYER ARE TUBULAR RHIZOIDS 0HOTOGRAPH COUR
TESY OF .OEL 0 *AMES *AMES ET AL
3%- (! MM
#ITED 2EFERENCES AND !DDITIONAL )NFORMATION 3OURCES
!DEY 7 ( AND ) ' -ACINTYRE #RUSTOSE CORALLINE ALGAE A RE
+IRKLAND " , # ( -OORE *R AND * ! $ $ICKSON 7ELL
EVALUATION IN THE GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES 'EOLOGICAL 3OCIETY OF !MERICA PRESERVED ARAGONITIC PHYLLOID ALGAE %UGONOPHYLLUM 5DOTEACEAE
"ULLETIN V P
FROM THE 0ENNSYLVANIAN (OLDER &ORMATION 3ACRAMENTO -OUNTAINS
!WRAMIK 3 - !NCIENT STROMATOLITES AND MICROBIAL MATS IN 9 .EW -EXICO 0ALAIOS V P
#OHEN 2 7 #ASTENHOLZ AND ( / (ALVORSON EDS -ICROBIAL -ATS ,OGAN " 7 2 2EZAK AND 2 . 'INSBURG #LASSIl CATION AND
3TROMATOLITES .EW 9ORK !LAN 2 ,ISS )NC P
ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIl CANCE OF ALGAL STROMATOLITES *OURNAL OF 'EOLOGY
"OSENCE $ 7 * $ESCRIPTION AND CLASSIl CATION OF RHODOLITHS V P
RHODOIDS RHODOLITES IN 4 - 0ERYT ED #OATED 'RAINS .EW 9ORK -ACINTYRE ) ' AND 2 0 2EID #RYSTAL ALTERATION IN A LIVING
3PRINGER
6ERLAG P
CALCAREOUS ALGA (ALIMEDA IMPLICATIONS FOR STUDIES IN SKELETAL
"RADLEY 7 ( !LGAL REEFS AND OOLITES OF THE 'REEN 2IVER DIAGENESIS *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 2ESEARCH 3ECTION ! 3EDIMENTARY
&ORMATION 7ASHINGTON $# 5 3 'EOLOGICAL 3URVEY 0ROFESSIONAL 0ETROLOGY AND 0ROCESSES V ! P
0APER
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GRAINS: Skeletal Fragments
FORAMINIFERS
C
H
A
P
T
E
R
2
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
&/2!-).)&%23
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
+INGDOM 0ROTISTA 0HYLUM 3ARCOMASTIGOPHORA 3UBPHYLUM 3ARCODINA 3UPERCLASS 2HIZOPODA #LASS
'RANULORETICULOSEA /RDER &ORAMINIFERIDA "ASAL #AMBRIAN
2ECENT
"ENTHIC FORAMINIFERS #AMBRIAN
2ECENT EARLY FORMS WERE EXCLUSIVELY AGGLUTINATING
#ALCAREOUS BENTHIC FORAMINIFERS /RDOVICIAN
2ECENT LARGE FORMS FROM ,ATE #ARBONIFEROUS
2ECENT
0LANKTIC FORAMINIFERS -IDDLE *URASSIC
2ECENT
$ESPITE BEING SINGLE
CELLED PROTOZOANS THIS IS A VERY COMPLEX GROUP OF ORGANISMS WITH SUBORDERS RECOGNIZED BY
,OEBLICH AND 4APPAN AND SOME
SPECIES IDENTIl ED FROM 0HANEROZOIC STRATA 3O MANY SHAPE
SIZE AND WALL
STRUCTURE VARIETIES EXIST HOWEVER THAT THIS CHAPTER CAN PROVIDE ONLY THE MINIMAL INFORMATION
NEEDED TO IDENTIFY THE MOST IMPORTANT GROUPS
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
-ODERN FORAMINIFERS ARE FULLY MARINE TO MARGINAL MARINE ORGANISMS EXTENDING FROM THE INTERTIDAL ZONE TO ABYSSAL
OCEANIC DEPTHS AND FROM COLD
WATER POLAR SETTINGS TO WARM TROPICAL ENVIRONMENTS 3OME GENERA LIVE IN MARGINAL
MARINE HYPERSALINE OR SUBSALINE WATER BODIES WHERE THEY ARE COMMONLY FOUND IN GREAT NUMBERS BUT LOW SPECIES
DIVERSITY
-OST FORAMINIFERS ARE BENTHIC ORGANISMS OF THE ROUGHLY MODERN SPECIES ONLY ABOUT ARE PLANKTIC
3OME OF THE LARGEST LIVING BENTHIC SPECIES HARBOR SYMBIOTIC ALGAE IN THEIR TISSUES AND THUS LIVE PRIMARILY IN THE
PHOTIC ZONE THE VAST MAJORITY HOWEVER ARE NOT LIGHT DEPENDENT
&OR REASONS RELATED MAINLY TO FOOD SUPPLY MOST PLANKTIC FORAMINIFERS LIVE IN THE UPPER M OF THE WATER COLUMN
ALTHOUGH AFTER DEATH THEIR TESTS FALL TO THE UNDERLYING DEEPER SEAm OOR
&ORAMINIFERS CAN BE MAJOR ROCK FORMING ELEMENTS IN OPEN
OR RESTRICTED
SHELF AS WELL AS DEEPER MARINE DEPOSITS
)N SOME CASES FORAMINIFERAL ABUNDANCES REACH TENS OF THOUSANDS OF INDIVIDUALS PER M OF SEDIMENT
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
4HE TESTS OF ALL PLANKTIC SPECIES AND MOST BENTHIC SPECIES ARE COMPOSED OF CALCITE PLANKTIC FORMS ARE LOW
-G
CALCITE BOTH HIGH
-G AND LOW
-G CALCITE ARE COMMON IN BENTHICS SOME BENTHIC SPECIES CONSTRUCT TESTS OF
ARAGONITE SILICA OR ORGANIC MATTER A PROTEINACEOUS MUCOPOLYSACCHARIDE YET OTHER BENTHIC FORMS CONSTRUCT
THEIR TESTS OF CEMENTED AGGLUTINATED CLASTIC TERRIGENOUS OR CALCAREOUS SEDIMENT GRAINS !MONG AGGLUTINATORS
SOME ARE INDISCRIMINATE IN THEIR SELECTION OF BUILDING MATERIALS WHEREAS OTHERS CAREFULLY SELECT CALCAREOUS
GRAINS SPONGE SPICULES MICA m AKES OR OTHER SPECIl C CONSTITUENTS FOR THEIR TESTS
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
&ORAMINIFERAL TESTS TYPICALLY RANGE IN SIZE FROM LESS THAN MM TO MM THE LARGEST FOSSIL FORMS REACH NEARLY
CM IN LENGTH
4ESTS CONSIST OF HOLLOW CHAMBERS SEPARATED FROM EACH OTHER BY PARTITIONS WITH SMALL OPENINGS FORAMINA 4HE
LAST CHAMBER HAS ONE OR MORE EXTERIOR OPENINGS APERTURES 3PECIES WITH MULTIPLE CHAMBERS ARE TERMED
MULTILOCULAR THE RARER SPECIES THAT CONSTRUCT SINGLE CHAMBERED TESTS ARE TERMED UNILOCULAR
-ULTICHAMBERED TESTS MAY HAVE CHAMBERS ARRANGED IN A SINGLE LINEAR CHAIN UNISERIAL OR IN DOUBLE BISERIAL OR
TRIPLE TRISERIAL ROWS /THERS HAVE CHAMBERS ARRANGED IN A COIL WITHIN A SINGLE PLANE PLANISPIRAL
OR AS A SNAIL
LIKE HELICAL SPIRE TROCHOSPIRAL -ORE COMPLEX ARRANGEMENTS OF CHAMBERS SUCH AS MILIOLINE CHAMBERS ARRANGED
IN A SERIES WHERE EACH EXTENDS THE LENGTH OF THE TEST AND EACH LATER CHAMBER FORMS AT AN ANGLE OF UP TO FROM
THE PREVIOUS ONE OR FUSIFORM A PLANISPIRAL COIL ELONGATED ALONG THE COILING AXIS ARE COMMON 3IMPLE TUBES
TUBULAR BRANCHING TUBES ARBORESCENT AND IRREGULAR FORMS WITHOUT CONSISTENT ARRANGEMENT OF CHAMBERS ARE
ALSO FOUND 3OME SPECIES SWITCH FROM ONE GROWTH FORM TO ANOTHER DURING LIFE
%NCRUSTING FORAMINIFERS ARE WIDESPREAD THROUGHOUT THE 0HANEROZOIC GEOLOGIC RECORD THEY COMMONLY HAVE IRREGULAR
MULTICHAMBERED FORMS AND MAY BE INTERLAMINATED IN COMPLEX CONSORTIA WITH ALGAE AND OTHER ORGANISMS
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
-OST TESTS ARE MULTICHAMBERED WITH CHAMBERS ARRANGED IN A VARIETY OF DISTINCTIVE PATTERNS DESCRIBED ABOVE
3IMPLE FORMS TYPICALLY ARE SMALLER THAN SIMILARLY
CHAMBERED MOLLUSKS GASTROPODS OR CEPHALOPODS LARGER
CHAPTER 2: FORAMINIFERS
FORMS HAVE DISTINCTIVE MORPHOLOGIES
4HREE BASIC WALL COMPOSITIONS ORGANIC AGGLUTINATED AND CALCAREOUS THE LATTER TWO ALSO HAVE AN ORGANIC INNER
LAYER OR SUBSTRATE
4HREE MAJOR CALCAREOUS WALL TEXTURES A MICROGRANULAR EQUIDIMENSIONAL SUBSPHERICAL CALCITE CRYSTALS
CLOSELY PACKED AND HELD TOGETHER BY CRYPTIC CARBONATE CEMENT YIELDING A DARK
COLORED WALL FOUND MAINLY
IN ,ATE 0ALEOZOIC FORMS INCLUDING FUSULINIDS B PORCELANEOUS IMPERFORATE MULTILAYERED WALL MADE OF
APPARENTLY RANDOMLY ARRANGED MICROSCOPIC RODS OR LATHS OF CALCITE WITH ORDERED INNER AND OUTER SURFACE
LAYERS FOUND IN MILIOLIDS AND C HYALINE INTERLOCKING CRYSTALS OF CALCITE ABOUT M IN DIAMETER WITH TWO
TYPES OF OPTICAL BEHAVIOR OPTICALLY RADIAL FORMS HAVE CALCITE C
AXES ORIENTED NORMAL TO THE TEST WALL AND DISPLAY
A PSEUDO
UNIAXIAL CROSS UNDER CROSS
POLARIZED LIGHT OPTICALLY GRANULAR FORMS THAT APPEAR SPECKLED WITH COLOR
m ECKS UNDER CROSS
POLARIZED LIGHT -OST HYALINE FORMS ALSO EXHIBIT A LAMELLAR WALL STRUCTURE THAT IS PERFORATED
BY SMALL
M PORES -ANY OF THE #RETACEOUS
4ERTIARY LARGER FORAMINIFERS AND PLANKTIC GROUPS HAVE
HYALINE WALLS ORBITOIDS DISCOCYCLINIDS LEPIDOCYCLINIDS NUMMULITIDS GLOBIGERINIDS AND OTHERS
0LANKTIC FORMS TYPICALLY HAVE SPINES AND LARGE SIMPLE THIN
WALLED GLOBULAR CHAMBERS WITH HIGHLY PERFORATED
WALLS ALL FEATURES DESIGNED TO MINIMIZE SETTLING RATES 3OME KEELED AND THICKER
WALLED FORMS ALSO EXIST
0(/4/ 3#!,%3 !.$ !""2%6)!4)/.3 !2% %80,!).%$ ). 4(% "//+3 ).42/$5#4)/.
Common test morphologies of
foraminifers
3OME COMMON EXTERNAL SHAPES AND CHAMBER
ARRANGEMENT PATTERNS IN FORAMINIFERAL TESTS
3OME ORGANISMS FOLLOW A SINGLE TEST CONSTRUC
TION PATTERN THROUGHOUT THEIR LIFE OTHERS CAN
CHANGE PATTERNS DURING THEIR LIFE CYCLE SWITCH
ING FOR EXAMPLE FROM UNISERIAL TO BISERIAL
CHAMBERING OR FROM EVOLUTE TO INVOLUTE COIL
ING !DAPTED FROM -OORE ET AL ,OE
BLICH AND 4APPAN AND #ULVER
Major foraminiferal calcareous wall
structures
$IAGRAMMATIC VIEW OF THE MAIN TYPES OF SECRET
ED CALCAREOUS WALL STRUCTURES OF FORAMINIFERAL
TESTS 4HE DASHED LINES REPRESENT THE C
AXIS
ORIENTATION OF CONSTITUENT MICROCRYSTALLINE
CALCITE CRYSTALS IN HYALINE WALL STRUCTURES 4HE
LAMELLAR GROWTH STRUCTURE OF MOST HYALINE TESTS
IS NOT ILLUSTRATED HERE !DAPTED FROM (AYNES
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Recent sediment, Mediterranean
Sea, and Miocene of Malta
! DRY MOUNT OF WHOLE FORAMINIFERS SHOWING
SOME OF THE REMARKABLE VARIATION OF TEST MOR
PHOLOGIES IN THIS GROUP
! .UBECULARIA LUCIFUGA
" 3PIROLOCULINA DEPRESSA
# 3ORITES ORBICULUS
$ 0ENEROPLIS PLANATUS
% $ENTALIA SUBSOLUTA
& -ARGINULINA HIRSUTA
% AND & ARE -IOCENE UNISERIAL FORMS THE OTH
ERS ARE MODERN EXAMPLES 0HOTOGRAPH COURTE
SY OF "RIAN $ARNTON HTTPWWWMICROSCOPY
UKORGUK
-AC (! ^ MM
Up. Cretaceous (Cenomanian) Del
Rio Fm., Big Bend area, west Texas
! LIMESTONE PACKED WITH MULTILOCULAR
UNISERIAL AGGLUTINATED ARENACEOUS FORAMINI
FERS #RIBRATINA TEXANA 4HIS SPECIES FOUND
ONLY IN !LBIAN #ENOMANIAN STRATA CAREFULLY
SELECTED CLASTIC TERRIGENOUS MAINLY QUARTZ
GRAINS OF A CONSISTENT SIZE TO CONSTRUCT ITS TESTS
DESPITE THE PREDOMINANTLY CARBONATE SEDIMENT
COMPOSITION 4HE INDIVIDUAL QUARTZ GRAINS ARE
HELD TOGETHER WITH AN ORGANIC CEMENT
00, (! MM
Up. Cretaceous (Cenomanian) Del
Rio Fm., Val Verde Co., Texas
4HE SAME TYPES OF AGGLUTINATED ARENACEOUS
FORAMINIFERS SEEN IN THE PREVIOUS PHOTOGRAPH
BUT HERE SHOWN UNDER CROSS POLARIZED LIGHT
ALLOWING THE QUARTZOSE NATURE OF THE WALLS TO
BE SEEN MORE CLEARLY )T OFTEN REQUIRES CAREFUL
OBSERVATION TO DISTINGUISH ARENACEOUS FORAMIN
IFERS FROM CONCENTRATIONS OF TERRIGENOUS GRAINS
IN BURROWS OR OTHER SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES
4HE CHAMBERED SHAPE OF FORAMINIFERS CLEARLY
IS A KEY TO THEIR RECOGNITION
80, (! MM
CHAPTER 2: FORAMINIFERS
Up. Cretaceous Lower Chalk,
Buckinghamshire, England, U.K.
! CROSS SECTION THROUGH A SINGLE AGGLUTINATED
FORAMINIFER IN THIS CASE ONE THAT SELECTED
BOTH CARBONATE AND NON CARBONATE GRAINS TO
BUILD ITS TEST 4HESE FORAMINIFERS ARE RECOG
NIZABLE BY THE CHAMBER SHAPED GRAIN ARRANGE
MENTS RATHER THAN THE OTHERWISE RANDOM DISTRI
BUTION OF GRAINS IN THE REST OF THE ROCK 4HE
ANGULAR WHITE GRAINS ARE DETRITAL QUARTZ SILT
00, (! MM
Up. Eocene limestone, Zakinthos,
Ionian Islands, Greece
!N AGGLUTINATED FORAMINIFER WITH A WALL COM
POSED PRIMARILY OF l NE
GRAINED CARBONATE
FRAGMENTS HELD TOGETHER WITH MICROCRYSTALLINE
CALCAREOUS CEMENT 4HE WALLS OF THE FORA
MINIFER ARE OUTLINED WITH PRECIPITATED SPARRY
CALCITE CEMENT )F THIS GRAIN WERE SURROUNDED
BY CALCILUTITE OR CALCISILTITE IT WOULD BE MUCH
HARDER TO RECOGNIZE
00, "3% (! MM
Recent sediment, Grand Cayman,
Cayman Islands, B.W.I.
4HERE IS A COMPLETE SPECTRUM OF AGGLUTINATED
WALL STRUCTURES IN BENTHIC FORAMINIFERS RANG
ING FROM GRAIN
RICH TESTS WITH SOME ORGANIC
CEMENT TO TESTS WITH NEARLY COMPLETELY ORGANIC
WALLS CONTAINING JUST A FEW AGGLUTINATED GRAINS
4HIS EXAMPLE SHOWS A DOMINANTLY CALCAREOUS
PORCELANEOUS WALL INCORPORATING SCATTERED
AGGLUTINATED QUARTZ AND OTHER GRAINS 4HIS
COILING PATTERN IS TYPICAL OF MILIOLIDS
00, "3% (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Recent sediment, Belize
! COMPLETE SPECIMEN OF 2ECTOBOLIVINA SP
4HIS UNISERIAL FORAMINIFER HAS POROUS WALLS
AND SHORT ATTACHED SPINES !T ANY GIVEN TIME
THE PROTOZOAN ORGANISM ITSELF LIVES IN ALL BUT
THE LAST CONSTRUCTED CHAMBER
3%- (! ^ M
Recent sediment, Belize
! WHOLE SPECIMEN AND CLOSE UP VIEW OF A
MODERN CALCAREOUS BENTHIC FORAMINIFER 0YRGO
SP .OTE THE TIGHTLY PACKED ORIENTED LATHS OF
HIGH -G CALCITE THAT MAKE UP THE PORCELANEOUS
WALL 7ITH DEGRADATION OF THE ORGANIC BINDING
MATERIAL OR ABRASION OF THE SHELL BY NATURAL
PROCESSES THESE LATHS COULD CONTRIBUTE TO THE
SUPPLY OF CLAY SIZED CARBONATE PARTICLES CAR
BONATE MUD IN SHELFAL SEDIMENTS
3%- , (! M 2 (! ^ M
Recent sediment, Belize
! VIEW OF THE FRACTURED WALL OF A MODERN BEN
THIC FORAMINIFER 3PIROLOCULINA SP )T SHOWS
THE INNER AND OUTER TEST SURFACES AS WELL AS
A CROSS SECTION OF THE WALL ITSELF .OTE THE
BLADED CRYSTALS THAT MAKE UP THE PORCELANEOUS
WALL AND THEIR CHANGING ORIENTATION TOWARD THE
TEST SURFACE 4HE SHORT ROUND
ENDED CRYSTALS
APPEAR VERY SIMILAR TO THE NANNOBACTERIAL hBA
TONSv ILLUSTRATED IN &OLK AND ,YNCH
PERHAPS INDICATING BACTERIAL INVOLVEMENT IN
THE CALCIl CATION PROCESS
3%- (! ^ M
CHAPTER 2: FORAMINIFERS
Oligocene-Miocene, Top McDonald
Ls., northern Otago, New Zealand
!N EXAMPLE OF A CALCAREOUS UNISERIAL BENTHIC
FORAMINIFER IN A FERRUGINOUS HARDGROUND )N
THIS EXAMPLE THE CHAMBERS ARE EASILY SEEN BE
CAUSE THEY HAVE BEEN l LLED WITH PRECIPITATED
VERY l NELY CRYSTALLINE PHOSPHATIC CEMENTS
00, (! MM
Mid. Pennsylvanian Paradox Fm.,
southeastern Utah
3ECTIONS THROUGH A BISERIAL FORAMINIFER PROB
ABLY OF THE GENUS $EEKERELLA 4HE LEFT SECTION
IS A TANGENTIAL CUT THROUGH A DIFFERENT SPECIMEN
OF THE SAME SPECIES .OTE THE TYPICAL PAL
AEOTEXTULARIID DOUBLE
WALLED CALCAREOUS TEST
STRUCTURE 4HE TWO LAYERS ARE DISTINGUISHED
BY DIFFERING CRYSTAL ORIENTATIONS 4HE MATRIX
OF THIS ROCK IS COMPOSED OF PELLETS AND SMALL
SKELETAL FRAGMENTS MAINLY ECHINODERMS
80, (! MM
Up. Mississippian (Visean) Arroyo
Peasco Gp., Terrero Fm., San
Miguel Co., New Mexico
!N ENDOTHYRID FORAMINIFER A MEMBER OF THE
3UBORDER &USULININA IN A CARBONATE GRAINSTONE
TO PACKSTONE 4HE CHARACTERISTIC STREPTOSPIRAL
TEST AND GRANULAR TO MICRO l BROUS TWO LAYER
WALL ARE VISIBLE
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Eocene Ocala Gp., Inglis Fm., Levy
Co., Florida
! LIMESTONE PACKSTONE IN WHICH MILIOLID
FORAMINIFERS ARE A MAJOR COMPONENT OF THE
TOTAL SEDIMENT 4HE TESTS HAVE NON LAMINAR
PORCELANEOUS CALCAREOUS WALLS AND COMPLEX
MILIOLID CHAMBER COILING PATTERNS 4HE ORIGI
NAL WALLS WERE HIGH -G CALCITE ALTHOUGH SOME
OF THE WALLS MAY HAVE BEEN PARTIALLY DISSOLVED
IN THIS EXAMPLE
00, "3% (! MM
Mid-Cretaceous El Abra Ls.,
Tamaulipas, Mexico
! SHELF LIMESTONE WACKESTONE WITH ABUNDANT
MILIOLID FORAMINIFERS IN A LIME
MUD MATRIX
4HE FORAMINIFERAL TESTS AND PART OF THE MATRIX
MUD ARE OIL STAINED ACCENTUATING THE DARK COL
OR OF THE PORCELANEOUS TEST WALLS IN THIS GROUP
0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF 0AUL %NOS
00, (! MM
Eocene limestone, Zakinthos
Ionian Islands, Greece
!N EXAMPLE OF MICROGRANULAR IMPERFORATE
CARBONATE TEST WALLS AND COMPLEX BILOCULINE
OR SPIROLOCULINE CHAMBER COILING IN A SPIRO
LOCULINID LIKE BENTHIC FORAMINIFER
00, "3% (! MM
CHAPTER 2: FORAMINIFERS
Pleistocene Belmont calcarenite,
Belmont, Bermuda
#ROSS SECTIONAL VIEWS OF TWO SPECIMENS OF
0ENEROPLIS SP A LARGE BENTHIC FORAMINIFER
WITH CHARACTERISTIC COLOR AND hl NGERPRINT LIKEv
CHAMBERING 0ENEROPLID FORAMINIFERS ARE IM
PORTANT SEDIMENT FORMERS IN MODERN CARBONATE
SHELF DEPOSITS ESPECIALLY IN RESTRICTED LAGOONAL
SETTINGS WITH VARIABLE SALINITY WHERE THEY CAN
BE THE DOMINANT FAUNAL ELEMENT 0HOTOGRAPH
COURTESY OF #LIF *ORDAN
00, "3% (! ^ MM
Recent sediment, Grand Cayman,
Cayman Islands, B.W.I.
! MEDIAL CROSS SECTIONAL VIEW OF 0ENEROPLIS
SP 4HE PENEROPLIDS ARE AN %OCENE TO 2ECENT
GROUP OF FORAMINIFERS OF THE 3UBORDER -ILI
OLINA 4HE LARGELY IMPERFORATE PORCELANEOUS
CALCAREOUS WALLS HAVE A CHARACTERISTIC AMBER TO
REDDISH COLOR AND THE COILING PATTERNS ARE PRE
DOMINANTLY PLANISPIRAL BUT MAY VARY THROUGH
THE LIFE CYCLE OF THE ORGANISM 4HE DARK COLOR
OF THE TEST IS LARGELY THE RESULT OF ITS MICROM
ETER SCALE NANNOPOROUS STRUCTURE
00, "3% (! MM
Recent sediment, Yorke Peninsula,
South Australia
4HIS SECTION OF RESTRICTED LAGOONAL SEDIMENT
SHOWS A MICROGRANULAR WALLED BENTHIC FORA
MINIFER .OTE THE PRESENCE OF A THIN BUT DIS
TINCT OUTER WALL IN THIS TEST
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Miocene Pata Ls., Murray Basin,
South Australia
3OME BENTHIC FORAMINIFERAL TESTS CAN REACH
VERY LARGE SIZES ESPECIALLY CONSIDERING THAT
THEY ARE CONSTRUCTED BY SINGLE CELLED ORGAN
ISMS 4HIS SINGLE -ARGINOPORA SP IS AN
EXCELLENT EXAMPLE OF A LARGE FORAMINIFER WITH
PLANISPIRAL COILING )T HAS SMALL EARLY FORMED
CHAMBERS IN THE CENTER AND INCREASINGLY LARGER
CHAMBERS TOWARD THE MARGINS 4HE IRREGULAR
MOLDS IN THIS ROCK WHITE REPRESENT LEACHED
ARAGONITIC SKELETAL FRAGMENTS 3AMPLE FROM
.OEL 0 *AMES
00, (! MM
Eocene-Oligocene? Hanmer
Marble, northern Canterbury, New
Zealand
0LANE AND CROSS POLARIZED LIGHT VIEWS OF THE
SAME NUMMULITE FORAMINIFER .UMMULITES ARE
A GROUP OF LARGE THICK COIN OR DISCUS SHAPED
BENTHIC FORAMINIFERS 4HEY ARE CLASSED IN THE
3UBORDER 2OTALIACEA AND ARE ESPECIALLY WIDE
SPREAD IN %OCENE STRATA ALTHOUGH THEY RANGE
FROM 0ALEOCENE TO 2ECENT .OTE THE ROBUST
WALLS THE 6 SHAPED GAPS OR CAVITIES BETWEEN
CHAMBERS AND THE PRONOUNCED EXTINCTION
BANDS THAT RESULT FROM THE OPTICALLY RADIAL CAL
CITE CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
00,80, (! MM EACH
Eocene Nummulite Ls., near Split,
Croatia
! LONGITUDINAL AXIAL SECTION OF A SINGLE NUM
MULITE FORAMINIFER .UMMULITES SP .OTE AGAIN
THE LARGE SIZE ROBUST RADIAL HYALINE WALLS EX
TINCTION BANDS BICONVEX PLANISPIRAL COILING
AND TRACES OF PERFORATIONS THAT CHARACTERIZE
THIS IMPORTANT FORAMINIFERAL GROUP )NDIVIDUAL
NUMMULITID FORAMINIFERS CAN REACH A MAXI
MUM DIAMETER OF CM AND COMMONLY ARE
CM IN DIAMETER 4HE EXCELLENT PRESERVATION
OF THESE TESTS INDICATES THAT THEY ORIGINALLY HAS
A HIGH OR LOW -G CALCITE COMPOSITION
80, (! MM
CHAPTER 2: FORAMINIFERS
Mid. Eocene Naranjo Fm., Coamo
Springs Mbr., Ponce-Coamo area,
Puerto Rico
4HIS LIMESTONE IS PACKED WITH ORBITOID FORA
MINIFERS DISCOCYCLINIDS AS WELL AS NU
MEROUS RED ALGAL FRAGMENTS $ISCOCYCLINIDS
ARE BENTHIC FORAMINIFERS BELONGING TO THE
3UPERFAMILY /RBITOIDACEA ARE RESTRICTED TO
%OCENE DEPOSITS REACH CM SIZE AND HAVE OPTI
CALLY RADIAL HYALINE CALCITIC TESTS /RBITOIDS AS
A WHOLE RANGE FROM ,ATE #RETACEOUS TO -IO
CENE 3AMPLE FROM % ! 0ESSAGNO *R
00, (! MM
Mid. Eocene Naranjo Fm., Coamo
Springs Mbr., Ponce-Coamo area,
Puerto Rico
! HIGHER MAGNIl CATION VIEW OF A $ISCOCYCLINA
SP BENTHIC FORAMINIFER 4HE CHARACTERISTIC RA
DIATING CALCITE PILLARS AND SMALL CHAMBERS ARE
CLEARLY VISIBLE AT THIS MAGNIl CATION 3AMPLE
FROM % ! 0ESSAGNO *R
00, (! MM
Up. Oligocene (Chattian) Lower
Coralline Limestone Fm., Malta
4HIS COOL WATER SHELFAL LIMESTONE SHOWS
WHOLE AND FRAGMENTED GIANT ,EPIDOCYCLINA SP
BENTHIC FORAMINIFERS 4HIS IS ANOTHER MEMBER
OF THE SUITE OF ORBITOID FORAMINIFERS THAT ARE
IMPORTANT SEDIMENT FORMERS IN MID 4ERTIARY
LIMESTONES THE GENUS RANGES FROM %OCENE TO
MIDDLE -IOCENE 4HE CALCITIC WALLS OF THESE
LARGE DISCOIDAL TESTS ARE GENERALLY WELL PRE
SERVED AND CAN RETAIN SUBSTANTIAL VOLUMES OF
INTRAPARTICLE POROSITY AS IN THIS EXAMPLE
00, "3% (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Tertiary Marianna Ls., Marianna,
Florida
4HESE CLOSE UP VIEWS UNDER PLANE AND CROSS
POLARIZED LIGHT OF LARGE LEPIDOCYCLINID FORA
MINIFERS SHOW THE DISTINCTIVE EXTINCTION PAT
TERNS CREATED BY THE COMBINATION OF ELONGATE
CHAMBERS AND MASSIVE WALLS 4HE WALLS SHOW
A CHARACTERISTICALLY TEXTURED EXTINCTION PATTERN
RELATED TO THE RADIAL HYALINE CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
00,80, (! MM
Lo. Cretaceous (Aptian) Shuaiba
Fm., offshore Qatar
!NOTHER LARGE FORAMINIFER OF VERY DIFFERENT
SHAPE AND WALL STRUCTURE A PYRITE IM
PREGNATED CALCITE STAINED /RBITOLINA SP IN
A PELOIDAL SHELF LIMESTONE .OTE THE TYPICAL
CONICAL SHAPE IN THIS LONGITUDINAL SECTION
/RBITOLINIDS RANGE FROM THE #RETACEOUS TO THE
%OCENE ALTHOUGH THIS GENUS IS FOUND ONLY IN
#RETACEOUS ROCKS
00, !&E3 (! MM
Lo. Cretaceous (Aptian) Shuaiba
Fm., offshore Qatar
! VARIETY OF CUTS THROUGH THREE LARGE ORBITOLINID
FORAMINIFERS !S IN THIS EXAMPLE THESE BENTHIC
FORAMINIFERS CAN BE IMPORTANT ROCK
FORMING EL
EMENTS AND IMPORTANT BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC MARK
ERS ESPECIALLY IN ,OWER #RETACEOUS OPEN
SHELF AND DEEP
SHELF SEDIMENTS
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 2: FORAMINIFERS
Up. Cretaceous (Cenomanian)
limestone, Tirol, Austria
! CROSS SECTION THROUGH A SINGLE LARGE
/RBITOLINA SP FORAMINIFER 4HE CONICAL TO
DOMAL SHAPE ELONGATE TO SAUCER SHAPED CHAM
BERS AND PORES OR CELLULES IN THE DARK MICRITIC
MARGINAL ZONE ARE CHARACTERISTIC OF ORBITOLINIDS
,IKE ALL OTHER MEMBERS OF THE 3UBORDER 4EXTU
LARIINA ORBITOLINIDS HAVE AGGLUTINATED WALLS
2ECOGNIZING THE AGGLUTINATED FABRIC REQUIRES
CAREFUL OBSERVATION HOWEVER LARGELY BECAUSE
THE CONSTITUENT GRAINS ARE SMALL AND THE CHAM
BER STRUCTURE IS SO COMPLEX
00, (! MM
Morphology and wall structure of a
typical fusulinid foraminifer
! DIAGRAMMATIC VIEW OF THE CHAMBER ARRANGE
MENT AND WALL STRUCTURE OF A TYPICAL FUSULINID
FORAMINIFER BASED ON THE GENERAL MORPHOLOGI
CAL SHAPE OF 0ARAFUSULINA &USULINELLA AND
3CHWAGERINA .OTE THE MULTILAYERED CALCARE
OUS MICROGRANULAR WALLS THAT HAVE ABUNDANT
PERFORATIONS !DAPTED FROM "RASIER
AND -OORE ET AL CITATIONS GIVEN AT END
OF BOOK INTRODUCTION 4HE FULL FUSULINID IS APR
ROXIMATELY A CENTIMETER IN LENGTH
Up. Pennsylvanian (Virgilian)
Holder Fm., Otero Co., New Mexico
!N EXAMPLE OF A LIMESTONE IN WHICH FUSULINID
FORAMINIFERS 4RICITES SP ARE NOT JUST THE
DOMINANT BUT ESSENTIALLY THE ONLY CONSTITUENT
4HE CIRCULAR TO CIGAR
SHAPED CROSS
SECTIONS OF
THESE SPIRAL FORMS THE CHAMBERED STRUCTURE
AND THE MICROGRANULAR WALLS WITH BARELY VISIBLE
PERFORATIONS ALL ARE CHARACTERISTIC OF THIS GROUP
!LTHOUGH THESE ARE RELATIVELY SMALL FUSULINIDS
SOME 0ERMIAN FORMS CAN REACH CM IN LENGTH
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Lo. Permian (Leonardian) Bone
Spring Ls., Apache Canyon, Texas
! FUSULINID FORAMINIFER 0ARAFUSULINA SCHUCH
ERTI IN TRANSVERSE SECTION ACROSS ITS CIRCULAR
AXIS .OTE THE DISTINCTIVE CHAMBER SHAPES AND
RADIALLY PERFORATED WALL STRUCTURE !LTHOUGH
FUSULINIDS ARE FOUND ONLY IN 0ENNSYLVANIAN
AND 0ERMIAN STRATA THEY WERE PROLIl C SEDI
MENT PRODUCERS IN OPEN SHELF AND SHELF MARGIN
INCLUDING REEFAL DEPOSITS 4HE ROUNDED CI
GAR
SHAPED EXTERIORS OF THESE GRAINS MADE THEM
EASY TO TRANSPORT AND ORIENT AND AS SUCH THEY
CAN BE USEFUL PALEOCURRENT INDICATORS
00, (! MM
Lo. Permian (Wolfcampian) Abo
Gp., Laborcita Fm., Otero Co., New
Mexico
! HIGH
MAGNIl CATION VIEW OF A FUSULINID FORA
MINIFER SHOWING THE NUMEROUS CLOSELY
SPACED
PORES THAT PERFORATE THE MICROGRANULAR CALCITE
OF THE TEST WALL )N LOWER MAGNIl CATION VIEWS
THESE PORES ARE ESSENTIALLY INVISIBLE
00, (! MM
Pennsylvanian (Morrowan) Bloyd
Fm., Mayes Co., Oklahoma
%NCRUSTING FORAMINIFERS ARROWS ON A
NEOMORPHOSED HIGHLY ORNAMENTED BIVALVE
SHELL 4HE GLOBULAR CHAMBERED FORAMINIFERAL
STRUCTURE IS BARELY VISIBLE WITHIN THE DENSE
MICRITIC ENCRUSTATION &OR THIS REASON AMONG
OTHERS ENCRUSTING FORAMINIFERS ARE OFTEN MIS
IDENTIl ED AS ENCRUSTING ALGAE MOST ENCRUSTING
RED ALGAE HOWEVER HAVE l NER SCALE MORE
RECTANGULAR CELLULAR STRUCTURES
80, (! MM
CHAPTER 2: FORAMINIFERS
Recent sediment, Cay Corker,
Belize
! CROSS SECTION OF THE LARGE ENCRUSTING FORA
MINIFER (OMOTREMA RUBRUM 4HE REDDISH HUE
IS THE NATURAL UNSTAINED COLOR CHARACTERISTIC OF
THIS SPECIES 4HESE FORAMINIFERS ARE FOUND AS
BRIGHT REDDISH CENTIMETER SIZED ENCRUSTATIONS
ON OTHER CARBONATE GRAINS IN MODERN TROPICAL
SHELF CARBONATES IN MANY AREAS OF THE WORLD
4HE HEAVY DURABLE WALLS OF THIS SPECIES AND ITS
REMARKABLE ADHESION TO ITS SUBSTRATES MAKE IT
A VERY SUCCESSFUL ENCRUSTER IN HIGH ENERGY SET
TINGS (OMOTREMA ENCRUSTATIONS ARE SO PROLIl C
IN COASTAL SETTINGS THAT MANY CARBONATE BEACH
SANDS "ERMUDA FOR EXAMPLE HAVE A PINK
COLOR FROM THEIR TESTS
00, (! MM
Up. Permian (Kazanian) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
4HE IRREGULAR CHAMBERS OF A POSSIBLE ENCRUST
ING TUBULAR FORAMINIFER ARE SEEN HERE FORMING
PART OF A BRYOZOAN
FORAMINIFERAL BIOHERM
,ATE 0ALEOZOIC AND SOME -ESOZOIC DEPOS
ITS IN PARTICULAR HAVE INTRICATE INTERGROWTHS
POSSIBLY SYMBIOTIC CONSORTIA OF ENCRUSTING
FORAMINIFERS AND ALGAE BRYOZOANS AND OTHER
ORGANISMS 3OME WORKERS HAVE CLASSIl ED
FORMS SIMILAR TO THIS ONE WITH THE ALGAE RATHER
THAN WITH FORAMINIFERS
00, (! MM
Holocene Reef wall limestone,
Belize
!N ENCRUSTING FORAMINIFER IN A TROPICAL REEF
LIMESTONE PROBABLY 'YPSINA SP 4HIS ROBUST
SPECIES HAS LARGE REGULARLY ARRANGED CHAM
BERS 3AMPLE FROM .OEL 0 *AMES
00, #93 (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Holocene sediment, Southern
Shelf, Belize
! SPECIMEN OF 'LOBIGINEROIDES RUBRA A
PLANKTIC FORAMINIFER 4HIS SPECIES IS CHARACTER
IZED BY HIGHLY GLOBULAR CHAMBERS A LARGE APER
TURE SHORT SPINES AND NUMEROUS WALL PORES
3%- (! ^ M
SEM views of calcareous planktic
foraminifers
5, 5P 0ALEOCENE .ORTH !TLANTIC
0ARASUBBOTINA VARIOSPIRA (! ^ M
52 5P #RETACEOUS -AASTRICHTIAN !LABAMA
(ETEROHELIX CRINATA (! ^ M
,, 5P #RETACEOUS -AASTRICHTIAN .ORTH
!TLANTIC
0SEUDOGUEMBELINA EXCOLATA (! ^ M
,2 5P 0LIOCENE %ASTERN EQUATORIAL 0ACIl C
'LOBIGERINOIDES SACCULIFER (! ^ M
!LL PHOTOGRAPHS COURTESY OF 2ICHARD .ORRIS
Lo. Tertiary Amuri Ls.,
Marlborough, New Zealand
! LOW
MAGNIl CATION VIEW OF A TYPICAL PLANKTIC
FORAMINIFERAL GLOBIGERINID BIOMICRITE 3UCH
DEPOSITS ARE DISTINGUISHED FROM CALCISPHERE
LIMESTONES BY THE FACT THAT MOST OF THE GRAINS
SHOW MULTIPLE CHAMBERS AND EVEN THE GRAINS
SHOWING A SINGLE CHAMBER PROBABLY REPRESENT
TANGENTIAL CUTS THROUGH ONE CHAMBER OF A
MULTI
CHAMBERED ORGANISM
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 2: FORAMINIFERS
Up. Cretaceous (Cenomanian-
Turonian) Greenhorn Ls., Denver
Basin, Colorado
! DEEP SHELF CHALK CONTAINING GLOBIGERINID
PLANKTIC FORAMINIFERS WITH SPAR l LLED CHAM
BERS 4HIS EXAMPLE SHOWS THIN WALLED
UNORNAMENTED TESTS WITHOUT VISIBLE PORE
STRUCTURE !S IN MANY PLANKTIC FORAMINIFERAL
LIMESTONES THE MATRIX CONSISTS LARGELY OF
NANNOFOSSIL DEBRIS RECOGNIZABLE AT HIGHER
MAGNIl CATIONS OF IN 3%-
80, (! MM
Pleistocene (?) sediment, Miami
Terrace, offshore Florida
! MODERN PLANKTIC FORAMINIFERAL OOZE CONTAIN
ING A RICH FAUNA OF GLOBOROTALIID FORAMINIFERS
4HE TESTS HAVE WELL
PRESERVED POROUS RADIAL
WALL STRUCTURE AND MICRITE l LLING OF THEIR CHAM
BERS 4HESE ORGANISMS ARE PLANKTONIC AND ARE
ABUNDANT IN OUTER SHELF SLOPE AND DEEPER OCE
ANIC SEDIMENTS
80, (! MM
Miocene (Aquitanian-Burdigalian)
Middle Globigerina Limestone Fm.,
Gozo, Malta
! HIGH MAGNIl CATION VIEW SHOWING LARGE
PORES IN RELATIVELY THICK PLANKTIC FORAMINIFERAL
WALLS 4HE BLUE STAINED EPOXY HAS PENETRATED
AND ACCENTUATED THE PORES 4HE LOW -G CAL
CITE COMPOSITION OF PLANKTIC FORAMINIFERAL
TESTS GENERALLY LEADS TO GOOD PRESERVATION OF
STRUCTURE #EMENTATION HOWEVER CAN OBSCURE
FEATURES SUCH AS THESE PORES
00, "3% (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Cretaceous Upper Chalk, Kent,
England, U.K.
! 'LOBOTRUNCANA SP PLANKTIC FORAMINIFER
4HESE ARE COMMON IN #RETACEOUS OPEN SHELF
AND DEEPER MARINE DEPOSITS .OTE THE KEELED
CHAMBERS DIAGNOSTIC FOR THIS GENUS AND THE
RELATIVELY POOR PRESERVATION OF WALL STRUCTURE
AN EXCEPTION TO THE NORM IN PLANKTIC FORAMINI
FERS
00, (! MM
#ITED 2EFERENCES AND !DDITIONAL )NFORMATION 3OURCES
"ANNER & 4 AND # 0 ' 0EREIRA 3OME BISERIAL AND TRISERIAL DER &ORAMINIFEREN 3ITZUNGSBERICHTE DER STERREICHISCHE !KADEMIE
AGGLUTINATED SMALLER FORAMINIFERA THEIR WALL STRUCTURE AND ITS DER 7ISSENSCHAFTEN -ATHEMATISCH
.ATURWISSENSCHAFTLICHE +LASSE
SIGNIl CANCE *OURNAL OF &ORAMINIFERAL 2ESEARCH V P
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GRAINS: Skeletal Fragments
OTHER MICRO- AND NANNOFOSSILS
Calpionellids
Coccolithophores
Calcispheres
C Tunicate spicules
H
A Siliceous groups
P
(radiolarians,
T
E diatoms and
R others)
3
Organic-walled
groups
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
#!,0)/.%,,)$3
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
/FTEN GROUPED WITH THE TINTINNIDS PELAGIC CILIATE PROTOZOANS OF THE SUBCLASS 3PIROTHECA ALTHOUGH MODERN
TINTINNIDS ARE ORGANIC
WALLED AND CALPIONELLIDS HAD CALCAREOUS WALLS 4HUS CALPIONELLIDS ARE GROUPED BY OTHER
WORKERS AS 0ROTOZOA INCERTAE SEDIS
#ALPIONELLIDS ,ATE *URASSIC 4ITHONIAN TO %ARLY #RETACEOUS 6ALANGINIAN POSSIBLY INTO !LBIAN
4INTINNIDS *URASSIC
2ECENT BUT WITH POSSIBLE RECORD EXTENDING INTO THE 0ALEOZOIC PERHAPS EVEN TO THE
#AMBRIAN
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
4HESE OPEN MARINE ORGANISMS ARE SIGNIl CANT CONTRIBUTORS TO PELAGIC LIMESTONES AND CHALKS IN THE ,ATE *URASSIC
4HEIR DISTRIBUTION IS LARGELY RESTRICTED TO THE WARM
WATER 4ETHYAN REGION WITHIN ABOUT
OF THE PALEO
EQUATOR
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
!LL CALPIONELLIDS APPARENTLY WERE COMPOSED OF LOW
MAGNESIUM CALCITE THUS GENERALLY WELL PRESERVED 4HE 4%-
STUDIES CONDUCTED BY &ISCHER ET AL CITED AT END OF BOOKS INTRODUCTION SHOWED THAT SOME CALPIONELLIDS
BUILT TWO
LAYERED TESTS IN WHICH THE MAIN LAYER INCORPORATED CARBONATE DETRITUS INCLUDING COCCOLITHS AND WAS
LINED BY AN INNER SECRETED LAYER
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
3MALL SIZE TYPICALLY TO M IN LENGTH AND TO M IN WIDTH SPHERICAL TO ELONGATE 5
OR 6
SHAPED GRAINS
WITH A LARGE OPENING RIMMED IN SOME CASES BY A NARROWED SLIGHTLY THICKENED COLLAR
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
3MALL SIZE COMPARABLE TO SMALL CALCISPHERES OR PLANKTIC FORAMINIFERS
#HARACTERISTIC SINGLE
CHAMBERED CUP OR VASE SHAPE COMMONLY WITH A DISTINCTIVE NECK OR COLLAR WHEN SEEN IN
LONG
AXIS SECTION
4YPICALLY GOOD PRESERVATION OF OVERALL OUTLINE AND WALL STRUCTURE DUE TO ORIGINALLY CALCITIC COMPOSITION
#AN BE MISTAKEN FOR CALCISPHERES OR SMALL PLANKTIC FORAMINIFERS IF SEEN IN SECTIONS THROUGH THE SHORT AXIS THUS
IT IS IMPORTANT TO LOOK FOR MULTIPLE EXAMPLES
(AVE A DISTINCTIVE FABRIC OF HELICOIDALLY ARRANGED RADIAL CALCITE CRYSTALS WHICH CAN BE DISTINGUISHED IN WELL
PRESERVED SAMPLES WHEN VIEWED WITH 3%- 3OME MAY HAVE A MULTI
LAYERED STRUCTURE AS NOTED ABOVE
0(/4/ 3#!,%3 !.$ !""2%6)!4)/.3 !2% %80,!).%$ ). 4(% "//+3 ).42/$5#4)/.
Typical three-dimensional
calpionellid morphologies
2ECONSTRUCTIONS OF SOME TYPICAL CALPIONEL
LIDS REDRAWN AFTER 2EMANE .OTE THE
CHARACTERISTIC CUP OR VASE SHAPES THE LARGE
OPENING THE THIN WALL AND THE PRESENCE OF A
COLLARED NECK IN ONE CASE
CHAPTER 3: OTHER MICRO- AND NANNOFOSSILS
Diagram showing outlines of major
calpionellid genera
,ONGITUDINAL CROSS
SECTIONAL OUTLINES OF SOME
OF THE MAJOR CALPIONELLID GENERA 4HIN
SECTION
EXAMINATION STILL PROVIDES THE BEST METHOD FOR
IDENTIFYING THESE ORGANISMS 2EDRAWN FROM
"RASIER P
Up. Jurassic-Lo. Cretaceous
Vigla Ls., Epirus, Greece
! CALPIONELLID RICH LIMESTONE !LTHOUGH IN
MOST CUTS ONE ONLY SEES A SINGLE CHAMBERED
SIMPLE WALLED SPHERICAL CALCISPHERE LIKE
GRAIN OTHER SECTIONS SHOW THE SINGLE LARGE
OPENING WITH A 5 SHAPED OR CHARACTERISTIC
VASE SHAPED BODY 4HUS TO CONl DENTLY IDEN
TIFY CALPIONELLIDS ONE GENERALLY NEEDS TO EX
AMINE MULTIPLE GRAINS
00, (! MM
Up. Jurassic-Lo. Cretaceous
Vigla Ls., Epirus, Greece
-AGNIl ED LONGITUDINAL VIEWS OF TWO CALPIONEL
LIDS SHOWING THE DISTINCTIVE SLIGHTLY THICKENED
NECK OR COLLAR THAT RIMS THE CHAMBER OPENING
4HE 5
OR 6
SHAPED TESTS ARE READILY RECOGNIZ
ABLE IN LONGITUDINAL SECTIONS BUT ARE VERY HARD
TO DISTINGUISH FROM CALCISPHERES AND SMALL
PLANKTIC FORAMINIFERS IN TRANSVERSE SECTIONS
00, (! , MM 2 MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
#/##/,)4(/0(/2%3 !.$ /4(%2 #!,#!2%/53 .!../0,!.+4/.
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
#OCCOLITHOPHORES ARE PLANKTIC UNICELLULAR ALGAE BELONGING TO THE DIVISION OR PHYLUM (APTOPHYTA WHICH PRODUCE
COCCOLITHS CALCAREOUS EXOSKELETAL PLATES 4HE (APTOPHYTA ARE CHARACTERIZED BY POSSESSION OF TWO m AGELLAE
AND A THIRD m AGELLUM
LIKE ORGANELLE THE (APTONEMA 4HE PHYLUM INCLUDES MANY NON
MINERALIZING ALGAE BUT
THESE HAVE NO FOSSIL RECORD
#OCCOLITHOPHORES ARE IN THE CLASS #OCCOLITHOPHYCEAE #OCCOLITHOPHORES l RST OCCUR IN THE ,ATE 4RIASSIC PUTATIVE
0ALEOZOIC RECORDS ARE REGARDED AS SPURIOUS BY MOST AUTHORITIES AND ARE ABUNDANT FROM THE %ARLY *URASSIC TO
THE 2ECENT
4HERE ARE TWO BASIC TYPES OF COCCOLITHS HETEROCOCCOLITHS AND HOLOCOCCOLITHS (ETEROCOCCOLITHS ARE FORMED OF
RADIAL ARRAYS OF COMPLEX
SHAPED CRYSTAL UNITS WHEREAS HOLOCOCCOLITHS ARE FORMED OF LARGE NUMBERS OF MINUTE
ROUGHLY
M EUHEDRAL CRYSTALLITES ARRANGED IN HEXAGONAL OR RHOMBOHEDRAL ARRAYS 4HESE TWO
COCCOLITH TYPES ARE NOW THOUGHT TO BE CHARACTERISTIC OF DIFFERENT PHASES IN THE LIFE
CYCLE OF COCCOLITHOPHORES
4HE TYPICAL COCCOLITHOPHORE LIFE
CYCLE HAS AN ALTERNATION OF A DIPLOID HETEROCOCCOLITH
PRODUCING PHASE AND A
HAPLOID HOLOCOCCOLITH PRODUCING PHASE BOTH OF WHICH REPRODUCE ASEXUALLY
!DDITIONALLY MANY CALCAREOUS FOSSILS EXIST OF SIMILAR SIZE TO COCCOLITHS BUT LACKING THE CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF
EITHER HOLOCOCCOLITHS OR HETEROCOCCOLITHS THESE ARE TERMED NANNOLITHS 3INCE NANNOLITHS AND COCCOLITHS CO
OCCUR THEY USUALLY ARE STUDIED TOGETHER AND ARE COLLECTIVELY TERMED NANNOLITHS
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
%XCLUSIVELY PLANKTIC PHOTOAUTOTROPHS THUS THEY REQUIRE LIGHT AND LIVE IN SURFACE WATERS ALTHOUGH THEY
ACCUMULATE AS ROCK
FORMING CONSTITUENTS PRIMARILY IN DEEP SHELF TO OCEANIC AREAS THAT ARE ABOVE THE CALCITE
COMPENSATION DEPTH ##$ AND HAVE LOW TERRIGENOUS INm UX -OST ARE NORMAL MARINE BUT SOME SPECIES LIVE
OVER A BROAD SALINITY RANGE TO PPT SALINITY 4HEY ALSO SPAN A WIDE RANGE OF WATER TEMPERATURES
FROM COOL
WATER TO TROPICAL SETTINGS COCCOLITHOPHORES CAN GROW IN WATERS AS COLD AS # BUT GENERALLY ARE
OUT
COMPETED IN COLD WATERS BY SILICEOUS MICROPLANKTON &ORM THE MAIN CONSTITUENTS OF CHALK THE DOMINANT
#RETACEOUS TO 2ECENT CALCAREOUS OCEANIC SEDIMENT
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
#OMPOSED OF LOW
MAGNESIUM CALCITE THUS GENERALLY WELL PRESERVED EXCEPT WHERE CORRODED BY UNDERSATURATED
GENERALLY DEEP OCEANIC WATERS OR ALTERED DURING DIAGENESIS /NE MODERN GENUS 0OLYCRATER HAS ARAGONITIC
COCCOLITHS BUT NONE HAS BEEN IDENTIl ED IN FOSSIL FORMS
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
%XTREMELY SMALL m AGELLATE ORGANISMS TERMED hCOCCOLITHOPHORESv FORM SPHERICAL TO ELLIPSOIDAL TESTS COCCOSPHERES
COMPOSED OF INTERLOCKING SHIELDS COCCOLITHS 3OME FORMS MAY HAVE SPINES ESPECIALLY RHABDOSPHAERIDS
RELATED GROUPS EG DISCOASTERS CAN HAVE RADIATING ARMS OR STAR
LIKE MORPHOLOGIES
#OCCOSPHERES TYPICALLY ARE LESS THAN M IN DIAMETER AND IN SOME CASES LESS THAN M IN DIAMETER INDIVIDUAL
COCCOLITH SHIELDS ARE COMMONLY
M ACROSS CONSTITUENT CRYSTALS ARE TYPICALLY IN THE SUB
MICROMETER SIZE
RANGE
"ECAUSE OF THEIR SMALL SIZES COCCOLITHS AND COCCOLITHOPHORES ARE BEST STUDIED USING STREW
OR SMEAR
SLIDES OR THE
3CANNING %LECTRON -ICROSCOPE 3%- )N STANDARD M PETROGRAPHIC THIN SECTIONS MULTIPLE COCCOLITHS
ARE LIKELY TO OVERLIE EACH OTHER MAKING RECOGNITION DIFl CULT OR IMPOSSIBLE "Y USING ULTRA
THIN SECTIONS OR
BY LOOKING AT THE ESPECIALLY THIN EDGES OF STANDARD SECTIONS ONE CAN SOMETIMES SEE THE CHARACTERISTIC PSEUDO
UNIAXIAL CROSS PINWHEEL PATTERN OF COCCOLITHS UNDER CROSS
POLARIZED LIGHT 4HE 3%- IS OFTEN USED FOR THE STUDY
OF THESE ORGANISMS BUT STANDARD MICROSCOPY OF SMEAR
MOUNTS REMAINS THE NORM FOR BIOSTRATIGRAPHERS
4HERE ARE MANY POSSIBLY RELATED PROBLEMATIC GROUPS EG NANNOCONIDS AN EXCLUSIVELY -ESOZOIC GROUP OF CONE
SHAPED NANNOFOSSILS COMPOSED OF TINY RADIALLY ARRANGED WEDGE
SHAPED CRYSTALS FORMING CONICAL STRUCTURES
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
6ERY SMALL SIZE THAT IN SOME CASES APPROACHES THE RESOLUTION LIMITS OF OPTICAL MICROSCOPY
#HARACTERISTIC CIRCULAR TO OVOID OUTLINES WITH CROSS
SHAPED OR PINWHEEL
SHAPED INTERIORS
$ISTINCTIVE SWEEPING EXTINCTION PATTERN WHEN ROTATED UNDER CROSS
POLARIZED LIGHT
&AR MORE DETAIL AND EASIER IDENTIl CATION IS AVAILABLE BY USING STREW
OR SMEAR MOUNTS ANDOR 3%-
CHAPTER 3: OTHER MICRO- AND NANNOFOSSILS
Diagrammatic representation of a
typical coccosphere
! DRAWING OF A TYPICAL COCCOSPHERE BASED ON
THE GENUS #OCCOLITHUS ADAPTED FROM ,EHMANN
AND (ILLMER #OCCOSPHERES CONSIST
OF A VARIABLE NUMBER OF OVERLAPPING CALCITE
SHIELDS THAT IN TURN ARE COMPOSED OF A LARGE
NUMBER OF RADIATING SINGLE CRYSTALS OF CALCITE
#OCCOSPHERES ARE ONLY RARELY FOUND IN SEDI
MENTS BECAUSE THEY TYPICALLY DISAGGREGATE INTO
THEIR INDIVIDUAL SHIELDS OR CONSTITUENT CRYSTALS
4YPICAL COCCOSPHERES ARE BETWEEN AND M
IN DIAMETER !DAPTED FROM 3COFl N P
CITATION PROVIDED IN BOOK INTRODUCTION
Diagrammatic representation of the
structure of coccoliths
4HESE DRAWINGS PROVIDE A CROSS SECTIONAL
VIEW SHOWING HOW DOUBLE LAYERED COCCOLITHS
PARTIALLY OVERLAP AND WEAKLY INTERLOCK 5PON
DEATH MOST COCCOSPHERES DISAGGREGATE INTO
INDIVIDUAL COCCOLITHS AND IN MANY CASES IN
DIVIDUAL COCCOLITHS FURTHER DISAGGREGATE INTO
SHIELD FRAGMENTS CRYSTAL ELEMENTS OR INDIVID
UAL SUB MICROMETER SIZED CRYSTALS !DAPTED
FROM 3COFl N P CITATION PROVIDED IN
BOOK INTRODUCTION
Eocene chalk, Bermuda Rise, North
Atlantic Ocean
0HOTOMICROGRAPH OF A SMEAR MOUNT DEPICT
ING ABUNDANT COCCOLITHS WITH CHARACTERISTIC
CURVED CROSS OR CURVED SWASTIKA EXTINCTION
PATTERNS #OCCOLITHS ARE THE DOMINANT CONSTIT
UENT OF MOST #RETACEOUS AND YOUNGER CHALKS
BUT ARE NOT EASILY SEEN IN STANDARD THIN SECTIONS
A TYPICAL COCCOLITH IS LESS THAN A FEW MICRO
METERS IN THICKNESS AND MANY WOULD OVERLAP
IN A STANDARD M SECTION 7EDGE EDGES OF
SECTIONS SPECIALLY GROUND ULTRA THIN SECTIONS
SMEAR MOUNTS OR 3%- EXAMINATION NORMALLY
ARE REQUIRED TO ADEQUATELY IMAGE COCCOLITHS
80, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Cretaceous (up. Maastrichtian)
chalk, ODP Leg 171B, Hole 1052E,
Blake Nose, Atlantic Ocean
! HIGH
MAGNIl CATION VIEW OF A SMEAR MOUNT
.OTE THE DISTINCTIVE OVAL OUTLINES AND PSEUDO
UNIAXIAL CROSSES FORMED BY THE RADIAL ARRANGE
MENTS OF CALCITE CRYSTALS IN THESE MINUTE
COCCOLITHS ! NUMBER OF DIFFERENT COCCOLITH
TYPES ARE CLEARLY DISTINGUISHABLE 0HOTOGRAPH
COURTESY OF *EAN - 3ELF
4RAIL
80, (! M
Up. Cretaceous (up. Turonian)
Boquillas Fm., Langtry, Kinney
County, Texas
(IGH
MAGNIl CATION VIEWS OF A SINGLE COCCOLITH
:EUGRHABDOTUS EMBERGERI .OEL
&IG ! IS AN 3%- VIEW &IGS " AND # WERE
TAKEN IN PHASE CONTRAST ILLUMINATION &IG $
IS A TRANSMITTED LIGHT IMAGE AND &IGS % AND
& SHOW TWO ORIENTATIONS UNDER CROSS
POLAR
IZED LIGHTING 4HE BAR SCALE ON &IG ! IS M
IN LENGTH AND APPLIES TO ALL SIX IMAGES 4HIS
SHOWS THE COMPARATIVE DEGREE OF DETAIL THAT
CAN BE OBTAINED FOR COCCOLITHS USING VARIOUS
PETROGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY
OF #HARLES # 3MITH FROM 3MITH
Recent sediment, North Atlantic
Ocean, 26N
!N 3%- IMAGE OF THE CALCAREOUS HETERO
COCCOLITH %MILIANIA HUXLEYI ONE OF THE MOST
UBIQUITOUS SPECIES OF MODERN COCCOLITHO
PHORIDS .OTE THE OVERLAPPING COCCOLITHS THAT
CONSTITUTE THE FULL COCCOSPHERE 0HOTOGRAPH
COURTESY OF *EREMY 2 9OUNG
3%- (! ^ M
CHAPTER 3: OTHER MICRO- AND NANNOFOSSILS
Recent sediment, North Atlantic
Ocean, 54N
!N 3%- IMAGE OF THE CALCAREOUS
HETEROCOCCOLITH #OCCOLITHUS PELAGICUS .OTE
THE MORE ROBUST CONSTRUCTION AND LESSER NUM
BER OF COCCOLITHS ON THIS COCCOSPHERE AS COM
PARED WITH THE PREVIOUS EXAMPLE 0HOTOGRAPH
COURTESY OF *EREMY 2 9OUNG
3%- (! ^ M
Recent sediment, southern Belize
lagoon, Belize
!N 3%- IMAGE OF A BROKEN COCCOSPHERE
OF %MILIANIA HUXLEYI WITH SEVERAL MISSING
COCCOLITHS 4HIS VIEW CLEARLY SHOWS THE IN
TERLOCKING OF ADJACENT COCCOLITHS TO FORM A
COMPLETE COCCOSPHERE
3%- (! ^ M
Lo. Paleocene (Danian) Ekosk Fm.
chalk, Danish North Sea
!N 3%- IMAGE OF A DEEP SHELF CHALK THAT
SHOWS AN UNUSUAL MIX OF WHOLE COCCOSPHERES
OF 0RINSIUS SP INTACT COCCOLITHS AND FULLY
DISAGGREGATED COCCOLITH CRYSTAL ELEMENTS
4HE EXTENSIVE POROSITY ^ IS COMMON
IN CLAY POOR COCCOLITH CHALKS THAT HAVE NOT
BEEN DEEPLY BURIED AND IS AT LEAST PARTLY DUE
TO THE DIAGENETICALLY STABLE NATURE OF PRIMARY
SEDIMENT COMPOSED OF VIRTUALLY PURE CALCITE
WITH LITTLE OR NO ARAGONITE ADMIXTURE 4HIS IS
AN EXCELLENT EXAMPLE OF THE SEDIMENT FORMING
CAPABILITIES OF COCCOLITHOPHORES 3AMPLE COUR
TESY OF -AERSK /LIE OG 'AS !3
3%- (! M
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Mid. Miocene chalk, Hatton-Rockall
Basin, North Atlantic Ocean
!N 3%- IMAGE OF AN OCEANIC COCCOLITH OOZE
3EDIMENT IS COMPOSED ALMOST ENTIRELY OF
COCCOLITH PLATES AND FRAGMENTS WITH SUBORDI
NATE DISCOASTERS STAR
SHAPED GRAIN AT UPPER
RIGHT 6IRTUALLY NO CEMENT IS VISIBLE AND SEDI
MENT STILL HAS ABOUT PERCENT POROSITY 3OME
CORROSION OF COCCOLITHS IS EVIDENT A COMMON
SYN
AND POST
DEPOSITIONAL FEATURE IN DEEP SEA
SEDIMENTS
3%- (! ^ M
Up. Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) Tor
Fm. chalk, Denmark
!N 3%- IMAGE OF A CHALK CONTAINING A
COCCOLITH CENTER WITH AN ELONGATE CENTRAL
SPINE ATTACHED TO ITS OUTER SURFACE )T IS QUITE
COMMON TO l ND THE SPINES BROKEN OFF AND
SUCH SPINES CAN COMPOSE A SIGNIl CANT PORTION
OF SOME CHALKS
3%- (! ^ M
Recent sediment, Gulf of Maine,
offshore Maine
!N 3%- IMAGE OF "RAARUDOSPHAERA BIGELOWII
AN EXTANT SPECIES OF UNKNOWN AFl NITY 4HE TEST
IS FORMED OF PENTAGONAL PLATES EACH COM
POSED OF l VE CRYSTAL UNITS "RAARUDOSPHAERID
PENTALITHS ARE OCCASIONALLY FOUND IN ENORMOUS
ABUNDANCES IN -ESOZOIC TO 2ECENT SEDIMENTS
AND ARE THOUGHT TO REPRESENT FORMS THAT m OUR
ISHED PRIMARILY DURING TIMES OF UNUSUAL ENVI
RONMENTAL STRESSES 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF
*EREMY 2 9OUNG
3%- (! M
CHAPTER 3: OTHER MICRO- AND NANNOFOSSILS
Recent sediment, North Atlantic
Ocean, 26N
!N 3%- IMAGE LEFT OF THE CALCAREOUS
HETEROCOCCOLITH &LORISPHAERA PROFUNDA
4HIS IS AN EXTREMELY ABUNDANT DEEP PHOTIC
ZONE M SPECIES AND AN INVALUABLE
PALEOCEANOGRAPHIC INDICATOR OF OLIGOTROPHIC
CONDITIONS 4HE INDIVIDUAL COCCOLITHS ARE
PLATES FORMED OF A SINGLE CALCITE CRYSTAL 4HE
LEFT HAND IMAGE SHOWS A COMPLETE COCCOSPHERE
THE RIGHT HAND IMAGE A COLLAPSED COCCOSPHERE
0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF *EREMY 2 9OUNG
3%- (! , ^ M 2 ^ M
Recent sediment, North Atlantic
Ocean, 26N
!N 3%- IMAGE OF THE CALCAREOUS HOLOCOCCOLITH
#ALYPTROSPHAERA OBLONGA 4HE CHARACTERISTIC
HOLOCOCCOLITH CONSTRUCTION FROM AN ARRAY OF
MINUTE EUHEDRAL CRYSTALLITES IS NICELY SHOWN
(OLOCOCCOLITHS ARE OFTEN ABUNDANT IN THE
PLANKTON BUT HAVE VERY LOW PRESERVATION
POTENTIAL 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF *EREMY 2
9OUNG
3%- (! ^ M
Lo. Cretaceous (Aptian) Shuaiba
Fm., offshore Qatar
! SHALLOW SHELF CHALKY MICRITE WITH HIGH CON
CENTRATIONS OF NANNOCONIDS VISIBLE IN A LEACHED
AREA AS WELL AS IN SURROUNDING UNLEACHED MA
TRIX .OTE THE CONICAL LONGITUDINAL SECTIONS
AND CIRCULAR TRANSVERSE ONES 4HE TRANSVERSE
SECTIONS ALSO SHOW TRACES OF THE WEDGE
SHAPED
CALCITE CRYSTALS THAT MAKE UP THE NANNOCONID
WALL ,ARGE BLUISH
PURPLE AREAS ARE EPOXY
IM
PREGNATED PORES
00, !&E3 "3% (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
#!,#)30(%2%3
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
#ALCISPHERES ARE PROBLEMATIC GRAINS THAT HAVE IN MOST INSTANCES NO CERTAIN ORIGIN 3EVERAL TYPES OF CALCISPHERES
EXIST AND MOST ARE ATTRIBUTED TO ALGAL SOURCES -ESOZOIC TO 2ECENT CALCISPHERES ARE PREDOMINANTLY THE REMAINS
OF DINOm AGELLATES
0RECAMBRIAN CALCISPHERE
LIKE ORGANISMS EXIST %OSPHAERA TRUE CALCISPHERES RANGE FROM #AMBRIAN TO 2ECENT
AND ARE COMMON FROM $EVONIAN TO 2ECENT
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
4HE LACK OF A CLEARLY DEl NED ORIGIN FOR MOST CALCISPHERES MAKES ENVIRONMENTAL INTERPRETATION DIFl CULT %VEN
WHEN ONE ATTRIBUTES CALCISPHERES TO AN ALGAL IE PHOTIC ZONE SOURCE THE CALCISPHERES THEMSELVES MAY BE
TRANSPORTED FAR FROM THEIR SITE OF FORMATION
3OME CALCISPHERES ARE LARGELY RESTRICTED TO COASTAL LAGOONAL SETTINGS OTHERS ARE ASSOCIATED MAINLY WITH OPEN
SHELF TO OCEAN PELAGIC DEPOSITS 4HUS ONE NEEDS TO IDENTIFY SPECIl C CALCISPHERES BEFORE DRAWING ENVIRONMENTAL
CONCLUSIONS
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
-ANY CALCISPHERES HAVE WELL PRESERVED WALL STRUCTURES AND THUS PROBABLY HAD CALCITIC MINERALOGY OR REPRESENT
CALCITE PERMINERALIZATION OF ORGANIC
WALLED STRUCTURES THOSE WITH POORLY PRESERVED WALLS AND SOME MODERN
GREEN ALGAL REPRODUCTIVE BODIES HAD OR HAVE ARAGONITIC COMPOSITION
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
#ALCISPHERES ARE SMALL HOLLOW GRAINS WITH SINGLE OR DOUBLE WALLS WITH OR WITHOUT PERFORATIONS OR OPENINGS 3INGLE
CALCISPHERES ARE TYPICALLY TENS TO HUNDREDS OF MICROMETERS IN DIAMETER -OST HAVE NO OTHER MAJOR OPENINGS
IN THE WALLS
2ADIOSPHAERID CALCISPHERES HAVE PROMINENT EXTERNAL SPINES AND A RADIAL WALL MICROSTRUCTURE OF CALCITE CRYSTALS
NON
RADIOSPHAERIDS HAVE SMOOTH SURFACES AND A MICROGRANULAR WALL STRUCTURE
3OME CALCISPHERES FROM #RETACEOUS PELAGIC LIMESTONES EG 0ITHONELLA OVALIS HAVE AN ELLIPTICAL SHAPE A SINGLE
OPENING AND A SHINGLED CALCITE WALL STRUCTURE 4HESE GRAINS KNOWN TO BE DINOm AGELLATE CYSTS MAY HAVE A VERY
DIFFERENT ORIGIN FROM OTHER CALCISPHERES
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
7ALLED HOLLOW GRAINS GENERALLY WITHOUT OPENINGS -AY HAVE ANY OF A NUMBER OF WALL TYPES INCLUDING ONES
WITH SINGLE OR MULTIPLE LAYERS
7ALLS MAY BE UNIFORM DARK AND MICRITIC MAY CONSIST OF RADIAL CRYSTALS MAY HAVE IMBRICATE BRICK
LIKE CALCITE
CRYSTALS OR MAY HAVE STILL OTHER FABRICS
4HE MOST COMMON FORMS ARE WITHOUT SPINES BUT SPINED FORMS ARE KNOWN
$IAMETERS EXTERNAL OF
M WALL THICKNESSES OF
M SPINED FORMS MAY BE UP TO M IN TOTAL
DIAMETER INCLUDING SPINES
#OMMONLY OCCUR IN GREAT NUMBERS IN PARTICULAR HORIZONS PERHAPS INDICATIVE OF EPISODIC BLOOMS OF CALCISPHERES
OR UNUSUALLY STRESSFUL CONDITIONS THAT ELIMINATED GROWTH OF OTHER PLANKTIC ORGANISMS
0(/4/ 3#!,%3 !.$ !""2%6)!4)/.3 !2% %80,!).%$ ). 4(% "//+3 ).42/$5#4)/.
CHAPTER 3: OTHER MICRO- AND NANNOFOSSILS
Up. Cretaceous Chalk, Netherlands
North Sea
!N 3%- IMAGE OF CALCISPHERES MAINLY
0ITHONELLA OVALIS IN A SHELF CHALK -OST
CALCISPHERES HAVE UNCERTAIN ORIGINS BUT THESE
ARE KNOWN TO BE CALCAREOUS DINOm AGELLATE
CYSTS .OTE THE CHARACTERISTIC OVOID SHAPE
AND BRICK LIKE CONSTRUCTION OF THE CALCITE WALLS
FORMED OF ELEMENTS WITH THEIR C AXES OBLIQUE
TO THE WALL AND SUB PARALLEL TO EACH OTHER
3%- (! ^ M
Up. Cretaceous Lower Chalk, Kent,
England, U.K.
! CALCISPHERE RICH SHELF CHALK 4HE BULK OF
THE MICROFOSSILS IN THIS SECTION ARE FROM THE
DINOm AGELLATE GENUS 0ITHONELLA !LTHOUGH A
FEW MULTI CHAMBERED PLANKTIC FORAMINIFERS
ARE ALSO VISIBLE THIS IS A GOOD EXAMPLE OF A
CHALK IN WHICH CALCISPHERES PREDOMINATE OVER
PLANKTIC FORAMINIFERS 3UCH DEPOSITS GENERALLY
ARE THIN AND REPRESENT SHORT LIVED EVENTS RELA
TIVE TO THE FAR MORE WIDESPREAD FORAMINIFERAL
CHALKS
00, (! MM
Cretaceous (Albian-Cenomanian)
Tamaulipas Ls., San Luis Potosi,
Mexico
!BUNDANT CALCISPHERES IN A BASINAL LIMESTONE
4HESE CALCISPHERES HAVE VARIED SIZES AND MOD
ERATELY THICK WALLS COMPOSED OF l NELY GRANULAR
MICRITIC CALCITE A VERY COMMON WALL TYPE IN
ANCIENT CALCISPHERES 4HESE TOO ARE PROBABLE
CALCAREOUS DINOm AGELLATE CYSTS
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Recent sediment, Florida Keys,
Florida
4HESE MODERN WEAKLY CALCIl ED CALCISPHERES
HAVE WALLS COMPOSED OF ORGANIC MATTER PLUS
l NE GRAINED ARAGONITE 4HEY ARE REPRODUC
TIVE CYSTS FROM THE DASYCLADACEAN GREEN ALGA
!CETABULARIA SP 4HE CYSTS ARE SHED INTO MOD
ERN SHELF CARBONATES IN LARGE NUMBERS BY THESE
MARINE ALGAE
00,80, (! MM EACH
Up. Mississippian (Visean) Arroyo
Peasco Gp., Manuelitas Fm., Taos
Co., New Mexico
3EVERAL TYPES OF CALCISPHERES FROM A CHERTY
SHELFAL LIMESTONE .OTE PARTICULARLY THE VARI
ETY OF WALL TYPES IN A SINGLE SAMPLE PROBABLY
REm ECTING A VARIETY OF ORIGINS FOR THESE DIFFER
ENT GRAINS
00, (! MM
Lo. Carboniferous (Visean)
limestone, west of Krakow, Poland
! CALCISPHERE WITH TWO CONCENTRIC SKELETAL
LAYERS AND RADIAL PERFORATIONS PENETRATING THE
WALL 4HIS CLEARLY IS A VERY DIFFERENT TYPE OF
CALCISPHERE FROM THOSE SHOWN IN THE PREVIOUS
PHOTOGRAPHS BUT ITS EXACT ORIGIN IS NOT KNOWN
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 3: OTHER MICRO- AND NANNOFOSSILS
45.)#!4% 30)#5,%3
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
0HYLUM #HORDATA 3UBPHYLUM 5ROCHORDATA 3UPERCLASS 4UNICATA SPARSE FOSSIL RECORD BUT AT LEAST *URASSIC
2ECENT MAY EXTEND MUCH FARTHER BACK IN TIME SINCE POSSIBLEQUESTIONABLE FORMS HAVE BEEN DESCRIBED FROM
THE 0RECAMBRIAN
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
"OTH SESSILE AND PELAGIC TUNICATES SALPS EXIST SESSILE FORMS OFTEN CALLED SEA SQUIRTS ARE GENERALLY SHALLOW
WATER
OPEN
MARINE FORMS
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
-ODERN TUNICATE DERMAL SPICULES ARE COMPOSED OF ARAGONITE OLDER TUNICATE SPICULES MAY ALSO HAVE BEEN ARAGONITIC
BUT THIS IS SPECULATIVE DUE TO A SPARSE FOSSIL RECORD
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
,ARVAE EXHIBIT CHORDATE FEATURES INCLUDING A NOTOCHORD A DORSAL NERVE CORD AND PHARYNGEAL SLITS
!DULTS HAVE SIMPLE BODY FORM CONSISTING OF A LARGE CHAMBER OR SACK WITH TWO SIPHONS THROUGH WHICH WATER ENTERS
AND EXITS
4ISSUES OF ADULT NON
LARVAL TUNICATES CONTAIN EMBEDDED CALCAREOUS SPICULES THAT SERVE TO STIFFEN THE SOFT TISSUE
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
3MALL SPICULES ROUGHLY
M IN DIAMETER ARE THE ONLY CALCIl ED REMAINS AND THEY TYPICALLY ARE VERY
MINOR SEDIMENT CONSTITUENTS
3PICULES CONSIST OF THICK RADIATING SPIKES FORMING A VARIETY OF MACE
LIKE CARBONATE GRAINS
3PICULES ARE VIRTUALLY NEVER RECOGNIZED IN THIN SECTION BUT ARE QUITE EASILY IDENTIl ABLE IN GRAIN MOUNTS OF
(OLOCENE SEDIMENTS
Recent sediment, Florida Keys,
Florida; Colson Cay, Belize
!LTHOUGH NOT REALLY MICROFOSSILS TUNICATE SPIC
ULES ARE INCLUDED HERE BECAUSE THEY ARE COMPA
RABLE IN SIZE AND MORPHOLOGY TO MICROFOSSILS
AND REPRESENT THE ONLY PRESERVED PARTS OF
TUNICATES 3UCH SPINY ARAGONITIC SPICULES ARE
EMBEDDED IN THE SOFT TISSUE OF THE TUNICATES
AND ARE SHED INTO SEDIMENT AFTER DEATH OF THE
ORGANISM 4HEY ARE READILY RECOGNIZABLE IN
SEDIMENT GRAIN MOUNTS SUCH AS THESE BUT
ARE VERY DIFl CULT TO IDENTIFY IN THIN SECTIONS OF
LITHIl ED SEDIMENT
80, (! , MM 2 MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
3),)#%/53 -)#2/&/33),3
2!$)/,!2)!.3
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
2ADIOLARIANS ARE CLASSED IN THE 0HYLUM 0ROTOZOA AS A SUBCLASS OF THE #LASS !CTINOPODA
0OST
0ALEOZOIC SILICEOUS FORMS ARE MAINLY FROM THE SUPERORDER 0OLYCYSTINA
3PUMELLARIANS RADIALLY
SYMMETRICAL FORMS -IDDLE
,ATE #AMBRIAN TO 2ECENT
.ASSELLARIANS HELMET
SHAPED FORMS 4RIASSIC TO 2ECENT
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
2ADIOLARIANS ARE FULLY MARINE PLANKTON THEY ARE MOST COMMON AND SHALLOW WATER BUT ARE FOUND AT ALL DEPTHS IN
MODERN OCEANS 4HEY ARE COMMON CONSTITUENTS OF PELAGIC DEPOSITS THROUGHOUT THE 0HANEROZOIC
)NDIVIDUAL SPECIES ARE DEPTH ZONES AND OCCUPY PROVINCES DEl NED BY THE PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF
OCEANIC WATER MASSES 2ADIOLARIANS AS A WHOLE ARE FOUND IN POLAR TO TROPICAL SETTINGS ESPECIALLY IN UPWELLING
AREAS
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
-OST RADIOLARIANS HAD SKELETONS COMPOSED OF AMORPHOUS OPALINE SILICA 4HESE SKELETONS TYPICALLY ARE
RECRYSTALLIZED TO CHERT OR OTHER STABLE FORMS OF QUARTZ OR ARE REPLACED BY OTHER MINERALS IN PRE
4ERTIARY OR
YOUNGER DEPOSITS
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
2ADIOLARIANS HAVE SOLITARY HIGHLY POROUS HARD SKELETONS WITH OR WITHOUT SPINES THAT ARE EMBEDDED IN THE
ORGANISMS SOFT TISSUES 3PUMELLARIAN SKELETONS COMMONLY OCCUR AS NESTED SPHERES AND NORMALLY HAVE RADIAL
SYMMETRY MOST NASSELLARIANS ARE CHARACTERIZED BY AXIAL SYMMETRY
2ADIOLARIA OCCUR IN A WIDE RANGE OF SIZES FROM LESS THAN M TO MORE THAN MM
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
/RIGINALLY SILICEOUS OPAL
! MINERALOGY BUT GENERALLY DISSOLVED OR REPLACED BY MORE STABLE FORMS OF SILICA IN
OLDER OR MORE DEEPLY BURIED SAMPLES
2ADIOLARIANS AND SILICOm AGELLATES CAN BE DISTINGUISHED FROM EACH OTHER ON THE BASIS OF SIZE AND SKELETAL
GEOMETRY
"OTH GROUPS HAVE RATHER OPEN TESTS RADIOLARIANS HAVE A GREAT VARIETY OF SHAPES BUT MANY ARE SHAPED LIKE
SPIKED SPHERES OR LIKE BULLETS AND SPACECRAFT
0(/4/ 3#!,%3 !.$ !""2%6)!4)/.3 !2% %80,!).%$ ). 4(% "//+3 ).42/$5#4)/.
Diagram showing the two major
radiolarian skeletal types
,EFT 0ARTIAL EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL VIEWS OF A
REPRESENTATIVE SPUMELLARIAN RADIOLARIAN RE
DRAWN FROM "RASIER .OTE RADIAL SYM
METRY OF THIS FORM AND NESTING OF INTERNAL AND
EXTERNAL STRUCTURAL SPHERES
2IGHT $IAGRAMMATIC VIEW OF A REPRESENTATIVE
HELMET
SHAPED NASSELLARIAN RADIOLARIAN RE
DRAWN FROM +LING P
CHAPTER 3: OTHER MICRO- AND NANNOFOSSILS
Up. Oligocene ooze, Caroline
Ridge, Pacic Ocean
!N 3%- IMAGE OF OPALINE SILICA TESTS FROM
A DIVERSE ASSEMBLAGE OF WELL PRESERVED
NASSELLARIAN RADIOLARIANS 4HIS DEPOSIT REPRE
SENTS A DEEP SEA SILICEOUS OOZE IN M WA
TER DEPTH PRESENT DAY 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY
OF 3TANLEY ! +LING
3%- (! ^ M
Modern siliceous ooze, Pacic
Ocean
!N 3%- IMAGE OF A SPUMELLARIAN RADIOLARIAN
(EXACONTIUM SP SHOWING INNER AND OUTER CAP
SULES COARSELY POROUS STRUCTURE AND A NUMBER
OF EXTERNAL SPINES 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF
3TANLEY ! +LING
3%- (! ^ M
Up. Jurassic-Cretaceous
Radiolarite, Oman
! MODERATELY WELL PRESERVED ASSEMBLAGE OF
RADIOLARIANS AND SUBORDINATE SPONGE SPICULES
IN AN OCEANIC RADIOLARITE 3PHERICAL AND BUL
LET SHAPED FORMS ARE READILY VISIBLE AS ARE THE
COARSE PORES THAT TYPIFY RADIOLARIAN SKELETONS
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Jurassic-Cretaceous
Radiolarite, Oman
! TANGENTIAL SECTION THROUGH THE MODERATELY
WELL PRESERVED OUTER WALL OF A RADIOLARIAN )N
THE ALTERATION OF OPAL ! TESTS TO CRISTOBALITE AND
l NALLY TO QUARTZ MUCH OF THE STRUCTURAL DETAIL
MAY BE OBSCURED )N THIS EXAMPLE HOWEVER
THE COARSE RADIOLARIAN PORE STRUCTURE IS STILL
CLEARLY VISIBLE
00, (! MM
Up. Jurassic (Tithonian) Franciscan
Gp., Point Sal ophiolite, Santa
Barbara Co., California
#ROSS SECTIONS THROUGH TWO SPUMELLARIAN
RADIOLARIANS SHOWING GOOD PRESERVATION OF
TESTS DESPITE ALTERATION FROM OPAL TO QUARTZ
#OARSE PORE STRUCTURES IN ADDITION TO SIZE AND
SHAPE OF TESTS ARE THE MAIN CRITERIA FOR IDENTIl
CATION OF THESE GRAINS AS RADIOLARIANS
00, (! MM
Up. Jurassic (Tithonian) Franciscan
Gp., Point Sal ophiolite, Santa
Barbara Co., California
! LONGITUDINAL CROSS SECTION THROUGH A SINGLE
SPUMELLARIAN RADIOLARIAN TEST /RIGINALLY OPAL
THIS EXAMPLE HAS BEEN DIAGENETICALLY ALTERED TO
QUARTZ CHERT BUT STILL SHOWS THE COARSE PORE
STRUCTURE IN THE OUTER SKELETON 2ADIOLARIANS
ARE WIDE RANGING AND EXTREMELY IMPORTANT IN
THE FORMATION OF DEEP WATER SILICEOUS DEPOS
ITS
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 3: OTHER MICRO- AND NANNOFOSSILS
3),)#%/53 -)#2/&/33),3
$)!4/-3 !.$ /4(%2 !,'!, '2/503
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
5NICELLULAR NON
m AGELLATE ALGAE OF THE CLASS "ACILLARIOPHYCEAE
4HEY ARE DIVIDED INTO THE ORDER #ENTRALES FORMS THAT TYPICALLY HAVE RADIAL SYMMETRY AND THE ORDER 0ENNALES
ELONGATE FORMS GENERALLY WITH BILATERAL SYMMETRY
-ARINE DIATOMS %ARLY *URASSIC 4OARCIAN TO 2ECENT EXAMPLES OLDER THAN ,ATE #RETACEOUS ARE RARE BUT
MOLECULAR $.!2.! DATA INDICATES THAT THE GROUP AROSE IN 0RECAMBRIAN
&RESHWATER FORMS 0ALEOCENE TO 2ECENT
#HRYSOPHYTES ARE A COMPLEX POSSIBLY POLYPHYLETIC GROUP OF MARINE ALGAE &ORMS WITH SILICA PLATES ARE SEPARATELY
GROUPED BY SOME WORKERS AS 3YNUROPHYCEAE &OSSIL RECORD #RETACEOUS
2ECENT
3ILICOm AGELLATES ARE UNICELLULAR ALGAE WITH A SINGLE m AGELLUM &OSSIL RECORD %ARLY #RETACEOUS
2ECENT
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
$IATOMS ARE PHOTOSYNTHETIC ALGAE AND THUS ARE RESTRICTED TO THE PHOTIC ZONE 4HEY CAN BE PLANKTIC OR SESSILE AND
MARINE FORMS RANGE FROM OPEN MARINE SETTINGS TO COASTAL BRACKISH AS WELL AS HYPERSALINE NON
MARINE FORMS
ARE COMMON IN LACUSTRINE ENVIRONMENTS
-ARINE DIATOMS ARE ESPECIALLY PREVALENT IN HIGH LATITUDE DEEP
WATER DEPOSITS BUT ARE ALSO PRESENT IN EQUATORIAL
SEDIMENTS ESPECIALLY IN NUTRIENT
RICH UPWELLING AREAS
)N GENERAL CENTRIC DIATOMS ARE MARINE PLANKTIC FORMS PENNATE DIATOMS ARE PREDOMINANTLY MOTILE BENTHIC FORMS
THAT LIVE IN COASTAL TO LACUSTRINE SETTINGS
$IATOM FOSSIL ASSEMBLAGES ARE AFFECTED BY PREFERENTIAL PRESERVATION OF HEAVILY SILICIl ED FORMS
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
$IATOM HARD PARTS TERMED FRUSTULES ARE AND WERE COMPOSED OF AMORPHOUS OPALINE SILICA /LDER FOSSIL FORMS
MAY HAVE UNDERGONE DISSOLUTION RECRYSTALLIZATION TO MORE STABLE FORMS OF SILICA SUCH AS OPAL
#4 OR QUARTZ
OR REPLACEMENT BY CALCITE OR OTHER MINERALS
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
$IATOMS SECRETE EXTERNAL SHELLS FRUSTULES THAT CONSIST OF TWO OVERLAPPING VALVES SIMILAR TO A 0ETRI DISH AND
A GIRDLE THAT HELPS TO BIND THEM TOGETHER $IATOM FRUSTULES CAN HAVE RADIAL SYMMETRY IN CENTRIC FORMS OR
BILATERAL SYMMETRY IN PENNATE FORMS
$IATOM FRUSTULES TYPICALLY ARE PERFORATED BY MANY REGULARLY ARRANGED OPENINGS TERMED AREOLAE AND OTHER
SMALLER PORES GIVING THEM THE APPEARANCE OF TINY SIEVES A PROPERTY THAT MAKES DIATOMACEOUS EARTH USEFUL IN
l LTRATION APPLICATIONS
#ENTRIC FORMS MAY BE CIRCULAR TRIANGULAR OR OBLONG BUT SURFACE MARKINGS IN ALL THESE SHAPE VARIETIES RADIATE
FROM A CENTRAL ZONE PENNATE FORMS HAVE A LONG AXIS AND TWO SHORT AXES WITH SURFACE MARKINGS PERPENDICULAR
TO THE LONG AXIS
$IATOMS RANGE IN SIZE FROM ABOUT M TO MORE THAN MM
3ILICOm AGELLATES ARE SMALL GENERALLY
M RARELY UP TO M UNICELLULAR MARINE MICROPLANKTON STRUCTURES
RANGING FROM SIMPLE RINGS WITH SPINES TO MORE COMPLEX DOMAL FORMS 4HEY ARE FAR LESS ABUNDANT THAN
RADIOLARIA OR DIATOMS
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
3ILICEOUS OPAL
! PRIMARY COMPOSITION THUS COMMONLY DISSOLVED SOMETIMES LEAVING MOLDS OR REPLACED BY
QUARTZ OR CALCITE IN #ENOZOIC AND OLDER STRATA
3HAPED LIKE 0ETRI DISHES TRIANGLES OR BANANA
LIKE OBLONGS AND THUS DIFFERENT FROM THE TYPICAL CONICAL
OR
SPHERICAL
SHAPED HELMET
LIKE FORMS OF RADIOLARIANS
$ISTINCTIVE POROUS SIEVE
LIKE FABRIC PRODUCED BY ABUNDANT REGULARLY ARRANGED PUNCTAE PERFORATING BOTH
VALVES
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Diagram showing the two major
diatom skeletal types
,EFT OBLIQUE DIAGRAMMATIC VIEW OF A REPRESEN
TATIVE PENNATE DIATOM 0INNULARIA SP SHOWING
THE PAIRED VALVES AND THE BILATERAL SYMMETRY
THAT CHARACTERIZES THIS GROUP 2EDRAWN FROM
"RASIER P AFTER 3CAGEL ET AL
2IGHT DIAGRAMMATIC VIEW OF A REPRESENTATIVE
CENTRIC DIATOM #OSCINODISCUS SP SHOWING
THE RADIAL SYMMETRY OF THIS GROUP 6ALVE
IS ABOUT M IN DIAMETER 2EDRAWN FROM
"RASIER P
Recent sediment, North Atlantic
Ocean
!N 3%- IMAGE OF A TYPICAL PENNATE DIATOM
WITH BILATERAL SYMMETRY 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY
OF *EREMY 2 9OUNG
3%- (! ^ M
Recent sediment, North Atlantic
Ocean, 54N
!N 3%- IMAGE OF A TYPICAL CENTRIC DIATOM
WITH RADIAL SYMMETRY 3HOWS A COMMON SHAPE
WITH UPPER AND LOWER VALVES HELD TOGETHER BY
A CENTRAL GIRDLE 4HE MINUTE PORES FOUND IN ALL
DIATOMS EXPLAIN WHY DIATOMACEOUS SEDIMENTS
ARE SO WIDELY USED AS l LTRATION MATERIAL FOR
SWIMMING POOLS AND MANY OTHER APPLICATIONS
0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF *EREMY 2 9OUNG
3%- (! ^ M
CHAPTER 3: OTHER MICRO- AND NANNOFOSSILS
Tertiary sediment, U.S.A.
4HE EFFECTIVE STUDY OF DIATOMS USING STANDARD
LIGHT MICROSCOPY TYPICALLY INVOLVES STREW
MOUNTS OR GRAIN MOUNTS IN WHICH ISOLATED DIA
TOMS ARE SCATTERED INTO A MOUNTING MEDIUM ON
THE SLIDE 4HIS ALLOWS THE VIEWING OF RELATIVELY
UNIFORMLY ORIENTED GRAIN WITH MINIMAL OVERLAP
OF INDIVIDUAL SPECIMENS 4HIS STREW MOUNT
SHOWS A VARIETY OF WELL
PRESERVED MAINLY CEN
TRIC DIATOMS .OTE THE SIMPLE CIRCULAR SHAPES
AND THE RADIALLY ARRANGED SIEVE
LIKE PORE
STRUCTURE OF THESE ORGANISMS
00, (! MM
Tertiary sediment, Calvert Co.,
Maryland
! GRAIN MOUNT PHOTOMICROGRAPH SHOWING TOP
VIEWS OF THREE WELL PRESERVED SPECIMENS OF A
LARGE CENTRIC DIATOM !CTINOPTYCHUS
SP .OTE
THE SIMPLE CIRCULAR SHAPES AND THE COMPLEXLY
PATTERNED RADIALLY ARRANGED SIEVE LIKE PORE
STRUCTURE
00, (! MM
Recent sediment, Florida
#LOSE UP VIEW OF TWO SPECIMENS OF A CENTRIC
DIATOM 4RINACRIA EXCAVATA 4HE TRIANGULAR
SHAPES OF THESE GRAINS ARE COMMON DIATOM
GROWTH FORMS 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF *EREMY
2 9OUNG
00, (! M
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Recent sediment, Cancun lagoon,
Quintana Roo, Mexico
! SMEAR MOUNT IMAGE SHOWING AN OPALINE
DIATOM TEST #OCCONEIS SP $IATOMS ARE
IMPORTANT IN #RETACEOUS TO 2ECENT SEDIMENTS
FROM A NUMBER OF ENVIRONMENTS /RIGINALLY
COMPOSED OF OPAL ! THEY ALTER TO OTHER FORMS
OF SILICA OFTEN WITH CONSIDERABLE LOSS OF TEX
TURAL DETAIL .OTE A SMALL FRAGMENT OF A SPONGE
SPICULE WHICH OVERLAPS THE DIATOM
00, (! MM
Eocene Oamaru Diatomite, Otago,
New Zealand
!BUNDANT PARTIALLY FRAGMENTED DIATOMS IN A
SILICEOUS MARINE SEDIMENT .OTE THE SIMPLE
CIRCULAR TO OVOID SHAPES AND THE SMALL REGU
LARLY ARRANGED PORES THAT GIVE THE GRAINS THE
DISTINCTIVE APPEARANCE OF SMALL SIEVES
00, "3% (! MM
Recent sediment, North Atlantic
Ocean, 26N
!N 3%- IMAGE OF CHRYSOPHYTES A RELA
TIVELY UNCOMMON GROUP OF SILICEOUS MARINE
PHYTOPLANKTONIC ORGANISMS 0HOTOGRAPH COUR
TESY OF *EREMY 2 9OUNG
3%- (! ^ M
CHAPTER 3: OTHER MICRO- AND NANNOFOSSILS
Recent sediment, North Atlantic
Ocean, 26N
!N 3%- IMAGE SHOWING A MORE DETAILED VIEW
OF THE CHRYSOPHYTE SHIELDS DEPICTED IN THE PRE
VIOUS IMAGE 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF *EREMY
2 9OUNG
3%- (! ^ M
Recent sediment, North Atlantic
Ocean, 26N
!N 3%- IMAGE OF THE OPALINE SILICA SKELETON OF
A SILICOm AGELLATE $ICHTYOCHA l BULA 4HESE ARE
THE OPALINE REMAINS OF UNICELLULAR ALGAE WITH
A SINGLE m AGELLUM THIS SPECIES HAS A VERY
SIMPLE TEST MORPHOLOGY 3ILICOm AGELLATES GEN
ERALLY ARE FAR LESS COMMON IN MARINE SEDIMENTS
THAN DIATOM OR RADIOLARIAN REMAINS BUT THEY
CAN BE LOCALLY ABUNDANT 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY
OF *EREMY 2 9OUNG
3%- (! ^ M
Recent sediment, North Sea
!N 3%- IMAGE OF A SILICOm AGELLATE $ICHTYO
CHA SPECULUM SOMETIMES PLACED IN THE GENUS
$ISTEPHANUS 4HIS SPECIES SHOWS A SLIGHTLY
MORE COMPLEX MORPHOLOGY THAN THE ONE
SHOWN ABOVE 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF *EREMY
2 9OUNG
3%- (! ^ M
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
$)./&,!'%,,!4%3 !.$ /4(%2 /2'!.)#
7!,,%$ '2/503
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
4HESE m AGELLATE PROTISTS HAVE BOTH ANIMAL
AND PLANT
LIKE CHARACTERISTICS BUT FOR NOMENCLATURAL PURPOSES ARE
CLASSIl ED AS ALGAE IN THE +INGDOM 0ROTISTA $IVISION 0YRRHOPHYTA CLASS $INOPHYCEAE
3ILURIAN PRECURSORS ARE KNOWN AND 0ALEOZOIC ACRITARCHS MAY BE RELATED TO THIS GROUP BUT THE MAIN FOSSIL RECORD
IS 0ERMIAN TO 2ECENT
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
-ODERN DINOm AGELLATES ARE MAINLY OPEN MARINE TO COASTAL BUT SOME NONMARINE MAINLY LACUSTRINE FORMS EXIST
RELATIVELY FEW PRE
0LEISTOCENE NONMARINE FORMS ARE KNOWN HOWEVER
4HE MOST ABUNDANT DINOm AGELLATE ASSEMBLAGES ARE FOUND IN SEDIMENTS FROM MIDDLE NERITIC TO UPPER BATHYAL
SETTINGS
$INOm AGELLATES OFTEN OCCUR IN BLOOMS OR hRED TIDESv ASSOCIATED WITH NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY AND THUS ARE OFTEN FOUND
IN GREAT NUMBERS WITHIN INDIVIDUAL SEDIMENT LAYERS
)NDIVIDUAL SPECIES ARE TEMPERATURE
CONSTRAINED BUT DINOm AGELLATES AS A WHOLE RANGE FROM BOREAL TO TROPICAL
SETTINGS
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
3OME DINOm AGELLATES HAVE AN ENCYSTED STAGE DINOCYSTS DESIGNED TO WITHSTAND ADVERSE CONDITIONS )T IS THESE
DINOCYSTS THAT FORM THE FOSSIL RECORD BECAUSE MANY HAVE A TOUGH DISSOLUTION
RESISTANT WALL COMPOSED OF
COMPLEX ORGANIC MATTER SPOROPOLLENIN
3OME ORGANISMS WITH CALCITIC TESTS THORACOSPHAERIDS FOR EXAMPLE HAVE BEEN PROVEN TO BE DINOm AGELLATES DESPITE
THEIR NON
ORGANIC SHELL COMPOSITION AND ARE INCLUDED IN THIS SECTION
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
-OST FOSSIL DINOCYSTS HAVE A MODERATE RANGE OF SIZES FROM ABOUT M TO M
$INOCYSTS CAN BE SPHERICAL ELLIPSOIDAL OR ELONGATE OPEN
OCEAN SPECIES TYPICALLY HAVE LONG hHORNSv OR ORNAMENTED
hWINGSv INCREASING m OTATION WHEREAS NERITIC FORMS ARE SIMPLER AND LESS ORNAMENTED -OST HORNS ARE ABOUT
M IN LENGTH
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
3POROPOLLENIN ORGANIC
WALLED REMAINS OF SMALL SIZE AND WITHOUT THE SUTURES OF SPORES OR SHAPES AND SCULPTURAL
FEATURES OF POLLEN
-OST HAVE SPHERICAL ELLIPSOID OR ELONGATE OUTLINES MANY HAVE EXTERIOR COLLARS HORNS OR SPINES
7ALL STRUCTURE CONSISTS OF ONE OR MORE LAYERS AND WALL LAYERING IS AN IMPORTANT COMPONENT IN GROUP
TAXONOMY
!LTHOUGH DINOCYSTS CAN BE SEEN IN THIN SECTION THEY ARE ALMOST IMPOSSIBLE TO DISTINGUISH FROM OTHER ORGANIC
REMAINS 4HUS THEY ARE MOST COMMONLY STUDIED IN SEPARATES PRODUCED BY (#L AND (& ACID DISSOLUTION
FOLLOWED BY HEAVY LIQUID CONCENTRATION
$IFFERENTIATED FROM SPORES AND POLLEN IN GRAIN MOUNTS OR 3%- BY OVERALL MORPHOLOGY AND SURFACE FEATURES
$INOm AGELLATES GENERALLY ARE HEAVILY ORNAMENTED WITH HORNS COLLARS AND SPINES SPORES GENERALLY ARE LESS
ORNAMENTED LOBATE GRAINS WITH RELATIVELY SUBDUED SURFACE SUTURES POLLEN ARE SACCATE GRAINS AGAIN WITH MORE
SUBDUED ORNAMENTATION THAN MOST DINOm AGELLATES "OTH SPORES AND POLLEN TEND TO BE SLIGHTLY SMALLER THAN
DINOm AGELLATES AVERAGING
M ALTHOUGH PRE
#ENOZOIC SPORES MAY BE UP TO MM IN DIAMETER
CHAPTER 3: OTHER MICRO- AND NANNOFOSSILS
Recent sediment, North Sea
!N 3%- IMAGE OF AN ORGANIC WALLED DI
NOm AGELLATE $INOPHYSIS NORVEGICA 4HE
SPOROPOLLENIN WALLS OF THESE CYSTS ARE VERY DU
RABLE AND QUITE READILY FOSSILIZED 0HOTOGRAPH
COURTESY OF *EREMY 2 9OUNG
3%- (! ^ M
Recent sediment, North Atlantic
Ocean
!N 3%- IMAGE OF AN ORGANIC
WALLED DINOm A
GELLATE #ERATIUM CF COMPRESSUM 0HOTOGRAPH
COURTESY OF *EREMY 2 9OUNG
3%- (! ^ M
Up. Cretaceous Red Bank Fm. (L)
and Mount Laurel Fm. (R), New
Jersey
,EFT A STAINED PREPARATION OF A DINOm AGELLATE
$Em ANDRIA DIEBELI #ENTRAL PORTION ENDOCYST
AND SPINOSE APPENDAGES HORNS ARE STAINED
DIFFERENTIALLY $INOm AGELLATES CAN BE USEFUL IN
CORRELATION OF MARINE SEDIMENTS OF 4RIASSIC TO
2ECENT AGE
2IGHT STAINED PREPARATION OF THE DINOm AGELLATE
3PINIFERITES RAMOSUS 4HE CENTRAL PORTION HAS
TAKEN A DARK STAIN AND THE MULTIPLE RADIATING
SPLAY
TIPPED OR TRUMPET
LIKE APPENDAGES ARE
CLEARLY VISIBLE 4HESE RESTING CYSTS ARE FORMED
OF NONCALCIl ED SPOROPOLLENIN
00, /3 (! , MM 2 MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Recent sediment, South Atlantic
Ocean
!N 3%- IMAGE OF A POSSIBLE CALCAREOUS DINO
m AGELLATE 4HORACOSPHAERA ALBATROSIANA 4HIS
SAMPLE IS FROM MODERN SEDIMENT RECOVERED BY
THE (-3 h#HALLENGERv EXPEDITION 4HE FOS
SIL RECORD OF THORACOSPHAERIDS HOWEVER GOES
BACK TO THE -ESOZOIC 4HIS ORGANISM IS NOW
THOUGHT TO BE A VEGETATIVE STAGE DINOPHYTE
AND THUS MOST LIKELY IS RELATED TO YET IS SOME
WHAT DIFFERENT FROM THE #RETACEOUS CALCARE
OUS DINOPHYTE CYSTS SHOWN EARLIER UNDER THE
CALCISPHERES 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF *EREMY
2 9OUNG
3%- (! ^ M
#ITED 2EFERENCES AND !DDITIONAL )NFORMATION 3OURCES
"ANNER & 4 0ITHONELLA OVALIS FROM THE EARLY #ENOMANIAN OF OF 0ROTOZOOLOGY V P
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"LACK - 4HE l NE STRUCTURE OF THE MINERAL PARTS OF #OCCOLITHO
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"LOME # % 0 - 7HALEN AND + - 2EED #ONVENORS 3ILICEOUS .OL $ ,ES #ALCAIRES .ANNOCONUS DITS #ALCAIRES #ALPIONELLES
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3PIROBRANCHUS GIGANTEUS WITH THEIR TUBES ENCASED IN A
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GRAINS: Skeletal Fragments
ANNELIDS AND RELATED GROUPS
Serpulids
C Sabellariids
H
A
P Problematic
T conical forms:
E
R
Cornulites
Tentaculites
4
Styliolina
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
!..%,)$ 7/2-3 3%205,)$3 !.$ 3!"%,,!2))$3
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
7ORM REMAINS ARE KNOWN FROM 0RECAMBRIAN TO 2ECENT MOST ARE SOFT
BODIED BUT PRESERVED FOSSIL FORMS
INCLUDE SOME SEGMENTED WORMS THAT BUILT SOLID HOUSING STRUCTURES 4HESE GENERALLY BELONG TO THE
0HYLUM !NNELIDA 0ROTEROZOIC
2ECENT
#LASS 0OLYCHAETA 0ROTEROZOIC #AMBRIAN
2ECENT
4HE MOST IMPORTANT SEDIMENT
PRODUCING OR SEDIMENT
INm UENCING GROUPS IN 0HYLUM !NNELIDA INCLUDE THREE
GROUPS OR FAMILIES WITHIN THE ORDER 3ABELLIDA
3ERPULIDS AND SPIRORBIDS GROUPS THAT PRECIPITATE SOLID CALCAREOUS TUBES
3ABELLARIIDS PRODUCERS OF AGGLUTINATED TUBES
! VARIETY OF SOFT
BODIED BURROWERS AND PELLET PRODUCERS
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
-OST PRESERVED FORMS LIVED IN FULLY MARINE TO HYPERSALINE
WATER SETTINGS RARE IN FRESHWATER AND EVEN RARER IN
TERRESTRIAL SETTINGS ALTHOUGH NON
CALCIl ED FORMS CAN PRODUCE PELLETS IN THOSE ENVIRONMENTS
3ERPULIDS ARE MOST COMMON IN SHALLOW TO COASTAL WATERS LARGELY AS HARD
SUBSTRATE ENCRUSTERS BUT EXTEND INTO
DEEPER SHELF WATERS AS WELL %SPECIALLY COMMON IN SLIGHTLY HYPERSALINE SETTINGS WHERE THEY MAY FORM SMALL
REEF
LIKE MASSES OR AT HIATUS SURFACES
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
3ERPULID WORM TUBES ARE COMPOSED OF HIGH
-G CALCITE TYPICALLY
MOLE -G ARAGONITE OR A COMBINATION OF
ARAGONITE AND CALCITE /THER TUBES MAY BE ENTIRELY CHITINOUS OR A MIX OF CHITIN AND PHOSPHATE
3ABELLARIID WORM TUBES CONSIST OF AGGLUTINATED ORIENTED CALCAREOUS OR TERRIGENOUS CLASTIC SAND GRAINS WITH A WIDE
VARIETY OF COMPOSITIONS
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
7ORM
BUILT CALCAREOUS OR AGGLUTINATED TUBES THAT ARE TYPICALLY FROM TO CM LONG AND CM IN DIAMETER 4HEY
HAVE SMOOTHLY CIRCULAR TO ELLIPTICAL INTERIOR TUBES AND SMOOTH OR ORNAMENTED EXTERIOR SURFACES 4UBES CAN BE
FREE
STANDING BUT QUITE COMMONLY ARE FOUND AS ENCRUSTATIONS ON HARD SURFACES ESPECIALLY OTHER SHELLS 4UBES
MAY BE ISOLATED STRAIGHT SINUOUS OR SPIRAL OR CAN FORM INTERGROWN CLUSTERS RESEMBLING PILES OF SPAGHETTI
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
$ISTINCTIVE TUBULAR EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL SHAPE GENERALLY WITH A CIRCULAR TO OVOID CROSS
SECTION AND COMMONLY
WITH AN ENCRUSTING MORPHOLOGY 4HESE ATTRIBUTES DIFFERENTIATE THEM FROM MOST ORGANISMS OTHER THAN
VERMETID GASTROPODS SCAPHOPODS AND SOME TUBULAR FORAMINIFERS
/NE OR TWO
LAYER WALLS WITH A TYPE OF FOLIATED MICROSTRUCTURE 7ALL CONSISTS OF CONCENTRIC VERY l NE MM
OR LESS IN THICKNESS LAMINATIONS SOMETIMES WITH THIN LENTICULAR GAPS BETWEEN LAYERS DUE TO PARABOLIC OF CONE
IN
CONE OUTER LAYER CONSTRUCTION 4HUS THEY DIFFER FROM VERMETID GASTROPODS AND SCAPHOPODS THAT TYPICALLY
HAVE RADIAL
PRISMATIC OR CROSSED
LAMELLAR OUTER SHELL LAYERS SEE 3CHMIDT
3OME EXAMPLES WITH TWO
LAYER WALLS SHOW A DISCORDANCE IN LAMINATION ANGLES BETWEEN INNER AND OUTER WALLS
REMINISCENT OF BRACHIOPOD MATERIAL
!RAGONITIC FORMS OR ARAGONITIC LAYERS IN MIXED
MINERALOGY FORMS USUALLY HAVE LITTLE OR NO PRESERVED PRIMARY
WALL STRUCTURE
0(/4/ 3#!,%3 !.$ !""2%6)!4)/.3 !2% %80,!).%$ ). 4(% "//+3 ).42/$5#4)/.
CHAPTER 4: ANNELIDS AND RELATED GROUPS
Morphology and wall structure of
serpulid tubes
! DIAGRAM SHOWING THE WALL STRUCTURE AND EX
TERNAL MORPHOLOGY OF CALCIl ED ANNELID WORMS
PARTIALLY ADAPTED FROM -AJEWSKE 0LATE
4HE INDIVIDUAL FORMS IN THE UPPER TIER
SHOW A VARIETY OF COILING MORPHOLOGIES 4HE
COLONIAL FORM HAS INTERGROWN TUBES WITH SOME
EXTERNAL ORNAMENTATION "OTH TYPES HAVE A
TWO
LAYERED WALL WITH CONCENTRICALLY LAMI
NATED FOLIATED MICROSTRUCTURE IN THE INTERIOR
PART AND DARKER MORE MICROGRANULAR BUT STILL
LAMINATED MICROSTRUCTURE IN THE OUTER PART
4HE OUTER PART ALSO HAS LENTICULAR SPAR ZONES
IN SMALL PARABOLIC SEPARATIONS BETWEEN SUC
CESSIVE LAMINAE 3CALES DIFFER AMONG THE l VE
DRAWINGS
Lo. Cretaceous (Albian) Glen Rose
Ls., central Texas
! CLUSTER OF SERPULID WORM TUBES ENCRUSTING
ON A MOLLUSK SHELL NOT IN l ELD OF PHOTOGRAPH
AND UPON EACH OTHER .OTE THE CONCENTRICALLY
LAMINATED MICROGRANULAR WALL STRUCTURE THE
SMOOTH MORPHOLOGY OF THE INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR
SURFACES OF THE TUBES AND THE WAY THEY ARE AT
TACHED TO NEIGHBORING TUBES !S A RESULT OF THIS
STRUCTURE ENCRUSTING SERPULIDS CAN FORM SMALL
BUT VERY STABLE AND WAVE RESISTANT PATCH REEFS
00, (! MM
Lo. Cretaceous (Albian) Glen Rose
Ls., central Texas
! MORE DETAILED VIEW OF THE DENSE LAMINAR WALL
STRUCTURE IN SERPULID WORM TUBES FROM THE SAME
UNIT AS SHOWN IN THE PREVIOUS PHOTOGRAPH 4HE
MICROGRANULAR FABRIC THE CONCENTRIC LAMINA
TIONS AND THE CHARACTERISTIC LOCALIZED LENTICU
LAR GAPS BETWEEN SUCCESSIVE LAMINAE RESULTING
FROM PARABOLIC STRUCTURE OF THE PRECIPITATES OF
THE OUTER LAYER ARE ALL CLEARLY VISIBLE 4HE EX
CELLENT FABRIC PRESERVATION INDICATES A PRIMARY
CALCITIC WALL COMPOSITION
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Pliocene Greta Fm., northern
Canterbury, New Zealand
! CLOSE UP OF ENCRUSTING SERPULID WORM TUBES
SHOWING TWO DISTINCTLY DIFFERENT WALL LAYERS
AN INNER LIGHTER COLORED PARALLEL LAMINATED
FOLIATED ZONE AND AN OUTER DARKER MORE
MICROGRANULAR ZONE WITH LENTICULAR SPAR ZONES
4HE ELONGATE SPAR l LLED LENSES PARALLELING THE
LAMINAR SHELL STRUCTURE ARE THE MOST UNIQUELY
DIAGNOSTIC CHARACTERISTIC OF MOST SERPULID
WORM TUBES
00, (! MM
Jurassic Trigonia beds, Dorset,
England, U.K.
4HE ENCRUSTING HABIT OF SERPULID WORM TUBES
IS WELL SHOWN IN THIS EXAMPLE IN WHICH THE
SERPULIDS HAVE GROWN ON A BIVALVE SHELL .OTE
THE DIFFERENCES IN WALL STRUCTURE PRESERVATION
BETWEEN THE ORIGINALLY ARAGONITIC BIVALVE AND
THE CALCITIC SERPULID 4HE SERPULID HAS HOW
EVER BEEN PARTIALLY AND SELECTIVELY REPLACED
BY SILICA ROUNDED WHITE PATCHES WITHIN THE
SERPULID WALL
00, (! MM
Mid. Jurassic (Bajocian) Calcaire
Corniche, Central High Atlas
region, Morocco
3ERPULID WORM TUBES SHOWING POORLY PRE
SERVED WALL STRUCTURE 4HESE TUBES SHOW THE
SAME SHAPES AND ENCRUSTING HABIT AS WAS SEEN
IN PREVIOUS PHOTOGRAPHS BUT THE WALLS HAVE
BEEN EXTENSIVELY ALTERED DISSOLUTION OF PRI
MARY CARBONATE AND REPRECIPITATION OF SPARRY
CALCITE 4HIS SUGGESTS A PRIMARY ARAGONITIC
WALL STRUCTURE FOR THIS GROUP OF SERPULIDS 4HE
SERPULID TUBES IN THIS EXAMPLE WERE FURTHER EN
CRUSTED BY FORAMINIFERS DARK MATERIAL
00, !&E3 (! MM
CHAPTER 4: ANNELIDS AND RELATED GROUPS
Up. Pennsylvanian Panther Seep
Fm., Doa Ana Co., New Mexico
! WORM TUBE BOUNDSTONE FROM A DARK CALCARE
OUS MUDSTONE FACIES 7ORM TUBES AND PELOIDS
ARE DOLOMITIZED UNSTAINED AND DOLOMITE CE
MENT LINES THE TUBES COARSE CALCITE PINK l LLS
PORE SPACE 4HE GENERALLY POOR PRESERVATION OF
THE WALL STRUCTURE INDICATES AN AT LEAST PARTIALLY
ARAGONITIC PRIMARY COMPOSITION 0HOTOGRAPH
COURTESY OF 'ERILYN 3 3OREGHAN
00, !&E3 (! MM
Recent sediment, Key Biscayne,
Dade Co., Florida
3ABELLARIID WORM TUBES ASSOCIATED WITH MAN
GROVE ROOTS NOT SHOWN 4HE TUBES CONSIST OF
AGGLUTINATED CEMENTED AND IMBRICATED GRAINS
OF MIXED CLASTIC TERRIGENOUS AND CARBONATE
SEDIMENT FROM THE SURROUNDING ENVIRONMENT
4HESE ORGANISMS FORM MODERATELY RIGID PATCH
REEFS COMPOSED OF PARALLEL AGGLUTINATED TUBES
ON WAVE PROTECTED BUT OTHERWISE NORMAL
MARINE COASTLINES 4HESE AGGLUTINATED WORM
TUBES ARE LARGER THAN MOST ARENACEOUS FORA
MINIFERS AND DO NOT HAVE THE INTERNAL CHAMBERS
FOUND IN FORAMINIFERAL TESTS
00, "3% (! MM
Recent sediment, Key Biscayne,
Dade Co., Florida
!N ENLARGED VIEW OF A SINGLE SABELLARIID WORM
TUBE SHOWING THE NONSELECTIVE USE OF SEVERAL
TYPES OF GRAINS THEIR ORIENTATION WITH LONG AXES
TANGENTIAL TO THE TUBE OUTLINE AND THE VERY
SPARSE BINDING MATERIAL "LUISH
GREEN
STAINED
AREAS ARE l LLED WITH A STAINED IMPREGNATING
MEDIUM
00, "3% (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
#/2.5,)4%3 4%.4!#5,)4%3 !.$ 349,)/,).)$3
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
0ROBLEMATIC SMALL CONICAL ORGANISMS THAT SOMETIMES HAVE BEEN PLACED WITH THE ANNELIDS THE MOLLUSKS PTEROPODS
OR AS A SEPARATE PHYLUM PERHAPS RELATED TO THE ANNELIDS OR MOLLUSKS ALSO SOMETIMES GROUPED WITH THE
CONULARIIDS #ORNULITES IS MORE COMMONLY ACCEPTED AS AN ANNELID
3OMETIMES GROUPED IN THE #LASS #ONICONCHIA SYN #RICOCONARIDA
#ORNULITES /RDOVICIAN $EVONIAN
4ENTACULITIDS /RDOVICIAN $EVONIAN COMMON 3ILURIAN $EVONIAN
3TYLIOLINIDS $EVONIAN
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
#ORNULITES WERE BENTHIC AND IN SOME CASES ENCRUSTING
4ENTACULITIDS MAY HAVE HAD A NEKTICBENTHIC LIFESTYLE
3TYLIOLINIDS ARE THOUGHT TO HAVE BEEN PELAGICPLANKTIC ORGANISMS
!LL ARE FULLY MARINE
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
4ENTACULITIDS AND STYLIOLINIDS ARE GENERALLY WELL PRESERVED AND THUS MOST LIKELY HAD PRIMARY CALCITE SHELLS
CORNULITES MAY HAVE BEEN ARAGONITE ANDOR CALCITE
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
!LL HAVE SMALL CONICAL SHELLS 4ENTACULITIDS HAVE ROUGHLY MM LONG SHELLS WITH ROUGHLY MM CIRCULAR
OPENINGS STRONG EXTERNAL RIBBING TRANSVERSE RINGS AND INTERNAL SEPTA STYLIOLINIDS HAVE BROADER SMOOTHER
EXTERNAL RIBS AND NO INTERNAL SEPTA AND ARE SMALLER THAN TENTACULITIDS MM IN LENGTH #ORNULITES CAN BE UP
TO CM LONG AND HAVE STRONG BROAD EXTERNAL RIBBING
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
4APERING CONICAL RIBBED FORMS IN LONGITUDINAL SECTION CIRCULAR OR m ATTENED OVOID SHAPE IN TRANSVERSE
SECTION
%XTERNAL SHELL RIBBING OR PLICATIONS GIVE WAVY APPEARANCE TO TRANSVERSE CUTS THROUGH SHELLS ESPECIALLY FOR THE
TENTACULITIDS
4YPICALLY HAVE A SIZE RANGE FROM MM TO CM AND A LARGE PERCENTAGE OF INTACT SHELLS
#ORNULITES ARE OFTEN FOUND ATTACHED TO ENCRUSTING ON BRACHIOPOD SHELLS
4ENTACULITIDS AND STYLIOLINIDS ARE THINNER WALLED THAN MANY OTHER CONICAL SHELLS SCAPHOPODS FOR EXAMPLE AND
CAN BE MAJOR ROCK FORMING ELEMENTS ESPECIALLY IN $EVONIAN STRATA
Mid. Ordovician Black River Gp.,
Lowville Fm., near Kingston,
Ontario, Canada
/RIENTED CALCAREOUS TUBES OF #ORNULITES SP
A POSSIBLE EARLY SERPULID WORM IN STROMATO
SPONGIA MICROBIAL FABRIC OF A THROMBOLITE
#ORNULITES WERE BENTHIC COMMONLY ENCRUST
ING CONICAL ORGANISMS HERE SEEN IN TRANSVERSE
SECTION 3AMPLE FROM .OEL 0 *AMES
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 4: ANNELIDS AND RELATED GROUPS
Devonian, unidentied unit, U.S.A.
#LOSE UP MACROPHOTOGRAPH OF A CALCAREOUS
SANDSTONE WITH A TENTACULITE EXPOSED ON A BED
DING PLANE .OTE THE CONICAL SHAPE AND THE
PRONOUNCED TRANSVERSE RIBBING ON THE EXTERIOR
OF THE SMALL SHELL
-AC (! ^ MM
Devonian Tentaculiten Knottenkalk,
Frankenwald, Bavaria, Germany
! SLICE THROUGH PART OF A TENTACULITE PARALLEL TO
ITS LONG AXIS SHOWING THE CONICAL SHAPE AND
CHARACTERISTIC CRENULATE OR CORRUGATE EXTERIOR
THE TENTACULITE IS THE GRAIN THAT EXTENDS DIAGO
NALLY FROM THE UPPER LEFT CORNER TO THE LOWER
RIGHT CORNER OF THE IMAGE 4HESE FOSSILS ARE
SIMILAR TO 3TYLIOLINA EXCEPT FOR THE EXTERNAL
ORNAMENTATION AND ARE CLASSED BY SOME AS BE
LONGING TO THE WORMS OTHERS PLACE THEM WITH
THE MOLLUSKS
00, (! ^ MM
Up. Devonian Genundewa Ls., New
York
!BUNDANT EXAMPLES OF 3TYLIOLINA l SSURELLA IN
TRANSVERSE SECTION .OTE THE VERY THIN BUT WELL
PRESERVED WALLS 4HESE CONICAL MICROFOSSILS
ARE SIMILAR TO TENTACULITIDS AND HAVE UNKNOWN
FAUNAL AFl NITIES THEY ARE SOMETIMES GROUPED
AS #ONULARIIDS 3TYLIOLINA AND OTHER SIMILAR
GENERA ARE IMPORTANT ROCK FORMERS IN THE $E
VONIAN
00, (! ^ MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Devonian Genundewa Ls., New
York
! MORE DETAILED VIEW OF 3TYLIOLINA l SSURELLA
.OTE THE CIRCULAR TRANSVERSE AND CONICAL LON
GITUDINAL SECTIONS AND THE REVERSE FEATHERED
ASPECT PRODUCED BY TWINNING OF THE CALCITE
4HE DARK ORGANIC RICH SHELL WALL SHOWS PRES
ERVATION INDICATIVE OF AN ORIGINAL CALCITE MINER
ALOGY 4HE LONGITUDINAL SECTION SHOWS ALMOST
NO PLICATIONS UNLIKE TENTACULITIDS
00, (! MM
#ITED 2EFERENCES AND !DDITIONAL )NFORMATION 3OURCES
"AILEY
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0ALEONTOLOGY V P
POLYCHAETES OF THE GENERA #EMENTULA AND 3PIRASERPULA 2EGENHARDT
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BIVALVE CARBONATE hMOUNDSv 0ALAEONTOLOGISCHE :EITSCHRIFT V P
RELATED TO HYDROCARBON SEEPS #ANADIAN !RCTIC !RCHIPELAGO IN ( ( 2OBISON 2 ! !NNELIDA IN 2 3 "OARDMAN ! ( #HEETHAM
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"EUS 3 3 $EVONIAN SERPULID BIOHERMS IN !RIZONA *OURNAL OF 6ERMETIDAE UND 3ERPULIDAE MITTELS MIKROSKOPISCHER -ETHODEN
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"ORNHOLD " $ AND * $ -ILLIMAN 'ENERIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL 3CHMIDT 7 * $IE TERTIREN 7RMER /STERREICHS /STERREICHS
CONTROL OF CARBONATE MINERALOGY IN SERPULID POLYCHAETE TUBES *OURNAL !KADEMIE DER 7ISSENSCHAFTEN -ATHEMATISCH
NATURWISSENSCHAFTLICHE
OF 'EOLOGY V P
+LASSE $ENKSCHRIFTEN V NO P
"ROENNIMANN 0 AND , :ANINETTI /N THE OCCURRENCE OF THE 4EN (OVE ( ! AND 0 VAN DEN (URK ! REVIEW OF 2ECENT AND FOSSIL
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4UCKER - % AND ! # +ENDALL 4HE DIAGENESIS AND LOW
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OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
'OEDERT * , * 0ECKMANN AND * 2EITNER 7ORM TUBES IN AN 7RIGLEY ! 4HE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE CALCAREOUS TUBES OF
ALLOCHTHONOUS COLD
SEEP CARBONATE FROM LOWER /LIGOCENE ROCKS OF VERMETIDS AND OF SERPULIDS *OURNAL DE #ONCHYLIOLOGIE V P
WESTERN 7ASHINGTON *OURNAL OF 0ALEONTOLOGY V P
'TZ ' "AU UND "IOLOGIE FOSSILER 3ERPULIDEN .EUES *AHRBUCH :IBROWNIUS ( ! PROPOS DES PRTENDUS h2CIFS DE 3ERPULIDAEv DE
FR -INERALOGIE 'EOLOGIE UND 0ALONTOLOGIE V "EIL "AND !BT LILE 2OUSSE #ORSE MDITERRANE NORD
OCCIDENTALE -SOGE V P
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'RAM 2 ! &LORIDA 3ABELLARIIDAE REEF AND ITS EFFECT ON SEDIMENT
DISTRIBUTION *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
(OWELL " & 7ORMS IN 2 # -OORE ED 4REATISE ON )NVERTEBRATE
0ALEONTOLOGY 0ART 7 -ISCELLANEA 'EOLOGICAL 3OCIETY OF !MERICA AND
5NIVERSITY OF +ANSAS 0RESS P 7
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+IRTLEY $ 7 AND 7 & 4ANNER 3ABELLARIID WORMS BUILDERS OF A
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AND BIOSTROMES .ATURE V P
-ISTIAEN " AND * 0ONCET 3TROMATOLITHES SERPULIDS ET
4RYPANOPORA 6ERS ASSOCIS DANS LES PETITS BIOHERMES 'IVTIENS
F acing Page 5NDERWATER VIEW OF AN AZURE VASE SPONGE #A
LYSPONGIA PLICIFERA AMONG OTHER TUBE SPONGES ON THE "ONAIRE
REEF FRONT 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF 7OODY -AYHEW
'2!).3 3KELETAL &RAGMENTS
SPONGES AND RELATED GROUPS
Archaeocyaths
C
H Calcareous
A sponges
P
T
E
Siliceous
R sponges
5 Stromatoporoids
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
!2#(!%/#9!4(3
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
4HIS SHORT
LIVED BUT WIDESPREAD GROUP HAVE BEEN CLASSED BY VARIOUS AS SPONGES CORALS OR CALCAREOUS ALGAE
!RCHAEOCYATHS NOW ARE ALMOST UNIVERSALLY CONSIDERED AS SUBPHYLUM OF THE 0ORIFERA POSSIBLY RELATED TO THE
DEMOSPONGES A FEW WORKERS STILL GROUP THEM IN A SEPARATE PHYLUM 0HYLUM !RCHAEOCYATHA 4HEY RANGE
MAINLY FROM BASAL #AMBRIAN TO LATE %ARLY #AMBRIAN A FEW FORMS PERSISTED TO -IDDLE AND ,ATE #AMBRIAN
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
/NE OF THE EARLIEST GROUPS TO SECRETE SUBSTANTIAL SKELETAL CALCIUM CARBONATE AND THE l RST REEF
BUILDING ORGANISM
3ESSILE BENTHIC l LTER FEEDERS %XCLUSIVELY MARINE ORGANISMS THAT LIVED IN TROPICAL NORMAL SALINITY CA
PPT
WATERS AT DEPTHS FROM THE INTERTIDAL ZONE TO A FEW TENS OF METERS MAINLY IN AREAS WITH RELATIVELY LOW INm UX OF
TERRIGENOUS SEDIMENTS SEE $EBRENNE AND 2EITNER
#ONSTRUCTED SMALL BIOHERMS IN ASSOCIATION WITH CALCIMICROBES 4HEY ALSO ARE FOUND IN LESSER ABUNDANCE SIZE AND
DIVERSITY IN INTER
BIOHERM AREAS
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
4HE GOOD PRESERVATION OF MOST ARCHAEOCYATH SKELETAL MATERIAL INDICATES A PRIMARY CALCITIC COMPOSITION
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
-OST ARCHAEOCYATHS HAVE A SOLITARY CUP
OR BOWL
SHAPED SKELETON THAT HAS A PAIR OF POROUS WALLS ENCLOSING A
LARGE CENTRAL CAVITY 4HE INNER AND OUTER WALLS HAVE A SERIES OF SPHERICAL PERFORATIONS AND ARE CONNECTED BY
NUMEROUS PERFORATE OR IMPERFORATE PARTITIONS VERTICAL SEPTA AND HORIZONTAL TABULAE
,ESS COMMONLY ARCHAEOCYATHS HAD BRANCHED MASSIVE OR CHAIN
LIKE COLONIAL FORMS
4HE AVERAGE SIZE OF ARCHAEOCYATH CUPS IS TO CM IN DIAMETER AND CM IN HEIGHT #UPS AS SMALL AS
MM OR
AS LARGE AS CM IN DIAMETER ARE KNOWN HOWEVER
#LOSELY ASSOCIATED WITH CALCIMICROBIAL ENCRUSTERS SUCH AS 2ENALCIS ANDOR %PIPHYTON AND EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY IS
COMMONLY OUTLINED BY SUCH ENCRUSTERS
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
$ISTINCTIVE DOUBLE
WALLED CUP SHAPE WITH A LARGE CENTRAL CAVITY SIMILAR TO SOLITARY RUGOSE CUP CORALS BUT
DISTINGUISHED BY PRESENCE OF PERFORATIONS IN ARCHAEOCYATH WALLS AND IN SOME CASES SEPTA $ISTINGUISHED FROM
MANY EARLY SPONGES BY THE ABSENCE OF THE CHARACTERISTIC SPICULAR NETWORKS THAT ARE FOUND IN SPONGE WALLS
,ARGE SIZE TYPICALLY CUPS ARE TO CM IN DIAMETER AND APPROXIMATELY TO CM IN HEIGHT
'ENERALLY GOOD PRESERVATION OF WALL MORPHOLOGY AND ITS LAMINATED MICROSTRUCTURE THAT CONSISTS OF hA VERY l NE
GRANULAR MOSAIC OF CALCITE THE CRYSTALS BEING ABOUT MM IN DIAMETERv (ILL P
$ISTRIBUTION LIMITED TO ,OWER AND LOWER -IDDLE #AMBRIAN STRATA PRIOR TO THE OCCURRENCE OF RUGOSE CORALS
6ERY COMMONLY ENCRUSTED WITH PELOIDAL OR l LAMENTOUS MICROBIAL MATERIAL 2ENALCIS
OR %PIPHYTON
Morphology and wall structure of a
typical archaeocyath
! DIAGRAM SHOWING A TYPICAL ARCHAEOCYATH
MORPHOLOGY WITH A CUP SHAPED DOUBLE WALLED
SKELETON MADE MORE STRUCTURALLY RIGID BY A SE
RIES OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL PARTITIONS SEPTA
AND TABULAE RESPECTIVELY /THER PATTERNS OF
INTERNAL SUPPORTS CURVED DISSEPIMENTS AND
ROD LIKE SYNAPTICULAE ARE COMMONLY FOUND IN
ARCHAEOCYATHS BUT ARE NOT DEPICTED HERE 2E
DRAWN FROM 2IGBY AND 'ANGLOFF
CHAPTER 5: SPONGES AND RELATED GROUPS
Cross-sections of regular and
irregular archaeocyaths
,ONGITUDINAL AND TRANSVERSE SECTIONS THROUGH
TYPICAL EXAMPLES OF THE TWO MAJOR GROUPS OF
ARCHAEOCYATHS SHOWING SOME OF THE STRUCTURAL
FEATURES THAT CAN BE SEEN IN THE WALLS AT VARIOUS
ONTOGENETIC STAGES !DAPTED FROM 2IGBY AND
'ANGLOFF
Lo. Cambrian (Tommotian)
Pestrotsvet Fm., southeastern
Siberian Platform, Russia
4HREE REGULAR ARCHAEOCYATHS ENCRUSTED WITH
2ENALCIS AND ENCASED IN MARINE CEMENT 4HE
CUP SHAPED DOUBLE WALLED PERFORATED SKELETAL
MATERIAL AND CENTRAL CAVITY ARE WELL REPRESENTED
IN THIS VIEW AS ARE THE SEPTA THAT PROVIDE STRUC
TURAL SUPPORT 3AMPLE FROM .OEL 0 *AMES
00, (! MM
Lo. Cambrian (Tommotian)
Pestrotsvet Fm., southeastern
Siberian Platform, Russia
! TRANSVERSE SECTION THROUGH A REGULAR
ARCHAEOCYATH ILLUSTRATING THE CUP SHAPED
MORPHOLOGY AND THE NUMEROUS PORES THAT PASS
THROUGH THE INNER AND OUTER SKELETAL WALLS AS
WELL AS THE SUPPORTING SEPTA 3AMPLE FROM
.OEL 0 *AMES
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Lo. Cambrian (Tommotian)
Pestrotsvet Fm., southeastern
Siberian Platform, Russia
!N OBLIQUE CUT THROUGH THE LOWER PART OF AN
ARCHAEOCYATH CUP 4HE QUITE CHARACTERISTIC
LARGE PORES THAT PERFORATE INNER AND OUTER WALLS
AS WELL AS SEPTA ARE CLEARLY VISIBLE HERE PRO
DUCING A hDASHED LINEv EFFECT IN THE WALLS AND
REPRESENT ONE OF THE BEST CRITERIA FOR RECOGNI
TION OF ARCHAEOCYATH MATERIAL 3AMPLE FROM
.OEL 0 *AMES
00, (! MM
Lo. Cambrian (Tommotian)
Pestrotsvet Fm., southeastern
Siberian Platform, Russia
! SLIGHTLY OBLIQUE LONGITUDINAL CUT THROUGH AN
ARCHAEOCYATH SHOWING THE 5
SHAPED EXTERNAL
MORPHOLOGY AND THE PERFORATE INTERNAL SEPTAL
PARTITIONS 3AMPLE FROM .OEL 0 *AMES
00, (! MM
Cambrian Ajax Ls., Beltana,
Australia
! MAGNIl ED SECTION THROUGH AN ARCHAEOCYATHAN
WALL 4HE GRANULAR MICROCRYSTALLINE WALL STRUC
TURE IS TYPICAL FOR ARCHAEOCYATHS 4HE INNER
AND OUTER WALLS AND THE CONNECTING STRUCTURAL
SUPPORTS SEPTA ARE VISIBLE 4HE SEPTA IN THIS
EXAMPLE DO NOT SHOW PORES RECENT STUDIES
HAVE SHOWN THAT ARCHAEOCYATHS WITH PORES
WERE THE DOMINANT FORMS IN SETTINGS WITH
LOW
ENERGY CURRENTS FORMS WITH APOROUS SEPTA
PREDOMINATED IN AREAS WITH HIGHER
ENERGY CUR
RENTS 3AVARESE
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 5: SPONGES AND RELATED GROUPS
Lo. Cambrian (Tommotian)
Pestrotsvet Fm., southeastern
Siberian Platform, Russia
,ONGITUDINAL AND TRANSVERSE CROSS SECTIONS
THROUGH TWO IRREGULAR ARCHAEOCYATHS SHOWING
COMPLEX PATTERNS OF INTERNAL STRUCTURE 3AMPLE
FROM .OEL 0 *AMES
00, (! MM
Lo. Cambrian, Labrador, Canada
! PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF AN OBLIQUE CROSS
SECTION
OF AN ARCHAEOCYATH SKELETON !RCHAEOCYATHUS
ATLANTICUS ILLUSTRATING THE COMPLEX INTERNAL
STRUCTURE AND THE LAMINATED l NELY CRYSTALLINE
NATURE OF THE SKELETON 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF
.OEL 0 *AMES
00, !3 (! MM
Lo. Cambrian, Labrador, Canada
! PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF THE ARCHAEOCYATH -ET
ALDYTES PROFUNDUS ILLUSTRATING ITS l NELY CRYS
TALLINE SOMEWHAT LAMINATED SKELETAL WALL AND
DISSEPIMENTS 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF .OEL 0
*AMES
00, !3 (! ^ MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
30/.'%3
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
0HYLUM 0ORIFERA n %ARLY 6ENDIAN 0RECAMBRIAN TO 2ECENT
#LASS $EMOSPONGEA INCLUDING FORMER #LASS 3CLEROSPONGEA #AMBRIAN
2ECENT
#LASS (EXACTINELLIDA LATEST 0RECAMBRIAN 6ENDIAN
2ECENT
#LASS #ALCAREA #AMBRIAN
2ECENT
3PONGE TAXONOMY IS COMPLEX AND CONTESTED FOR THE PURPOSES OF THIS BOOK WE WILL SIMPLY DIVIDE SPONGES INTO
CALCAREOUS AND SILICEOUS FORMS BECAUSE THIS GROUPING IS PETROGRAPHICALLY CONVENIENT EVEN IF IT IS NOT AT ALL
TAXONOMICALLY ACCURATE
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
! GROUP CHARACTERIZED BY GREAT VARIABILITY AND ADAPTABILITY 3PONGES AREWERE GENERALLY SESSILE BENTHIC
ORGANISMS PRESERVED FORMS ARE PREDOMINANTLY MARINE FRESHWATER SPONGES ARE FAIRLY COMMON BUT ALMOST
NEVER ARE PRESERVED AS FOSSILS #RYPTIC CAVITY DWELLING SPONGES ALSO AREWERE COMMON AND CAN BE IMPORTANT
COMPONENTS OF REEFAL ASSEMBLAGES
-OST 0ALEOZOIC AND EARLY -ESOZOIC FORMS WERE SHALLOW
SHELF DWELLERS LATER FORMS RANGED FROM SHALLOW
INTO
DEEPER
WATER ENVIRONMENTS BUT WERE RARE IN WATER DEPTHS GREATER THAN M
)MPORTANT REEF COMPONENTS ESPECIALLY IN THE /RDOVICIAN 3ILURIAN $EVONIAN 0ERMIAN 4RIASSIC AND *URASSIC
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
$IFFERENT GROUPS OF SPONGES HAVEHAD SKELETONS COMPOSED ENTIRELY OF SPONGIN A TOUGH ORGANIC COMPOUND THAT
READILY DECOMPOSES AFTER DEATH ENTIRELY OF SILICA OPAL
! IN THE FORM OF SILICEOUS SPICULES OF BOTH SPONGIN
AND SILICA OR OF CALCIUM CARBONATE IN THE FORM OF SPICULES OR AS LAYERED AND CROSS
SUPPORTED WALLS )N THE
CALCAREOUS GROUPS MANY WERE ORIGINALLY ARAGONITIC BUT CALCITIC FORMS BOTH LOW
AND HIGH
-G CALCITE ALSO
WERE AND STILL ARE COMMON
'ENERALLY DEMOSPONGES AND HEXACTINELLIDS WERE SILICEOUS #ALCAREA AND SCLEROSPONGES WERE CALCAREOUS
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
!LTHOUGH SPONGES ARE BIOLOGICALLY SIMPLE THEY WERE THE l RST MULTICELLULAR ORGANISM TO ADVANCE FROM A COLONY
OF IDENTICAL CELLS TO ONE CONTAINING SPECIALIZED CELLS FULl LLING SPECIl C PURPOSES 3PONGES ARE SESSILE AND MOST
HAVE SIMPLE POROUS WALLS THROUGH WHICH WATER IS DRAWN AND A LARGE CENTRAL CAVITY THROUGH WHICH THE WATER
IS EXPELLED /VERALL MORPHOLOGIES ARE HIGHLY VARIABLE BUT COMMON EXTERIOR SHAPES INCLUDE CYLINDRICAL TUBES
SPHERES DISCOIDS FANS AS WELL AS IRREGULAR CRUSTOSE OR BRANCHING FORMS -ANY AREWERE ENCRUSTERS
/VERALL SIZES OF BOTH MODERN AND ANCIENT SPONGES RANGE FROM A FEW MM TO WELL OVER M
)NDIVIDUAL SPICULES FALL INTO TWO GROUPS LARGE FORMS MEGASCLERES WITH DIAMETERS GREATER THAN MM AND
MICROSCLERES WITH DIAMETERS TYPICALLY MM OR LESS 4HESE SPICULES CAN BE SIMPLE SINGLE RAYS MONAXONS
POINTED AT EACH END OR THEY CAN BE MORE COMPLEX MULTI
RAYED FORMS TRIAXON TETRAXON HEXAXON AND HIGHER
-OST SILICEOUS SPICULES ARE FORMED WITH A CENTRAL CANAL ALTHOUGH IT IS NOT ALWAYS WELL PRESERVED DURING
DIAGENETIC ALTERATION CALCAREOUS SPICULES DO NOT HAVE CENTRAL CANALS
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
#ALCAREOUS FORMS ARE FOUND AS INTACT OR ONLY SLIGHTLY FRAGMENTED SPECIMENS -OST LACK WELL DEl NED EXTERNAL
MORPHOLOGIES BUT DO RETAIN SOME INTERNAL FABRIC 3OME HAVE A WELL
DEl NED CENTRAL BODY CAVITY MANY
HAVE IRREGULAR MEANDERING PASSAGES MOST SPHINCTOZOANS COMMON IN #ARBONIFEROUS
4RIASSIC STRATA WERE
SEGMENTED AND HAD CHAMBERS IRREGULARLY CLUSTERED OR ARRANGED IN SERIES LIKE UNISERIAL FORAMINIFERS BUT
WITH LARGER CHAMBERS 3TRUCTURES ARE LESS CONSISTENTLY ORGANIZED INTO REGULAR PATTERNS AND HIERARCHICAL WALL
STRUCTURES THAN CORALS AND GENERALLY LACK THE l BROUS WALL STRUCTURES OF BRYOZOANS
3ILICEOUS FORMS ARE CHARACTERIZED BY HAVING SPICULE NETWORKS WITH INTERVENING PASSAGES 3PICULAR FORMS
COMMONLY ARE DISAGGREGATED FORMING SPICULE
RICH SEDIMENT -ANY WELL PRESERVED SPECIMENS ARE ASSOCIATED
WITH MICROBIAL ENCRUSTATIONS THAT HELPED TO HOLD THE SKELETAL MATERIAL TOGETHER
$ISAGGREGATED SILICEOUS SPONGE SPICULES ARE RECOGNIZABLE BY HAVING A CENTRAL CANAL NOT ALWAYS PRESERVED AND
DISTINCTIVE MONAXON OR POLYAXON SHAPES ORIGINAL OPALINE SILICA NORMALLY CONVERTS TO CHERT OR CHALCEDONY OR IS
REPLACED BY CALCITE
0(/4/ 3#!,%3 !.$ !""2%6)!4)/.3 !2% %80,!).%$ ). 4(% "//+3 ).42/$5#4)/.
CHAPTER 5: SPONGES AND RELATED GROUPS
The generalized structure of a
sponge
SPICULE
4HE BASIC BODY PLAN OF A SPONGE IS REMARKABLY
BEARING
SIMPLE BUT EFFECTIVE 4HE CUP OR VASE SHAPED OSCULUM MESODERM
WALL IS PERFORATED BY A SERIES OF PORES THAT ALLOW
WATER INm OW &LAGELLATE COLLAR CELLS DRAW WA
TER THROUGH THE WALL WHERE NUTRIENTS ARE l LTERED
OUT AND THE WASTE WATER IS EXPELLED THROUGH THE #ENTRAL
hCHIMNEYv AT THE TOP OF THE SPONGE 4HE WALLS CAVITY
ARE STIFFENED BY EMBEDDED LOOSE SPICULES OR
SPICULE NETWORKS RIGHT !DAPTED FROM -OORE
ET AL AND OTHER SOURCES
COLLAR
CELLS
PORES
%NLARGED SPICULE NETWORK
Wall morphologies of some
!PORATE 0ORATE
segmented sponges
#OLOSPONGIA
! DIAGRAMMATIC VIEW OF THE CROSS SEC CATENULATA #YSTOTHALAMIA
TIONAL MORPHOLOGIES OF SOME SEGMENTED BAVARICA
SPHINCTOZOAN CALCAREOUS SPONGES FROM THE
!LPINE -IDDLE 4RIASSIC %LONGATE TO BULBOUS
SKELETONS WITH WELL DEl NED GROWTH FORMS &OLLICATENA
LARGE SERIALLY ARRANGED CHAMBERS WITH OR WITH CAUTICA
OUT PORES AND A VARIETY OF INTERNAL PARTITIONS
CHARACTERIZE THESE SPONGES 3OME FORMS ALSO
HAVE A DISTINCTIVE CENTRAL CAVITY RIGHT !PO
RATE SPHINCTOZOANS HAVE A SINGLE OR RARE LARGE
OPENINGS IN EACH CHAMBER WHEREAS PORATE
SPHINCTOZOANS HAVE NUMEROUS SMALL OPENINGS
IN EACH CHAMBER 3PHINCTOZOAN SKELETONS ARE
EITHER ARAGONITE OR HIGH
-G CALCITE AND THAT IS MM
WHY THEY ARE OFTEN RECRYSTALLIZED OR REPLACED MM MM
!DAPTED FROM /TT
Permian (Leonardian-Lo.
Guadalupian) Road Canyon Fm.,
Brewster Co., Texas
! CHAMBERED CALCAREOUS SPHINCTOZOAN
SPONGE .OTE THE ELONGATE SHAPE AND THE SERI
ALLY ARRANGED CHAMBERS THAT ARE MUCH LARGER
THAN THOSE OF UNISERIAL FORAMINIFERS !LTHOUGH
THERE IS POOR PRESERVATION OF WALL FABRIC IN
THIS SPECIMEN THE CONNECTING PORES BETWEEN
THE SEGMENT CHAMBERS REMAIN CLEARLY VISIBLE
COMPARE WITH THE DIAGRAM ABOVE
00, !3 (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Cherry
Canyon Fm., Getaway Ls. Mbr.,
Culberson Co., Texas
! CHAMBERED CALCAREOUS SPONGE WITH SILICA
CHERT AND CHALCEDONY REPLACEMENT OF ITS WALLS
AND MUCH OF THE SURROUNDING SEDIMENT 4HE
OVERALL UNISERIALLY CHAMBERED MORPHOLOGY EN
ABLES RECOGNITION AS A CALCAREOUS SPONGE BUT
DETAILED SPECIES LEVEL IDENTIl CATION GENERALLY
REQUIRES WHOLE SPECIMEN EXAMINATION 3ELEC
TIVE SILICA REPLACEMENT OF SPONGES OFTEN HELPS
IN IDENTIl CATION OF SPONGES BECAUSE IT ALLOWS
ACID DISSOLUTION OF MATRIX MATERIAL AND EXTRAC
TION OF THE SPONGE REMAINS )NDEED SOME OF
THE l NEST 0ERMO #ARBONIFEROUS SPONGE COLLEC
TIONS COME FROM PARTIALLY SILICIl ED STRATA
00, (! MM
Pennsylvanian Graford Fm., Wise
Co., Texas
! MODERATELY WELL PRESERVED CALCAREOUS
SPONGE -AEANDROSTIA SP .OTE THE DARK
BROWN COLORATION OF THE SKELETAL WALLS DUE TO
INCORPORATED ORGANIC MATTER THE LABYRINTHINE
PORE STRUCTURE AND THE CENTRAL CAVITY THAT WAS
INTERSECTED IN THIS LONGITUDINAL SECTION
00, (! MM
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Capitan
Fm., Culberson Co., Texas
! LARGE CHAMBERED CALCAREOUS SPONGE FORM
ING PART OF THE FRAMEWORK OF THIS WORLD RE
NOWNED REEF COMPLEX .OTE THE PRESERVATION
OF MARGINAL PORES AND A VARIETY OF CHAMBERS
DESPITE POOR PRESERVATION OF DETAILS OF THE WALL
STRUCTURE )Nl LTRATION OR PRECIPITATION PERHAPS
MICROBIALLY INm UENCED OF MICRITIC MATERIAL IN
CAVITIES GREATLY ENHANCED THE PRESERVATION OF
THE GENERAL SKELETAL OUTLINES OF THIS SPONGE
00, "3% (! MM
CHAPTER 5: SPONGES AND RELATED GROUPS
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Capitan
Fm., subsurface, Eddy Co., New
Mexico
!NOTHER CALCAREOUS SPONGE FROM THE #APITAN
REEF )N THIS CASE ONLY THE MARGINS OF THE
SPONGE CHAMBERS WERE SELECTIVELY DOLOMITIZED
PROBABLY QUITE EARLY IN THE HISTORY OF THIS DE
POSIT 4HE REST OF THE SPONGE WAS LEACHED AND
THE RESULTING PORES WERE EXTENSIVELY l LLED WITH
ANHYDRITE CEMENT NOW HYDRATED TO GYPSUM
THE LARGE WHITE PATCHES IN THIS PHOTOGRAPH
00, "3% (! MM
Up. Permian Middle reef complex,
Djebel Tebaga, Tunisia
#ALCAREOUS SPONGES WERE MAJOR FRAMEWORK
COMPONENTS OF 0ERMIAN AND 4RIASSIC REEFS IN
PART BECAUSE OF THE DEMISE OR DECLINE OF MANY
COMPETITIVE GROUPS 4HESE l NGER LIKE CALCARE
OUS SPONGES FROM THE REEFS OF 4UNISIA SHOW
LABYRINTHINE CHAMBERED WALLS AND RELATIVELY
DISTINCT CENTRAL CAVITIES 4HE SKELETAL STRUCTURE
HERE TOO IS VISIBLE LARGELY DUE TO INl LL OR PRE
CIPITATION OF MICRITIC MATERIAL
00, (! MM
Up. Permian Middle reef complex,
Djebel Tebaga, Tunisia
!NOTHER FRAMEWORK BUILDER IN THE 4UNISIAN
REEFS THIS CALCAREOUS SPONGE HAS GEOPETAL
MICRITE l LLS OF ITS CHAMBERS AND A WELL PRE
SERVED NETWORK OF LABYRINTHINE OR MAZE LIKE
PORES IN ITS WALLS
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Cretaceous (Aptian) Greensand
(reworked into Pliocene Lenham
Beds), Folkestone, Kent, England,
U.K.
! SMALL VASE LIKE CALCAREOUS SPONGE A MEM
BER OF THE #ALCAREA PROBABLY 2APHIDONEMA
FARINGDONENSIS PARTIALLY l LLED WITH FERRUGINOUS
MATERIAL DURING WEATHERING AND RESEDIMENTA
TION INTO A SINKHOLE .OTE THE MEANDERING
CAVERNOUS WALL STRUCTURE THAT CONTAINS SPICULES
VISIBLE AT HIGHER MAGNIl CATIONS
00, (! MM
Up. Silurian Brownsport Fm., Perry
Co., Tennessee
4HE WALL STRUCTURE OF THIS BOWL SHAPED CALCAR
EOUS HETERACTINELLID SPONGE !STRAEOSPONGIUM
MENISCUM SHOWS AN INTERLOCKING FABRIC OF IN
SITU UNFUSED OCTACTINE SPICULES EIGHT RAYED
SPICULES WITH SIX RAYS VISIBLE IN THIS PLANE OF
SECTION 4HESE SPONGES WERE ADAPTED TO OPEN
MARINE SHALLOW WATER SOFT BOTTOM ENVIRON
MENTS WITH HIGH NUTRIENT SUPPLIES -EHL AND
2EITNER 3PONGES OF THIS GENUS RANGE
FROM AT LEAST THE ,ATE /RDOVICIAN TO ,ATE $E
VONIAN
00, (! MM
Up. Silurian Brownsport Fm., Perry
Co., Tennessee
! CROSS
POLARIZED LIGHT VIEW OF THE SAME AREA
SHOWN IN THE PHOTOGRAPH ABOVE 4HE EXTINC
TION PATTERNS SHOW THAT EACH OF THE SPICULES ACTS
OPTICALLY AS A SINGLE CRYSTAL OF CALCITE 4HESE
ORIGINALLY CALCAREOUS SPONGE SPICULES UNLIKE
SILICEOUS ONES DO NOT HAVE A CENTRAL CANAL
80, (! MM
CHAPTER 5: SPONGES AND RELATED GROUPS
Recent sediment, Florida Keys,
Monroe Co., Florida
! CROSS
POLARIZED LIGHT VIEW OF THE WALL STRUC
TURE OF A MODERN SPONGE WITH A RELATIVELY INTACT
NETWORK OF TRIAXON CALCAREOUS SPICULES 4HESE
SPICULES ARE NOT FUSED TOGETHER BUT NEVERTHE
LESS SERVE TO STIFFEN THE TISSUE OF THE SPONGE )N
PLANE
POLARIZED LIGHT THESE SPICULES ARE COLOR
LESS AND ESSENTIALLY TRANSPARENT 3OME DISTUR
BANCE OF THE FABRIC AND BREAKAGE OF SPICULES
OCCURRED DURING SAMPLING AND SECTIONING
80, (! MM
Recent sediment, Belize
!N 3%- IMAGE OF A MODERN SILICEOUS SPONGE
SHOWING SMOOTH INTERLOCKED DIVERSELY ORIENT
ED OPALINE SPICULES 5PON DEATH OF THE SPONGE
THESE SPICULES MAY BE WIDELY DISPERSED LOOSE
SPICULES ARE COMMONLY FOUND IN MODERN SEDI
MENTS FROM BOTH SHALLOW
AND DEEP
WATER EN
VIRONMENTS
3%- (! M
Lo. Ordovician (Canadian)
Arbuckle Gp., West Spring Creek
Ls., Murray Co., Oklahoma
! VIEW OF A SPONGE WITH A WELL PRESERVED
MULTI AXONED SPICULE NETWORK EMBEDDED IN
ITS WALL STRUCTURE .OTE THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
THESE THIN AND ISOLATED SPICULE REMAINS AND THE
MORE ROBUST CONTINUOUS WALLS OF THE CALCARE
OUS SPONGES ILLUSTRATED EARLIER
00, !&E3 (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Lo. Jurassic (mid. Liassic)
limestone, Central High Atlas
region, Morocco
%XCEPTIONAL WALL PRESERVATION OF A SPONGE
SHOWING AN IN PLACE SPICULE NETWORK AND IN
TERVENING PORES PASSING THROUGH THE WALL LATER
INl LLED WITH DARK MICRITE 4HE EXTERIOR OF THE
SPONGE IS AT THE TOP OF THIS PHOTOGRAPH AND THE
WELL DEl NED CENTRAL CAVITY IS AT THE BOTTOM
.OTE THE VARIATIONS IN SIZE AND SHAPE OF SPIC
ULES WITHIN A SINGLE SPONGE
00, (! MM
Lo. Jurassic (mid. Liassic)
limestone, Central High Atlas
region, Morocco
! MAGNIl ED WALL STRUCTURE VIEW OF THE SPONGE
SHOWN IN THE PREVIOUS IMAGE 4HE NOW
CAL
CITIC MULTI
AXONED SPICULES EMBEDDED IN THE
WALLS COMPOSE A LOOSE MESHWORK OF UNFUSED
RIGID ELEMENTS THAT SERVE TO STRENGTHEN THE PO
ROUS PREDOMINANTLY ORGANIC SPONGIN MATERIAL
THAT CONSTITUTES THE MAIN PART OF THE WALL
00, (! MM
Devonian Onondaga Ls., Ontario,
Canada
! DEMOSPONGE -ICROSPONGIA ; (INDIA=
SPHAEROIDALIS 4HIS SPECIMEN SHOWS CHERTIl ED
WALLS SURROUNDING LARGE LABYRINTHINE PORES
l LLED WITH COARSELY CRYSTALLINE ALMOST
POIKILOTOPIC CALCITE 4HE ORIGINAL OPALINE
SILICA OF SILICEOUS SPONGE SPICULES IS NORMALLY
DISSOLVED AND CAN REPRECIPITATE WITHIN THE
WALLS AS MORE STABLE QUARTZ CHERT CHALCEDONY
OR MEGAQUARTZ
80, (! MM
CHAPTER 5: SPONGES AND RELATED GROUPS
Pennsylvanian Marble Falls Ls.,
Burnet Co., Texas
,ONGITUDINAL AND TRANSVERSE SECTIONS THROUGH
A MULTITUDE OF SILICEOUS SPONGE SPICULES IN A
SHELF LIMESTONE 3OME SPICULES HAVE BEEN RE
PLACED BY CALCITE BUT ALMOST ALL STILL SHOW THE
CENTRAL CANAL CHARACTERISTIC OF MOST BUT NOT ALL
SPONGE SPICULES THAT WERE ORIGINALLY SILICEOUS
!LL APPEAR TO BE MONAXON SPICULES SINGLE HOL
LOW RODS TAPERING TO A POINT AT EACH END
00, (! MM
Lo. Pennsylvanian Dimple Ls.,
Marathon Mountains, west Texas
! MODERATELY DEEP
WATER SHELF LIMESTONE CON
TAINING ABUNDANT SILICEOUS SPONGE SPICULES
4HESE MONAXON SPICULES WERE ORIGINALLY COM
POSED OF OPALINE SILICA THAT WAS LATER REPLACED
PARTIALLY BY CALCITE AND PARTIALLY BY CHERT
$ESPITE THE REPLACEMENT MOST GRAINS STILL
SHOW THE CENTRAL CANAL CHARACTERISTIC OF MOST
ORIGINALLY
SILICEOUS SPONGE SPICULES 3AMPLE
FROM 2OBERT ,AURY
80, (! MM
Lo. Pennsylvanian limestone, Mora
Co., New Mexico
.UMEROUS LEACHED SILICEOUS MONAXON SPONGE
SPICULES ONE LONGITUDINAL SECTION AND SEVERAL
IN TRANSVERSE SECTION IN A DOLOMITE 4HE ORIGI
NAL OPALINE SILICA WAS LEACHED AND THE MOLDIC
VOIDS WERE l LLED PROBABLY MUCH LATER WITH
HIGHLY FERROAN CALCITE STAINED DARK BLUE )N
THE ABSENCE OF PRESERVED CENTRAL CANALS RECOG
NITION OF THE SPICULES IN LONGITUDINAL OR OBLIQUE
SECTIONS IS CLEARLY EASIER THAN FOR THOSE IN TRANS
VERSE SECTIONS
00, !&E3 (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
342/-!4/0/2/)$3
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
! GROUP WITH UNCERTAIN AFl NITIES ONCE GROUPED WITH COELENTERATES AND STILL THOUGHT BY A FEW TO BE COELENTERATES
BUT NOW WIDELY CONSIDERED TO BE MORE CLOSELY RELATED TO SPONGES (probably the demosponges).
0HYLUM 0ORIFERA #LASS 3TROMATOPOROIDA %ARLY /RDOVICIAN TO ,ATE $EVONIAN #RETACEOUS #ENOZOIC
4RUE STROMATOPOROIDS WERE EXTREMELY COMMON FROM /RDOVICIAN TO $EVONIAN !LL LATER FORMS ASSIGNED TO
THE STROMATOPOROIDS ARE THOUGHT TO HAVE RESULTED FROM CONVERGENT EVOLUTION TOWARD THE STROMATOPOROID
SKELETAL MORPHOLOGY 3TEARN ET AL 0OST
$EVONIAN STROMATOPOROIDS REMAIN IN A STATE OF NOMENCLATURAL
UNCERTAINTY
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
%XCLUSIVELY MARINE ORGANISMS THAT GENERALLY FAVORED CLEAR
WATER WELL OXYGENATED ENVIRONMENTS WIDESPREAD IN
SHELF AND HIGH
ENERGY SHELF MARGIN SETTINGS -ESOZOIC FORMS FOUND MAINLY IN WARM
WATER AREAS
3TROMATOPOROIDS WERE MAJOR CONTRIBUTORS TO REEFS MANY OF WHICH ARE OR WERE HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS IN THE
TIME INTERVAL FROM THE -IDDLE /RDOVICIAN TO THE ,ATE $EVONIAN AND AGAIN IN THE UNCERTAINLY ASSIGNED FORMS
OF THE *URASSIC TO %ARLY #RETACEOUS TIME INTERVAL
"RANCHING l NGER
LIKE FORMS WERE WIDESPREAD IN THE $EVONIAN WHERE THEY COMMONLY FORMED BIOSTROMES IN BACK
REEF AND LAGOONAL SETTINGS
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
0RIMARILY CALCITIC BUT SOME GROUPS APPARENTLY WERE ARAGONITIC
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
3TROMATOPOROID SKELETAL REMAINS RANGE IN SIZE FROM LESS THAN A CENTIMETER TO MORE THAN A METER -OST HAD
MASSIVE SHEET
LIKE ENCRUSTING FORMS BUT GLOBULAR AND BRANCHING l NGER
LIKE FORMS ALSO WERE COMMON
3TROMATOPOROIDS HAVE MAMELONS PROTUBERANCES OF VARYING SIZE THAT GIVE THE SURFACE A BUMPY OR KNOBBY
TEXTURE
3TROMATOPOROIDS WERE ECOPHENOTYPIC WITH THE SAME SPECIES EXHIBITING DIFFERENT GROWTH MORPHOLOGIES DUE TO
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS EG DISCOID OR ENCRUSTING LAMINAR FORMS DEVELOPED IN HIGH ENERGY SETTINGS AND MORE
DELICATE BRANCHING FORMS DEVELOPED IN LOWER ENERGY SETTINGS
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
-OST STROMATOPOROID SKELETONS ARE CHARACTERIZED BY A CELLULAR OR LATTICEWORK PATTERN COMPOSED OF HORIZONTAL
LAMINAE AND VERTICAL PILLARS THAT PARTIALLY ENCLOSE GALLERIES )N SOME CASES EITHER THE LAMINAE OR PILLARS ARE
MORE PROMINENT AND IMPART A DOMINANT GRAIN TO THE PATTERN 3OME FORMS HAVE PILLARS THAT CONTINUE THROUGH
SEVERAL LAMINAE FORMING A VERY REGULAR LATTICEWORK IN OTHER GROUPS THE PILLARS ARE IRREGULARLY PLACED AND
DO NOT EXTEND THROUGH THE LAMINAE YIELDING A MORE IRREGULAR AND OPEN LATTICEWORK OF GALLERIES /VERALL THE
PRESENCE OF PILLARS RATHER THAN SOLID WALLS YIELDS MORE OPEN OR PARTIALLY OPEN LOOK TO GALLERIES THAN IS FOUND
IN LATTICEWORK OF RED ALGAE OR FORAMINIFERS )N MANY CASES THE STROMATOPOROID LATTICEWORK IS WARPED IN GENTLE
UNDULATIONS
3TROMATOPOROID SKELETAL MATERIAL GENERALLY HAS A PALE BROWNISH COLOR DUE TO THE INCORPORATION OF ORGANIC
MATTER IN THE SKELETAL CARBONATE
3TROMATOPOROID WALL STRUCTURES HAVE BEEN DESCRIBED AS COMPACT CELLULAR MICRORETICULATE CONTAINING THREE
SUBTYPES ORTHORETICULAR ACOSMORETICULAR AND CLINORETICULAR MELANOSPHERIC l BROUS TUBULATE STRIATED AND
ORDINICELLULAR SEE ,ECOMPTE AND ESPECIALLY 3TEARN ET AL
3OME STROMATOPOROIDS SEE DIAGRAM AT TOP OF NEXT PAGE HAVE hASTRORHIZAEv COMPOSED OF ASTRORHIZAL CANALS
THAT ARE MAINLY HORIZONTALLY ORIENTED 4HEY CAN BE STACKED VERTICALLY INTO AN ASTRORHIZAL COLUMN -AMELON
COLUMNS CAN ALSO BE DEVELOPED !STRORHIZAE CAN OCCUR WITHOUT MAMELONS AND MAMELONS CAN OCCUR WITHOUT
ASTRORHIZAE BUT IN THE MAJORITY OF CASES THE OCCUR TOGETHER
,ARGE COLONIAL FORMS HELP TO DIFFERENTIATE STROMATOPOROIDS FROM FORAMINIFERS VERY REGULAR STRUCTURE PRESENCE
OF ASTRORHIZAE AND ABSENCE OF SPICULES HELP TO DIFFERENTIATE STROMATOPOROIDS FROM OTHER GROUPS OF SPONGES THE
LATTICEWORK OF STROMATOPOROIDS IS GENERALLY COARSER AND MORE OPEN
CHAMBERED THAN THE CELLULAR STRUCTURE OF
RED ALGAE
CHAPTER 5: SPONGES AND RELATED GROUPS
Morphology and structure of a
typical Paleozoic stromatoporoid
ASTRORHIZA
$IAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE GENERAL ON MAMELON
IZED STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF A MASSIVE LAMI
NATED MID 0ALEOZOIC STROMATOPOROID 4HE
OPEN LATTICEWORK STRUCTURE RESULTS FROM THE
INTERSECTION OF VERTICAL PILLARS AND HORIZON
GALLERY
TAL LAMINAE 4HE THICKER LAMINAE TERMED
LATILAMINA ADD EMPHASIS TO THE HORIZONTAL PILLAR
FABRIC OF THIS STROMATOPOROID -AMELONS THE LAMINA
KNOBBY PROTRUSIONS ON THE SURFACE ARE TIED
INTO THE STRUCTURE BY A SERIES OF CANALS OR TUBES
TERMED ASTRORHIZAE !DAPTED FROM -OORE ET ^ MM
AL CITATION GIVEN IN REFERENCE LIST AT END LATILAMINA
OF BOOK INTRODUCTION AND OTHERS
Mid. Ordovician Black River Gp.,
Lowville Fm., Kingston, Ontario,
Canada
!N EARLY STROMATOPOROID 3TROMATOCERIUM
SP 4HE SKELETON SHOWS STRONG DEVELOPMENT
OF VERTICAL PILLARS AND LARGE HORIZONTALLY ELON
GATE GALLERIES 4HE PILLARS HAVE UNDERGONE
SUBSTANTIAL NEOMORPHISM 3AMPLE FROM .OEL
0 *AMES
00, !&E3 (! MM
Up. Devonian Lime Creek Fm.,
Cerro Gordo Co., Iowa
! LAMINAR STROMATOPOROID 3TROMATOPORA
INCRUSTANS WITH WELL PRESERVED AND VERY
CHARACTERISTIC LATTICEWORK FABRIC WITH MID
SCALE RETICULATE MICROSTRUCTURE 4HE HORIZONTAL
LAMINAE AND VERTICAL PILLARS OF THE LATTICEWORK
ARE CLEARLY VISIBLE AS ARE THE VARIED GALLERY
SHAPES .OTE THE VERY LARGE ASTRORHIZAL CANALS
PUNCTUATING THE SKELETAL STRUCTURE 4HE EXCEL
LENT STRUCTURAL PRESERVATION IMPLIES ORIGINALLY
CALCITIC MINERALOGY
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Silurian Rondout Fm., Glasco
Mbr., Ulster Co., New York
! DETAILED VIEW OF (ABROSTROMA KAUGATOMI
CUM 4HE LAMINAE AND PILLARS ARE COMPOSED OF
ACOSMORETICULAR MICROSTRUCTURE 4HE PRESENCE
OF MICROPILLARS AND MICROCOLLICULI ARE MOST AP
PARENT IN TANGENTIAL SECTION RATHER THAN IN THIS
LONGITUDINAL SECTION 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF
#ARL 7 3TOCK
00, (! MM
Mid. Devonian, Columbus Ls.,
Kelleys Island, Ohio
! TANGENTIAL SECTION OF A STROMATOPOROID 4HE
LARGE LONG THICK PILLARS OF 3YRINGOSTROMA
DISPLAY CLINORETICULAR MICROSTRUCTURE 4HIS IS
BEST SEEN IN THE PILLARS TO THE RIGHT 0HOTOGRAPH
COURTESY OF #ARL 7 3TOCK
00, (! MM
Up. Devonian (Frasnian) limestone,
Holy Cross Mountains, Poland
! LAMINAR STROMATOPOROID SHOWING THE PILLAR
AND LAMINA STRUCTURE AND GALLERY PATTERNS TYPI
CAL OF THIS GROUP 4HE FOLDS OR UNDULATIONS ARE
COMMON IN THESE KNOBBY TO BULBOUS ENCRUST
ING FORMS 3UCH STROMATOPOROIDS ARE COM
MON ENCRUSTERS OF OTHER ORGANISMS AND THUS
ARE MAJOR CONTRIBUTORS TO THE BINDING OF REEF
CONSTITUENTS AS WELL AS THE GENERATION OF REEF
FRAMEWORKS
00, !3 (! MM
CHAPTER 5: SPONGES AND RELATED GROUPS
Up. Devonian Shell Rock Fm., Nora
Mbr., Cerro Gordo Co., Iowa
4HIS VERTICAL SECTION THROUGH THE SKELETON OF
!CTINOSTROMA EXPANSUM IS COMPOSED OF LONG
PILLARS THAT ARE CONNECTED BY COLLICULI 4HE COL
LICULI ARE HORIZONTALLY ALIGNED GIVING THE IM
PRESSION OF CONTINUOUS LAMINAE IN LONGITUDINAL
THIN SECTIONS HOWEVER TRANSVERSE TANGENTIAL
THIN SECTIONS REVEAL THE hHEXACTINELLIDv PAT
TERN FORMED BY THE COLLICULI WHERE THEY RADI
ATE FROM PILLARS COLLICULI ARE HORIZONTAL RODS
PROTRUDING FROM PILLARS !CTINOSTROMA HAS
COMPACT MICROSTRUCTURE 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY
OF #ARL 7 3TOCK
00, (! MM
Up. Devonian (Frasnian) Pillara Ls.,
Canning Basin, Western Australia
4HESE l NGER
LIKE STROMATOPOROIDS )DIOSTROMA
SP HAVE WELL PRESERVED RADIAL CHAMBERED
STRUCTURE 4HE STROMATOPOROIDS ARE ENCRUSTED
BY 2ENALCIS COLONIAL CALCIMICROBIAL GROWTHS A
COMMON ASSOCIATION IN $EVONIAN STRATA
00, (! MM
Up. Devonian Shell Rock Fm., Nora
Mbr., Cerro Gordo Co., Iowa
(ERE SEVERAL SPECIMENS OF !MPHIPORA ARE
SURROUNDED BY AN ORGANIC RICH MATRIX 4HE
SKELETONS ARE SMALL AND TWIG LIKE "OTH LONGI
TUDINAL SECTIONS AND CROSS SECTIONS CAN BE SEEN
HERE 4HE INTERNAL SKELETAL STRUCTURE IS IRREGU
LAR BUT IN SOME SPECIMENS AN AXIAL CANAL WITH
A CIRCULAR CROSS SECTION IS DEVELOPED SEVERAL OF
THE UPPER SPECIMENS DISPLAY THIS STRUCTURE FOR
EXAMPLE AT ARROWHEAD 0HOTOGRAPH AND CAP
TION COURTESY OF #ARL 7 3TOCK
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
#ITED 2EFERENCES AND !DDITIONAL )NFORMATION 3OURCES
!LDINGER ( %COLOGY OF ALGAL
SPONGE
REEFS IN THE 5PPER *URASSIC /KULITCH 6 * !RCHAEOCYATHA IN 2 # -OORE ED 4REATISE ON
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BASTREA COCCINEA WITH EMERGENT POLYPS "ONAIRE REEF AT NIGHT
0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF 7OODY -AYHEW
'2!).3 3KELETAL &RAGMENTS
CORALS, OCTOCORALS, AND HYDROZOANS
Tabulate corals
C Rugose corals
H
A Scleractinian
P
T
corals
E
R Octocorals
6 Hydrozoans
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
4!"5,!4% #/2!,3
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
0HYLUM #NIDARIA #LASS !NTHOZOA
3UBCLASS :OANTHARIA /RDOVICIAN #AMBRIAN
2ECENT
/RDER 4ABULATA %ARLY /RDOVICIAN
,ATE 0ERMIAN
0OSSIBLE TABULATE CORALS HAVE BEEN REPORTED FROM THE %ARLY #AMBRIAN 3ORAUF AND 3AVARESE 4HE GROUP
WAS WIDESPREAD AND DIVERSE FROM ,ATE /RDOVICIAN TO -IDDLE $EVONIAN BUT DECLINED IN ,ATE $EVONIAN AND
INTO THE #ARBONIFEROUS 4HE GROUP BECAME EXTINCT DURING THE GREAT END
0ERMIAN FAUNAL CRISIS
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
4ABULATE CORALS WERE FULLY MARINE SESSILE ORGANISMS AND WERE CONTRIBUTORS TO STROMATOPOROID AND MICROBIAL REEFS
AND BIOHERMS OF /RDOVICIAN TO #ARBONIFEROUS AGE !LTHOUGH SUBSTANTIAL CONTRIBUTORS TO SOME REEFS TABULATES
RARELY WERE DOMINANT REEF FRAMEWORK FORMERS 4ABULATE CORALS DID BUILD SMALLER ISOLATED BIOHERMS THAT ARE
WIDELY DISTRIBUTED IN MUDDY OPEN SHELF CARBONATE ROCKS
-ANY TABULATE CORALS WERE ATTACHED TO THEIR SUBSTRATES OTHERS WERE UNATTACHED ROLLING FREE ON THE SEA m OOR
7HETHER TABULATE CORALS HAD A SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIP WITH ZOOXANTHELLATE ANALOGS AND THEREFORE WERE RESTRICTED
TO LIVING IN THE PHOTIC ZONE IS AN OPEN QUESTION BECAUSE SUCH SOFT TISSUES ARE NOT PRESERVED %NVIRONMENTAL
RECONSTRUCTIONS HOWEVER INDICATE THAT TABULATES LIVED AT SHALLOW MARINE DEPTHS WITHIN THE PHOTIC ZONE SO AN
ANALOGOUS SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIP IS POSSIBLE BUT HAS NEITHER BEEN PROVEN NOR REFUTED
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
6IRTUALLY ALL TABULATE CORALS PROBABLY WERE ORIGINALLY CALCITIC VERY FEW PROBABLY ON THE 4ETRADIIDAE A GROUP THAT
IS NOT UNIVERSALLY CLASSED WITH THE TABULATES MAY HAVE BEEN ARAGONITIC $ETERMINATION OF ORIGINAL MINERALOGY
IS BASED MAINLY ON THE QUALITY OF STRUCTURAL PRESERVATION
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
%XCLUSIVELY COLONIAL CORALS CHARACTERIZED BY HAVING SLENDER TYPICALLY
MM DIAMETER POLYGONAL OVAL OR
CIRCULAR TUBES CORALLITES WITH PERFORATE OR MORE RARELY IMPERFORATE WALLS 4HE CORALLITE TUBES ARE PARTITIONED
BY HORIZONTAL INTERIOR PLATFORMS TERMED hTABULAEv VERTICAL CORALLITE PARTITIONS SEPTA IF PRESENT AT ALL ARE
VERY SHORT AND ALMOST SPINE
LIKE #ORALLITES CAN PARALLEL EACH OTHER AND BE CLOSELY PACKED OR CAN BE LOOSELY
PACKED AND JOINED ONLY BY CROSS
TUBES STOLONS CORALLITES CAN ALSO DIVERGE IN BUD
LIKE OR BRANCH
LIKE FASHION
YET OTHERS FORM IN LINEAR CHAINS
4ABULATE CORAL COLONIES RANGE IN SIZE FROM A FEW MM TO AS MUCH AS M IN WIDTH AND HEIGHT
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
%XCLUSIVELY COLONIAL CORALS WITH SLENDER CORALLITE TUBES THAT ARE COMMONLY CLOSELY PACKED AND HAVE CIRCULAR
OVAL OR POLYGONAL SHAPES IN TRANSVERSE SECTIONS
(ORIZONTAL TABULAE ARE PROMINENT AND VERTICAL SEPTA ARE SUBORDINATE IF PRESENT AT ALL SEPTA COMMONLY ARE
REDUCED TO SMALL STUBS OR SPINES
#ALCITIC FORMS GENERALLY ARE WELL PRESERVED AND HAVE A hFUZZYv l BROUS WALL STRUCTURE WITH l BERS APPARENTLY
ORIENTED NORMAL TO THE PLANE OF TABULAE -AJEWSKE 3OME FORMS HAVE A THIN EXTERNAL CARBONATE LAYER
AROUND THE SKELETON THE EPITHECA THAT APPEARS STRUCTURELESS OTHER FORMS HAVE WALL STRUCTURE SIMILAR TO THE
RADIATING l BER BUNDLES FASCICLES THAT CONSTITUTE TRABECULAR FABRIC DESCRIBED LATER FOR SCLERACTINIAN CORALS
YET OTHERS HAVE CLEAR COMPACT CALCITE CRYSTALS WITHIN THEIR WALLS SEE -AJEWSKE FOR FURTHER DETAILS
-ANY TABULATE CORALS HOWEVER HAVE A LAMELLAR WALL STRUCTURE REGARDED BY SOME TO BE ORIGINAL AND BIOGENIC
BUT THOUGHT BY OTHERS TO BE DIAGENETIC -ANY OF THESE TABULATES WITH LAMELLAR WALLS LAMELLAE PARALLEL TO
GROWTH LINES AND EXTERIOR SURFACE HAVE YET TO BE FOUND WITH ANY OTHER PRE
EXISTING l BROUS STRUCTURE
4ABULATE CORALS GENERALLY FORM LARGER COLONIES AND HAVE LARGER INDIVIDUAL LIVING CHAMBERS THAN BRYOZOANS
TABULATE PARTITIONS AND SMALL SEPTAL STRUCTURES ALSO DIFFERENTIATE THESE CORALS FROM BRYOZOANS 4HE SKELETAL
CORALLITE ARRANGEMENT IS VERY DIFFERENT FROM AND COARSER THAN THAT FOUND IN STROMATOPOROIDS OR RED ALGAE
0(/4/ 3#!,%3 !.$ !""2%6)!4)/.3 !2% %80,!).%$ ). 4(% "//+3 ).42/$5#4)/.
CHAPTER 6: CORALS, OCTOCORALS, AND HYDROZOANS
Morphologies of some common
tabulate corals
! BLOCK DIAGRAM SHOWING THE BASIC ARRANGE
MENT OF STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS IN A TABULATE CORAL
COLONY UPPER LEFT TRANSVERSE AND LONGITUDI
NAL CROSS SECTIONS OF TWO COMMON GENERA OF
TABULATE CORALS 4ETRADIUM AND &AVOSITES AND
A BLOCK DIAGRAM AND LONGITUDINAL CROSS SEC
TION LOWER RIGHT OF 3YRINGOPORA A TABULATE
CORAL WITH ISOLATED THICK WALLED CORALLITES
CONNECTED BY STOLONS )N GENERAL HORIZONTAL
TABULAE AND VERTICAL CORALLITE WALLS DOMINATE
THE ARCHITECTURE OF TABULATE CORALS AND SEPTAL
PARTITIONS WITHIN INDIVIDUAL CORALLITES GENER
ALLY ARE SMALL REDUCED TO SPIKES OR NON EX
ISTENT !DAPTED FROM -OORE ET AL AND
-AJEWSKE
Mid. Ordovician Black River Gp.,
Kingston area, Ontario, Canada
! TRANSVERSE SECTION OF AN EARLY TABULATE
CORAL 4ETRADIUM SP /RDER 4ETRADIIDA 4HE
PACKED SLENDER QUADRATE CORALLITES ARE READILY
DISTINGUISHABLE .OTE ALSO THE BROKEN FRAG
MENTS OF COMPACTED 4ETRADIUM THROUGHOUT THE
SEDIMENT MATRIX )NTERNAL STRUCTURE IS NEVER
PRESERVED IN THIS GROUP SO THIS LIKELY WAS THE
ONLY GROUP OF TABULATE CORALS THAT HAD PRIMARY
ARAGONITIC MINERALOGY /N THE OTHER HAND THIS
GROUP MAY NOT BELONG WITH THE TABULATE CORALS
AT ALL AND INDEED MANY WORKERS DO NOT CLAS
SIFY THEM IN THAT ORDER 3AMPLE FROM .OEL 0
*AMES
00, (! MM
Mid. Ordovician Black River Gp.,
Kingston area, Ontario, Canada
! MAGNIl ED VIEW OF THE EARLY TABULATE CORAL
SHOWN IN THE PREVIOUS EXAMPLE 4ETRADIUM
SP 4HE QUADRATE CORALLITES PRODUCE A DISTINC
TIVE APPEARANCE LIKE A CLOVER LEAF IN THIS FRAG
MENTAL GRAIN 4HIS ORDER OF TABULATE CORALS WAS
CONl NED TO /RDOVICIAN STRATA WHERE IT COM
MONLY FORMED SMALL BIOHERMS 3AMPLE FROM
.OEL 0 *AMES
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Ordovician Keel Fm., Pontotoc
Co., Oklahoma
4HE TABULATE CORAL 0ROPORA THEBESENSIS &OER
STE /RDER (ELIOLITIDA 4HIS LONGITUDINAL
SECTION SHOWS THAT THE CALCITE OF THE CORALLITE
WALLS IS COMPOSED OF SEPTAL TRABECULAE l BER
BUNDLES 4HE MICROSTRUCTURE WITHIN THE THIN
NER TABULAE AND COENENCHYMAL DISSEPIMENTS IS
NOT DISTINCT 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF 'RAHAM
9OUNG
00, (! MM
Up. Ordovician Keel Fm., Pontotoc
Co., Oklahoma
4HE TABULATE CORAL 0ROPORA THEBESENSIS &OER
STE /RDER (ELIOLITIDA 4HIS TRANSVERSE SEC
TION SHOWS A CONTRAST BETWEEN THE THICKENED
AND UNTHICKENED PARTS OF THE SKELETON 3EPTAL
TRABECULAE ARE WELL DEVELOPED IN THE THICKENED
PARTS 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF 'RAHAM 9OUNG
00, (! MM
Lo. Silurian?, (lo. Llandovery?)
Bryant Knob Fm., Pike Co.,
Missouri
4HE TABULATE CORAL 0ALEOFAVOSITES SUBELONGUS
3AVAGE /RDER &AVOSITIDA ! LONGITUDINAL
SECTION SHOWING ABUNDANT SEPTAL SPINES 0HO
TOGRAPH COURTESY OF 'RAHAM 9OUNG
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 6: CORALS, OCTOCORALS, AND HYDROZOANS
Up. Ordovician Keel Fm., Pontotoc
Co., Oklahoma
! TRANSVERSE SECTION OF TWO CHAIN LIKE RANKS
OF THE TABULATE CORAL (ALYSITES ALEXANDRICUS
9OUNG AND %LIAS /RDER (ALYSITIDA 4HIS
/RDOVICIAN 3ILURIAN GROUP HAS ROUND TO EL
LIPTICAL CORALLITES THAT ARE ARRANGED IN UNISERIAL
RANKS THAT DIVERGE AND REJOIN AT VARIOUS POINT
ENCLOSING LARGE INTERNAL SPACES .OTE THE RELA
TIVELY THICK BROWN ORIGINALLY CALCITIC WALLS
THAT HAVE PRISMATIC WALL STRUCTURE TERMED
l BRO NORMAL WITH CRYSTALS ORIENTED PERPEN
DICULAR TO THE EXTERIOR SURFACE OF THE WALL
0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF 'RAHAM 9OUNG
00, (! ^ MM
Devonian limestone, midcontinent,
U.S.A.
! LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH A COLONIAL
TABULATE CORAL SHOWING SLIGHT THICKENING OF
WALL STRUCTURE AT THE MARGIN OF THE COLONY 4HE
TYPICALLY DARK AND hFUZZYv l BROUS MICROFABRIC
OF THE WALL IS APPARENT HERE AS IS THE SIMPLE AR
RANGEMENT OF TABULAE
00, (! MM
Devonian limestone, midcontinent,
U.S.A.
! TRANSVERSE SECTION THROUGH THE SAME CO
LONIAL TABULATE CORAL SHOWN IN THE PREVIOUS
PHOTOGRAPH 4HE CLOSE PACKING OF POLYGONAL
CORALLITES THE LACK OF INTERNAL SEPTAL PARTITIONS
AND THE WELL PRESERVED BROWNISH CALCITE OF
THE CORALLITE WALLS ARE READILY VISIBLE IN THIS
EXAMPLE
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Lo. Permian (Sakmarian) Tastubsky
Horizon, Gubakha, Perm Region,
Russia
! CUT THROUGH A COLONIAL CORAL 3YRINGOPORA SP
4HIS WIDESPREAD AND LONG RANGING GROUP HAS
LONG CYLINDRICAL THICK WALLED CORALLITES THAT
ARE SEPARATE FROM EACH OTHER AND ARE JOINED
ONLY IN A FEW PLACES BY CONNECTING TUBES STO
LONS OR TUBULI 4HEY ALSO HAVE FUNNEL SHAPED
INFUNDIBULIFORM TABULAE THAT EXTENDED
THROUGH THE TUBULI
00, !&E3 (! MM
Pennsylvanian Magdalena Gp., El
Paso Co., Texas
4HE WELL PRESERVED MARGIN OF A COLONY OF
#HAETETES SP ,ONG CLASSIl ED AS TABULATE COR
ALS THIS GROUP IS NOW DEl NITIVELY PLACED WITH
THE SPONGES BY MOST CURRENT WORKERS 4HE
SPONGE ASSIGNMENT IS BASED ON THE DISCOVERY
OF POSSIBLE MODERN RELATIVE !CANTHOCHAETETES
WELLSI THAT HAS THE SPICULES AND SOFT TISSUES
TYPICAL OF DEMOSPONGES 3PICULES ARE NOT
YET KNOWN IN FOSSIL CHAETETIDS HOWEVER SO
WE HAVE CONTINUED TO INCLUDE THIS GROUP WITH
THE TABULATE CORALS FOR NOW 4HE SKELETON OF
#HAETETES IS KNOWN TO HAVE BEEN HIGH -G
CALCITE
00, (! MM
Pennsylvanian Magdalena Gp., El
Paso Co., Texas
4HIS TRANSVERSE SECTION OF A COLONY OF #HAETETES
SP SHOWS THE SIMPLE INTERLOCKED NON
SEPTATE
LIVING CHAMBERS OF THIS COLONIAL ORGANISM
#HAETETID COLONIES RANGE FROM SHEET
LIKE EN
CRUSTATIONS TO UPRIGHT COLUMNS AND SOME COLO
NIES REACH A DIAMETER OF THREE METERS
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 6: CORALS, OCTOCORALS, AND HYDROZOANS
25'/3% #/2!,3
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
0HYLUM #NIDARIA #LASS !NTHOZOA 3UBCLASS :OANTHARIA
/RDER 2UGOSA -IDDLE /RDOVICIAN
,ATE 0ERMIAN
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
2UGOSE CORALS TETRACORALS ARE A FULLY MARINE GROUP THAT IS FOUND PREDOMINANTLY IN WARM SHALLOW WATER STRATA
ALTHOUGH THERE IS NO EVIDENCE THAT THEY HAD PHOTOSYNTHETIC SYMBIONTS OR WERE CONl NED TO PHOTIC WATER
DEPTHS
4HEY WERE SIGNIl CANT CONTRIBUTORS TO REEFS DURING THE 0ALEOZOIC BUT WERE RARELY THE PREDOMINANT REEFAL FRAMEWORK
FORMERS PERHAPS BECAUSE THEY HAD VERY HIGH SKELETAL CALCITE REQUIREMENTS OR A LACK OF EFFECTIVE MEANS OF
ATTACHMENT )N ADDITION ALTHOUGH BANDING STUDIES ON RUGOSE CORALS INDICATE GROWTH RATES COMPARABLE TO
THOSE OF SOME MODERN SCLERACTINIAN CORALS NONE OF THE RUGOSANS HAD THE REMARKABLE GROWTH RATES OF MODERN
REEF
FORMING SCLERACTINIANS ESPECIALLY THE MAIN REEF
FRONT SPECIES OF !CROPORA
2UGOSE CORALS WERE COMMON IN CLEAR
WATER HARD
BOTTOMED CARBONATE SHELF SETTINGS COLONIAL FORMS CONSTRUCTED
SMALL METER
SCALE BIOHERMS
3OME FORMS APPARENTLY WERE ADAPTED TO LIVING IN BASINAL LOW
OXYGEN SETTINGS WITH SOFT MUDDY SEAm OORS
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
2UGOSE CORALS WERE ORIGINALLY COMPOSED OF CALCITE AND HAVE WELL PRESERVED SKELETAL STRUCTURE MOST WERE LOW
-G
CALCITE ALTHOUGH SOME #ARBONIFEROUS AND 0ERMIAN FORMS HAD MODERATELY HIGH
-G CALCITE COMPOSITIONS
MOLE -G
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
2UGOSE CORALS INCLUDE BOTH SOLITARY ABOUT RD AND COLONIAL ABOUT RD FORMS #OLONIAL RUGOSANS TYPICALLY
FORMED CM TO M
SIZED DOMAL STRUCTURES WITH SOME REACHING
M DIAMETER SOLITARY FORMS TYPICALLY ARE CM
TO
DM
SIZED AND HAVE HORN
SHAPED CORALLITES
#OLONIAL FORMS HAD VARIED ARCHITECTURAL PATTERNS INCLUDING IRREGULAR BRANCHING FORMS MASSIVE FORMS WHERE
CORALLITES TOUCHED AND FORMED POLYGONAL CONTACT SURFACES LOOSER PACKED CORALLITES WITH LOCALIZED CONNECTIONS
CLUSTERS IN WHICH CORALLITE WALLS ARE COMPLETELY OR PARTIALLY LOST AND FORMS IN WHICH ADJACENT CORALLITE WALLS
ARE LOST AND SEPTA OF ADJACENT CORALLITES MERGE
)N SOME FORMS THE SEPTA MAY BRANCH OR UNITE NEAR THE CENTER OF THE CORALLITE TO FORM AN ELONGATE AXIAL STRUCTURE
THE COLUMELLA OR AXIAL VORTEX
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
2UGOSE CORALS CAN BE SOLITARY OR COLONIAL SOLITARY FORMS HAVE DISTINCTIVE HORN SHAPE IN LONGITUDINAL SECTIONS
UNIQUE IN THE 0ALEOZOIC COLONIAL FORMS CAN LOOK VERY SIMILAR TO TABULATE CORALS BUT DIFFER FROM MOST OTHER
GROUPS IN THE LARGE SIZE OF RUGOSAN LIVING CHAMBERS AND THEIR PATTERNS OF ORGANIZATION
2UGOSANS HAVE A DISTINCTIVE BILATERALLY SYMMETRICAL PATTERN OF SEPTAL ARRANGEMENT -OST RUGOSANS HAVE
LONGER AND BETTER DEVELOPED SEPTA BUT LESS WELL
DEVELOPED TABULAE THAN TABULATE CORALS 2UGOSANS ALSO HAVE
A UNIQUE PATTERN OF SEPTAL INSERTION SEPTA ARE INSERTED AT FOUR LOCI AND MAJOR AND MINOR SEPTA OF DIFFERING
LENGTH ARE USUALLY DEVELOPED DURING SUCCESSIVE GROWTH STAGES SEE SECOND DIAGRAM ON NEXT PAGE FOR DETAILS
4HE SEPTAL PROJECTIONS INTO LIVING CHAMBERS OF RUGOSANS HELP TO DIFFERENTIATE RUGOSE CORALS FROM BRYOZOANS
2UGOSE CORALS HAVE A WELL DEVELOPED OUTER WALL EPITHECA THAT COMMONLY SHOWS STRONG RIBBING THE NAME OF
THIS GROUP REFERS TO THE GROWTH RIDGES OR hRUGAEv WHICH WRINKLE THE EXTERIOR OF THE CORAL THESE ARE NOT THE
SAME AS SEPTAL RIDGES
7ALL STRUCTURES GENERALLY ARE WELL PRESERVED ARE DISTINCTLY BROWNISH POSSIBLY DUE TO INCORPORATED ORGANIC
MATERIAL AND HAVE A hFUZZYv l BROUS FABRIC -AJEWSKE 3OME FORMS HAVE SEPTAL STRUCTURAL FABRICS
SIMILAR TO THE RADIATING l BER BUNDLES FASCICLES THAT CONSTITUTE TRABECULAR FABRIC DESCRIBED LATER FOR
SCLERACTINIAN CORALS YET OTHERS HAVE CLEAR COMPACT CALCITE CRYSTALS WITHIN THEIR WALLS SEE -AJEWSKE
FOR FURTHER DETAILS HIGH
-G FORMS COMMONLY HAVE hZIGZAG MICROSTRUCTUREv
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Major morphologic features of a
typical rugose coral
! SIMPLIl ED MODEL OF A RUGOSE CORAL WITH MI
NOR SEPTA OMITTED 4HE SLICED SECTION SHOWS
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SEPTA TABULAE AND
DISSEPIMENTS %XTERNAL GROOVES MARK THE PO
SITION OF INTERNAL SEPTA !DAPTED FROM "OARD
MAN ET AL REFERENCE GIVEN IN CITATIONS AT
END OF BOOK INTRODUCTION
Sequence of septal addition in
rugose corals
2UGOSANS ARE DIFFERENTIATED FROM OTHER COR
ALS BY THE SEQUENCE IN WHICH THEY ADD SEPTA
THROUGH THEIR GROWTH HISTORY AND THE PATTERN
AND SYMMETRY OF THOSE SEPTA 4HIS DIAGRAM
SHOWS EIGHT STAGES IN RUGOSAN GROWTH AS WELL
AS THE SEQUENTIAL ADDITION OF THE CARDINAL SEP
TUM # THE COUNTER SEPTUM + THE ALAR SEPTA
! THE COUNTERLATERAL SEPTA +, THE METASEPTA
AND MATURE STAGE MINOR SEPTA A C
!DAPTED FROM /LIVER
Pennsylvanian limestone, north-
central Texas
,ONGITUDINAL AND TRANSVERSE SECTIONS THROUGH
A SOLITARY RUGOSE CORAL PROBABLY :APHRENTITES
SP 4HE TRANSVERSE SECTION SHOWS HALF OF THE
CUP SHAPED CORALLITE WITH RADIATING BROWNISH
CALCITE SEPTAL WALLS 4HE LONGITUDINAL SECTION
SHOWS THE CONICAL HORN SHAPED OUTLINE OF A
SOLITARY RUGOSAN WITH THICK SEPTAL PARTITIONS
AND THINNER SUPPORTING DISSEPIMENTS
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 6: CORALS, OCTOCORALS, AND HYDROZOANS
Pennsylvanian limestone, north-
central Texas
!N ENLARGEMENT SHOWING THE SEPTA AND WALLS
OF THE SOLITARY RUGOSE CORAL :APHRENTITES SP
SHOWN IN THE PREVIOUS PHOTOGRAPH ROTATED
CLOCKWISE .OTE THE THICK SEPTA AND WALLS THAT
RETAIN MUCH OF THEIR ORIGINAL DARK COLOR AND
RADIATING l BROUS CALCITE FABRIC 4HIS PRESERVA
TION IS TYPICAL OF RUGOSE CORAL MATERIAL SUP
PORTING THE IDEA THAT THIS GROUP HAD PRIMARY
CALCITE COMPOSITION
00, (! MM
Carboniferous limestone, England,
U.K.
! LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH A SOLITARY RU
GOSE CORAL WITH FRAGMENT OF ADDITIONAL RUGO
SANS ON EACH SIDE 4HIS CUT NICELY SHOWS THE
HORN SHAPED SKELETON WITH SEPTA THAT PARALLELED
THE LONG AXIS AND A COMPLEX SERIES OF CURVED
DISSEPIMENTS AND MORE PLANAR TABULAE THAT PRO
VIDED INTERNAL SUPPORT
00, (! MM
Carboniferous limestone, England,
U.K.
! MAGNIl ED VIEW OF THE LONGITUDINAL SECTION
THROUGH A SOLITARY RUGOSE CORAL SHOWN IN THE
PREVIOUS PHOTOGRAPH 4HE COMPLEX SHAPES OF
THE DARK CALCITIC PARTITIONS ARE READILY APPARENT
HERE AND ARE ORGANIZED QUITE DIFFERENTLY FROM
THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF BRYOZOANS ONE OF THE
GROUPS SOMETIMES MISTAKEN FOR CORALS IN THIN
SECTION
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Pennsylvanian Graham Fm.,
Coleman Co., Texas
! TRANSVERSE SECTION THROUGH A SOLITARY RUGOSE
CORAL ,OPHOPHYLLIDIUM PROLIFERUM .OTE THE
NEAR
CIRCULAR SHAPE IN THIS SECTION THE LARGE
CENTRAL COLUMELLA AND THE BROAD FAIRLY WELL
PRESERVED SEPTA AND EPITHECA 4HE WALL STRUC
TURE HOWEVER HAS UNDERGONE SOME DIAGENETIC
ALTERATION 'EOCHEMICAL STUDIES HAVE SHOWN
ELEVATED -G CONTENTS AND MICRODOLOMITE IN
CLUSIONS PROBABLY INDICATING AN ORIGINAL INTER
MEDIATE
TO HIGH
-G CALCITE COMPOSITION UP
TO ABOUT
MOLE -G SEE 3ORAUF 7EBB
*OUR 0ALEO V P
00, (! MM
Pennsylvanian Graham Fm.,
Coleman Co., Texas
!N ENLARGED VIEW OF THE TRANSVERSE SECTION
THROUGH A SOLITARY RUGOSE CORAL ,OPHOPHYL
LIDIUM PROLIFERUM SHOWN IN THE PREVIOUS PHO
TOGRAPH -AJOR AND MINOR SEPTA ARE CLEARLY
DISTINGUISHABLE AND BOTH TYPES OF SEPTA SHOW
DARK CALCIl CATION CENTERS SURROUNDED BY BUN
DLES OF l BROUS CALCITE 4HE THICKENED MARGINAL
EPITHECA NICELY SHOWS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
THE CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN INTERNAL SEPTA AND
EXTERNAL GROOVES IN THE RUGOSAN WALL 4HE
CHEVRON LIKE SEPTAL WALL FABRIC HAS BEEN TERMED
hZIGZAG MICROSTRUCTUREv AND APPEARS TO BE CHAR
ACTERISTIC OF RUGOSAN FORMS WITH MODERATELY
HIGH -G CALCITE SKELETONS
00, (! MM
Up. Devonian (Frasnian) Sadler-
Pillara Ls., Canning Basin, Western
Australia
! LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH THE WALL OF A RU
GOSE CORAL 4HE SEPTA EXTEND ROUGHLY PARALLEL
TO THE LONG AXIS OF THE PICTURE AND SHOW A DARK
CENTRAL STRIPE THAT REPRESENTS CENTERS OF CALCIl
CATION FROM WHICH l BERS OF CALCITE RADIATE THE
LIGHTER BROWN AREAS OF THE SEPTA 4HE TABULAE
AND DISSEPIMENTS THAT DIVIDE THE CHAMBERS ARE
ALSO COMPOSED OF l BROUS CALCITE INTERSTITIAL
PORES HAVE BEEN l LLED WITH DIAGENETIC SPARRY
CALCITE CEMENT
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 6: CORALS, OCTOCORALS, AND HYDROZOANS
Lo. Permian (Sakmarian) Tastubsky
Horizon, Perm Region, Russia
! HIGHER MAGNIl CATION VIEW OF A COLONIAL RU
GOSE CORAL SHOWING THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF THE
CORAL WALL 4HE DARK CALCIl CATION CENTER IN
THE LARGE SEPTUM IS SURROUNDED BY BUNDLES OF
CLOUDY ORGANIC
RICH CALCITE l BERS THE THINNER
DISSEPIMENTS ALSO CONTAIN ORGANIC
RICH CALCITE
BUT WITH A LESS IDENTIl ABLE MICROFABRIC 0ORE
SPACE IS l LLED WITH THREE GENERATIONS OF CE
MENT AND THE ORIENTATION OF THE l RST GENERATION
MAY HAVE BEEN INm UENCED BY THE ORIENTATION OF
THE CALCITE l BERS IN THE CORAL WALLS
00, (! MM
Middle Devonian Blue Fjord Fm.
Ellesmere Island, Arctic Islands,
Canada
! TRANSVERSE SECTION THROUGH A COLONIAL RUGOSE
CORAL 3PONGONARIA SP WITH PACKED CORALLITES
FORMING POLYGONAL BOUNDARIES 2ELATIVELY SHORT
SEPTA SURROUND A CENTRAL AREA OF DISSEPIMENTS
.OTE THE OFFSET OF RUGOSE GROOVES AND CORRE
SPONDING SEPTA FROM ONE CORALLITE TO THE NEXT
3AMPLE FROM .OEL 0 *AMES
00, (! MM
Devonian limestone, Iowa
! TRANSVERSE SECTION THROUGH A COLONIAL RUGOSE
CORAL 0ACHYPHYLLUM WOODMANI 4HIS SPECI
MEN SHOWS THE DARK CENTRAL CORES OF THIN SEPTA
WITH EXCELLENT DIFFERENTIATION OF MAJOR AND MI
NOR SEPTA )T ALSO SHOWS THAT IN THIS GROUP THE
CORALLITE WALLS WERE LOST AND SEPTA OF ADJACENT
CORALLITES WERE JOINED
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Devonian (up. Frasnian) Simla-
Blue Ridge Fm., Alberta, Canada
!N OBLIQUE TRANSVERSE SECTION THROUGH ANOTHER
COLONIAL RUGOSE CORAL 0ENECKIELLA SP THAT HAD
SEPARATED CORALLITES )T HAS A SERIES OF RELATIVELY
SHORT SEPTA SURROUNDING A LARGE CENTRAL AREA
DIVIDED BY TABULATE PARTITIONS 4HE CORALLITE
INTERNAL VOIDS HAVE BEEN l LLED WITH MULTIPHASE
CALCITE CEMENTS
00, !&E3 (! MM
Up. Devonian Mt. Hawk Fm.,
Alberta, Canada
! COLONIAL RUGOSE CORAL WITH MODERATELY WELL
PRESERVED CORALLITE STRUCTURE OF THE GENUS
$ISPHYLLUM POSSIBLY $ FASCICULARUM !L
THOUGH THESE CORALLITES TOUCH IN PLACES AND
HAVE UNDERGONE SOME PRESSURE
SOLUTION AT
THOSE CONTACTS THEY WERE NOT CLOSELY PACKED
ORIGINALLY AND THUS SHOW INTER
CORALLITE SEDI
MENT POCKETS
00, (! MM
Lo. Permian (Sakmarian) Tastubsky
Horizon, Perm Region, Russia
! LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH A COLONIAL RU
GOSE CORAL SHOWING COMPLEX INTERNAL STRUCTURE
CONSISTING OF SEPTA ORIENTED FROM LOWER LEFT TO
UPPER RIGHT SMALL TABULAE NORMAL TO THE SEPTA
AND CURVED DISSEPIMENTS
00, "3% (! MM
CHAPTER 6: CORALS, OCTOCORALS, AND HYDROZOANS
3#,%2!#4).)!. #/2!,3
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
0HYLUM #NIDARIA #LASS !NTHOZOA 3UBCLASS :OANTHARIA
/RDER 3CLERACTINIA -IDDLE 4RIASSIC
2ECENT
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
3CLERACTINIAN CORALS HEXACORALS ARE FULLY MARINE SEDENTARY ORGANISMS WITH PLANKTIC LARVAE
-OST MODERN FORMS ARE STENOHALINE GENERALLY
y SALINITY AND ARE RESTRICTED TO WARM WATERS ABOUT #
MINIMUM
# OPTIMUM RANGE 4HUS SCLERACTINIAN CORALS TYPICALLY ARE FOUND IN WATERS BETWEEN .
AND 3 LATITUDES EXCEPT WHERE EXTENDED BY WARM OCEAN CURRENTS
-OST SCLERACTINIANS HAVE A LOW TOLERANCE FOR SUSPENDED SEDIMENT SO THEY ARE FOUND MAINLY IN CLEAR
WATER
CARBONATE DEPOSITIONAL SETTINGS
-OST SCLERACTINIANS HAVE THE ABILITY TO l RMLY ATTACH TO SUBSTRATES ALLOWING GROWTH IN HIGH
ENERGY AREAS THUS
THEY ARE MAJOR REEF FRAMEWORK CONTRIBUTORS ESPECIALLY IN -IOCENE TO 2ECENT REEFS ! FEW SCLERACTINIAN
CORALS SUCH AS 3IDERASTREA RADIANS ARE NON
ATTACHED ROLLING FREE ON THE SEA m OOR
:OOXANTHELLATE SCLERACTINIAN CORALS HAVE POLYP TISSUES THAT CONTAIN PHOTOSYNTHETIC DINOm AGELLATE SYMBIONTS
ZOOXANTHELLAE THUS THEY ARE LIMITED TO EUPHOTIC WATERS M IN EXCEPTIONALLY CLEAR WATERS M OR LESS
IN NORMAL WATERS :OOXANTHELLATE CORALS HAVE ROBUST MORPHOLOGIES HEAVILY CALCIl ED SKELETONS AND RAPID
GROWTH RATES AND MOST COMMONLY ARE REEF DWELLING HERMATYPIC FORMS
!ZOOXANTHELLATE OR NONZOOXANTHELLATE SCLERACTINIANS LACK DINOm AGELLATE SYMBIONTS ZOOXANTHELLAE AND THUS CAN
EXTEND FROM WARM PHOTIC SHALLOW
WATER SETTINGS INTO COLD # AND VERY DEEP M APHOTIC WATERS
4HEY TYPICALLY ARE DELICATE LIGHTLY CALCIl ED BRANCHING AHERMATYPIC FORMS THAT GROW AS ISOLATED COLONIES OR
FORM SMALL BIOHERMAL THICKETS
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
-ODERN SCLERACTINIAN CORALS ARE ARAGONITIC AND FOSSIL FORMS BASED ON QUALITY OF PRESERVATION WERE ARAGONITIC AS
WELL
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
4HIS GROUP INCLUDES BOTH SOLITARY AND COLONIAL FORMS #OLONIAL FORMS CAN BE ROBUST AND DOMAL m AT AND ENCRUSTING
OR BRANCHING INTO l NGERS OR PLATES THESE GROWTH FORMS REm ECT SPECIl C ADAPTATIONS TO WAVE ENERGY LIGHT
AVAILABILITY GROWTH RATES OF COMPETITIVE ORGANISMS AND OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
3CLERACTINIAN SKELETONS HAVE WELL DEVELOPED SEPTA THAT ARE GENERALLY ARRANGED IN SIX CYCLES THUS DIVIDING THE
TUBULAR CORALLITES INTO SIX AREAS AND HAVE HEXAMERAL SYMMETRY 4HE DISSEPIMENTS ARE BETTER DESCRIBED AS
hSHELF LIKEv PROVIDING RESTING PLACES FOR THE BASE OF THE POLYP SEEN FORMING SERIES OF THESE SHELVES AS NEW
DISSEPIMENTS ARE FORMED AT THE BASE OF THE POLYP RETRACTING UPWARDS DURING GROWTH 4HESE DISSEPIMENTS ARE
FORMED CENTRIPETALLY AND ARE GENERALLY LABELED AS ENDOTHECAL OR EXOTHECAL DEPENDING ON THEIR POSITION WITHIN
THE CORALLITE WALL ENDOTHECAL OR IN COLONIAL SKELETON BETWEEN CORALLITES EXOTHECAL
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
&OUND AS LARGE SOLITARY OR COLONIAL SKELETONS TYPICALLY CM
SCALE OR LARGER COMMONLY ALSO FOUND AS FRAGMENTED
AND ABRADED GRAINS BECAUSE MANY SCLERACTINIANS LIVE IN HIGH
ENERGY ENVIRONMENTS
!RAGONITIC COMPOSITION MEANS THAT MOST PRE
0LEISTOCENE FOSSIL REMAINS HAVE POORLY PRESERVED SKELETAL
MICROSTRUCTURE 4HOSE SPECIMENS ARE RECOGNIZABLE BY THEIR RADIATING SEPTAL STRUCTURE OFTEN PRESERVED MAINLY
THOUGH INl LLING OF THE LIVING CHAMBERS WITH MICRITE OR MICROCRYSTALLINE CALCITE CEMENT
4HE POOR PRESERVATION OF THE ARAGONITIC SCLERACTINIANS ACTUALLY HELPS TO DISTINGUISH THEM FROM THREE CALCITIC
GROUPS WITH WHICH THEY MIGHT OTHERWISE BE CONFUSED RUGOSE CORALS TABULATE CORALS AND BRYOZOANS
3CLERACTINIAN CORALS PRESERVED AS ARAGONITE ARE KNOWN AS FAR BACK IN THE GEOLOGIC COLUMN AS THE -IDDLE
4RIASSIC 4HEY SHOW EXCELLENT TRABECULAR SEPTAL STRUCTURES l NELY l BROUS ARAGONITE CRYSTALS THAT RADIATE
OUTWARD IN BUNDLES FROM ISOLATED POINT CALCIl CATION CENTERS 4HE CONSTITUENT l BERS TYPICALLY ARE ONLY
M
IN THICKNESS 4HE POINTS FROM WHICH THE l BERS RADIATE COMMONLY LOOK DARKLY GRANULAR AND LINE UP ALONG THE
CENTERLINE OF THE SEPTAL WALLS
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
A diagrammatic view of
scleractinian coral septal structure
! REPRESENTATION OF THE TRABECULAR CRYSTAL STRUC
TURE FOUND IN THE SEPTA OF SCLERACTINIAN CORALS
&INELY l BROUS ARAGONITE CRYSTALS ARE ARRANGED
IN RADIATING BUNDLES TERMED FASCICLES THAT
GROW FROM ISOLATED BUT LINEARLY ARRANGED POINT
CALCIl CATION CENTERS 4HIS PRODUCES A SPLAYED
l BROUS MICROTEXTURE 4HE BIOLOGICALLY GROWN
CRYSTAL l BERS RADIATE OUT FROM THE AXES OF THE
TRABECULAE BUT ARE NOT FULLY RADIAL )N OTHER
WORDS GROWTH IS RADIAL IN THE TRANSVERSE VIEW
BUT EXTENDS UPWARD AND OUTWARD IN A LONGITU
DINAL VIEW 4HE CONSTITUENT CRYSTAL l BERS TYPI
CALLY ARE ONLY
M IN THICKNESS !DAPTED
FROM -AJEWSKE AND (ILL
Recent sediment, Belize
!N 3%- IMAGE OF A BROKEN PORTION OF THE
SCLERACTINIAN CORAL !GARICIA AGARICITES /NE
CAN SEE A RADIATING BUNDLE OF l BROUS ARAGONITE
CRYSTALS TERMED A hFASCICLEv THE BASIC BUILD
ING BLOCK OF TRABECULAR WALL STRUCTURE
3%- (! M
Recent sediment, Grand Cayman,
Cayman Islands. B.W.I.
! MODERN COLONIAL SCLERACTINIAN CORAL PROB
ABLY 3IDERASTREA RADIANS SHOWING COARSE TRA
BECULAR STRUCTURE IN ITS SEPTA .OTE THE SERIES OF
DARK GROWTH CENTERS THAT ARE THE STARTING POINTS
FOR THE GROWTH OF RADIATING ARAGONITE l BER FAS
CICLES ALSO VISIBLE !LTHOUGH THIS ARAGONITIC
FABRIC IS DIAGNOSTIC OF SCLERACTINIAN CORALS IT
RARELY IS PRESERVED IN PRE .EOGENE OR EVEN
PRE 0LEISTOCENE SAMPLES "LUE EPOXY l LLS THE
EMPTY CORALLITES
00, "3% (! MM
CHAPTER 6: CORALS, OCTOCORALS, AND HYDROZOANS
Recent sediment, Grand Cayman,
Cayman Islands. B.W.I.
! CROSS POLARIZED VIEW OF THE SAME MODERN
SCLERACTINIAN CORAL PROBABLY 3IDERASTREA RADI
ANS SHOWN IN THE PREVIOUS PHOTOGRAPH 4HE
RADIATING BUNDLES OF ARAGONITE l BERS FASCICLES
CONSTITUTING TRABECULAE WITHIN SEPTA ARE READILY
VISIBLE 4HE ARAGONITIC SKELETON OF SUCH CORALS
IS RARELY PRESERVED IN POROUS REEF LIMESTONES
OF PRE .EOGENE AGE BUT IS PRESERVED AS SUCH
IN MORE IMPERMEABLE STRATA EVEN IN STRATA AS
OLD AS 4RIASSIC
80, "3% (! MM
Recent sediment, Grand Cayman,
Cayman Islands. B.W.I.
! FURTHER ENLARGED VIEW OF THE WALL OF A
MODERN COLONIAL SCLERACTINIAN CORAL SHOW
ING TRABECULAR SEPTAL STRUCTURE 4HE DETAILS
OF THE l BER FASCICLES ARE VISIBLE AS IS THE LINE
OF MICROCRYSTALLINE GROWTH CENTERS THAT RUNS
DOWN THE AXIS OF EACH SEPTUM
80, "3% (! MM
Recent sediment, Grand Cayman,
Cayman Islands. B.W.I.
! FRAGMENT OF A MODERN COLONIAL SCLERACTINIAN
CORAL 3IDERASTREA RADIANS SHOWING THE TIGHTLY
PACKED ARRANGEMENT OF ADJACENT CORALLITES AND
THE PATTERN OF RADIATING SEPTA 4HE ARAGONITIC
SEPTAL STRUCTURE OF THIS CORAL IS STILL PRISTINE
00, "3% (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Pleistocene Key Largo Ls., Windley
Key, Monroe Co., Florida
"ECAUSE ALL SCLERACTINIAN CORAL SKELETONS ORIGI
NALLY WERE COMPOSED OF ARAGONITE THEY ARE
GENERALLY STRONGLY AFFECTED BY DIAGENESIS EI
THER RELATIVELY RAPIDLY ALTERED DURING SUBAERIAL
OR FRESHWATER DIAGENESIS OR MORE SLOWLY
ALTERED IN MARINE SETTINGS 4HIS SCLERACTINIAN
CORAL $IPLORIA STRIGOSA HAS EXPERIENCED ABOUT
YEARS OF METEORIC DIAGENESIS )T HAS
UNDERGONE SOME DISSOLUTION BUT MOST OF THE
WALL STRUCTURE IS STILL ARAGONITIC
00, (! MM
Pleistocene (120 ky) Coral Rock
Fm., St. Peter Parish, Barbados
4HIS SCLERACTINIAN CORAL PROBABLY 0ORITES
PORITES HAS ALSO UNDERGONE ROUGHLY
YEARS OF METEORIC ALTERATION BUT SUFFERED MORE
EXTENSIVE DISSOLUTION OR NEOMORPHISM OF ITS
ORIGINALLY ARAGONITIC SKELETON 4HE DIFFER
ENCE IN THE DEGREE OF ALTERATION BETWEEN THIS
SAMPLE AND THE PREVIOUS ONE MAY BE RELATED
TO CORAL STRUCTURE 0ORITES HAS AN EXTREMELY
POROUS AND PERMEABLE SKELETON FORMED OF THIN
ELEMENTS THAT ARE EASILY ALTERED WHILE $IPLORIA
HAS MORE SOLID SEPTA AND IS LESS EASILY ALTERED
!N ADDITIONAL FACTORS MAY BE THE VOLUME OF
FRESH WATER THAT HAS CONTACTED THE TWO CORALS A
FUNCTION OF RAINFALL AND PERMEABILITY
00, "3% (! MM
Up. Cretaceous (Maastrichtian?)
limestone, Paxos, Ionian Islands,
Greece
4HIS FRAGMENT OF A ROUGHLY MILLION YEAR OLD
COLONIAL SCLERACTINIAN CORAL HAS BEEN COMPLETE
LY NEOMORPHOSED )T REMAINS QUITE RECOGNIZ
ABLE AS SCLERACTINIAN CORAL MATERIAL HOWEVER
BECAUSE THE SKELETAL OUTLINES HAVE BEEN PRE
SERVED THROUGH INl LLING BY MICRITIC SEDIMENT
MATRIX #OMMONLY SUCH POOR PRESERVATION OF
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF SEPTA AND WALLS CAN BE A
CRITERION FOR RECOGNITION OF SCLERACTINIAN COR
ALS AND HELP TO DISTINGUISH THEIR REMAINS FROM
THOSE OF OTHER CALCITIC GROUPS OF CORALS AND
BRYOZOANS
00, "3% !&E3 (! MM
CHAPTER 6: CORALS, OCTOCORALS, AND HYDROZOANS
Mid. Jurassic (Bajocian) limestone,
Central High Atlas region, Morocco
4HIS PAGE GIVES THREE EXAMPLES OF COMPLETELY
NEOMORPHOSED SCLERACTINIAN CORALS 4HIS SOLI
TARY CORALLITE REMAINS RECOGNIZABLE BECAUSE OF
A COMBINATION OF SEDIMENT INl LL AND MICROBIAL
ENCRUSTATION THE DARK BROWN IRREGULAR COAT
INGS
00, (! MM
Lo. Jurassic (Liassic) limestone,
Central High Atlas region, Morocco
4HIS NEOMORPHOSED COLONY OF l NGER LIKE
SCLERACTINIAN CORALS SHOWS HIGHLY VARIABLE
PRESERVATION OF TWO ADJACENT SPECIMENS )N THE
LEFT HAND SPECIMEN INTERNAL MORPHOLOGY HAS
BEEN PRESERVED PERHAPS THROUGH EARLY CEMEN
TATION 4HE RIGHT HAND SPECIMEN HOWEVER HAS
UNDERGONE LEACHING OF THE SEPTAL STRUCTURES AND
LATER INl LL OF THE PORES BY COARSE CALCITE SPAR
00, !&E3 (! MM
Lo. Jurassic (Liassic) limestone,
Central High Atlas region, Morocco
4HIS l NAL EXAMPLE OF A NEOMORPHOSED GROUP
OF SCLERACTINIAN CORALS SHOWS VERY POOR PRESER
VATION OF STRUCTURE .EVERTHELESS GROSS MOR
PHOLOGICAL PRESERVATION OF SIZE AND SHAPE OF
CORALLITES ALLOWS GENERAL IDENTIl CATION OF THIS
MATERIAL AS BEING OF SCLERACTINIAN ORIGIN
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
/#4/#/2!,3
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
0HYLUM #NIDARIA #LASS !NTHOZOA
3UBCLASS /CTOCORALLIA !LCYONARIA ,ATE 0ROTEROZOIC
2ECENT BUT WITH MANY STRATIGRAPHIC GAPS
/RDER 'ORGONACEA INCLUDING THE SEA WHIPS AND SEA FANS #RETACEOUS
2ECENT
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
4HIS GROUP INCLUDES SEA FANS SEA WHIPS AND SOFT CORALS THAT ARE COMMONLY FOUND ON TROPICAL REEFS )T ALSO INCLUDES
THE ORDER 3TOLONIFERA OR hORGAN
PIPEv CORALS AND THE ORDER (ELIOPORACEAE INCLUDING (ELIOPORA THE hBLUE
CORALv OF THE )NDIAN AND 0ACIl C /CEANS 4HESE ORGANISMS WITH SOME EXCEPTIONS ARE WEAKLY CALCIl ED AND
THUS LEAVE LITTLE RECORD IN REEFS
.ON
ZOOXANTHELLATE FORMS SEA PENS FOR EXAMPLE CAN EXTEND TO GREAT DEPTHS M AND VERY COLD WATERS
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
/CTOCORALS GENERALLY HAVE HIGH
-G CALCITE SPICULES BUT A FEW (OLAXONIA A SUBORDER OF THE 'ORGONACEA HAVE
ARAGONITIC OR MIXED ARAGONITE AND CALCITE COMPONENTS &OSSIL GORGONIAN HOLDFASTS APPARENTLY WERE CALCITIC
PROBABLY HIGH
-G CALCITE 4UBIPORA MUSICA IS HI
-G CALCITE WITH
MOLE -G (ELIOPORA COERULA IS
COMPOSED OF ARAGONITE
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
/CTOCORALS ARE SO NAMED BECAUSE THEY HAVE EIGHT
FOLD SYMMETRY FOR EXAMPLE EACH POLYP IN THE COLONY HAS EIGHT
TENTACLES 4HEY ARE EXCLUSIVELY COLONIAL ANTHOZOANS
-OST OCTOCORALS HAVE TISSUES OF RELATIVELY HARD HORN
LIKE ORGANIC MATERIAL THAT DECOMPOSES AFTER DEATH -ANY
HOWEVER HAVE CALCAREOUS SPICULES SCLERITES CONTAINED WITHIN THEIR ORGANIC TISSUES AND SOME GROUPS PRODUCE
CALCIl ED HOLDFAST STRUCTURES OR LONG SLENDER INTERNAL SUPPORTS THESE CALCAREOUS CONSTITUENTS CAN BE
PRESERVED AS FOSSILS BUT ARE FOUND ONLY RARELY IN THIN SECTION
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
!LCYONARIAN SPICULES SCLERITES ARE SMALL
MM STRAIGHT TO SLIGHTLY CURVED SPINDLE
SHAPED RODS THAT
ARE POINTED AT BOTH ENDS AND ARE COVERED WITH SMALL SPINES OR PROTRUSIONS 4HEY ARE COMMONLY SEEN IN GRAIN
MOUNTS OF MODERN CARBONATE SEDIMENT BUT RARELY ARE RECOGNIZED IN THIN SECTIONS OF ANCIENT ROCKS
-ODERN ALCYONARIAN SPICULES HAVE A DISTINCTLY REDDISH
PURPLE COLOR AND SLIGHTLY UNDULOSE EXTINCTION UNLIKE
HOLOTHURIAN SCLERITES
'ORGONIAN HOLDFASTS HAVE BARREL
LIKE SHAPES AND A DENSE WELL PRESERVED STRUCTURE WITH A RADIALLY
ORIENTED
PLICATED l BROUS FABRIC
4UBIPORA STRICTLY SPEAKING DOES NOT HAVE AN EXOSKELETON BUT RATHER HAS FUSED AND CEMENT COVERED SPICULES
Recent sediment, Florida Keys,
Monroe Co., Florida
!N IMPREGNATED SAMPLE OF A GORGONIAN CORAL
A SEA WHIP SHOWING THE EMBEDDED LENTICU
LAR HIGH -G CALCITE SPICULES SCLERITES .OTE
THE GENERAL LENGTH PARALLEL ORIENTATION OF THE
SCLERITES WITHIN THE ALCYONARIAN TISSUES !
SLIGHT REDDISH PURPLE COLOR IS SEEN IN SOME OF
THE SCLERITES
80, "3% (! MM
CHAPTER 6: CORALS, OCTOCORALS, AND HYDROZOANS
Recent sediment, Florida Keys,
Monroe Co., Florida
! DETAILED VIEW OF ALCYONARIAN CORAL SOFT CORAL
SEA WHIP TISSUES SHOWING THE EMBEDDED HIGH
-G CALCITE SCLERITES WITH THEIR CHARACTERISTIC
REDDISH
PURPLE COLOR 4HESE SCLERITES ARE MAS
SIVE AND LENTICULAR AND HAVE RELATIVELY SMOOTH
EXTERIOR SURFACES 5PON DEATH OF THE ORGANISM
THE ORGANIC TISSUE DECOMPOSES RELEASING THESE
SPICULES AS ISOLATED SEDIMENT GRAINS
00, (! MM
Recent sediment, St. Croix, U.S.
Virgin Islands
3PICULES SCLERITES OF A GORGONIAN AS LOOSE
SEDIMENT PARTICLES 4HESE CALCITIC SCLERITES
HAVE A MORE SLENDER SHAPE WITH MORE PRO
NOUNCED CLUB LIKE SURFACE PROTRUSIONS THAT ARE
CHARACTERISTIC OF MANY SPECIES OF GORGONIANS
0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF ,EE 'ERHARD
080, (! ^ MM
Oligocene-Miocene hiatal surface
atop McDonald Ls., Oamaru,
Otago, New Zealand
4HIS GRAIN HAS BEEN DESCRIBED AS A GORGONIAN
HOLDFAST THAT WAS ATTACHED TO A PHOSPHATIC
HARDGROUND 4HE PARTICLES ARE BARREL
SHAPED
WITH NEARLY RECTANGULAR OUTLINES IN AXIAL SEC
TIONS AND CIRCULAR OUTLINES IN TRANSVERSE SEC
TIONS SUCH AS THIS ONE 4HE WELL PRESERVED
RADIATING PLICATIONS ARE CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES
OF THESE ORIGINALLY CALCITIC GRAINS
00, "3% (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Oligocene-Miocene hiatal surface
atop McDonald Ls., Oamaru,
Otago, New Zealand
5NDER CROSS POLARIZED ILLUMINATION THE RADIAL
PLICATED STRUCTURE OF THIS GORGONIAN HOLDFAST IS
MORE CLEARLY VISIBLE THAN IT IS WITH PLANE POLAR
IZED LIGHTING
80, (! MM
Recent sediment, Pacic region
! LONGITUDINAL CROSS SECTION THROUGH A MODERN
hORGAN PIPEv CORAL 4UBIPORA MUSICA 4HE
SKELETAL REMAINS OF THIS MEMBER OF THE 3TO
LONIFERA CONSIST OF DENSELY PACKED FASCICLES
BUNDLES OF RADIATING l BERS ACTUALLY FUSED
AND CEMENTED
ENCASED SPICULES 4HE RELATIVELY
HIGH CONTENT OF ORGANIC MATTER IN THE SKELETON
GIVES IT A YELLOWISH COLOR IN THIN SECTION AND A
DEEP RED COLOR IN HAND SAMPLE
00, "3% (! MM
Recent sediment, Pacic region
4HE SAME VIEW OF A MODERN ORGAN PIPE CORAL
4UBIPORA MUSICA UNDER CROSS
POLARIZED
ILLUMINATION %VEN THOUGH THIS CORAL BUILDS
LARGE HARD SKELETONS IT IS A MEMBER OF THE
/CTOCORALLIA THE hSOFTv CORALS BECAUSE OF THE
SPICULAR NATURE OF THE SKELETAL MATERIAL QUITE
UNLIKE THE SOLID EXOSKELETONS OF MEMBERS OF
THE 3CLERACTINIA
80, "3% (! MM
CHAPTER 6: CORALS, OCTOCORALS, AND HYDROZOANS
(9$2/:/!.3
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
0HYLUM #NIDARIA #LASS (YDROZOA
/RDER (YDROIDA ,ATE 0ROTEROZOIC
2ECENT BUT WITH MANY STRATIGRAPHIC GAPS
/RDER (YDROCORALLINA INCLUDES THE -ILLEPORINA AND 3TYLASTERINA 4ERTIARY #RETACEOUS
2ECENT
/RDER 3PONGIOMORPHIDA 4RIASSIC
*URASSIC
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
4HIS IS AN EXTREMELY COMPLEX GROUP OF ORGANISMS AND WE WILL ONLY PRESENT A SINGLE MODERN FORM HERE -ILLEPORA
OTHER POSSIBLE HYDROZOANS ARE INCLUDED UNDER h0ROBLEMATICAv -ILLEPORA IS A COMMON FRAMEWORK BUILDER
AND ENCRUSTER IN HIGH
ENERGY UPPER REEF FRONT SETTINGS IN MODERN WARM WATER TROPICAL REEFS -ILLEPORA
TISSUES CONTAIN ZOOXANTHELLAE SO THEY ARE FOUND ONLY IN EUPHOTIC WATER DEPTHS
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
6ARIOUS GROUPS OF MODERN HYDROZOANS HAVE EITHER ARAGONITIC OR CALCITIC SKELETONS -EMBERS OF THE -ILLEPORINA
ARE ARAGONITIC MEMBERS OF THE 3TYLASTERINA ARE PREDOMINANTLY ARAGONITIC WITH SOME POSSIBLE ADMIXTURE OF
CALCITE IN SETTINGS WITH LOW WATER TEMPERATURES
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
-ILLEPORA THE hl RE CORALv GENERALLY HAS l NGER
LIKE TO BLADED VERY HARD AND BRITTLE GROWTH FORMS )T IS DIFFERENT
FROM TRUE CORALS IN THAT ITS CALYCES APPEAR AS MINUTE HOLES WITH NEITHER SEPTA NOR TENTACLES VISIBLE 4HE PORES
ARE DIVIDED INTO TWO FUNCTIONAL CATEGORIES GASTROPORES HOUSE FEEDING POLYPS GASTROZOIDS THAT HAVE FOUR TO
SIX TENTACLES THAT ARE RARELY EMERGENT .UMEROUS SMALLER PORES DACTYLOPORES SURROUND THE GASTROPORES AND
HOUSE THE STINGING CELLS FOR WHICH THE hl RE CORALv IS NAMED
4RIASSIC
*URASSIC SPONGIOMORPHIDS FORMED SUBSTANTIAL COLONIES WITH RADIATING PILLARS THAT ARE JOINED BY HORIZONTAL
BARS !S THEIR NAME IMPLIES THEY CAN APPEAR VERY SIMILAR TO SPONGES ESPECIALLY WHEN POORLY PRESERVED
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
-ILLEPORA HAS NO CENTRAL CUP OR BODY CAVITY
-ILLEPORA HAS A LABYRINTHINE
APPEARING ARAGONITIC WALL STRUCTURE THAT IS PERFORATED WITH NUMEROUS SMALL
PORES WITH TWO DISTINCT SIZE MODES
4HE ARAGONITIC COMPOSITION OF -ILLEPORA MAKES GOOD PRESERVATION OF SKELETAL MICROSTRUCTURE UNLIKELY IN PRE
0LEISTOCENE SAMPLES
Recent sediment, Grand Cayman,
Cayman Islands. B.W.I.
! SECTION SHOWING THE WALL STRUCTURE OF THE
MODERN HYDROZOAN -ILLEPORA ALCICORNIS
.OTE THE CHARACTERISTIC WALL FABRIC CONSISTING
OF A FEW LARGE PORES GASTROPORES SURROUNDED
BY MORE NUMEROUS SMALLER PORES DACTYLO
PORES 4HE PORES HERE HAVE BEEN l LLED WITH
BLUE DYED EPOXY
00, "3% (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Recent sediment, Grand Cayman,
Cayman Islands, B.W.I.
! VIEW OF A SEDIMENTARY FRAGMENT OF THE MOD
ERN HYDROZOAN -ILLEPORA ALCICORNIS WITH SIG
NIl CANT MARINE CEMENTATION IN ITS INTRAPARTICLE
PORES !LTHOUGH SUCH CEMENTATION MAKES
IT MORE DIFl CULT TO RECOGNIZE THE DISTINCTIVE
STRUCTURE OF LARGE PORES SURROUNDED BY SMALL
ONES IT MAY HELP TO PRESERVE THOSE PORES DUR
ING LATER DIAGENESIS
00, (! MM
#ITED 2EFERENCES AND !DDITIONAL )NFORMATION 3OURCES
"AYER & - /CTOCORALLIA IN 2 # -OORE ED 4REATISE ON IN THE 3CLERACTINEA PART DIAGENESIS "ULLETIN 4OHOKU 5NIVERSITY
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OF SKELETAL GROWTH IN THE HEXACORALS 2OYAL 3OCIETY OF 1UEENSLAND *OURNAL OF 0ALEONTOLOGY V P
0ROCEEDINGS V P
3ORAUF * % AND . 0ODOFF 3KELETAL STRUCTURE IN DEEP WATER
&LGEL (7 3KELETTENENTWICKLUNG /NTOGENIE UND &UNKTIONSMOR
AHERMATYPIC CORALS IN 0ROCEEDINGS OF THE ND )NTERNATIONAL 3YMPOSIUM
PHOLOGIE RUGOSER +ORALLEN 0ALONTOLOGISCHE :EITSCHRIFT V P ON #ORALS AND &OSSIL #ORAL 2EEFS 0ARIS -MOIRES DU "UREAU DE
2ECHERCHES 'OLOGIQUES ET -INIRES &RANCE P
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)NVERTEBRATE 0ALEONTOLOGY 0ART & #OELENTERATA 3UPPLEMENT !USTRALIA 0ALAEONTOLOGY V P
'EOLOGICAL 3OCIETY OF !MERICA AND 5NIVERSITY OF +ANSAS 0RESS 3TEHLI & ' 3HELL MINERALOGY IN 0ALEOZOIC INVERTEBRATES 3CIENCE
(ILL $ AND 3TUMM % # 4ABULATA IN 2 # -OORE ED 4REATISE V P
ON )NVERTEBRATE 0ALEONTOLOGY 0ART & #OELENTERATA 'EOLOGICAL 3OCIETY 3TRELNIKOV 3 ) -ICROSTRUCTURE OF SEPTAL SYSTEM IN SOME 3ILURIAN
OF !MERICA AND 5NIVERSITY OF +ANSAS 0RESS P &
&(UDSON 2 TETRACORALS )NTERNATIONAL 'EOLOGY 2EVIEW V P
;4RANSLATED
' 3 4ETHYAN *URASSIC HYDROIDS OF THE FAMILY -ILLEPORIDIIDAE FROM 2USSIAN ARTICLE IN 0ALEONT :HUMAL NO P
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3ULTANBEKOVA : 3 4HE SIGNIl CANCE OF SKELETAL MICROSTRUCTURE FOR
+ATO - &INE SKELETAL STRUCTURES IN 2UGOSA *OURNAL OF THE &ACULTY THE SYSTEMATICS OF ANCIENT STREPTELASMIDS 2UGOSA 0ALEONTOLOGICAL
OF 3CIENCE OF (OKKAIDO 5NIVERSITY 3ERIES P
*OURNAL V P
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RUGOSE CORALS 0ALEOBIOLOGY V P
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7ISE 3 7 *R 3CLERACTINIAN CORAL EXOSKELETONS SURFACE MICRO
3CRUTTON # 4 4HE 0ALAEOZOIC CORALS /RIGINS AND RELATIONSHIPS ARCHITECTURE AND ATTACHMENT SCAR PATTERNS 3CIENCE V P
0ROCEEDINGS OF THE 9ORKSHIRE 'EOLOGICAL 3OCIETY V P
9OUNG ' ! AND 2 * %LIAS 0ATTERNS OF VARIATION IN ,ATE
3CRUTTON # 4 AND " 2 2OSEN #NIDARIA IN * 7 -URRAY !TLAS OF /RDOVICIAN AND %ARLY 3ILURIAN TABULATE CORALS "OLETIN 2EAL 3OCIEDAD
)NVERTEBRATE -ACROFOSSILS .EW 9ORK *OHN 7ILEY 3ONS P
%SPAOLA DE (ISTORIA .ATURAL 3ECCION 'EOLOGICA V P
3ORAUF * % 3KELETAL MICROSTRUCTURE AND MICROARCHITECTURE IN
3CLERACTINIA #OELENTERATA 0ALAEONTOLOGY V P
3ORAUF * % "IOCRYSTALLIZATION MODELS AND SKELETAL STRUCTURE OF
0HANEROZOIC CORALS IN ' $ 3TANLEY *R ED 'EOLOGICAL 3OCIETY OF
& ACING 0AGE 4OP
5NDERWATER VIEW OF BRANCHING BRYOZOAN
COLONIES THE FAWN
GREEN hBUSHESv M WATER DEPTH 4HREE
+INGS PLATFORM NORTHERN .EW :EALAND 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF
!MERICA ANNUAL MEETING V 4HE 0ALEONTOLOGICAL 3OCIETY P
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3ORAUF * % 3KELETAL MICROSTRUCTURE GEOCHEMISTRY AND ORGANIC "OTTOM
"RYOZOAN
RICH GRAVEL
SIZED FRACTION OF (OLOCENE SKEL
REMNANTS IN #RETACEOUS SCLERACTINIAN COALS 3ANTONIAN 'OSAU BEDS OF ETAL CARBONATE SEDIMENT M WATER DEPTH 4HREE +INGS PLATFORM
'OSAU !USTRIA *OURNAL OF 0ALEONTOLOGY V P
NORTHERN .EW :EALAND 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF #AMPBELL 3 .EL
3ORAUF * % AND #UIF *
0 "IOMINERALIZATION AND DIAGENESIS SON AND 2OGER 6 'RACE
'2!).3 3KELETAL &RAGMENTS
BRYOZOANS
C
H
A
P
T
E
R
7
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
"29/:/!.3
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
0HYLUM "RYOZOA
3UBPHYLUM %NTOPROCTA -IDDLE #AMBRIAN ,ATE *URASSIC
2ECENT
3UBPHYLUM %CTOPROCTA
#LASS 0HYLACTOLAEMATA -IDDLE *URASSIC
2ECENT
#LASS 'YMNOLAEMATA %ARLY /RDOVICIAN
2ECENT DOMINATES -ESOZOIC
2ECENT
/RDER #TENOSTOMIDA %ARLY /RDOVICIAN
2ECENT
/RDER #HEILOSTOMIDA ,ATE *URASSIC
2ECENT
#LASS 3TENOLAEMATA %ARLY /RDOVICIAN
2ECENT DOMINATES /RDOVICIAN
0ERMIAN
/RDER #YCLOSTOMIDA %ARLY /RDOVICIAN
2ECENT
/RDER #YSTOPORIDA %ARLY /RDOVICIAN
,ATE 4RIASSIC
/RDER 4REPOSTOMIDA %ARLY /RDOVICIAN
,ATE 4RIASSIC
/RDER #RYPTOSTOMIDA %ARLY /RDOVICIAN
,ATE 4RIASSIC
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
"RYOZOANS ARE SESSILE l LTER
FEEDING ORGANISMS WITH A WIDE SALINITY TOLERANCE MOST ARE MARINE BUT A FEW SPECIES
FROM THE %NTOPROCTA 0HYLACTOLAEMATA AND #TENOSTOMIDA INHABIT FRESH WATER AND A FEW OTHERS FROM THE
#HEILOSTOMIDA ARE FOUND IN BRACKISH
WATER ENVIRONMENTS
"RYOZOANS HAVE WIDE LATITUDINAL TROPICAL TO POLAR TEMPERATURE AND DEPTH RANGES TO KM 4HEY CAN BE THE
MAIN CONSTITUENTS IN -ESOZOIC AND #ENOZOIC TEMPERATE
AND COLD
WATER SHELF CARBONATES AS WELL AS IN DEEPER
SHELF AND SLOPE SETTINGS IN THE 0ALEOZOIC THEY WERE MORE CONSPICUOUS IN TROPICAL TO SUBTROPICAL HABITATS
-ANY BRYOZOANS REQUIRE A l RM SUBSTRATE ON WHICH TO ENCRUST SOME ARE FREE LIVING AND OTHERS HAVE ROOTS
EXTENDING INTO SANDY SUBSTRATES -ASSIVE AND ENCRUSTING VARIETIES ARE FOUND IN HIGH
ENERGY ENVIRONMENTS
DELICATE ERECT VARIETIES ARE INDICATIVE OF LOW
ENERGY ENVIRONMENTS
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
%NTOPROCT BRYOZOANS ARE SOFT BODIED AND THEREFORE ARE RARELY PRESERVED
-OST ECTOPROCT BRYOZOAN ZOOECIAL WALLS ARE COMPOSED OF CALCITE USUALLY LOW
-G CALCITE A FEW CONSIST OF HIGH
-G
CALCITE AND OTHERS ARE PARTIALLY ARAGONITIC 3OME SPECIES HAVE CHITINOUS OR GELATINOUS WALLS
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
"RYOZOANS ARE COLONIAL POLYP
LIKE LOPHOPHORATE INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS THAT ARE DISTINGUISHED BY THEIR 5
SHAPED
DIGESTIVE TRACK %NTOPROCT BRYOZOANS HAVE AN ANAL OPENING INSIDE THEIR CIRCLE OF TENTACLES ECTOPROCT BRYOZOANS
ARE CHARACTERIZED BY HAVING AN ANAL OPENING OUTSIDE OR BELOW THE TENTACLES
%ACH ZOOID INHABITS A HARDENED EXOSKELETON ZOOECIUM AND FORMS ENCRUSTING THREAD
LIKE OR SHEET
LIKE MASSIVE
NODULAR HEMISPHERICAL RAMOSE BIFOLIATE FENESTRATE OR TUFT
LIKE COLONIES
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
"RYOZOANS ARE COLONIAL ORGANISMS WITH FULL COLONIES RANGING IN SIZE FROM MM UP TO CMS
)NDIVIDUAL ZOOECIA TYPICALLY ARE LESS THAN MM IN DIAMETER AND LENGTH
:OOECIAL WALL STRUCTURES CONSIST OF LAMINAR FOLIATED OR GRANULAR CRYSTALS OF CALCIUM CARBONATE
#HEILOSTOMES HAVE A REGULAR BOX
LIKE TO RANDOM ARRANGEMENT OF ZOOECIA ZOOECIAL WALLS ARE COMPOSED OF
CALCITE OR MIXED CALCITE
ARAGONITE :OOECIA USUALLY DO NOT CONTAIN DIAPHRAGMS PARTITIONS
3TENOLAEMATES HAVE ELONGATE TUBULAR ZOOECIA
s #YCLOSTOMES HAVE VERY ELONGATE ZOOECIA :OOECIAL WALLS ARE VERY THIN l NELY GRANULAR TO THINLY LAMINATED
AND MAY CONTAIN SMALL PORES INTERZOOECIAL PORES 'ROWTH HABITS ARE VARIED ENCRUSTING BRANCHING DISKS
$IAPHRAGMS PARTITIONS ARE UNCOMMON
s #YSTOPORIDA HAVE THIN
WALLED SHORT TO LONG ZOOECIA :OOECIA MAY CONTAIN DIAPHRAGMS #ERAMOPORINA
HAVE LONG EMPTY TUBES EXILAPORES PARALLEL TO ZOOECIA 7ALLS ARE LAMINATED AND CONTAIN INTERZOOECIAL PORES
&ISTULIPORINA CONTAIN BUBBLE
LIKE PORES CYSTOPORES BETWEEN ZOOECIA 7ALL STRUCTURE IS GRANULAR TO MASSIVE
CHAPTER 7: BRYOZOANS
s 4REPOSTOMES HAVE LONG SLENDER ZOOECIA AND CAN FORM LARGE BRANCHING TO NODULAR MASSES 4HE CENTRAL
ZOOECIAL WALLS ARE THIN AND FUSED TOGETHER 4OWARDS THE EXTERIOR ZOOECIAL WALLS THICKEN SIGNIl CANTLY -AY
CONTAIN SMALL TUBES MESOPORES BETWEEN ZOOECIA AND DIAPHRAGMS WITHIN OR BETWEEN ZOOECIA 7ELL
DEVELOPED
WALL LAMINATION -AY HAVE LOW SPINES ACANTHORODS THAT IN TANGENTIAL SECTIONS APPEAR AS CIRCULAR STRUCTURES
s #RYPTOSTOMES HAVE SHORT TUBES THAT FORM DELICATE COLONIES :OOECIAL WALLS ARE WELL LAMINATED THINNER IN THE
CENTER AND BECOMING THICKER OUTWARD -ANY ZOOECIUM ARE EMPTY EXCEPT FOR A SINGLE DIAPHRAGM THOSE MAY
PARTIALLY CROSS THE ZOOECIUM 2HABDOMESINA OR RHOMBOPOROID BRYOZOANS FORM SLENDER CYLINDRICAL BRANCHES
ZOOECIA RADIATE OUTWARD FROM THE LONG AXIS 4HEY HAVE COMPLETE ANDOR PARTIAL DIAPHRAGMS 4ANGENTIAL CUTS
MAY HAVE ACANTHORODS THAT VARY IN SIZE 0TILODICTYINA BRYOZOANS BIFOLIATES FORM THIN m AT BRANCHES THAT
EXHIBIT BILATERAL SYMMETRY ALONG A PLANE &ENESTRINA BRYOZOANS FORM MESH
LIKE FRONDS THAT CONTAIN A SINGLE
LAYER OF ZOOECIA :OOECIA MAY APPEAR LINEAR AND UNCONNECTED IN SOME SECTIONS
4HE MAIN DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BRYOZOANS AND CORALS ARE THE TYPICALLY SMALLER SIZE OF BRYOZOAN COLONIES AND
INDIVIDUAL LIVING CHAMBERS AND THE OUTWARD THICKENING OF BRYOZOAN LIVING CHAMBER ZOOECIAL WALLS 5NLIKE
RED ALGAE OR CORALS BRYOZOANS HAVE ACANTHORODS AND MESOPORES
0(/4/ 3#!,%3 !.$ !""2%6)!4)/.3 !2% %80,!).%$ ). 4(% "//+3 ).42/$5#4)/.
Morphologic features of bryozoans
! DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING THE COMMON MORPHO
LOGIC FEATURES OF BRYOZOANS 4HESE ELEMENTS
MAY OR MAY NOT BE PRESENT IN ALL BRYOZOANS
4REPOSTOMES ARE THE ONLY GROUP IN WHICH SPEC
IMENS ROUTINELY SHOW ALL OF THESE FEATURES 4HE
DIAGRAM IS MODIl ED FROM -OORE ET AL
AND OTHER SOURCES
Oligocene Nile Gp., Karamea,
Westland, New Zealand
)N THIS BRYOZOAN RICH TEMPERATE WATER LIME
STONE A VARIETY OF COMMON BRYOZOAN GROWTH
HABITS ARE VISIBLE ENCRUSTERS SHEETS BRANCHES
RAMOSE AND FENESTRATE 4HESE SPECIMENS ARE
CHEILOSTOME AND CYCLOSTOME BRYOZOANS
00, "3% (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Ordovician (Cincinnatian)
Fairview Fm., Hamilton Co., Ohio
!NOTHER GROWTH FORM COMMON TO BRYOZOANS
THESE HEMISPHERICAL MOUNDS WITH A FEW
CENTIMETERS OF RELIEF WERE FORMED BY SEV
ERAL GENERATIONS OF ENCRUSTING BRYOZOANS 4HIS
BRYOZOAN EXHIBITS THE TYPICAL PORE STRUCTURE OF
l STULIPOROIDS ORDER #YSTOPORIDA
00, (! MM
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Capitan
Fm., Eddy Co., New Mexico
-OST BRYOZOANS REQUIRE A HARD SUBSTRATE
ON WHICH TO ATTACH (ERE A POSSIBLE
l STULIPOROID BRYOZOAN HAS ATTACHED TO EARLY
SYNSEDIMENTARY MARINE CEMENTS WITHIN THE
SPONGE ALGAL REEF OF THE #APITAN COMPLEX
00, (! MM
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
4REPOSTOME BRYOZOANS COMMONLY FORMED
LARGE BRANCHING OR RAMOSE MASSES )N ,ATE
0ALEOZOIC CARBONATES TREPOSTOMES ALONG
WITH FENESTRATE BRYOZOANS WERE THE DOMI
NANT FRAMEWORK CONTRIBUTORS IN MANY LARGE
BIOHERMAL MOUNDS 4HESE MOUNDS REACHED
SEVERAL TENS OF METERS OF SYNOPTIC RELIEF AND
THE CROSS SECTIONAL DIAMETERS OF THE MOUNDS
COULD REACH NEARLY A KILOMETER 4HIS IS THE TIP
OF A TREPOSTOME BRYOZOAN BRANCH AND IT SHOWS
A SLIGHTLY OBLIQUE CUT THROUGH THE LONG AXIS OF
THE COLONY
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 7: BRYOZOANS
Mississippian (Tournaisian-Visean)
Waulsortian Ls., Co. Dublin, Ireland
&ENESTRATE BRYOZOANS FORMED UPRIGHT FAN OR
CONE SHAPED COLONIES WITH A COARSE LATTICE
LIKE APPEARANCE AND CAN BE UP TO A FEW TENS
OF CENTIMETERS TALL &ENESTRATE BRYOZOANS CAN
BE REMARKABLY INCONSPICUOUS IN THIN SECTION
BECAUSE CUTS THROUGH PILES OF THESE WINDOW
SCREEN LIKE GRAINS CAN HAVE CLOSE TO
POROSITY ONLY A FEW hWIRESv IN EACH hSCREENv
ARE CUT 4HIS FENESTRATE BRYOZOAN BIOSPARITE
DESPITE ITS APPEARANCE IS ACTUALLY A GRAIN SUP
PORTED ROCK 4HE LARGE FENESTRATE BRYOZOANS
&ENESTELLA SP ARE SURROUNDED BY RADIAL l
BROUS TO BLADED SPARRY MARINE CALCITE CEMENTS
00, (! MM
Pleistocene Key Largo Ls., Dade
Co., Florida
#HEILOSTOMES ARE THE DOMINANT CLASS OF
BRYOZOANS IN MODERN CARBONATE SEDIMENTS
#HEILOSTOMES TYPICALLY HAVE THICK ZOOECIAL
WALLS AND A REGULAR BOX LIKE ARRANGEMENT OF
THEIR ZOOECIA 4HIS IS A SPECIMEN OF 3CHIZO
PORELLA ERRATA AN ENCRUSTING CHEILOSTOME THAT
FORMS NODULAR OR ROBUSTLY BRANCHING COLONIES
-ANY OF THE ZOOECIA ARE l LLED WITH BLOCKY
CALCITE CEMENTS
00, (! MM
Pleistocene Key Largo Ls., Dade
Co., Florida
! CLOSE UP VIEW OF THE PREVIOUS SPECIMENS
3CHIZOPORELLA ERRATA ZOOECIA .OTE THE
REGULAR BOXLIKE ARRANGEMENT OF ZOOECIA AND
THE THICKENED WALL STRUCTURE BETWEEN SUC
CESSIVE GENERATIONS 4HE COMPLEX ZOOECIAL
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SUCCESSIVE GENERATIONS
SHOW ZOOECIA FORMING AND PINCHING OUT DURING
GROWTH BUT AN OVERALL BOX LIKE ARRANGEMENT IS
MAINTAINED
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Oligocene Nile Gp., Karamea,
Westland, New Zealand
5NLIKE THE BRYOZOANS SHOWN IN THE PREVI
OUS TWO PHOTOMICROGRAPHS THIS CHEILOSTOME
BRYOZOAN FORMS DELICATE BRANCHES 4HIS
TRANSVERSE CUT THROUGH A BRANCH SHOWS THE
EMPTY ZOOECIA THAT ARE TYPICAL OF CHEILOSTOMES
3OME ZOOECIA ARE PARTIALLY l LLED WITH PRECIPI
TATED PHOSPHATIC MATERIAL OTHERS HAVE INl LLS
OF MICRITE CONTAINING BOTH CARBONATE AND
TERRIGENOUS CLASTIC GRAINS
00, !&E3 (! MM
Oligocene Nile Gp., Karamea,
Westland, New Zealand
4HIS CHEILOSTOME BRYOZOAN ENCRUSTS A BIVALVE
OYSTER SHELL FRAGMENT 4HE TRANSVERSE CUT
THROUGH THIS SPECIMEN DOES NOT EXHIBIT AN OR
DERLY BOX
LIKE ARRANGEMENT
00, "3% (! MM
Oligocene Nile Gp., Karamea,
Westland, New Zealand
4HIS LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH A CYCLOSTOME
A CERIOPOROID BRYOZOAN BRANCH EXHIBITS SOME
OF THE TYPICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CYCLOSTOMES
VERY ELONGATED ZOOECIA THIN ZOOECIAL WALLS
AND NO DIAPHRAGMS
00, !&E3 (! MM
CHAPTER 7: BRYOZOANS
Oligocene Nile Gp., Karamea,
Westland, New Zealand
! TRANSVERSE SECTION THROUGH A CERIOPOROID
CYCLOSTOME BRYOZOAN .EAR THE CENTER OF THE
COLONY THE ZOOECIA APPEAR SMALLER THAN AT THE
EDGE BECAUSE THE ZOOECIA BEND FROM THE CENTER
OF THE COLONY OUTWARD THUS NEAR THE EDGE OF
THE SAMPLE THE ZOOECIAL WALLS ARE NEARLY NOR
MAL TO THE EXTERIOR WALL
00, "3% (! MM
Oligocene Nile Gp., Karamea,
Westland, New Zealand
4HIS LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH A CERIOPOROID
CYCLOSTOME BRYOZOAN COLONY SHOWS ELONGATE
EMPTY ZOOECIA 4HE LARGE HOLES IN THE STRUCTURE
ARE POSSIBLY OVICELLS SHELTER CHAMBERS USED
BY DEVELOPING LARVAE !LTERNATIVELY THEY MAY
BE TUNNELS OR BORINGS CUT BY WORMS OR ARTHRO
PODS LIVING INSIDE THE BRYOZOAN COLONY
00, "3% (! MM
Oligocene Thomas Fm.,
Canterbury, New Zealand
! TRANSVERSE SECTION THROUGH A CYCLOSTOME
BRYOZOAN BRANCH LIKE THE PREVIOUS SAMPLE
HAS LARGE PORES THAT ARE POSSIBLE OVICELLS OR
BORINGS .OTE THE GRANULAR OR BLOCKY NATURE
OF THE ZOOECIAL WALLS A TYPICAL FEATURE OF
CYCLOSTOMES 4HE VERY LARGE PORE IN THE LOWER
HALF OF BRYOZOAN MAY HAVE BEEN ENLARGED BY
BORING ORGANISMS
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Mid. Ordovician Mingan-Chazyan
Ls., Mingan Islands, Quebec,
Canada
4HIS CERAMOPOROID BRYOZOAN BOUNDSTONE DE
PICTS BOTH TRANSVERSE LOWER AND LONGITUDINAL
UPPER CROSS SECTIONS THROUGH THE ENCRUSTING
ORGANISMS 4HE SPECIMEN IS #HEILOPORELLA
SP AND IT EXHIBITS A THIN l NELY CRYSTALLINE
WALL STRUCTURE THAT LACKS DIAPHRAGMS WITHIN
THE ZOOECIA 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF 2OGER
* #UFFEY
00, (! MM
Morphology of typical stuliporoid
bryozoans
! BLOCK DIAGRAM SHOWING LONGITUDINAL TAN
GENTIAL AND TRANSVERSE SECTIONS THROUGH A
TYPICAL l STULIPOROID BRYOZOAN &ISTULIPOROIDS
GENERALLY ARE AMONG THE EASIER BRYOZOANS TO
IDENTIFY IN THIN SECTION BECAUSE OF THE LARGE
ZOOECIA SURROUNDED BY NUMEROUS SMALL BUB
BLE LIKE CYSTOPORES 4HE DIAGRAM IS MODIl ED
FROM 7ARNER AND #UFFEY
Up. Ordovician (Cincinnatian)
Fairview Fm., Hamilton Co., Ohio
4HIS IS AN EXAMPLE OF AN ENCRUSTING l STULIPOROID
BRYOZOAN "ECAUSE OF ITS NODULAR SHAPE A VA
RIETY OF ORIENTATIONS ARE VISIBLE IN THIS SAMPLE
OF &ISTULIPORA SP 4HIS PROVIDES AN EXAMPLE
OF TYPICAL l STULIPOROID STRUCTURE WITH LARGE
ELONGATE ZOOECIA CONTAINING DIAPHRAGMS THE
ZOOECIA ARE SEPARATED BY SMALLER CYSTOPORES
&ISTULIPORIDS CAN FORM LARGE IRREGULAR MASSES
OR NODULES
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 7: BRYOZOANS
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
4HIS THIN SECTION PHOTOMICROGRAPH IS A TAN
GENTIAL TO TRANSVERSE SECTION THROUGH A BRANCH
OF A l STULIPOROID BRYOZOAN 7ITHIN THE LARGER
ELONGATE ZOOECIA SOME PARTITIONS ARE VISIBLE
4HE CYSTOPORES AND ZOOECIA ARE l LLED WITH A
SLIGHTLY FERROAN CALCITE CEMENT 4HIS BRYOZOAN
BIOSPARITE IS FROM THE m ANK FACIES OF A DEEP
WATER BIOHERM
00, !&E3 "3% (! MM
Mid. Permian (Leonardian) Skinner
Ranch Fm., Glass Mountains,
Texas
! LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH A BRANCH OF A
l STULIPOROID BRYOZOAN POSSIBLY -EEKOPORA
SP 4HE EXTERIOR SURFACE CONSISTS OF SOLID SKEL
ETAL CALCITE PUNCTUATED WITH LARGE ZOOECIA AND
SURROUNDING SMALL CYSTOPORES )N -EEKOPORA
THE SOLID EXTERIOR PORTION DEVELOPS SECONDARILY
AS THE BRYOZOAN POLYPS DEPOSIT SKELETAL CALCITE
THAT l LLS THE BUBBLE LIKE CYSTOPORES THAT WERE
PRODUCED DURING INITIAL GROWTH
00, (! MM
Mid.-Up. Permian (Leonardian-
Guadalupian) Road Canyon Fm.,
Glass Mountains, Texas
4HIS IS A TRANSVERSE SECTION THROUGH AN
ENCRUSTING l STULIPOROID BRYOZOAN PROB
ABLY &ISTULIPORA SP 4HIS THIN SECTION PHO
TOMICROGRAPH SHOWS WELL PRESERVED ZOOECIA
CONTAINING DIAPHRAGMS THE THIN LINES
OF MICROCRYSTALLINE CARBONATE CROSSING THE
ZOOECIA 4HE ZOOECIA ARE SEPARATED BY NUMER
OUS SMALL CYSTOPORES
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Bell
Canyon Fm., Rader Ls. Mbr.,
Culberson Co., Texas
4HIS LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH &ISTULIPORA
SP A l STULIPOROID BRYOZOAN HAS WELL PRE
SERVED ZOOECIA CONTAINING A FEW DIAPHRAGMS
SEPARATED BY NUMEROUS CYSTOPORES 4HE
ZOOECIA ARE LARGELY l LLED WITH CALCITE CEMENT
00, (! MM
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Bell
Canyon Fm., Rader Ls. Mbr.,
Culberson Co., Texas
4HIS TANGENTIAL SECTION THROUGH &ISTULIPORA SP
SHOWS WELL PRESERVED LARGE CIRCULAR ZOOECIA
SURROUNDED BY NUMEROUS SMALLER CYSTOPORES
4HE ZOOECIA ARE PARTIALLY l LLED WITH SPARRY
CALCITE CEMENT WHEREAS THE CYSTOPORES ARE
COMPLETELY SPAR l LLED
00, (! MM
Morphology of typical trepostome
bryozoans
4REPOSTOME BRYOZOANS RANGE FROM BRANCH
ING TO ENCRUSTING COLONIES )N THIN SECTION
SOME KEY ELEMENTS TO HELP IN THE IDENTIl CA
TION OF TREPOSTOMES INCLUDE ZOOECIAL WALLS
THAT THICKEN AND BEND OUTWARD THE PRES
ENCE OF MESOPORES AND ACANTHORODS NEITHER
SHOWN ON DIAGRAM AND COMMON TO ABUNDANT
DIAPHRAGMS IN THE ZOOECIA $IAGRAM MODIl ED
FROM "OARDMAN AND #HEETHAM
CHAPTER 7: BRYOZOANS
Up. Ordovician (Cincinnatian)
Fairview Fm., Hamilton Co., Ohio
! TRANSVERSE SECTION THROUGH A TREPOSTOME
BRYOZOAN COLONY 4HE ZOOECIA IN THE EXOZONE
CONTAIN NUMEROUS DIAPHRAGMS THAT ARE CHAR
ACTERISTIC OF TREPOSTOMES .OTE THE EXCELLENT
PRESERVATION AND THE l NE LAMINATION WITHIN THE
ZOOECIAL WALL STRUCTURE /THER COMMON FEA
TURES OF TREPOSTOME BRYOZOANS THAT ARE PRESENT
IN THIS PHOTOMICROGRAPH ARE MESOPORES NAR
ROWER PORES WITH MORE NUMEROUS DIAPHRAGMS
THAN THE ZOOECIA ACANTHORODS SEE NEXT PHOTO
GRAPH EMBEDDED IN THE ZOOECIAL WALLS AND THE
THICKENING OF THE ZOOECIAL WALLS OUTWARD
00, (! MM
Up. Permian (Umian?) Schuchert
Dal Ss., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
4HIS TRANSVERSE SECTION OF A TREPOSTOME
BRYOZOAN BRANCH SHOWS DETAILS OF THE ZOOECIAL
WALLS 4HE ZOOECIA IN THIS SPECIMEN HAVE ONLY
A FEW PRESERVED DIAPHRAGMS BUT EMBEDDED
WITHIN THE ZOOECIAL WALLS ARE ACANTHORODS
!CANTHORODS ARE VERY SMALL THIN CALCITE RODS
THE WALLS OF WHICH EXTEND BEYOND THE EXTERIOR
OF THE BRYOZOAN AS PROJECTING SPINES )N THIS
VIEW THE SURROUNDING ACANTHOROD WALLS DISTURB
OR DEm ECT THE REST OF ZOOECIAL WALL FABRIC FORM
ING A hHIGHv OR BEND IN THE WALL STRUCTURE BOTH
INTERNALLY AND EXTERNALLY
00, !&E3 "3% (! MM
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
4RANSVERSE CROSS SECTIONS THROUGH TWO
TREPOSTOME BRYOZOAN FRAGMENTS FROM THE
m ANK FACIES OF A DEEP WATER BIOHERM 4HESE
BRYOZOANS HAVE FEW DIAPHRAGMS IN THE ZOOECIA
BUT ACANTHORODS ARE PRESENT 4HE ZOOECIA ARE
WELL PRESERVED BECAUSE THEY WERE l LLED EARLY
WITH A COMBINATION OF NON FERROAN MARINE CAL
CITE CEMENTS AND GLAUCONITE BLOCKY FERROAN
CALCITE CEMENT l LLED THE REMAINING VOIDS DUR
ING DEEPER BURIAL
00, !&E3 "3% (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Ordovician (Cincinnatian)
Fairview Fm., Hamilton Co., Ohio
! LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH A TREPOSTOME
BRYOZOAN BRANCH POSSIBLY (ETEROTRYPA SP
4HE ZOOECIA CONTAIN NUMEROUS DIAPHRAGMS A
CHARACTERISTIC OF TREPOSTOMES .OTE THE EXCEL
LENT PRESERVATION AND l NELY l BROUS LAMINATION
OF THE WALLS SHOWING THE OUTWARD THICKENING
OF ZOOECIAL WALLS /THER COMMON TREPOSTOME
BRYOZOAN FEATURES VISIBLE IN THIS EXAMPLE ARE
ACANTHORODS EMBEDDED IN THE ZOOECIAL WALLS
THE LIGHT LINES AND A FEW MESOPORES ! PART
OF THE INTERIOR ENDOZONE OF THE BRYOZOAN WAS
DESTROYED BY BORING OR LATER DIAGENESIS BROWN
l NELY CRYSTALLINE CALCITE AT RIGHT
00, (! MM
Mid. Ordovician Black River Gp.,
Lowville Fm., Kingston, Ontario,
Canada
4HIS VIEW SHOWS A VARIETY OF CROSS SECTIONS
THROUGH TREPOSTOME BRYOZOAN BRANCHES IN A
BRYOZOAN RUDSTONE 4HE BRYOZOANS IN THIS
EXAMPLE ARE WELL PRESERVED PROBABLY DUE
TO EARLY CEMENTATION AND CONTAIN ZOOECIA
WITH NUMEROUS DIAPHRAGMS AND ABUNDANT
MESOPORES 3AMPLE FROM .OEL 0 *AMES
00, !3 (! MM
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
! TANGENTIAL SECTION THROUGH A TREPOSTOME
BRYOZOAN SHOWING THE PLACEMENT OF
ACANTHORODS AT THE CORNERS OF MOST OF THE
ZOOECIA !LONG THE EDGES OF THIS BRYOZOAN
FRAGMENT SMALL MESOPORES ALSO ARE VISIBLE
4HE SMALLER OPENINGS THAT LOOK SIMILAR TO THE
ZOOECIA ARE EITHER MESOPORES OR EARLY STAGES
OF FULL m EDGED ZOOECIA hBABYv ZOOECIA CAN
BE DIFl CULT TO DISTINGUISH FROM MESOPORES IN
SOME CASES
00, !&E3 (! MM
CHAPTER 7: BRYOZOANS
Up. Silurian Tonoloway-Keyser Ls.,
Mifin Co., Pennsylvania
! TREPOSTOME BRYOZOAN WITH ACANTHORODS AND
A FEW MESOPORES )F YOU LOOK CLOSELY YOU CAN
SEE A FEW PRESERVED DIAPHRAGMS IN THE ZOOECIA
NEAR THE TOP OF THE SPECIMEN $IAPHRAGMS CAN
BE DESTROYED PRIOR TO DIAGENESIS IF THE CLAST IS
TRANSPORTED AND ABRADED
00, (! MM
Pennsylvanian Graham Fm., Young
Co., Texas
! TRANSVERSE SECTION THROUGH A BRANCH OF
A RHABDOMESIDRHOMBOPOROID
BRYOZOAN
-EGACANTHOPORA SP 2HABDOMESID BRYOZOANS
CAN BE QUITE DIFl CULT TO DIFFERENTIATE FROM
TREPOSTOME BRYOZOANS AS A RESULT OF CONVERGENT
EVOLUTION )F THE EXTERNAL PORES FORM A RHOMBIC
SURFACE PATTERN THEN THE SAMPLE IS LIKELY TO BE
A RHABDOMESID )N THIS EXAMPLE THE WALLS ARE
WELL LAMINATED AND CONTAIN ACANTHORODS BUT NO
MESOPORES MESOPORES ARE LACKING IN MANY
RHABDOMESIDS
00, (! MM
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
! TRANSVERSE SECTION OF A POSSIBLE RHABDOMESID
RHOMBOPOROID OR THIN
BRANCHING TREPOSTOME
BRYOZOAN 4HE ZOOECIAL WALLS ARE WELL LAMI
NATED AND CONTAIN ACANTHORODS THAT ARE CLEARLY
VISIBLE IN THIS SPECIMEN
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
! TANGENTIAL CROSS SECTION THROUGH A POSSIBLE
RHABDOMESIDRHOMBOPOROID
BRYOZOAN 3UCH
BRYOZOANS COMMONLY CONTAIN ACANTHORODS BUT
UNLIKE TREPOSTOMES THEY MAY VARY GREATLY IN
SIZE .OTE THE WALL STRUCTURE AND ACANTHORODS
THAT ARE PRESERVED IN THIS SPECIMEN
00, (! MM
Mid. Ordovician Coburn Ls.,
Pennsylvania
! TRANSVERSE SECTION THROUGH A 0TILODICTY
INA BRYOZOAN 3TICTOPORA FENESTRATA 4HESE
BRYOZOANS ARE MORE COMMONLY CALLED
BIFOLIATES BECAUSE OF THEIR BI LATERAL SYMME
TRY 4HEY FORM m ATTENED BRANCHES AND HAVE
ZOOECIAL WALLS THAT ARE LAMINATED AND THICKEN
OUTWARD 0HOTOMICROGRAPH COURTESY OF 2OGER
* #UFFEY
00, (! MM
Mid. Ordovician Coburn Ls.,
Pennsylvania
! LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH THE SAME
SPECIES AS IN THE PREVIOUS PHOTOMICROGRAPH
3TICTOPORA FENESTRATA 4HE ZOOECIA ARE USU
ALLY SHORT AND FORM FROM A PLANE EXTENDING
THROUGH THE CENTER OF THE COLONY .OTE HOW THE
ZOOECIAL WALLS THICKEN OUTWARD 0HOTOGRAPH
COURTESY OF 2OGER * #UFFEY
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 7: BRYOZOANS
Morphology of fenestrate
bryozoans
&ENESTRATE BRYOZOANS UNLIKE OTHER BRYOZOANS
HAVE ZOOECIA THAT ALL FACE OUTWARD IN A SINGLE
DIRECTION 4HE ZOOECIAL WALLS CAN BE EX
TREMELY THICK LAMINATED TO FOLIATED CONTAIN
ACANTHORODS AND FORM SPINE
LIKE PROTRUSIONS
NEAR THE ZOOECIAL APERTURE 7HEN SEEN IN THIN
SECTION THESE SPINES APPEAR TO BE STAR
LIKE
MASSES OF l NELY CRYSTALLINE CALCITE 4HE OPEN
SPACES ENCLOSED BY THE VERTICALLY EXTENDING
BRANCHES CONTAINING ZOOECIA AND THE SOLID
CROSS BARS TERMED DISSEPIMENTS ARE KNOWN AS
FENESTRULES -ODIl ED FROM -AJEWSKE
PLATE
Mississippian Chester Gp.,
Fayetteville Sh., Vinita, Oklahoma
! TANGENTIAL SECTION THROUGH THE FENESTRATE
BRYOZOAN !RCHIMEDES COMMUNIS 5LRICH
-OST FENESTRATE BRYOZOANS FORM FAN SHAPED
OR SIMPLE CONE SHAPE COLONIES BUT !RCHIME
DES BRYOZOANS FORM A COMPLEX CONE SHAPED
COLONY THAT SPIRALS AROUND A CENTRAL AXIS !LSO
UNLIKE OTHER FENESTRATE BRYOZOANS !RCHIMEDES
IS MORE MASSIVE INDICATING IT PROBABLY GREW IN
HIGHER ENERGY ENVIRONMENTS THAN MOST OF THE
MORE DELICATE FENESTRATE BRYOZOANS
00, (! MM
Mississippian (Chesterian) Pitkin
Ls., Ft. Gibson Dam, Oklahoma
4HESE TRANSVERSE AND LONGITUDINAL CUTS THROUGH
FENESTRATE BRYOZOAN FRONDS &ENESTELLA SP
IN A MICRITIC MATRIX SHOW THE VARIETY OF AP
PEARANCES A WINDOW
SCREEN
LIKE FENESTRATE
BRYOZOAN MAY HAVE DEPENDING ON THE DIRECTION
OF SECTIONING 3OME OF THE BRYOZOANS SHOW
CONNECTED ZOOECIA THAT FORM CHAINS OTHERS
APPEAR AS ISOLATED ZOOECIA ARRANGED LINEARLY
3AMPLE FROM 2OBERT ,AURY
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Mississippian (Tournaisian-Visean)
Waulsortian Ls., Co. Dublin, Ireland
4HESE LARGE FENESTRATE BRYOZOANS &ENESTELLA
SP ARE SURROUNDED BY RADIAL l BROUS TO
BLADED SPARRY CALCITE CEMENTS 4HE CIRCULAR
RING OF ISOLATED BRYOZOAN hGRAINSv REPRESENTS
A TRANSVERSE CUT THROUGH A SINGLE CUP SHAPED
FENESTRATE COLONY
00, (! MM
Mid. Mississippian Warsaw Ls.,
Illinois
)N THIS TANGENTIAL LONGITUDINAL SECTION THE LAT
TICE
LIKE APPEARANCE OF FENESTRATE BRYOZOANS
IS CLEARLY VISIBLE 4HE THICK LAMINATED
ZOOECIAL WALLS AND ACANTHORODS ARE ALSO COM
MON IN FENESTRATE BRYOZOANS )N THIS EX
AMPLE THE ZOOECIA ARE l LLED WITH MICRITE OR
MICROCRYSTALLINE CALCITE CEMENTS THE FENES
TRATE OPENINGS FENESTRULES ARE l LLED WITH
MICROSPAR 3AMPLE FROM 2OBERT ,AURY
00, (! MM
Mid. Mississippian Warsaw Ls.,
Illinois
! CLOSE UP VIEW OF THE SAMPLE SHOWN IN THE
PREVIOUS PHOTOGRAPH .OTE THE LAMINATED AND
SLIGHTLY CRENULATE WALL STRUCTURE SURROUND
ING THE FENESTRULE THE LARGE OVAL OPENING IN
THE CENTER OF THE IMAGE THAT LIES BETWEEN THE
BRANCHES HORIZONTAL AND THE DISSEPIMENTS
VERTICAL 4HE ZOOECIA ARE THE POLYGONAL
OPENINGS AT THE TOP AND BOTTOM OF THE PICTURE
3AMPLE FROM 2OBERT ,AURY
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 7: BRYOZOANS
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
4HIS TRANSVERSE SECTION OF ZOOECIA AND WALL
STRUCTURE IN FENESTRATE BRYOZOANS ILLUSTRATES THE
LAMINATED CRENULATE EXTERIOR OF THE ZOOECIAL
WALL
00, (! MM
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Capitan
Fm., Eddy Co., New Mexico
!N OBLIQUE CUT THROUGH PART OF A PROBABLE
FENESTRATE BRYOZOAN POSSIBLY !CANTHOCLADIA
SP /BLIQUE CUTS PRODUCE SOME UNUSUAL
FABRICS AND CAN MAKE IDENTIl CATION OF SMALL
FENESTRATE BRYOZOAN GRAINS DIFl CULT
00, (! MM
Paleozoic limestone, southwestern
U.S.A.
4RANSVERSE AND OBLIQUE SECTIONS OF FENESTRATE
BRYOZOAN FRONDS &ENESTELLA SP SHOWING
ZOOECIA WITHIN THE INDIVIDUAL FRONDS WHICH
ARE STACKED UPON ONE ANOTHER IN THIS ROCK 4HE
BRANCHES FORMING ANY PARTICULAR FROND ARE THE
LINES OF SIMILAR ZOOECIA EXTENDING HORIZONTALLY
ACROSS THIS IMAGE 3AMPLE FROM 2OBERT ,AURY
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
! THIN SECTION PHOTOMICROGRAPH SHOWING A
PACKSTONE COMPOSED OF BROKEN FRAGMENTS OF
FENESTRATE BRYOZOANS IN VARIOUS ORIENTATIONS
7ITHOUT EARLY MARINE CEMENTS TO STABILIZE THE
RELATIVELY FRAGILE FENESTRATE FRONDS THEY BREAK
UP EASILY INTO SMALLER CLASTS
00, !3 "3% (! MM
#ITED 2EFERENCES AND !DDITIONAL )NFORMATION 3OURCES
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PRODUCERS ON THE COOL
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METHODOLOGY 0ALAIOS V P
)NSTITUTE OF 7ATER AND !TMOSPHERE
*AMES . 0 $ ! &EARY & 3URLYK * ! 4 3IMO # "ETZLER ! % "OTTOM
! SELECTIVELY SILICIl ED SPIRIFERID BRACHIOPOD FROM 0ERM
(OLBOURN 1 9 ,I ( -ATSUDA ( -ACHIYAMA ' 2 "ROOKS - IAN ,EONARDIAN LOWER SLOPE DEPOSITS FROM THE 'LASS -OUNTAINS
3 !NDRES ! # (INE AND - * -ALONE 1UATERNARY BRYOZOAN OF WEST 4EXAS .OTE THE REMARKABLE l DELITY OF PRESERVATION
REEF MOUNDS IN COOL
WATER UPPER SLOPE ENVIRONMENTS 'REAT !USTRALIAN OF DELICATE ORNAMENTATION AND INTERNAL SPIRALIA 3AMPLE FROM
"IGHT 'EOLOGY V P
3MITHSONIAN )NSTITUTION COLLECTIONS
'2!).3 3KELETAL &RAGMENTS
BRACHIOPODS
C
H
A
P
T
E
R
8
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
"2!#()/0/$3
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
0HYLUM "RACHIOPODA EARLIEST #AMBRIAN
2ECENT
3UBPHYLUM ,INGULIFORMEA %ARLY #AMBRIAN
2ECENT SHELLS LACK SKELETAL ARTICULATION STRUCTURES SHELLS ARE
CHITINOPHOSPHATIC WITH LAMINAR MICROSTRUCTURE PEDICLE USUALLY PRESENT EMERGING BETWEEN VALVES OR FROM
OPENING IN VENTRAL VALVE
#LASS ,INGULATA %ARLY #AMBRIAN
2ECENT BRACHIOPODS WITH CHITINOPHOSPHATIC SHELLS LACKING TEETH AND
SOCKETS PEDICLE USUALLY PRESENT EMERGING FROM SHELL BETWEEN VALVES OR FROM APEX OF ONE OF THE VALVES
#LASS 0ATERINATA %ARLY #AMBRIAN
,ATE /RDOVICIAN SHELL ROUNDED TO ELLIPTICAL WITH STRAIGHT POSTERIOR
MARGIN WITH PSEUDOINTERAREA DELTHYRIUM OFTEN CLOSED BY PLATES PEDICLE REDUCED OR ABSENT
3UBPHYLUM #RANIIFORMEA %ARLY #AMBRIAN
2ECENT CALCAREOUS SHELLS VALVES LACK HINGE TEETH AND SOCKETS
SHELL USUALLY ATTACHED TO SUBSTRATE BY CEMENTATION OF PEDICLE VENTRAL VALVE
#LASS #RANIATA -ID #AMBRIAN
2ECENT FEATURES AS ABOVE FOR SUBPHYLUM
3UBPHYLUM 2HYNCHONELLIFORMEA %ARLY #AMBRIAN
2ECENT "RACHIOPODS WITH CALCITIC SHELLS THAT HAVE
ENDOPUNCTATE IMPUNCTATE PSEUDOPUNCTATE OR TABULAR MICROSTRUCTURE CRURA USUALLY PRESENT EXTENDED
TO FORM A BRACHIDIUM SPIRALIA OR LOOPS IN SOME GROUPS ARTICULATED VALVES WITH HINGE TEETH AND SOCKETS
ARE THE NORM BUT IN SOME FORMS REDUCED OR MODIl ED TYPES OF ARTICULATION STRUCTURES ARE PRESENT THE
VAST MAJORITY OF KNOWN RHYNCHONELLIFORM BRACHIOPODS ARE INCLUDED IN THE CLASSES 3TROPHOMENATA AND
2HYNCHONELLATA
#LASS #HILEATA %ARLY #AMBRIAN ONLY SHORT
LIVED EARLY GROUP SEE FEATURES IN #LARKSON P
#LASS /BOLELLATA %ARLY
-ID #AMBRIAN SHORT
LIVED EARLY GROUP SEE FEATURES IN #LARKSON
#LASS +UTORGINIDA %ARLY
-ID #AMBRIAN SHORT
LIVED EARLY GROUP SEE FEATURES IN #LARKSON
#LASS 3TROPHOMENATA -ID #AMBRIAN
4RIASSIC 3HELL USUALLY CONCAVO
CONVEX OR PLANOCONVEX SHELL
USUALLY PSEUDOPUNCTATE STRAIGHT HINGE WITH SIMPLE TEETH OFTEN LOST SOME GROUPS WITH SPINES PEDICLE
OPENING USUALLY CLOSED BY PLATES )NCLUDES THE /RDERS 3TROPHOMENIDA SIX SUBORDERS AND 0RODUCTIDA
TWO SUBORDERS
#LASS 2HYNCHONELLATA %ARLY #AMBRIAN
2ECENT "ICONVEX SHELLS WITH BOTH STROPHIC AND NONSTROPHIC
HINGES IMPUNCTATE AND PUNCTATE SHELLS CRURA USUALLY PRESENT BRACHIDIUM OFTEN PRESENT )NCLUDES THE
ORDERS /RTHIDA SHELL USUALLY IMPUNCTATE 2HYNCHONELLIDA 0ENTAMERIDA !THYRIDA SPIRALIA PRESENT
USUALLY IMPUNCTATE !TRYPIDA SPIRALIA PRESENT IMPUNCTATE 3PIRIFERIDA SPIRALIA PRESENT PUNCTATE AND
IMPUNCTATE SHELLS 3PIRIFERINIDA SPIRALIA PRESENT IMPUNCTATE AND PUNCTATE SHELLS AND 4EREBRATULIDA
LOOP PRESENT PUNCTATE SHELL
)N GENERAL BRACHIOPODS WERE ESPECIALLY ABUNDANT IN THE 0ALEOZOIC WHERE THEY REACHED THEIR PEAK DIVERSITY IN THE
$EVONIAN )N MANY SETTINGS THEY WERE AMONG THE MAIN ROCK
FORMING ORGANISMS !LTHOUGH THEY ARE MUCH LESS
ABUNDANT IN -ESOZOIC AND #ENOZOIC STRATA THEY RETAIN CONSIDERABLE BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC VALUE IN THOSE DEPOSITS
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
!LL BRACHIOPODS AREWERE MARINE ORGANISMS BUT THE GROUP EXHIBITS A SIGNIl CANT SALINITY RANGE INTO BOTH BRACKISH
HYPOSALINE AND SLIGHTLY HYPERSALINE SETTINGS
6IRTUALLY ALL BRACHIOPODS ARE SESSILE ATTACHED ORGANISMS THAT LIVE IN SHELF WATERS RANGING FROM HIGH
TO LOW
LATITUDE SETTINGS ! FEW MODERN SPECIES EXTEND TO M WATER DEPTHS
7ARM
AND SHALLOW
WATER FORMS TEND TO HAVE THICKER SHELLS THAN COLD
OR DEEPER
WATER FORMS
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
!LL RHYNCHONELLIFORM BRACHIOPOD SHELLS ARE CALCITIC WITH TO MOLE -G LOW
-G CALCITE ,INGULIFORM
BRACHIOPOD SHELLS ARE COMPOSED OF INTERLAMINATED CHITIN AND CALCIUM PHOSPHATE #RANIFORM BRACHIOPODS
HAVE EITHER CALCITIC OR ARAGONITIC SHELLS
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
"RACHIOPODS HAVE SHELLS WITH PAIRS OF CURVED VALVES THAT ARE MARKEDLY UNEQUAL IN SIZE AND SHAPE EACH SHELL
HOWEVER IS BILATERALLY SYMMETRICAL AND MAY HAVE A SMOOTH CORRUGATED OR SPINY EXTERIOR 4HE SYMMETRY
CHARACTERISTICS HELP TO DISTINGUISH BRACHIOPOD FROM BIVALVE SHELLS IN HAND SPECIMENS BUT RARELY CAN BE APPLIED
IN THIN SECTIONS 3HELLS TYPICALLY HAVE A ROUNDED ELONGATE CENTRAL ELEVATION THE FOLD GENERALLY ON THE BRACHIAL
CHAPTER 8: BRACHIOPODS
DORSAL VALVE AND A CORRESPONDING CENTRAL DEPRESSION THE SULCUS ON THE PEDICLE VENTRAL VALVE THESE
STRUCTURES AFFECT BOTH INNER AND OUTER SHELL SURFACES SEE TOP DIAGRAM NEXT PAGE
2HYNCHONELLIFORM BRACHIOPODS THE VAST MAJORITY ARE HELD TOGETHER BY A HINGE WITH A TEETH
AND
SOCKET
MECHANISM LINGULIFORM AND CRANIFORM SHELLS ARE HELD TOGETHER ONLY BY MUSCULATURE
-ANY BRACHIOPODS HAVE SOME FORM OF CALCIl ED INTERNAL SUPPORT FOR THEIR FEEDING ORGANS LOPHOPHORES THESE
ARE TERMED CRURA BRACHIDIA OR SPIRALIA DEPENDING ON THE GEOMETRY OF THE STRUCTURES
-ORPHOLOGIC FEATURES OF SPECIl C CLASSES AND ORDERS ARE GIVEN ABOVE UNDER h4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGEv
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
4HE SHELL SHAPES OF BRACHIOPODS ARE SIMILAR TO BIVALVES IN TERMS OF WALL STRUCTURE THEY ARE MOST EASILY
CONFUSED WITH MOLLUSKS THAT HAVE FOLIATED SHELL STRUCTURE AND WITH SOME CUTS THROUGH OR SMALL FRAGMENTS OF
BRYOZOANS
"RACHIOPODS ARE FOUND AS ARTICULATED SHELLS SINGLE VALVES OR SHELL FRAGMENTS 4HEY TYPICALLY ARE IN THE MM
TO
CM
SIZE RANGE AND HAVE SMOOTHLY CURVED TO STRONGLY PLICATED CORRUGATED OR SPINOSE MARGINS
-ICROSTRUCTURES ARE WELL PRESERVED -OST SHELLS HAVE TWO LAYERS AND SOME HAVE THREE 4HE THIN OUTER
PRIMARY LAYER HAS l NE CALCITE l BERS ORIENTED WITH THEIR LONG AXES AND OPTIC AXES PERPENDICULAR TO THE SHELL
MARGIN THIS LAYER IS DIFl CULT TO SEE IN POORLY PRESERVED SPECIMENS 4HE THICKER INNER SECONDARY LAYER IS
COMPOSED OF LONG CALCITE l BERS ARRANGED AT A LOW ANGLE AVERAGE DEGREES TO THE SHELL WALL 0ENTAMERIDS
AND SOME SPIRIFERIDS COMMONLY HAVE AN ADDITIONAL INNERMOST LAYER COMPOSED OF COARSE CALCITE PRISMS ORIENTED
WITH THEIR LONG AXIS AND OPTIC AXIS PERPENDICULAR TO THE SHELL SURFACE
"RACHIOPOD SHELLS CAN HAVE l VE TYPES OF SHELL MICROSTRUCTURE LAMINAR IMPUNCTATE PUNCTATEENDOPUNCTATE
PSEUDOPUNCTATE OR TABULAR 4HE l RST FOUR ARE THE MOST COMMON AND ARE ILLUSTRATED BELOW ,AMINAR SHELLS
CONSIST OF INTERLAMINATED SHEETS OF COLLOPHANE PHOSPHATE AND CHITIN )MPUNCTATE SHELLS HAVE PRIMARY
AND SECONDARY LAYERS LACKING PERFORATIONS AND TALEOLAE 0UNCTATE ENDOPUNCTATE SHELLS HAVE SMALL HOLES
PUNCTAE UP TO M WIDE THAT PERFORATE THE WALL AND ARE ORIENTED PERPENDICULAR TO THE SHELL SURFACE
0SEUDOPUNCTATE SHELLS HAVE STACKED CONICAL PLICATIONS TALEOLAE OR PSEUDOPUNCTAE IN THE l BERS OF THE
SECONDARY LAYER THAT LOOK SOMEWHAT LIKE PUNCTAE 4HESE MICROSTRUCTURAL VARIATIONS HAVE SOME TAXONOMIC
SIGNIl CANCE FOR EXAMPLE MOST SPIRIFERIDS AND NEARLY ALL RHYNCHONELLIDS AND ORTHIDS ARE IMPUNCTATE
TEREBRATULIDS ARE PUNCTATE VIRTUALLY ALL STROPHOMENIDS ARE PSEUDOPUNCTATE AND ALL LINGULIFORM BRACHIOPODS
HAVE CHITINOPHOSPHATIC LAMINAR SHELLS &OR MORE DETAILED DISCUSSIONS OF SHELL STRUCTURE OF BRACHIOPODS SEE
#LARKSON P
AND 7ILLIAMS
"RACHIOPOD SHELLS CAN BE HIGHLY PLICATED GIVING THE SHELLS AND INTERNAL STRUCTURES A VERY WAVY APPEARANCE
$ISTINCTIVE SPECIALIZED STRUCTURES SUCH AS A PEDICLE OPENING OR FORAMEN A SPONDYLUM AND INTERNAL LOPHOPHORE
SUPPORTS CRURA BRACHIDIA OR SPIRALIA MAY BE VISIBLE BUT GENERALLY ARE RARE EXCEPT WHERE COMPLETE SHELLS ARE
SECTIONED
$ETACHED SPINES MAY BE ABUNDANT 4HEY ARE HOLLOW AND HAVE A DISTINCTIVE TWO
LAYER l BROUS STRUCTURE
Anatomical features of a typical
articulate brachiopod
! MEDIAN LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH AN
ARTICULATE BRACHIOPOD REDRAWN FROM -OORE
ET AL 4HE PEDICLE OPENING ALLOWS FOR
ATTACHMENT OF THE ORGANISM TO ROCKS OR OTHER
SUBSTRATES BY A MUSCULAR STALK TERMED THE
PEDICLE 4HE LOPHOPHORE IS THE FEEDING ORGAN
WHOSE SIDEARMS ARE FOLDED OR ENROLLED INTO
LOOPS OR SPIRALS 4HE INEQUALITY OF SIZE AND
SHAPE BETWEEN THE PEDICLE AND BRACHIAL VALVES
IS CLEARLY SHOWN IN THIS DIAGRAM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Morphology of a typical spiriferid
brachiopod
4WO SURFACE VIEWS AND AN INTERIOR VIEW OF THE
BRACHIAL VALVE OF .EOSPIRIFER SP A REPRESEN
TATIVE SPIRIFERID BRACHIOPOD REDRAWN FROM
-OORE ET AL 3PIRIFERIDS DEVELOPED
SPECIALIZED INTERNAL LOPHOPHORE SUPPORT STRUC
TURES TERMED SPIRALIA 4HESE ARE SOMETIMES
ENCOUNTERED IN THIN SECTION VIEWS OF WHOLE OR
NEARLY WHOLE SPIRIFERID BRACHIOPOD SHELLS 3EE
ALSO THE LOWER PHOTOGRAPH ON THE TITLE PAGE OF
THIS SECTION
Variations in typical articulate
brachiopod shell structures
$IAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATIONS OF VARIATIONS
IN ARTICULATE BRACHIOPOD SHELL STRUCTURES AS
ADAPTED FROM 3COFl N AND OTHER SOURC
ES -OST SHELLS HAVE A THIN PRIMARY OUTER
LAYER NOT ALWAYS PRESERVED OF l NE PRISMS
ORIENTED PERPENDICULAR TO THE SHELL EXTERIOR
AND A THICK SECONDARY INNER LAYER WITH l BERS
INCLINED OBLIQUELY ROUGHLY RELATIVE TO THE
SHELL SURFACE 3PINES HAVE COMPARABLE TWO
LAYERED STRUCTURE 3HELLS CAN ALSO HAVE TRUE
PUNCTAE OR PORES THAT PENETRATE THE SHELL WALL
PSEUDOPUNCTAE STACKED PLICATIONS IN THE SEC
ONDARY LAYER THAT MIMIC PORES OR NO PUNCTAE
OR PSEUDOPUNCTAE TERMED AN IMPUNCTATE
SHELL
Mid.-Up. Cambrian Riley Fm., Lion
Mountain Ss. Mbr., Burnet Co.,
Texas
4WO VIEWS OF AN EARLY CHITINOPHOSPHATIC
INARTICULATE BRACHIOPOD SHELL #HARACTERISTIC
FEATURES INCLUDE THE INCLINED LAMINAE WITHIN
THE SHELL THE BROWNISH COLOR OF THE CHITINOUS
AND PHOSPHATIC SHELL IN PLAIN POLARIZED LIGHT
THE EXTREMELY SLIGHT CURVATURE OF THE SHELL AND
THE ISOTROPIC OR NEAR ISOTROPIC BEHAVIOR UNDER
CROSS POLARIZED LIGHT
00,80, (! MM EACH
CHAPTER 8: BRACHIOPODS
Up. Mississippian Hindsville Ls.,
Mayes Co., Oklahoma
! VARIETY OF MICRITE
COATED BRACHIOPOD GRAINS
AND CRINOID OSSICLES ARE VISIBLE IN THIS SLIDE
!LL THE BRACHIOPODS HAVE A LOW
ANGLE l BROUS
WALL STRUCTURE ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT CRITE
RIA FOR IDENTIl CATION OF THESE GRAINS 4HE LONG
IMPUNCTATE SHELL IN THE CENTER CLEARLY SHOWS
BOTH THE THICK l BROUS SECONDARY LAYER AND
THE OUTER PRIMARY LAYER THAT HAS l BERS ORIENTED
PERPENDICULAR TO THE SHELL SURFACE 4HE SHELL
ABOVE IT IS A PUNCTATE BRACHIOPOD WITH MICRITIC
l LLINGS OF THE INDIVIDUAL PUNCTAE ! THIRD
HEAVILY MICRITE ENCRUSTED SHELL BELOW HAS
IMPUNCTATE STRUCTURE WITH WAVY SHELL CONTOR
TIONS
00, (! MM
Up. Ordovician limestone,
Kentucky
!N EXAMPLE OF AN IMPUNCTATE SHELL WALL IN THE
BRACHIOPOD 0LATYSTROPHA CYPHA 4HIS SHELL HAS
AN EXTREMELY THIN OR DIAGENETICALLY ALTERED
PRIMARY LAYER AND A THICK SECONDARY LAYER
.OTE THE TYPICAL LOW
ANGLE l BROUS STRUCTURE
AND THE SUBSTANTIAL LATERAL VARIATIONS IN SHELL
THICKNESS
00, (! MM
Miocene Mount Brown Beds,
Canterbury, New Zealand
!N EXAMPLE OF A PUNCTATE BRACHIOPOD SHELL
4HE VERTICAL PUNCTAE WERE HOLES THAT PEN
ETRATED THE SHELL WALL FROM THE INTERIOR ALMOST
TO THE OUTER SURFACE OF THE SHELL 4HEY ARE
EASILY VISIBLE HERE BECAUSE THEY HAVE BEEN
l LLED WITH MICRITIC MATERIAL MOST LIKELY PRE
CIPITATED IN SITU !LTHOUGH OTHER ORGANISMS
TRILOBITES OSTRACODES AND A FEW BIVALVES FOR
EXAMPLE ALSO HAVE PORES THAT MAY COMPLETELY
PENETRATE THE SHELL WALL THE COMBINATION OF THE
LOW ANGLE l BROUS WALL STRUCTURE AND PUNCTAE IS
DIAGNOSTIC FOR THE RECOGNITION OF BRACHIOPOD
MATERIAL
00, "3% (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Permian Middle reef complex,
Djebel Tebaga, Tunisia
!N ENLARGED VIEW OF A PUNCTATE BRACHIOPOD
WALL #LEARLY THE INDIVIDUAL PUNCTAE COM
PLETELY PENETRATE THE SHELL WALL AND ONCE AGAIN
HAVE BEEN MADE VISIBLE THROUGH THE INl LTRATION
OR PRECIPITATION OF MICRITE IN THE OPENINGS )N
LIFE SMALL l NGER LIKE PROJECTIONS OF THE BODY
COVERING MANTLE EXTENDED THROUGH THESE
OPENINGS
00, (! MM
Oligocene Nile Gp., Karamea,
Westland, New Zealand
! PUNCTATE BRACHIOPOD IN WHICH THE PUNCTAE
HAVE BEEN l LLED WITH CALCITE CEMENT &ORTU
NATELY THE CEMENTS WERE SLIGHTLY FERROAN AND
THUS STAINED PALE PURPLE CONTRASTING WITH THE
PINK STAINED NON FERROAN CALCITE OF THE REST OF
THE SHELL )N THE ABSENCE OF SUCH DIFFERENTIAL
STAINING RECOGNITION OF THE CEMENTED PORES
WOULD BE DIFl CULT
00, !&E3 (! MM
Up. Permian (Umian?) Schuchert
Dal Ss., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
!N OBLIQUE OR TANGENTIAL CROSS SECTION THROUGH
A PUNCTATE BRACHIOPOD THAT SHOWS CIRCULAR TO
ELLIPTICAL SHAPES OF THE PUNCTAE NOW SEEN AS
MICRITE
l LLED FORMER PORES
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 8: BRACHIOPODS
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
! DETAILED VIEW OF A PSEUDOPUNCTATE
BRACHIOPOD SHELL !LTHOUGH PSEUDOPUNCTAE AT
l RST GLANCE MAY LOOK LIKE TRUE PUNCTAE THEY
ARE QUITE DIFFERENT 4HEY ARE STACKED COLUMNS
OF CONE SHAPED PLICATIONS OR GRANULAR ZONES
IN THE l BROUS STRUCTURE OF THE SECONDARY WALL
LAYER 4HEY MIMIC PORES PUNCTAE BUT WERE
NEVER ACTUALLY OPEN SPACES 4HEY ARE UNIQUE TO
BRACHIOPODS HOWEVER THEY ARE FOUND IN ONLY A
FEW GROUPS PRIMARILY THE STROPHOMENIDS
00, (! MM
Lo. Devonian Becraft Ls.,
Schoharie Co., New York
! HIGH MAGNIl CATION LONGITUDINAL SECTION
THROUGH A PSEUDOPUNCTATE BRACHIOPOD SHELL
.OTE THE PARALLEL l BROUS WALL STRUCTURE ORI
ENTED AT A LOW ANGLE TO THE SHELL MARGIN 4HESE
PSEUDOPUNCTAE CONSIST OF VERY SMALL l BER
PLICATIONS ORIENTED PERPENDICULAR TO THE SHELL
EXTERIOR
00, (! MM
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
4HIS OBLIQUE NEARLY TRANSVERSE CUT THROUGH A
PSEUDOPUNCTATE BRACHIOPOD SHELL NICELY SHOWS
THE IRREGULARLY SPACED STACKS OF PLICATIONS AND
CIRCULAR OR SLIGHTLY ELLIPTICAL SHAPE OF THESE DIS
TINCTIVE FEATURES
080, "3% (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Mid. Ordovician Chazy-Black River
Fms., Mifin Co., Pennsylvania
4HE LONGITUDINAL SECTIONS THROUGH SEV
ERAL SHELLS IN THIS SLIDE ILLUSTRATE THE HIGHLY
CRENULATE SHAPE OF MANY BRACHIOPODS 4HE
CONTORTED FABRIC WITHIN THE SHELLS DOES NOT REP
RESENT PSEUDOPUNCTAE BUT RATHER IS CAUSED BY
PLICATIONS AND SHELL ORNAMENTATIONS THAT AFFECT
THE ENTIRE WALL STRUCTURE
80, (! MM
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
3EVERAL GROUPS OF BRACHIOPODS WERE EXTEN
SIVELY hARMOREDv WITH LONG SPINES MOST OF
WHICH ARE BROKEN OFF DURING TRANSPORT AND
DEPOSITION OF THE SHELLS 4HIS EXAMPLE SHOWS A
BRACHIOPOD SHELL WITH A PORTION OF AN ATTACHED
SPINE
00, !&E3 (! MM
Lo. Carboniferous Glencar Ls.,
County Sligo, Ireland
)NDIVIDUAL BROKEN PRODUCTID BRACHIOPOD SPINES
IN A SHELF LIMESTONE (ERE THREE BRACHIOPOD
SPINES LIE IN CLOSE PROXIMITY TO EACH OTHER
%ACH DISPLAYS A CHARACTERISTIC HOLLOW CENTER
AND CONCENTRIC TWO
LAYER WALL STRUCTURE A
MARGIN
PARALLEL l BROUS INNER ZONE AND A THIN
RADIALLY
ORIENTED l BROUS OUTER ZONE 4HE ORI
ENTED CRYSTAL STRUCTURE IN BOTH LAYERS PRODUCES
A DISTINCTIVE hPSEUDO
UNIAXIAL CROSSv UNDER
CROSS
POLARIZED LIGHT A HINT OF WHICH IS EVEN
SEEN IN THIS VIEW
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 8: BRACHIOPODS
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
!N ENLARGED VIEW OF A TWO LAYERED PRODUCTID
BRACHIOPOD SPINE 4HE RELATIVELY LARGE SIZE
THE CENTRAL CANAL AND THE THICK TWO LAYERED
WALL WITH ORIENTED CRYSTAL STRUCTURE ARE UNIQUE
TO BRACHIOPOD SPINES )N TRANSVERSE CUTS LIKE
THIS ONE THEY COULD MOST EASILY BE MISTAKEN
FOR OOIDS
00, !&E3 (! MM
Lo. Carboniferous Glencar Ls.,
County Sligo, Ireland
!N OBLIQUE LONGITUDINAL CROSS SECTION OF A
BRACHIOPOD SPINE 4HE TWO LAYERED l BROUS
WALL STRUCTURE IS CHARACTERISTIC OF SUCH GRAINS
AND SERVES ALONG WITH THE RELATIVELY LARGE SIZE
TO DISTINGUISH THESE SPINES FROM A VARIETY OF
CONICAL MICROFOSSILS OR SPHERICAL OOIDS
00, (! MM
Permian (Leonardian-Guadalupian)
Park City Fm., Franson Mbr., Bear
Lake Co., Idaho
!N EXAMPLE OF A SANDY SHELF LIMESTONE IN
WHICH BRACHIOPOD SPINES ARE THE PREDOMINANT
FAUNAL CONSTITUENT AT LEAST IN SOME INTERVALS
4HE CONSISTENT NEAR CIRCULAR OUTLINES OF THESE
DETACHED SPINES INDICATES A STRONG ORIENTATION
OF THE GRAIN LONG AXES A RESULT OF TRANSPORT
AND CURRENT ORIENTATION 0RESSURE SOLUTION AND
MECHANICAL COMPACTION DURING BURIAL STAGE
DIAGENESIS HAS LED TO INTERPENETRATION OF ADJA
CENT GRAINS AND THUS HAS MODIl ED THEIR SHAPES
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
!N UNUSUAL BUT VERY DISTINCTIVE CUT THROUGH
A LARGELY INTACT PEDICLE VALVE OF A BRACHIOPOD
SHOWING ITS PEDICLE OPENING 4HIS IS THE
OPENING THROUGH WHICH THE PEDICLE EXTENDS
THAT ALLOWS THE BRACHIOPOD TO ATTACH ITSELF TO
ITS SUBSTRATE 7HERE RECOGNIZABLE IT HELPS TO
DISTINGUISH BRACHIOPODS FROM BIVALVES
00, "3% (! MM
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Capitan
Fm., Eddy Co., New Mexico
! TRANSVERSE SECTION THROUGH A COMPLETE
SPIRIFERID BRACHIOPOD SHOWING THE INTERNAL
SPIRALIA ELABORATE SPIRAL BRACHIDIA THE
SLIGHTLY 6 SHAPED LINES OF SHELL MATERIAL WITHIN
THE INTERNAL CAVITY OF THE ORGANISM 4HESE
SPIRAL SHAPED CALCAREOUS GROWTHS SEE SECOND
DIAGRAM IN THIS CHAPTER SERVED AS INTERNAL
SUPPORTS FOR THE ORGANISMS FEEDING STRUCTURE
TERMED THE LOPHOPHORE
00, (! MM
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
! SLIGHTLY OBLIQUE LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH
BOTH VALVES OF AN ARTICULATED BRACHIOPOD SHELL
THAT HAS INTERNAL SPIRALIA 4HE MULTILAYERED
l BROUS WALL OF THE SHELL AND THE ORIENTATION
OF THE SECTIONED LOOPS OF THE SPIRALIA ARE WELL
SHOWN 4HE SHELL HAS A GEOPETAL l LL THAT CON
SISTS OF INTERNAL SEDIMENT IMPREGNATED WITH
ASPHALTIC RESIDUES IN THE LOWER PART AND CALCITE
PORE
l LLING CEMENTS IN THE UPPER PORTION
00, "3% (! MM
CHAPTER 8: BRACHIOPODS
Lo. Permian limestone, Axel
Heiberg Island, Canada
! LONGITUDINAL CUT THROUGH A SPIRIFERID
BRACHIOPOD WITH BOTH VALVES INTACT SHOW
ING ELONGATE SECTIONS THROUGH THE INTERNAL
SPIRALIA 4HE SPIRALIA LATER ACTED AS SUBSTRATES
FOR ORIENTED GROWTH OF CEMENT CRYSTALS WITHIN
THE MANTLE CAVITY .OTE ALSO THE PREFERENTIAL
REPLACEMENT OF PARTS OF THE SHELL BY SILICA A
COMMON PHENOMENON IN BRACHIOPOD MATERIAL
3AMPLE FROM .OEL 0 *AMES
80, (! MM
Lo. Permian limestone, Axel
Heiberg Island, Canada
!N ENLARGED VIEW OF THE SPIRIFERID BRACHIOPOD
SHOWN IN THE PREVIOUS IMAGE 4HE CURVED
SPIRALIA AND THEIR l BROUS WALL STRUCTURE ARE
CLEARLY VISIBLE AS ARE THE CLOUDY BLADED
BURIAL
STAGE CALCITE CEMENTS THAT NUCLEATED ON
AND GREW OUTWARD FROM THE SPIRALIA 3ILICA RE
PLACEMENT THE LOW BIREFRINGENCE CRYSTALS WITH
GRAY TO WHITE EXTINCTION COLORS AFFECTS BOTH
THE SPIRALIA AND THE CALCITE CEMENT CRYSTALS
3AMPLE FROM .OEL 0 *AMES
80, (! MM
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Capitan
Fm., Eddy Co., New Mexico
! PORTION OF THE WALL OF #OMPOSITA SP A
BRACHIOPOD WITH AN ATYPICAL WALL STRUCTURE
4HE l BROUS PRISMATIC INNER AND OUTER LAYERS
ARE HERE SANDWICHED AROUND A THICK COARSELY
CRYSTALLINE ZONE WITH PRISMS ORIENTED PERPEN
DICULAR TO THE SHELL MARGIN 4HIS PARTICULAR
GROUP OF BRACHIOPODS IS RESTRICTED TO #ARBON
IFEROUS AND 0ERMIAN STRATA #OMPOSITA SHELLS
CAN BE DIFFERENTIATED FROM PRISMATIC BIVALVE
SHELLS ON THE BASIS OF THE PRESENCE OF INTERNAL
CALCAREOUS SPIRES IN #OMPOSITA ALTHOUGH
THOSE ARE NOT ALWAYS PRESERVED OR INTERSECTED
IN EVERY SECTION
80, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
#ITED 2EFERENCES AND !DDITIONAL )NFORMATION 3OURCES
!GER $ 6 "RACHIOPOD PALEOECOLOGY %ARTH
3CIENCE 2EVIEWS V OXYGEN AND CARBON ISOTOPIC RECORDS OF 0ALEOZOIC OCEANS 'EOCHIMICA
P
ET #OSMOCHIMICA !CTA V P
"IERNAT ' AND ! 7ILLIAMS 3HELL STRUCTURE OF THE SIPHONOTRETACEAN 7ESTBROEK 0 -ORPHOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS WITH SYSTEMATIC
"RACHIOPODA 0ALAEONTOLOGY V P
IMPLICATIONS ON SOME 0ALEOZOIC 2HYNCHONELLIDA FROM %UROPE WITH
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& ACING 0AGE 5NDERWATER VIEW OF 4RIDACNA SP .OTE THE BRIL
LIANTLY HUED MANTLE ON THIS GIANT M LONG BIVALVE FROM
THE !USTRALIAN 'REAT "ARRIER 2EEF 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF 7OODY
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CHAPTER 9: MOLLUSKS
'2!).3 3KELETAL &RAGMENTS
MOLLUSKS
Gastropods
C Bivalves
H
A (pelecypods)
P
T Cephalopods
E
R
Scaphopods
9
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
'!342/0/$3
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
0HYLUM -OLLUSCA 3UBPHYLUM #YRTOSOMA
#LASS 'ASTROPODA %ARLY #AMBRIAN
2ECENT
/RDER 4HECOSOMATA PTEROPODS #RETACEOUS
2ECENT POSSIBLE PRECURSORS #AMBRIAN
0ERMIAN
'ASTROPODS ARE THE LARGEST CLASS OF BOTH LIVING AND FOSSIL MOLLUSKS WITH NEARLY GENERA ALTHOUGH THEY ARE
RARELY MAJOR ROCK
FORMING ORGANISMS
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
'ASTROPODS SNAILS ARE A REMARKABLY WIDE
RANGING GROUP OF ORGANISMS 4HEY ARE FOUND AT ALL LATITUDES AND IN
NORMAL MARINE BRACKISH HYPERSALINE AND FRESH WATER AS WELL AS SUBAERIAL ENVIRONMENTS 4HEY RARELY ARE
MAJOR SEDIMENT FORMERS HOWEVER EXCEPT IN STRESSED ESPECIALLY HYPERSALINE OR FRESHWATER SETTINGS
7ARM
WATER FORMS GENERALLY ARE THICKER SHELLED THAN COLD
WATER FORMS
0TEROPODS ARE OPEN
MARINE PREDOMINANTLY WARM
WATER NEKTIC ORGANISMS THAT CONTRIBUTE MAINLY TO DEEP
SEA
OOZES ON SEAmOORS SHALLOWER THAN ABOUT M BECAUSE OF ARAGONITE DISSOLUTION EFFECTS
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
'ASTROPOD SHELLS HAVE A THIN OUTER COATING OF ORGANIC MATERIAL CONCHIOLIN PLUS A THICK CARBONATE LAYER GENERALLY
CONSISTING OF ONLY ARAGONITE 3OME FAMILIES HOWEVER HAVE SHELLS WITH SEPARATE LAYERS OF CALCITE AND ARAGONITE
7HERE PRESENT THE CALCITE LAYER NORMALLY IS THICKER THAN THE ARAGONITE LAYER 'ASTROPOD CALCITE HAS A LOW -G
CONTENT TYPICALLY LESS THAN MOLE -G RARELY EXCEEDING MOLE -G 0TEROPODS HAVE ARAGONITE SHELLS
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
"OTH SHELL
BEARING AND NON
SHELL
BEARING GASTROPODS EXIST 4HE SHELLED FORMS ARE UNIVALVES THAT HAVE AN
UNCHAMBERED CONE MOST COMMONLY COILED ABOUT A CENTRAL AXIS 3OME FORMS ARE ABLE TO WITHDRAW FULLY INTO
THEIR SHELL AND HAVE A PLATE AN OPERCULUM THAT THEY CAN DRAW BEHIND THEMSELVES TO CLOSE THE SHELL OPENING
OPERCULA CAN BE COMPOSED ENTIRELY OF CONCHIOLIN PROTEINACEOUS ORGANIC MATERIAL THAT IS RARELY PRESERVED OR
ARAGONITE
$IVERSE COILING PATTERNS EXIST HIGH
SPIRED CONICAL AND PLANISPIRAL FORMS ARE COMMON SOME GROUPS SUCH AS THE
VERMETIDS HAVE VERY OPEN SPIRALS AND FORM SHELLS THAT RESEMBLE SERPULID WORM TUBES
!DULT GASTROPODS TYPICALLY ARE ABOUT
CM IN LENGTH MODERN FORMS OF UP TO CM LENGTH ARE KNOWN HOWEVER
&RAGMENTS TYPICALLY MM
TO CM
SIZED
0TEROPODS ARE NEKTIC GASTROPODS AND ALTHOUGH THE MAJORITY ARE SHELL
LESS SOME HAVE SLENDER CONICAL GENERALLY
UNCOILED THIN
WALLED SHELLS TYPICALLY LESS THAN
CM IN LENGTH
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
'ASTROPOD SHELLS OR FRAGMENTS ARE TYPICALLY IN THE MM TO CM SIZE RANGE LARGER THAN MOST FORAMINIFERS
ESPECIALLY THOSE THAT HAVE SIMILARLY SHAPED TESTS
3TRONGLY CURVED SMOOTH TO SOMEWHAT ORNAMENTED SHELL FRAGMENTS PREDOMINATE THOSE THAT ARE LARGE ENOUGH
MAY HAVE DISTINCTIVELY SPIRALED SHAPES #OILED GASTROPOD SHELLS DIFFER FROM CEPHALOPODS IN THAT THEY GENERALLY
ARE SMALLER AND LACK THE INTERNAL CHAMBERING OF CEPHALOPODS ALTHOUGH GASTROPODS MAY FALSELY APPEAR
CHAMBERED IN SOME SECTIONS
-OST GASTROPODS AREWERE ENTIRELY ARAGONITIC AND SUCH SHELLS GENERALLY LOSE ALL INTERNAL MICROSTRUCTURE DURING
DIAGENESIS ORIGINALLY CALCITIC SHELL LAYERS FOUND IN SOME GASTROPODS TYPICALLY RETAIN PRIMARY FABRICS -IXED
MINERALOGY GASTROPOD SHELLS TEND TO HAVE THICKER CALCITE LAYERS THAT ARE WELL PRESERVED AND ARAGONITIC LAYERS
THAT ARE THINNER AND POORLY PRESERVED
!RAGONITIC SHELL MICROSTRUCTURES OF GASTROPODS INCLUDE CROSSED
LAMELLAR VERY COMMON lNELY PRISMATIC
HOMOGENEOUS ALSO TERMED HOMOGENEOUS PRISMATIC AND NACREOUS FABRICS #ALCITIC MICROSTRUCTURES INCLUDE
PRISMATIC COMMON FOLIATED RARE AND CROSSED
LAMELLAR RARE FABRICS #ROSSED
LAMELLAR STRUCTURE IS
CHARACTERIZED BY A DISTINCTIVE hZEBRA STRIPINGv IN CROSS
POLARIZED ILLUMINATION
7ELL PRESERVED GASTROPOD AND BIVALVE PELECYPOD FRAGMENTS SOMETIMES CAN BE DISTINGUISHED FROM EACH OTHER
ON THE BASIS OF DISTINCTIVE COMBINATIONS OF LAYERING BUT SHAPE IS GENERALLY THE SIMPLEST AND MOST RELIABLE
METHOD OF IDENTIlCATION
0(/4/ 3#!,%3 !.$ !""2%6)!4)/.3 !2% %80,!).%$ ). 4(% "//+3 ).42/$5#4)/.
CHAPTER 9: MOLLUSKS
Morphology and wall structure of a
typical high-spired gastropod
$IAGRAMMATIC VIEW OF TYPICAL LONGITUDINAL
! AND TRANSVERSE " CROSS SECTIONS THROUGH
A HIGH SPIRED GASTROPOD WITH THE NAMES OF
THE MOST PROMINENT STRUCTURAL FEATURES !LSO
SHOWN ARE SOME TYPICAL ARAGONITIC WALL FABRICS
FOUND IN GASTROPODS MAINLY CROSSED LAMELLAR
ALONG WITH HOMOGENEOUS OR NACREOUS AND
THEIR APPEARANCE AFTER TYPICAL DIAGENETIC AL
TERATION BY DISSOLUTION OF UNSTABLE ARAGONITE
AND REPRECIPITATION OF VOID lLLING CALCITE 7ALL
STRUCTURAL DEPICTIONS WERE PARTIALLY ADAPTED
FROM 4UCKER !LTHOUGH THE SHELL AP
PEARS CHAMBERED IN THIS VERTICAL SECTION NO
ACTUAL PARTITIONS DIVIDE THE CONTINUOUS SPIRAL
OF THE INTERNAL TUBE IN WHICH THE ANIMAL LIVES
Recent sediment, Abu Dhabi,
coastal United Arab Emirates
/BLIQUE AND LONGITUDINAL SECTIONS THROUGH
MODERN HIGH SPIRED CERITHID GASTROPODS IN A
HARDGROUND 4HE LONGITUDINAL SECTION IS SLIGHT
LY OFF THE CENTER OF THE GRAIN THUS THE CENTRAL
COLUMELLA IS NOT SHOWN AS A CONTINUOUS STRUC
TURE 4HIS GENUS OF GASTROPODS IS WELL ADAPTED
TO VARIABLE AND HIGH SALINITY ENVIRONMENTS AND
IS A DOMINANT FAUNAL ELEMENT IN MANY LAGOONAL
DEPOSITS
00, "3% (! MM
Recent sediment, Grand Cayman,
Cayman Islands, B.W.I.
!NOTHER LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH AN
ARAGONITIC GASTROPOD SHELL 4HIS SHELL HAS A
MORE CONICAL LOWER SPIRED FORM )T SHOWS THE
EARLY STAGES OF MARINE DIAGENESIS THAT HELP TO
PRESERVE AT LEAST THE OUTLINES OF GASTROPODS IN
THE GEOLOGIC RECORD 4HE EXTERIOR OF THE SHELL
HAS BEEN ENCRUSTED WITH HIGH -G CALCITE AND
ARAGONITE CEMENT THE BODY CHAMBER HAS BEEN
EXTENSIVELY lLLED WITH lBROUS ARAGONITE "OTH
MAY PROVE LESS SOLUBLE THAN THE SHELL ITSELF DUR
ING DIAGENESIS AND THEREBY ALLOW LATER MOLD
lLLING CEMENTS TO PRESERVE THE SHELL FORM
00, "3% !&E3 (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Diagrammatic views of crossed-
lamellar shell structure
#ROSSED LAMELLAR STRUCTURE IS THE DOMINANT
WALL TYPE IN ARAGONITIC GASTROPODS AND IS ALSO
COMMON IN BIVALVES 4HE lRST BLOCK SHOWS AN
IDEALIZED MODEL WITH PARALLEL LAYERING OF CRYS
ND ORDER TALS IN INDIVIDUAL LAMELLAE AND A PLYWOOD LIKE
LAMEL ARRANGEMENT OF ADJACENT LAMELLAE WITH DIFFER
ST ORDER LAMEL ENT CRYSTAL ORIENTATIONS A FABRIC WITH REMARK
ABLE STRENGTH 4HE SECOND BLOCK PRESENTS A LESS
IDEALIZED VIEW WITH AN INTERLOCKING FABRIC OF
SOMEWHAT LENTICULAR DOMAINS OF DIFFERENTIALLY
ORIENTED ARAGONITE CRYSTALS 2EDRAWN FROM
"ATHURST )T SHOULD BE REMEMBERED THAT
ALTHOUGH THIS ARAGONITIC FABRIC IS COMMON IN
MODERN GASTROPODS IT IS RARELY OBSERVED PRE
SERVED IN PRE 0LEISTOCENE SAMPLES
Recent sediment, Bimini, Bahamas
!N EXAMPLE OF CROSSED
LAMELLAR WALL STRUCTURE
IN A GASTROPOD FRAGMENT .OTE THE DISTINCTIVE
hZEBRA STRIPINGv CONSISTING OF ALTERNATING LIGHT
AND DARK EXTINCTION BANDS THAT WEDGE OUT LATER
ALLY .OTE THE TWO DISTINCT LAYERS OF CROSSED
LAMELLAR FABRIC WITH DIFFERING ORIENTATIONS FUR
THER STRENGTHENING THE SHELL WALL 4HIS FABRIC
IS MOST CLEARLY VISIBLE UNDER CROSS
POLARIZED OR
PARTIALLY CROSS
POLARIZED LIGHTING
80, (! MM
Recent sediment, Bimini, Bahamas
! DETAILED VIEW OF CROSSED LAMELLAR STRUCTURE
IN A MODERN ARAGONITIC GASTROPOD A CONCH
SHELL 3TROMBUS SP 4HE ALTERNATING SLIGHTLY
WEDGE SHAPED LIGHT AND DARK BANDS REmECT THE
DIFFERING ORIENTATIONS OF CONSTITUENT ARAGONITE
CRYSTALS 4HIS FABRIC ALTHOUGH QUITE DISTINC
TIVE MUST BE DIFFERENTIATED FROM COARSELY
lBROUS OR PRISMATIC STRUCTURES
80, (! MM
CHAPTER 9: MOLLUSKS
Eocene Green River Fm., Laney
Mbr., Sweetwater Co., Wyoming
,ARGE NUMBERS OF A SINGLE SPECIES OF GASTROPOD
FROM A LACUSTRINE ENVIRONMENT 4HESE THIN
WALLED ORGANISMS DOMINATED THE FAUNA IN THIS
RESTRICTED FRESHWATER SETTING 4HE EXCELLENT
PRESERVATION OF THE WALL MATERIAL IS RELATIVELY
UNUSUAL BECAUSE MOST MODERN LACUSTRINE GAS
TROPODS ARE ARAGONITIC 4HE QUALITY OF PRES
ERVATION MAY INDICATE THAT THESE SHELLS WERE
ORIGINALLY CALCITIC OR THAT THE INCORPORATED
CONCHIOLIN MICROLAYERS BROWNISH ORGANIC
MATERIAL ANDOR THE LOW PERMEABILITY OF THE
SURROUNDING SEDIMENTS ALLOWED EXCEPTIONAL
RETENTION OF PRIMARY SKELETAL ARAGONITE
00, (! MM
Mid. Jurassic (Bajocian) limestone,
Central High Atlas region, Morocco
! FRAGMENTED ABRADED AND NEOMORPHOSED
GASTROPOD SHELL THAT STILL IS RECOGNIZABLE BY
SHAPE ANOTHER SPECIMEN IS VISIBLE IN THE LOWER
RIGHT !LTHOUGH SOME ORGANIC RICH INTERNAL
LAYERS ARE STILL VISIBLE MOST OF THIS ORIGINALLY
ARAGONITIC SHELL WAS DISSOLVED AND THE MOLD
WAS LATER lLLED WITH SPARRY CALCITE 4HIS IS THE
NORM FOR MOST GASTROPOD REMAINS AND IN THE
ABSENCE OF DIAGNOSTIC SHELL SHAPES IT WOULD
BE IMPOSSIBLE TO DIFFERENTIATE FROM LEACHED
NEOMORPHOSED REMAINS OF OTHER ORGANISMS
BIVALVES OR PHYLLOID ALGAE FOR EXAMPLE
00, !&E3 (! MM
Lo. Cretaceous Cupido Fm.,
Coahuila, Mexico
! LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH AN ORIGINALLY
ARAGONITIC GASTROPOD !LL WALL STRUCTURE WAS
DIAGENETICALLY OBLITERATED BUT THE DISTINCTIVE
EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL OUTLINES WERE PRESERVED
LARGELY DUE TO EARLY DIAGENETIC PROBABLY
SYNSEDIMENTARY INlLLING OF CHAMBERS WITH
lBROUS CEMENT CRUSTS AND FORMATION OF AN EX
TERNAL MICRITE ENVELOPE
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Eocene limestone, Zakinthos,
Ionian Islands, Greece
!N EXAMPLE OF AN INTERMEDIATE STAGE IN THE
DIAGENESIS OF AN ARAGONITIC GASTROPOD (ERE
THE SHELL WALL WAS ENTIRELY REMOVED BY DISSOLU
TION AND THE MOLD REMAINS PARTIALLY OPEN PORE
SPACE THAT IS OUTLINED BY AN EARLY GENERATION OF
CEMENT !N INTERMEDIATE GENERATION OF CEMENT
HAS ALSO BEEN DISSOLVED LEAVING A CURIOUS FAB
RIC OF PRESERVED EARLY AND LATE CEMENTS SAND
WICHED BY MOLDIC POROSITY IN THE SHELL WALL AND
IN AREAS OF INTERMEDIATE STAGE CEMENT
00, "3% !&E3 (! MM
Lo. Cretaceous Cupido Fm.,
Coahuila, Mexico
! TRANSVERSE SECTION THROUGH A SINGLE ORIGI
NALLY ARAGONITIC GASTROPOD !LL TRACE OF ORIGI
NAL WALL STRUCTURE HAS BEEN OBLITERATED DURING
INVERSION TO CALCITE BUT A RECOGNIZABLE OUTLINE
SOMETIMES TERMED hBABY BOTTOM STRUCTUREv
IS PRESERVED BY INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL SEDI
MENT PLUS CEMENT 3OME SELECTIVE AREAS OF
COMPACTIONAL DEFORMATION APPEAR TO HAVE AF
FECTED THE SHELL OUTLINE DURING THE VOID PHASE
BEFORE CALCITE lLLING OF THE GASTROPOD MOLD
UPPER LEFT !LTERNATIVELY PARTS OF THE SHELL
MAY HAVE BEEN THINNED BY ABRASION PRIOR TO
DEPOSITION AND DIAGENESIS
00, (! MM
Lo. Cretaceous (Aptian) Shuaiba
Fm., offshore Qatar
! MOLLUSCAN PACKSTONE IN WHICH GASTROPODS
ARE A MAJOR SEDIMENT CONTRIBUTOR 4HIS SHOWS
SOME OF THE WIDE VARIETY OF GEOMETRICAL SHAPES
THAT CAN BE GENERATED BY RANDOM CUTS THROUGH
COMPLICATED SHELL FORMS )T ALSO SHOWS THE
PROGRESSIVELY GREATER DIFlCULTY OF IDENTIFYING
SMALL FRAGMENTS OF FORMERLY ARAGONITIC GASTRO
POD SHELLS
00, "3% (! MM
CHAPTER 9: MOLLUSKS
Holocene sediment, Coral Sea,
Pacic Ocean
0TEROPODS ARE AN IMPORTANT GROUP OF NEKTIC
GASTROPODS THAT ARE IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTORS
TO OCEANIC SEDIMENTS 4HIS EXAMPLE SHOWS
A MODERN GLOBIGERINID PTEROPOD OOZE FROM
M WATER DEPTH SHOWING REMAINS OF
BOTH PLANKTIC FORAMINIFERS AND PTEROPODS 4HE
MULTI CHAMBERED ORGANISMS ARE THE FORAMINI
FERS THE LARGER CIRCULAR GRAINS WITHOUT CHAM
BERS ARE PTEROPODS ALMOST ALL CUT IN TRANSVERSE
SECTION 4HE ORIENTED ARAGONITE CRYSTALS IN THE
WALL STRUCTURE YIELD A PSEUDO UNIAXIAL CROSS IN
CROSS POLARIZED LIGHT
00,80, (! MM EACH
Up. Oligocene, North Atlantic
Ocean
0TEROPODS ARE SEEN IN TRANSVERSE AND LONGITUDI
NAL SECTIONS IN THIS PTEROPOD
GLOBIGERINID OOZE
4HE LONGITUDINAL SECTION SHOWS THE NARROW 6
SHAPE AND VERY THIN ARAGONITIC WALL OF THIS
TYPE OF PTEROPOD THE TRANSVERSE SECTION UPPER
LEFT SHOWS A CIRCULAR CROSS SECTION WITH SOME
CEMENTATION ON THE INTERIOR WALL
80, (! MM
Holocene sediment, Coral Sea,
Pacic Ocean
! HIGHER MAGNIlCATION VIEW OF A MODERN
PTEROPOD OOZE FROM M WATER DEPTH
4HESE TRANSVERSE AND OBLIQUE SECTIONS SHOW
THE CONICAL SHAPE HOMOGENEOUS PRISMATIC
WALL STRUCTURE AND PSEUDO UNIAXIAL EXTINCTION
BANDS OF PTEROPOD SHELL MATERIAL
80, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
")6!,6%3 0%,%#90/$3
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
0HYLUM -OLLUSCA 3UBPHYLUM $IASOMA
#LASS 0ELECYPODA SOMETIMES CLASSED AS "IVALVIA %ARLY
-ID #AMBRIAN
2ECENT
0ELECYPODS HAD SIGNIlCANT FAUNAL DIVERSITY FROM THE /RDOVICIAN ONWARD ALTHOUGH INDIVIDUAL SPECIES CAN
BE ABUNDANT EVEN IN THE #AMBRIAN %VOLUTION OF SPECIALIZED GROUPS SUCH AS THE RUDISTIDS OYSTERS AND
INOCERAMIDS IN THE -ESOZOIC GAVE THE GROUP EVEN GREATER SIGNIlCANCE DURING THAT TIME PERIOD THEY REMAIN
ONE OF THE MAJOR SEDIMENT PRODUCING GROUPS TODAY
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
-OST ARE BOTTOM
DWELLING INFAUNAL BURROWERS OR ATTACHED BENTHIC EPIFAUNA -ANY ARE DEPOSIT OR SUSPENSION
FEEDERS SOME CAN EVEN BORE INTO WOOD OR ROCK SUBSTRATES
4HE VAST MAJORITY INHABIT SHALLOW
MARINE SETTINGS BUT REPRESENTATIVES ARE FOUND IN ALMOST ALL AQUEOUS
ENVIRONMENTS FROM FRESH WATER FROM THE -IDDLE $EVONIAN ONWARD THROUGH BRACKISH AND HYPERSALINE
COASTAL REGIONS TO DEEP
WATER AREAS 3OME BIVALVES ESPECIALLY THE NOW
EXTINCT RUDISTIDS EVEN WERE IMPORTANT
BIOHERM AND REEF BUILDERS
4HERE IS A GENERAL CORRELATION BETWEEN GREATER SHELL THICKNESS AND HIGHER ENVIRONMENTAL ENERGY LEVELS
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
"IVALVE SKELETONS VARY IN COMPOSITION AT FAMILY AND LOWER LEVELS -OST ARE PURELY ARAGONITE SOME HAVE
INTERLAYERED CALCITE AND ARAGONITE A FEW ARE COMPLETELY CALCITIC 4HE CALCITE HAS LESS THAN MOLE -G
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
"IVALVES HAVE PAIRED GENERALLY IDENTICAL BILATERALLY SYMMETRICAL CALCAREOUS SHELLS JOINED AT A HINGE BY SOFT
MUSCLE TISSUE 3OME GROUPS ESPECIALLY THE RUDISTIDS HAD ABERRANT SHELLS WITH ONE MASSIVE VALVE SHAPED LIKE
HORN CORAL AND THE OTHER SHAPED LIKE A COVER PLATE ON THE TOP OF THE HORN
3HELL EXTERIORS ARE GENERALLY SMOOTH TO SLIGHTLY RIBBED SOME HAVE HEAVIER ORNAMENTATION
!DULT BIVALVES RANGE IN LENGTH FROM LESS THAN MM TO NEARLY M IN THE CASE OF SOME INOCERAMIDS 4HE LARGEST
KNOWN LIVING CLAM 4RIDACNA REACHES CM IN LENGTH AND WEIGHS MORE THAN KG -OST COMMONLY HOWEVER
BIVALVES ARE BETWEEN AND CM IN LENGTH
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
4HE REMAINS OF ROBUST BIVALVES ARE TYPICALLY IN THE MM TO CM SIZE RANGE LARGER THAN MOST OSTRACODES WHICH
HAVE SOMEWHAT SIMILARLY SHAPED BUT OVERLAPPING VALVES
'ENTLY CURVED SMOOTH TO SOMEWHAT ORNAMENTED SHELL FRAGMENTS PREDOMINATE ONE END MAY HAVE A THICKENED
HINGE AREA 3OME BIVALVES ESPECIALLY THE RUDISTIDS HAD MORE COMPLEX CUP
OR HORN
SHAPED SHELLS
-OST BIVALVES HAVEHAD ARAGONITIC SHELLS THAT TYPICALLY LOSE THEIR INTERNAL MICROSTRUCTURE DURING METEORIC OR
BURIAL DIAGENESIS ORIGINALLY CALCITIC SHELLS RETAIN THEIR PRIMARY FABRICS MIXED
MINERALOGY SHELLS SHOW SELECTIVE
PRESERVATION OF ORIGINALLY CALCITIC LAYERS
4HE MOST FUNDAMENTAL STRUCTURE OF BIVALVE WALLS CONSISTS OF AN INNER LAMELLAR LAYER AND AN OUTER PRISMATIC LAYER
BUT THE GROUP SHOWS ENORMOUS VARIABILITY OF WALL STRUCTURE 4HE MOST COMMON ARAGONITIC MICROSTRUCTURES
ARE NACREOUS AND CROSSED
LAMELLAR THE CALCITIC OYSTERS HAVE FOLIATED MICROSTRUCTURE BUT PRISMATIC COMPLEX
CROSSED
LAMELLAR AND HOMOGENEOUS FABRICS ALSO OCCUR 6ESICULAR PRISMATIC FABRICS ARE COMMON IN SOME OF THE
THICKER
WALLED GROUPS OYSTERS AND RUDISTIDS FOR EXAMPLE 3HELLS WITH MIXED MINERALOGY AND THUS MIXED
FABRIC ARE COMMON -OST MODERN WORK ON MOLLUSCAN SHELL STRUCTURE RELIES ON 3%- EXAMINATION AND IT IS
DIFlCULT TO lND DIRECT CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN 3%-
DETERMINED STRUCTURES AND THE TRADITIONAL PETROGRAPHIC
CLASSIlCATIONS OF SHELL STRUCTURES SUMMARIZED IN -AJEWSKE AND "ATHURST
3HELLS MAY SHOW TIDAL DIURNAL OR OTHER PERIODIC GROWTH LINES NOT FOUND IN OSTRACODES OTHERS MAY SHOW
PERFORATIONS SIMILAR TO BRACHIOPOD PUNCTAE
"IVALVES LACK THE INTERNAL STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF SOME BRACHIOPODS EG SPIRALIA DENTAL LAMELLAE A PEDICLE
OPENING OR THE GRAIN
MARGIN CELLULAR STRUCTURES FOUND IN WELL PRESERVED PHYLLOID ALGAE
CHAPTER 9: MOLLUSKS
Morphology and wall structure of a
typical bivalve
$IAGRAMMATIC VIEW OF THE MORPHOLOGY AND
WALL STRUCTURE OF A TYPICAL BIVALVE BASED ON
THE FRESHWATER CLAM !NODONTA SP !DAPTED
FROM -OORE ET AL AND OTHER SOURCES
.OTE HOW THE SHELL SYMMETRY DIFFERS FROM THAT
OF THE BRACHIOPODS SHOWN EARLIER USEFUL WHEN
EXAMINING SECTIONS THAT INCLUDE ARTICULATE SHELL
PAIRS 4HE MULTILAYERED NACREOUS AND PRIS
MATIC WALL FABRICS ILLUSTRATE THE COMPLEX AND
VARIED STRUCTURES FOUND IN BIVALVE SHELLS
Variations in bivalve shell structure
and preservation
! DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF SOME OF
THE DIFFERENT BIVALVE SHELL COMPOSITIONS AND
STRUCTURES AND SOME OF THE POSSIBLE PATTERNS OF
FABRIC PRESERVATION OR LOSS DURING DIAGENESIS
-ODIlED FROM 4UCKER )N GENERAL
PRIMARY CALCITIC LAYERS REMAIN WELL PRESERVED
THROUGHOUT THE HISTORY OF THE GRAIN ARAGONITIC
LAYERS ARE WELL PRESERVED ONLY IN MODERN OR
RELATIVELY YOUNG DEPOSITS OR IN SPECIAL SITUA
TIONS IN WHICH DIAGENETIC ALTERATION IS INHIB
ITED 5NDER NORMAL CIRCUMSTANCES ARAGONITE
IS DISSOLVED AND THE RESULTING VOIDS MAY BE
lLLED WITH SPARRY CALCITE
Holocene beachrock, Grand
Cayman, Cayman Islands, B.W.I.
!RAGONITIC CROSSED
LAMELLAR STRUCTURE IN A MOL
LUSCAN POSSIBLY A BIVALVE FRAGMENT 4HIS IS A
VERY COMMON FABRIC IN BOTH BIVALVES AND GAS
TROPODS AND IN SMALL GENTLY CURVED FRAGMENTS
SUCH AS THIS ONE IT CAN BE VERY DIFlCULT TO DIS
TINGUISH BETWEEN THOSE TWO GROUPS "ECAUSE
ARAGONITIC CROSSED
LAMELLAR FABRIC IS ALMOST
CERTAIN TO BE OBLITERATED DURING DIAGENESIS IT
BECOMES EVEN HARDER TO DETERMINE THE EXACT
ORIGIN OF SUCH GRAINS IN OLDER STRATA
80, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Mid. Triassic Muschelkalk, Western
Silesia, Poland
4HIS IS AN EXAMPLE OF THE NORMAL APPEAR
ANCE OF FORMERLY ARAGONITIC BIVALVE SHELLS
AFTER DIAGENETIC ALTERATION 4HE BIVALVE SHELLS
WERE DISSOLVED AND THE MOLDS WERE LATER lLLED
WITH SPARRY CALCITE 4HE BIVALVE ORIGINS RE
MAIN CLEAR HOWEVER BASED ON SHELL SHAPES
SMOOTHLY CURVED AND THICKENING TOWARD
THE STILL DISCERNIBLE HINGE STRUCTURES ,ESS
COMPLETE FRAGMENTS WOULD PROVIDE GREATER
IDENTIlCATION PROBLEMS
00, (! MM
Lo. Cretaceous Cupido Fm.,
Coahuila, Mexico
4WO ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES OF BIVALVES SHOW
ING NEOMORPHIC ALTERATION INVERSION OF THEIR
ORIGINALLY ARAGONITIC SHELLS 4HE ALTERATION
HERE AS IN THE EXAMPLE ABOVE INVOLVED DISSO
LUTION OF ARAGONITE AND REPRECIPITATION OF MORE
STABLE CALCITE SPAR 4HIS OBLITERATED ALL RELICT
INTERNAL SHELL STRUCTURE SO GRAINS ARE IDENTIl
ABLE ONLY ON THE BASIS OF CHARACTERISTIC SHAPES
SYMMETRICAL SHELLS WITH DISTINCTIVE HINGE
STRUCTURES OUTLINED BY MICRITE ENVELOPES 4HE
NUMEROUS MILIOLID FORAMINIFERS ALSO PRESENT
HAVE BETTER PRESERVED WALL STRUCTURE THAN THE
MOLLUSKS BECAUSE OF THEIR ORIGINALLY HIGH -G
CALCITE TEST COMPOSITION
00, (! MM
Mid. Triassic Muschelkalk, Western
Silesia, Poland
4HESE INCOMPLETE FRAGMENTS OF PROBABLE BI
VALVE SHELLS UNDERWENT COMPLETE DISSOLUTION
A LIKELY INDICATION OF AN ORIGINALLY ARAGONITIC
STRUCTURE 4HE MOLDS OF THE LEACHED FOSSIL WERE
lLLED WITH NON FERROAN AND MODERATELY FERROAN
CALCITE CEMENTS 3HAPE IS THE ONLY REMAINING
CRITERION FOR IDENTIlCATION OF THESE GRAINS BUT
OTHER ORGANISMS PHYLLOID ALGAE FOR EXAMPLE
MAY HAVE SIMILAR SHAPES )N THIS 4RIASSIC EX
AMPLE HOWEVER PHYLLOID ALGAE ARE NOT A REA
SONABLE POSSIBILITY 4HUS BIVALVE FRAGMENTS
ARE THE MOST LIKELY GRAINS WITH THIS SHAPE AND
ORIGINALLY ARAGONITIC COMPOSITIONS
00, !&E3 (! MM
CHAPTER 9: MOLLUSKS
Up. Triassic (Carnian) Halstatt Ls.,
Bavaria, Germany
.UMEROUS THIN SHELLS OF THE PECTINOID DYSODONT
PELECYPOD (ALOBIA SP 4HIS MAY HAVE BEEN A
MOTILE BIVALVE OR ONE THAT USED ITS THIN BROAD
SHELLS TO hmOATv ON SOFT SEDIMENTS 4HE SMOOTH
TO SLIGHTLY PLICATE SHELLS HAVE VIRTUALLY NO PRE
SERVED WALL STRUCTURE AND ARE RECOGNIZABLE
MAINLY ON THE BASIS OF SHAPE AND SHELL THICK
NESS
00, (! MM
Cretaceous (Albian-Cenomanian)
El Abra Ls., San Luis Potosi,
Mexico
! SHELL OF 4OUCASIA SP A THIN
SHELLED RUDISTID
BIVALVE SHOWING DIFFERENTIAL FABRIC PRES
ERVATION IN A TWO
LAYER WALL STRUCTURE 4HE
OUTER LAYER WAS ORIGINALLY CALCITIC THE INNER
LAYER ARAGONITIC .OTE ORGANIC REMNANTS IN
THE CALCITIC LAYER AND ABSENCE OF REMNANTS IN
THE NEOMORPHOSED FORMERLY ARAGONITIC LAYER
THE EDGE OF WHICH IS MARKED BY CONTACT WITH
MICRITE AND MILIOLID GRAINS
00, (! MM
Cretaceous (Albian-Cenomanian)
El Abra Ls., San Luis Potosi,
Mexico
!N ENLARGED VIEW OF THE 4OUCASIA SP RUDISTID
WALL SHOWN IN THE PREVIOUS PHOTOGRAPH .OTE
THE BROWNISH COLOR REmECTING ORGANIC REMNANTS
AND GROWTH BANDING IN THE CALCITIC LAYER
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Oligocene (Chattian) Molasse,
Bavaria, Germany
0ART OF A LARGE #YRENIA SHELL EASILY RECOGNIZ
ABLE AS A BIVALVE BY ITS SHELL SHAPE 4HIS
GENUS HAS A HOMOGENEOUS SOMETIMES TERMED
HOMOGENEOUS PRISMATIC CALCITE WALL STRUCTURE
"ECAUSE THE MINUTE CRYSTALS ARE ORIENTED WITH
THEIR C AXES PERPENDICULAR TO THE SHELL MARGIN
EXTINCTION BANDS ALSO ORIENTED PERPENDICULAR
TO OUTER SHELL WALL SWEEP THROUGH THE LENGTH
OF THE SHELL AS STAGE IS ROTATED 4HIS WALL STRUC
TURE IS ALSO FOUND IN TRILOBITES OSTRACODES AND
SOME FORAMINIFERS SO THESE GROUPS MUST BE
DISTINGUISHED ON OTHER CRITERIA GENERALLY SHELL
OR TEST MORPHOLOGY
80, (! MM
Oligocene Nile Gp., Westland, New
Zealand
! MULTI
LAYERED BIVALVE SHELL SHOWING AT LEAST
TWO TYPES OF FOLIATED WALL STRUCTURE -ULTIPLE
LAYERS WITH DIFFERENT FOLIATION ORIENTATIONS AS
SEEN HERE ADD CONSIDERABLY TO THE STRUCTURAL
STRENGTH OF BIVALVE SHELLS 4HE FOLIATED STRUC
TURE DEPICTED HERE IS CALCITIC ESSENTIALLY THE
SAME STRUCTURE IN ARAGONITIC LAYERS IS TERMED
hNACREOUSv FABRIC &OLIATED STRUCTURE IS FOUND
IN MOLLUSKS BRACHIOPODS SOME BRYOZOANS
AND SOME WORM TUBES
00,80, (! MM EACH
Lo. Cretaceous Paw Paw Fm.,
Quarry Ls., Grayson Co., Texas
4HIS SECTION PROVIDES A MORE DETAILED VIEW
OF FOLIATED STRUCTURE IN A PROBABLE 'RYPHAEA
SHELL 4HE STACKED BUNDLES OF CALCITE CRYSTALS
WITH DIFFERING ORIENTATIONS ARE CLEARLY VISIBLE
IN THIS EXAMPLE 4HE OVOID DISTURBANCES IN THE
WALL STRUCTURE ARE BORINGS
80, (! MM
CHAPTER 9: MOLLUSKS
Lo. Cretaceous (Albian) Glen Rose
Ls., Somervell Co., Texas
! VIEW OF MORE IRREGULAR FOLIATED STRUCTURE IN
A 'RYPHAEA SHELL &OLIATED STRUCTURE CONSISTS
OF MORE OR LESS hRANDOMLY ORIENTED BUNDLES OF
CALCITE LAMELLAE PRODUCING AN EFFECT SIMILAR TO
CROSS
BEDDINGv -AJEWSKE 0LATE )T
IS PARTICULARLY COMMON IN OYSTERS AND OYSTER
LIKE OSTREID GROUPS WHICH INCLUDE 'RYPHAEA
%XOGYRA /STREA AND OTHER GENERA
80, (! MM
Up. Cretaceous Selma Chalk,
Alabama
!N EXAMPLE OF MULTILAYERED STRUCTURE IN AN
OSTREID OYSTER LIKE SHELL !LTHOUGH IT APPEARS
VARIED ALL THE FABRIC SHOWN HERE IS ACTUALLY FO
LIATED STRUCTURE 3TANDARD FOLIATIONS PASS LATER
ALLY INTO AREAS WHERE THE FOLIATIONS DIVERGE AND
REJOIN THUS SURROUNDING OPEN SPACES NOW lLLED
WITH DIAGENETIC SPARRY CALCITE 4HIS STRUCTURE
IS TERMED hVESICULARv AND IT REmECTS THE SAME
PRINCIPLE AS CORRUGATED CARDBOARD GREAT
STRENGTH WITH MINIMAL USE OF MATERIALS )T AL
LOWS THE ORGANISM TO BUILD A THICK SHELL THUS
ENABLING IT TO RESIST BORING ORGANISMS WITHOUT
HAVING TO SECRETE MASSIVE QUANTITIES OF CALCITE
00, (! MM
Plio-Pleistocene Caloosahatchee
Fm., Hendry Co., Florida
! FRAGMENT OF AN OYSTER SHELL CUT BY LARGE
SPONGE BORINGS 4HE BORINGS DARK PATCHES
ARE lLLED WITH CARBONATE MUD MICRITE 4HE
SHELL IS COMPLEXLY MULTILAYERED WITH ALTER
NATING LAYERS OF NEAR HORIZONTALLY FOLIATED OR
NACREOUS AND NORMAL PRISMATIC FABRICS
80, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Recent shell material, Belize
4WO 3%- IMAGES SHOWING THE STRUCTURE OF
THE NACREOUS LAYER OF A BIVALVE SHELL AT DIF
FERENT MAGNIlCATIONS .ACRE REPRESENTS THE
PEARLY MATERIAL FOUND IN SOME MOLLUSKS PEARL
hOYSTERv SHELLS AND PEARLS PEARLY NAUTILOIDS
AND A VARIETY OF ARAGONITIC BIVALVES INCLUDING
.UCULA .UCULANA 0INCTADA AND 0TERIA !S
CAN BE SEEN HERE NACRE CONSISTS OF STACKED
OVERLAPPING VERTICAL COLUMNS OF TABULAR ARA
GONITE CRYSTALS THAT ARE SEPARATED BY EXTREMELY
THIN SHEATHS OF ORGANIC MATERIAL !LTHOUGH THIS
STRUCTURE IS LOST DURING DIAGENESIS IT IS USEFUL
IN IDENTIlCATION OF MODERN SHELL FRAGMENTS
3%- , (! M 2 (! M
Mid. Triassic Muschelkalk
limestone, Malogoszcz, Poland
! PLANE
POLARIZED LIGHT VIEW OF A BIVALVE SHELL
WITH COARSELY PRISMATIC STRUCTURE -ARGIN
PAR
ALLEL LINES OF INCLUSIONS MARK ORIGINAL LAYERING
WITHIN THE SHELL MORE SUBTLE MARGIN
NORMAL
INCLUSION TRACES MARK THE EDGES OF THE INDI
VIDUAL PRISMS
00, (! MM
Mid. Triassic Muschelkalk
limestone, Malogoszcz, Poland
! VIEW OF THE SAME AREA AS IN THE PREVIOUS PHO
TOGRAPH BUT UNDER CROSS
POLARIZED ILLUMINA
TION 4HE COARSE PRISMS THAT COMPOSE THE SHELL
WALL CAN BE SEEN TO EXTEND FROM ONE SHELL MAR
GIN TO THE OTHER PROBABLY INDICATING COMPLETE
DIAGENETIC REMOVAL OF A SECONDARY PRESUMABLY
ARAGONITIC SHELL LAYER 4HE COARSENESS AND IN
CLUSION
RICH NATURE OF THE PRISMS MAY INDICATE
THAT THEY TOO HAVE UNDERGONE SOME DIAGENETIC
MODIlCATION
80, (! MM
CHAPTER 9: MOLLUSKS
Up. Cretaceous San Carlos Fm.,
Presidio Co., Texas
4HIS )NOCERAMUS SHELL HAS A DISTINCTIVE
UNRECRYSTALLIZED ORIGINALLY CALCITIC PRISMATIC
WALL STRUCTURE HERE CUT BY A NUMBER OF BORINGS
ALONG THE SHELL MARGIN )NOCERAMIDS ARE RE
STRICTED TO #RETACEOUS STRATA BUT COMPRISE A
BIOSTRATIGRAPHICALLY IMPORTANT GROUP ESPE
CIALLY IN SHELF CHALKS 4HEY HAD A MIXED MIN
ERALOGY SHELL WITH A THIN NACREOUS ARAGONITIC
LAYER AND A THICK PRISMATIC CALCITE LAYER 4HE
ARAGONITIC LAYER IS RARELY PRESERVED AND MAY
HAVE BEEN LOST IN MANY CASES PRIOR TO BURIAL
4HUS INOCERAMID SHELLS COMMONLY BROKE UP
INTO INDIVIDUAL PRISMS THAT MAY CONSTITUTE AN
IMPORTANT FRACTION OF SOME DEPOSITS
80, (! MM
Cretaceous block in Tertiary
allochthon, Toa Toa, Northland,
New Zealand
4HIS IS A SEDIMENT COMPOSED ESSENTIALLY
ENTIRELY OF INDIVIDUAL CALCITE PRISMS FROM
DISAGGREGATED INOCERAMID SHELLS 4HE PRISMS
HAVE A DISTINCTIVE POLYGONAL GENERALLY HEX
AGONAL OUTLINE IN TRANSVERSE SECTION AND A
TAPERING OR BLUNT WEDGE SHAPE IN LONGITUDINAL
SECTION !LTHOUGH IT IS RARE TO lND A DEPOSIT
SO PACKED WITH PRISMS ISOLATED INOCERAMID
PRISMS ARE COMMON CONSTITUENTS IN MANY #RE
TACEOUS SHELF CHALKS
80, (! MM
Eocene Barton Beds, Barton,
England, U.K.
! PORTION OF THE SHELL OF A PACHYDONT BIVALVE
#HAMA SQUAMOSA WITH A PUNCTATE SHELL WALL
THE PORES ARE VISIBLE AS SMALL WHITE CIRCLES
0UNCTATE STRUCTURE IS RARE IN BIVALVES BUT IT IS
COMMON IN BRACHIOPODS PUNCTATE SHELLS OF THE
TWO GROUPS CAN BE DIFFERENTIATED ON OTHER CHAR
ACTERISTICS FOR EXAMPLE THE WELL DEVELOPED
GROWTH LINES SEEN IN THIS BIVALVE THAT WOULD NOT
BE SEEN IN A BRACHIOPOD
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Lo. Cretaceous Rodessa Fm.,
subsurface, Duke Field, Houston
Co., Texas
!RGUABLY THE MOST ABERRANT OF ALL BIVALVES ARE
THE PACHYDONT RUDISTIDS 4HIS IMAGE SHOWS A
TRANSVERSE CUT THROUGH AN INTACT THICK WALLED
HORN SHAPED LOWER VALVE OF 0LANOCAPRINA SP A
CAPRINID RUDISTID LARGE CANALS CHARACTERISTIC
OF CAPRINIDS RUN THROUGH THE WALLS 2UDISTIDS
WERE A SHORT
LIVED GROUP #RETACEOUS WITH ,ATE
*URASSIC PRECURSORS FOUND PRIMARILY IN WARM
WATER AREAS
LAT 4HEIR LARGE SIZE SOME
ARE GREATER THAN CM LONG AND ROBUST WALLS
ENABLED THEM TO ACT AS MAJOR BIOHERM FORMERS
AND SEDIMENT PRODUCERS 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY
OF 2OBERT 7 3COTT
00, (! MM
Up. Cretaceous limestone,
Zakinthos, Ionian Islands, Greece
! LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF A LARGE RUDISTID
SHELL SHOWING INTERNAL PARTITIONING WITHIN
THE HORN OR TUBE SHAPED MAIN VALVE AND VE
SICULAR FABRIC IN THE WALLS 2UDISTIDS DID NOT
ENCRUST OR ACTIVELY CEMENT TO EACH OTHER AND
SO WERE NOT TRUE REEF BUILDERS 3OME STOOD
UPRIGHT IN PACKED CLUSTERS WHEREAS OTHERS
LIVED RECUMBENT ON THE SEAmOOR )SOLATED
RUDISTIDS PROBABLY WERE FREQUENTLY REORIENTED
BY WAVE ACTION AND RUDISTID BIOHERMS IN HIGH
ENERGY SHELF MARGINS WERE STABILIZED PRIMARILY
THROUGH ENCRUSTATION BY CORALS ALGAE AND OTHER
ORGANISMS AS WELL AS THROUGH SYNDEPOSITIONAL
MARINE CEMENTATION
00, "3% (! MM
Cretaceous (Albian-Cenomanian)
Tamabra Ls., San Luis Potosi,
Mexico
-OST RUDISTID WALLS HAD EXTERIOR RIBBING
AND HIGHLY VESICULAR WALLS TO STRENGTHEN
THEIR SHELLS 4HIS EXAMPLE PROBABLY FROM
A RADIOLITID RUDISTID SHOWS RELATIVELY POOR
STRUCTURAL PRESERVATION TYPICAL OF ARAGONITIC
COMPOSITION
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 9: MOLLUSKS
Up. Cretaceous (Turonian?)
limestone, Cephalonia, Ionian
Islands, Greece
! LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH THE WALL OF
FRAGMENTED RUDISTID SHELL SHOWING THE ELONGATE
MORPHOLOGY OF THE MAIN VALVE THE CORRUGATED
CONSTRUCTION VESICULAR STRUCTURE AND TRACES OF
EXTERNAL RIBBING %VEN IN SMALLER FRAGMENTS
THESE FEATURES REMAIN RECOGNIZABLE AND ALLOW
THE IDENTIlCATION OF RUDISTID DEBRIS
00, !&E3 "3% (! MM
Up. Cretaceous limestone,
Cephalonia, Ionian Islands, Greece
!N EXAMPLE OF EXTREMELY VESICULAR STRUC
TURE IN A FRAGMENT OF A RUDISTID WALL .OTE
COMPACTIONAL CRUSHING OF PARTS OF THE WALL
3UCH LIGHTLY MINERALIZED RUDISTIDS ARE MORE
PREVALENT IN PROTECTED SHELF INTERIOR OR BACK
REEF SETTINGS
00, "3% (! MM
Up. Cretaceous top Edwards Fm.,
Bell Co., Texas
! LIMESTONE COMPOSED OF ROUNDED RUDISTID
FRAGMENTS 2UDISTID DEBRIS IS VERY COMMON
IN #RETACEOUS LIMESTONES 4HE VESICULAR
STRUCTURE LACK OF ADHESION BETWEEN ADJACENT
ORGANISMS AND GROWTH IN HIGH ENERGY SETTINGS
LED TO EXTENSIVE FRAGMENTATION AND REWORKING
OF RUDISTID SHELLS !LTHOUGH IDENTIlCATION OF
EACH GRAIN MAY BE DIFlCULT RECOGNITION OF VE
SICULAR AND CANAL BEARING FRAGMENTS AS IN THIS
EXAMPLE MAKES IT LIKELY MANY OTHER GRAINS ARE
ALSO OF RUDISTID ORIGIN
00, "3% (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
#%0(!,/0/$3
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
0HYLUM -OLLUSCA 3UBPHYLUM #YRTOSOMA
#LASS #EPHALOPODA ,ATE #AMBRIAN
2ECENT
#OMMONLY DIVIDED INTO SIX SUBCLASSES OF WHICH ONLY THREE ARE LISTED HERE
3UBCLASS .AUTILOIDEA ,ATE #AMBRIAN
(OLOCENE MODERN REPRESENTATIVES REDUCED TO A SINGLE GENUS
3UBCLASS !MMONOIDEA %ARLY $EVONIAN
,ATE #RETACEOUS
3UBCLASS #OLEOIDEA %ARLY $EVONIAN
(OLOCENE INCLUDES THE ORDER "ELEMNITIDA ,ATE -ISSISSIPPIAN
,ATE
#RETACEOUS
%NCOMPASSES SEVERAL IMPORTANT CALCIlED GROUPS INCLUDING NAUTILOIDS AMMONITES GONIATITES BACULITES AND
BELEMNITES AS WELL AS UNCALCIlED ORGANISMS SUCH AS SQUID AND OCTOPI
#EPHALOPODS ONLY RARELY ARE SIGNIlCANT SEDIMENT FORMERS IN 0ALEOZOIC AND -ESOZOIC STRATA BUT THEY ARE AMONG
THE MOST IMPORTANT STRATIGRAPHIC INDEX MACROFOSSILS IN MANY ROCKS
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
#EPHALOPODS ARE A DIVERSE GROUP OF HIGHLY DEVELOPED MOLLUSKS -OST WERE NEKTIC CREATURES WITH MODERATE TO HIGH
MOBILITY SOME WERE BENTHIC BUT STILL MOBILE ORGANISMS !LL MODERN AND ANCIENT FORMS ARE INTERPRETED AS
FULLY MARINE !LTHOUGH CEPHALOPODS ARE FOUND WASHED INTO MARGINAL MARINE SETTINGS THEY ARE MOST COMMON
IN OPEN SHELF AND DEEPER
WATER DEPOSITS 4HEIR REMARKABLE BUOYANCY CONTROLS PROPULSION MECHANISMS
INTELLIGENCE AND EYESIGHT ENABLED THE CEPHALOPODS TO BE FORMIDABLE PREDATORS THROUGHOUT THEIR HISTORY
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
-ODERN NAUTILUS SHELLS AND PROBABLY MOST FOSSIL AMMONOIDS AND NAUTILOIDS AREWERE ENTIRELY ARAGONITIC 3OME
THIN LAYERS OR PARTS WERE COMPOSED OF ORGANIC MATERIAL CONCHIOLIN OR CALCIUM PHOSPHATE CAMERAL DEPOSITS
PRECIPITATED IN LIFE ALSO WERE ARAGONITIC SOMETIMES WITH ALTERNATING LAYERS OF CLEAR AND ORGANIC
RICH CARBONATE
-OST CEPHALOPOD APTICHI ON THE OTHER HAND WERE LOW
-G CALCITE "ELEMNITE ROSTRA ALSO WERE ENTIRELY LOW
-G
CALCITE WITH SOME ORGANIC INTERLAYERS ALTHOUGH 4RIASSIC COLEOID ROSTRA PROBABLY WERE ARAGONITIC
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
4HE CALCIlED CEPHALOPODS HAVE AN EXTERNAL TYPICALLY CONICAL CHAMBERED SKELETON THAT MAY BE STRAIGHT TIGHTLY
PLANISPIRALLY COILED OR PARTIALLY COILED #HAMBERS ARE WALLED BY SEPTA THAT MAY BE STRAIGHT AND SMOOTH OR
HIGHLY CONVOLUTE AND ATTACHED TO THE SHELL WALL BY ORNATE SUTURES OF VARYING COMPLEXITY 3OME GROUPS ALSO HAVE
AN APTICHUS OR AN ANAPTICHUS USED TO CLOSE THE EXTERNAL OPENING OF THE SHELL COMPARABLE TO THE OPERCULUM
OF A GASTROPOD
-ANY NAUTILOIDS AND AMMONOIDS HAVE A SIPHUNCLE A TUBE THAT RUNS THROUGH EACH OF THE INTERNAL CHAMBERS
.AUTILOIDS ALSO COMMONLY HAVE CALCIUM CARBONATE CAMERAL DEPOSITS LINING OR COMPLETELY lLLING POSTERIOR
CHAMBERS AND PARTS OF THEIR SIPHUNCLE FOR BUOYANCY CONTROL
7HOLE CEPHALOPODS ARE TYPICALLY CENTIMETER
TO DECIMETER
SIZED SOME CAN BE MORE THAN M IN LENGTH -OST ARE
THUS LARGER THAN A THIN SECTION MOST RECOGNIZABLE FRAGMENTS ARE IN THE MM TO CM SIZE RANGE
"ELEMNITES HAD SOLID INTERNAL ROSTRA THAT ARE CONICAL IN SHAPE STRAIGHT AND HOLLOW AT THE LARGER END
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
#EPHALOPOD SHELLS CAN BE UP TO M IN LENGTH &RAGMENTS ARE TYPICALLY IN THE CM OR LARGER SIZE RANGE HAVE
CONICAL STRAIGHT OR COILED SHAPES AND ARE INTERNALLY CHAMBERED SEPTATE THROUGHOUT THEIR LENGTH UNLIKE
GASTROPODS 4HE PARTITIONED CHAMBERS ARE CONNECTED BY A SMALL TUBE THE SIPHUNCLE THAT MAY BE VISIBLE IN
SOME SECTIONS
.AUTILOIDS TYPICALLY HAVE SMOOTHLY CURVED SEPTA WHEREAS AMMONITES HAVE CONVOLUTE SEPTA AND SUTURES
-ODERN NAUTILOIDS HAVE VERY THIN
WALLED ARAGONITIC SHELLS WITH ONE TO THREE LAYERS A THIN PORCELANEOUS LAYER
OF ARAGONITE PRISMS THE OSTRACUM ON THE OUTSIDE A THICKER MIDDLE LAYER COMPOSED OF NACREOUS ARAGONITE AND
ORGANIC MATTER TERMED THE NACREOUS LAYER AND A THIN INNER LAYER OF PRISMATIC ARAGONITE &OSSIL AMMONOIDS
MOST LIKELY HAD THE SAME COMPOSITION AND WALL STRUCTURE ARAGONITIC WALL STRUCTURE GENERALLY IS LOST DURING
DIAGENESIS EXCEPT IN UNUSUAL CIRCUMSTANCES WHERE ARAGONITE HAS BEEN PRESERVED ! FEW FOSSIL NAUTILOIDS HAVE
EXCELLENT PRESERVATION OF SOME OR ALL OF THEIR WALL STRUCTURE AND MAY HAVE BEEN PARTIALLY CALCITIC
"ELEMNITES HAVE A VERY DISTINCTIVE STRUCTURE WITH A VERY THICK SOLID TAPERING PARTIALLY HOLLOW CALCITIC ROSTRUM
THAT IS NORMALLY VERY WELL PRESERVED 4HE ROSTRA OF BELEMNITES ARE COMPOSED OF RADIALLY ARRANGED EXTREMELY
LONG AND THIN CALCITE PRISMS THIS PRODUCES A PSEUDO
UNIAXIAL CROSS IN CROSS
POLARIZED LIGHT
CHAPTER 9: MOLLUSKS
Morphology of a typical nautiloid
cephalopod
$IAGRAMMATIC SECTIONS THROUGH A COILED
NAUTILOID CEPHALOPOD BASED ON THE ONLY
SURVIVING EXTERNALLY SHELLED CEPHALOPOD THE
PEARLY NAUTILUS ADAPTED FROM -OORE ET AL
AND OTHER SOURCES 4HE COILED SHELL IS
DIVIDED INTO CHAMBERS CAMERA BY SMOOTH
SEPTAL PARTITIONS 4HE LIVING SQUID LIKE ORGAN
ISM OCCUPIES ONLY THE OUTERMOST CHAMBER AT
EACH STAGE IN ITS DEVELOPMENT 4HE SHELL IN THIS
EXAMPLE AND IN MANY BUT NOT ALL FOSSIL FORMS
IS ARAGONITIC AND CONSISTS MAINLY OF NACRE WITH
A SIGNIlCANT ORGANIC CONTENT 4HE NACRE IS
SANDWICHED BETWEEN VERY THIN INNER AND OUTER
LAYERS COMPOSED OF TINY ARAGONITE PRISMS
Mid. Ordovician Holston Fm.,
eastern Tennessee
! POLISHED SLAB OF ORTHOCONIC UNCOILED
NAUTILOID RICH SEDIMENT .OTE THE SMOOTH
SEPTA AND THIN WALLS TYPICAL OF NAUTILOIDS
4HE COMPLEX INTERNAL SEDIMENT lLLINGS IN THE
ORTHOCONES INDICATE A COMPLEX AND PROBABLY
LONG PERIOD OF EXPOSURE ON THE SEA mOOR 4HE
LIGHTER GRAY AREAS WITHIN SHELLS CONSIST OF l
BROUS CALCITE CEMENT OF PROBABLE MARINE ORIGIN
0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF !NDREW 3TEFANIAK
-AC (! ^ CM
Up. Permian Middle reef complex,
eastern Djebel Tebaga, Tunisia
! CROSS SECTION THROUGH A SMALL AMMONOID
CEPHALOPOD CENTER SHOWING A PROGRESSIVE IN
CREASE IN CHAMBER SIZES FROM ITS INITIAL WHORLS
TO THE lNAL ONES 4HE TYPICALLY THIN WALLS OF
THIS NEKTIC ORGANISM HAVE BEEN COMPLETELY
NEOMORPHOSED THE NORM FOR ORIGINALLY
ARAGONITIC SHELL MATERIAL 3EVERAL OTHER FOR
MERLY ARAGONITIC MOLLUSCAN FRAGMENTS MAINLY
FROM BIVALVES ALSO ARE VISIBLE
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Lo. Carboniferous Dartry Ls., near
Sligo, Ireland
! CUT THROUGH A NAUTILOID CEPHALOPOD WITH WELL
PRESERVED INTERNAL CHAMBERS 4HE UNIFORMLY
CURVED SEPTA AND THE TRACE OF A SIPHUNCLE THE
OVOID FEATURE TOWARD THE LEFT OF CENTER SERVE
AS DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF NAUTILOID MATE
RIAL !LTHOUGH THE CALCAREOUS WALL STRUCTURE
IS NOT WELL PRESERVED THE WALL AREAS HAVE A
DARK COLOR THAT MAY REPRESENT PRESERVATION OF
AT LEAST A FRACTION THE ORGANIC MATTER THAT ONCE
WAS A COMPONENT OF THE SHELL WALL
00, (! MM
Up. Cretaceous Carlisle Shale (?),
South Dakota
! LOW
MAGNIlCATION VIEW OF A SAGITTAL SECTION
THROUGH A COMPLETE AMMONITE !CANTHO
CERAS SP 4HE SPIRAL CHAMBERED FORM THE
LARGE SIZE AND THE THIN WALLS WITH REMNANTS OF
BROWNISH ORGANIC MATTER ALL SERVE TO IDENTIFY
THIS A COILED CEPHALOPOD 4HE WAVY OR PLICATE
SEPTA DISTINGUISH THIS AS AN AMMONITE RATHER
THAN A NAUTILOID THAT WOULD HAVE NON
PLICATE
SEPTA
00, (! MM
Up. Cretaceous Carlisle Shale (?),
South Dakota
%NLARGED PLANE AND CROSS POLARIZED VIEWS OF
THE SAME COMPLETE AMMONITE SHOWN IN THE
PREVIOUS PHOTOGRAPH 4HE DETAILS OF THE SEPTA
THE EXTERNAL WALL AND THE CAMERAL PRECIPITATES
ARE MORE CLEARLY VISIBLE !S IN MANY SUCH
SHELLS THE MARINE OR EARLY BURIAL CEMENTS THAT
lLL CEPHALOPOD BODY CAVITIES CONTAIN TRACES
OF BROWNISH ORGANIC MATTER PERHAPS REmECT
ING THE REMNANTS OF SOFT ORGANIC TISSUES OR THE
INmUENCE OF MICROBES THAT COLONIZED THE SHELL
INTERIORS AFTER DEATH OF THE ORGANISM
00,80, (! MM EACH
CHAPTER 9: MOLLUSKS
Up. Cretaceous Fox Hills Ss.,
Dewey Co., South Dakota
! THIN
WALLED AMMONITE WITH UNCHARACTERISTIC
PRESERVATION OF THE ORIGINAL THIN ARAGONITIC
WALL 4HE PRESERVATION OF ARAGONITE FOR MIL
LION YEARS RESULTED FROM ENCASEMENT IN AN IM
PERMEABLE CONCRETION DURING EARLY DIAGENESIS
4HE SHELL HAS NACREOUS STRUCTURE THE ORIGINAL
THIN PRISMATIC LAYERS ARE NOT PRESERVED HERE
.OTE ALSO THE lBROUS TO BLADED MARINE CAL
CITE INlLL OF THE AMMONITE CHAMBERS A COM
MON FEATURE IN MOST PRESERVED UNDEFORMED
CEPHALOPODS
80, (! MM
Pennsylvanian Buckhorn Asphalt,
Murray Co., Oklahoma
!N EXAMPLE OF PRESERVED ARAGONITE WALLS IN
CRUSHED CEPHALOPOD SHELLS 4HIS IS SOME OF
THE OLDEST PRESERVED PRIMARY SKELETAL ARAGONITE
NACRE THE UNUSUAL PRESERVATION RESULTS FROM
EARLY IMPREGNATION OF THE SEDIMENT BY CRUDE
OIL NOW HEAVY OIL OR ASPHALT THAT HAS GIVEN THE
ROCK A YELLOWISH BROWN COLOR 3UCH EXCEP
TIONAL OCCURRENCES OF PRESERVED MATERIAL ALLOW
A BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF THE MINERALOGY AND
STRUCTURE OF THE NOW EXTINCT OR NEARLY EXTINCT
EXTERNALLY SHELLED CEPHALOPODS
00, (! MM
Cretaceous, coastal plain, New
Jersey
! TRANSVERSE CROSS
SECTION THROUGH A BELEMNITE
ROSTRUM 4HE ROSTRUM WAS A MASSIVE ELONGATE
CONICAL STRUCTURE WITH A CONICAL CAVITY AT ONE
END )T IS THE MOST COMMONLY PRESERVED POR
TION OF BELEMNITES THE PHRAGMOCONE IS MUCH
MORE DELICATE AND RARELY IS WELL PRESERVED
"ELEMNITE ROSTRA CONSIST OF RADIATING lBERS OR
PRISMS OF CALCITE THAT PRODUCE A STRONG PSEUDO
UNIAXIAL CROSS UNDER CROSS
POLARIZED LIGHT
!LTHOUGH NOT SEEN IN THIS SPECIMEN MANY
BELEMNITES ALSO SHOW TREE
RING
LIKE GROWTH
LINES MARKED BY LAYERS OF BROWNISH ORGANIC
MATTER WITHIN THE ROSTRUM
80, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Cretaceous (Senonian) White
Ls., Ballycastle, Northern Ireland
!N OBLIQUE SECTION THROUGH THE PART OF A
BELEMNITE ROSTRUM WITH A CONICAL CAVITY THAT
ONCE HELD THE PHRAGMOCONE .OTE THE PSEUDO
UNIAXIAL CROSS THE CLEARLY VISIBLE RADIAL CALCITE
lBERS AND THE WEAKLY VISIBLE GROWTH LINES
"ELEMNITES ARE IMPORTANT BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC FOS
SILS AND SIGNIlCANT CARBONATE CONTRIBUTORS IN
-ESOZOIC ESPECIALLY *URASSIC AND #RETACEOUS
STRATA
80, (! MM
3#!0(/0/$3
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
0HYLUM -OLLUSCA 3UBPHYLUM $IASOMA
#LASS 3CAPHOPODA -ID /RDOVICIAN
2ECENT
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
-ODERN SCAPHOPODS ARE FULLY MARINE AND ALL FOSSIL EXAMPLES ARE THOUGHT TO HAVE LIVED IN THE SAME CONDITIONS
-ODERN FORMS ARE BENTHIC INFAUNAL DEPOSIT FEEDERS THAT INHABIT SOFT BOTTOMS FROM SHELFAL WATERS TO DEPTHS
GREATER THAN KM 4HEY FEED PRIMARILY ON BENTHIC FORAMINIFERS
2ARELY ARE DOMINANT ROCK
FORMING CONSTITUENTS
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
3HELLS ARE COMPOSED OF ARAGONITE WITH LOW 3R AND -G CONTENT
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
3CAPHOPODS ARE UNIVALVE MOLLUSKS WITH A TAPERING SLIGHTLY CURVED CONICAL SHELL THAT IS OPEN AT BOTH ENDS
3HELLS OF ADULT FORMS TYPICALLY ARE CM OR SHORTER IN LENGTH AND A FEW MM IN WIDTH
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
3CAPHOPOD SHELLS OR FRAGMENTS ARE TYPICALLY IN THE SIZE RANGE FROM MM TO A FEW CM
#URVED SMOOTH TO SOMEWHAT ORNAMENTED SHELL FRAGMENTS PREDOMINATE MOST HAVE CIRCULAR TO ELLIPTICAL
INTERNAL SHAPES AND CIRCULAR TO POLYGONAL EXTERIORS #UTS PARALLEL TO THE LONG AXIS SHOW TWO SUB
PARALLEL LINES
OF MATERIAL REPRESENTING THE WALLS OF A SIMPLE UNCHAMBERED TAPERING CONE
"ECAUSE THEY ARE ARAGONITIC SHELL WALLS OF FOSSILS TYPICALLY ARE POORLY PRESERVED
7ELL PRESERVED SHELLS HAVE EXTREMELY THIN INNER AND OUTER WALLS SANDWICHED AROUND A MIDDLE LAYER WITH
CROSSED
LAMELLAR FABRIC 4OWARD THE SMALLER END OF THE SHELL THIS MICROSTRUCTURE BECOMES INDISTINGUISHABLE
)T IS THIS DISTINCTIVE MICROSTRUCTURE WHERE PRESERVED THAT ALLOWS DISTINCTION FROM ANNELID WORM TUBES AND
OTHER TUBULAR TO CONICAL GRAINS
3CAPHOPODS LACK SEPTA WHICH HELPS TO DISTINGUISH THEM FROM SMALL NAUTILOIDS
CHAPTER 9: MOLLUSKS
Comparison of wall structures
of scaphopods and other tube-
shaped fossils
3CHEMATIC TRANSVERSE AND LONGITUDINAL SECTIONS
THROUGH A SCAPHOPOD A VERMETID GASTROPOD
AND A SERPULID WORM TUBE 4HE SCAPHOPOD
HAS THIN CLEAR INNER AND OUTER LAYERS WITH A
THICK COMMONLY CROSSED
LAMELLAR OR PRISMATIC
MIDDLE LAYER THAT ALSO MAY BE CONCENTRICALLY
LAMINATED 4HE VERMETID GASTROPOD SHELL HAS
A PRISMATIC INNER AND OUTER LAYER AND A LAMI
NATED MIDDLE LAYER 4HE SERPULID WORM TUBE
HAS A LAMINATED INNER LAYER AND A CONE
IN
CONE STRUCTURE IN ITS OUTER LAYER )N PRACTICE
HOWEVER THOSE WALL
STRUCTURAL DIFFERENCES ARE
NOT ALWAYS EASY TO DISTINGUISH !FTER 3CHMIDT
AND (OROWITZ AND 0OTTER
Pliocene, Sarteano, Italy
! TRANSVERSE SECTION THROUGH PART OF THE WALL OF A
SCAPHOPOD $ENTALIUM SEXANGULARE 4HIS GENUS
IS CHARACTERIZED BY ITS CONICAL SHAPE ARAGONITIC
SHELL WITH EXTENSIVE EXTERNAL RIBBING UNUSUAL
FOR THE USUALLY SMOOTH
WALLED SCAPHOPODS !L
THOUGH THE SHELL IS COMPOSED OF THREE LAYERS SEE
ABOVE THE INNER AND OUTER LAYERS ARE NORMALLY
VERY THIN COMPARED TO THE THICK CENTRAL LAYER
4HE CENTRAL ZONE MAY HAVE PRISMATIC HOMOGE
NEOUS OR CROSSED
LAMELLAR WALL STRUCTURE "G
GILD /NE CAN ALSO DISTINGUISH NUMEROUS
DARK GROWTH BANDS WITHIN THE SHELL WALL 4O ADD
COMPLEXITY SOME MEMBERS OF THIS GENUS HAVE
RECENTLY BEEN RECLASSIlED AS WORM TUBES 9O
CHELSON AND 'OODISON
00, (! MM
Pliocene, Sarteano, Italy
!N CROSS POLARIZED LIGHT IMAGE SHOWING DE
TAILS OF THE WALL STRUCTURE OF THE SCAPHOPOD
$ENTALIUM SEXANGULARE 4HE CONCENTRICALLY
LAMINATED HOMOGENEOUS OR VERY lNELY CRYS
TALLINE CROSSED LAMELLAR STRUCTURE OF THE CENTRAL
BAND OF THE SHELL IS VISIBLE BUT NOT DRAMATIC IN
THIS SECTION IT GENERALLY IS MORE PRONOUNCED
IN LONGITUDINAL SECTIONS ! THIN OUTER SHELL
LAYER IS ALSO PRESENT
80, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
#ITED 2EFERENCES AND !DDITIONAL )NFORMATION 3OURCES
"ANDEL + 3TRUKTUR DER -OLLUSKENSCHALE IM (INBLICK AUF IHRE GASTROPODS -OLLUSCA 0EABODY -USEUM OF .ATURAL (ISTORY 9ALE
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& ACING 0AGE 5NDERWATER PHOTOGRAPH OF A CRINOID PERCHED
ATOP A REEF
FRONT CORAL HEAD ON THE 'REAT "ARRIER 2EEF !USTRA
LIA 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF 7OODY -AYHEW
'2!).3 3KELETAL &RAGMENTS
ECHINODERMS
Echinoids
C Crinoids
H
A
P Blastoids
T
E Holothurians
R
10 Asteroids and
ophiuroids
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
%#()./)$3
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
0HYLUM %CHINODERMATA
3UBPHYLUM %CHINOZOA
#LASS %CHINOIDEA ,ATE /RDOVICIAN
2ECENT
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
%CHINOIDS SEA URCHINS LIVE IN NORMAL MARINE ENVIRONMENTS BECAUSE THEY WITH A VERY LIMITED RANGE OF SALINITY
TOLERANCE GENERALLY ONLY A FEW PPM
4HEY OCCUR MAINLY AS GRAZERS OR BURROWERS IN SANDY SHELF AREAS OR AS GRAZERS AND BIOERODERS ALONG ROCKY
SHORELINES 4HEY OCCUR IN DEEPER WATERS AS WELL EXTENDING TO ABYSSAL DEPTHS &OSSIL FORMS ARE MOST COMMON
IN NORMAL MARINE OPEN SHELF OR PLATFORM DEPOSITS
%CHINOIDS ARE COMMON IN BOTH WARM
AND COLD
WATER SETTINGS ALTHOUGH THEY RARELY ARE MAJOR ROCK
FORMING
ORGANISMS IE THEY RARELY EXCEED
OF THE TOTAL SEDIMENT
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
-ODERN AND ANCIENT ECHINOIDS AREWERE COMPOSED OF MODERATE
TO HIGH
-G CALCITE -ODERN FORMS CONTAIN
BETWEEN AND MOLE -G THE -G CONTENT VARIES WITH GENERIC GROUP AND INCREASES WITH INCREASING WATER
TEMPERATURE SEE -ILLIMAN P
FOR DETAILS AND CITATIONS
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
%CHINOIDS LIKE ALL ECHINODERMS AT SOME STAGE IN THEIR LIFE CYCLE SHOW PENTAMERAL l VE
FOLD SYMMETRY 4HEY HAVE
HEAVILY CALCIl ED GLOBULAR TO DISCOIDAL HOLLOW ENDOSKELETAL TESTS CORONAS THAT ARE COMPOSED OF INDIVIDUAL
SUTURED INTERLOCKING OR IMBRICATED CALCITE PLATES 4HE CALCITIC CORONAL PLATES ARE POROUS AND SPONGE
LIKE
ECHINOIDS WITH RAPID GROWTH RATES HAVE SPONGIER PLATES WITH MORE HOLES AND LESS CALCIl CATION THAN SLOW
GROWING COUNTERPARTS 4HUS SLOW GROWING COLD
WATER FORMS CAN BE MORE HEAVILY CALCIl ED THAN THOSE FROM
WARMER WATERS 2AUP
)N LIFE ECHINOID TESTS ARE COVERED WITH ELONGATE MOVEABLE SPINES IN SOME SPECIES EXTREMELY SHORT BUT IN OTHERS
LONGER THAN CM 4HE SPINES NORMALLY DETACH AFTER DEATH AND CAN THEMSELVES BE SIGNIl CANT SEDIMENT
CONTRIBUTORS
'ENERALLY EACH PLATE OF AN ECHINOID BEHAVES OPTICALLY AS A SINGLE EXTENSIVELY PERFORATED CALCITE CRYSTAL SEE
COMMENTS BELOW %CHINOID TEETH HOWEVER ARE POLYCRYSTALLINE
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
7HOLE ECHINOIDS RANGE FROM LESS THAN CM TO MORE THAN CM IN DIAMETER MOST PLATES OR PLATE FRAGMENTS ARE
MM OR SMALLER
7ITH FEW EXCEPTIONS EACH INDIVIDUAL ECHINOID PLATE OR SPINE APPEARS TO BE A SINGLE CRYSTAL OF CALCITE AND DISPLAYS
UNIT EXTINCTION ALTHOUGH IN REALITY AT LEAST THE OUTER MARGINS OF EACH PLATE CONSIST OF A MASS OF SUBMICROSCOPIC
CRYSTALS WITH VERY CLOSELY ALIGNED C
AXES 4OWE %CHINOID FRAGMENTS ARE EASY TO DISTINGUISH FROM THE
SKELETAL REMAINS OF OTHER PHYLA ON THIS BASIS ALONE BUT UNIT EXTINCTION IS A CHARACTERISTIC SHARED WITH VIRTUALLY
ALL OTHER ECHINODERMS
0LATES AND SPINES ARE PERFORATED WITH A REGULARLY ARRANGED MESHWORK OR HONEYCOMB OF TO M
DIAMETER
PORES 7HERE THE PORES ARE l LLED WITH CONTRASTING MATERIAL SUCH AS ORGANIC MATTER MICRITE OR GLAUCONITE
THEY ARE READILY VISIBLE IN THIN SECTION AND AT LOW MAGNIl CATIONS GIVE ECHINOID FRAGMENTS A hDUSTYv APPEARANCE
4HE REGULAR ARRANGEMENT OF THESE PORES YIELDS A hCHECKERBOARDv APPEARANCE AT HIGHER MAGNIl CATIONS 4HIS
CHARACTERISTIC IS SHARED WITH OTHER ECHINODERM GROUPS SPECIl CALLY CRINOIDS AND ASTEROIDSOPHIUROIDS
%CHINOID SPINES HAVE PORES ARRANGED WITH RADIAL SYMMETRY THUS IN CIRCULAR CROSS
SECTIONS ECHINOID SPINES
HAVE A DISTINCTIVE LOBATE OR m OWER
LIKE APPEARANCE
0LATES AND SPINES COMMONLY HAVE LARGE SINGLE
CRYSTAL SYNTAXIAL OVERGROWTHS CEMENTS IN OPTICAL CONTINUITY
WITH THEIR SKELETAL SUBSTRATE 4HE PRESENCE OF MICRITIC MATRIX OR OOLITIC COATINGS CAN INHIBIT THE FORMATION OF
SUCH OVERGROWTHS
0(/4/ 3#!,%3 !.$ !""2%6)!4)/.3 !2% %80,!).%$ ). 4(% "//+3 ).42/$5#4)/.
CHAPTER 10: ECHINODERMS
Diagrammatic view of typical
echinoids
4HIS DIAGRAM ADAPTED FROM -OORE ET AL
EMPHASIZES SOME OF THE FEATURES OF
ECHINOID TESTS AS EXEMPLIl ED BY (YATTECHI
NUS A ,OWER -ISSISSIPPIAN LEPIDOCENTROID
FORM AND %NCOPE TAMIAMENSIS A 0LIOCENE
CLYPEASTROID SPECIES )N PARTICULAR IT SHOWS
THEIR PENTAMERAL l VE FOLD SYMMETRY AND
INTERLOCKING CALCAREOUS PLATES EACH OF WHICH
ACTS OPTICALLY AS A SINGLE CALCITE CRYSTAL -OST
ECHINOIDS DISAGGREGATE INTO PARTICLES THAT CON
SIST OF WHOLE SINGLE PLATES ANDOR SPINES OR
BROKEN PIECES OF THOSE COMPONENTS
Up. Cretaceous (Maastrichtian)
Tor Fm. chalk, Skjold Field, Danish
North Sea
-OST WHOLE ECHINOIDS ARE SO LARGE THAT ONLY
SMALL PORTIONS ARE SEEN IN NORMAL SIZED THIN
SECTIONS 4HIS UNUSUAL PLAN VIEW OF A WHOLE
JUVENILE ECHINOID IS VISIBLE IN A hTHICK SECTIONv
CUT FOR m UID INCLUSION STUDIES 4HE ECHINOID
DISPLAYS THE GROUPS DIAGNOSTIC l VE FOLD SKEL
ETAL SYMMETRY COMPOSED OF MULTIPLE SINGLE
CRYSTAL PLATES
00, (! MM
Oligocene Nile Gp., north of
Karamea, Westland, New Zealand
!N UNUSUAL CUT THROUGH A SMALL BUT COMPLETE
ECHINOID 4HE TEST OR CORONA CONSISTS OF
NUMEROUS INTERLOCKED CALCITE PLATES SURROUND
ING THE CENTRAL CAVITY 4HE MOUTH OPENING
PERISTOME IS VISIBLE AT THE BOTTOM 4HE NU
MEROUS LARGE PORES PASSING THROUGH THE WALLS
WERE PASSAGEWAYS FOR THE WATER
VASCULAR SYS
TEM THAT OPERATED THE ORGANISMS TUBE FEET
00, "3% (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Oligocene Thomas Fm., western
Canterbury, New Zealand
4WO JOINED PLATES FROM A FRAGMENTED ECHINOID
CORONA .OTE THE FACT THAT EACH PLATE HAS SEPA
RATE UNIT EXTINCTION AND SHOWS WEAKLY IN THIS
CASE THE REGULAR PATTERN OF INTRAPLATE PORES THAT
PERMEATE ALL ECHINOID MATERIAL
80, (! MM
Recent sediment, Belize
!N 3%- IMAGE OF A FRACTURED PIECE OF ECHINOID
WALL )T ILLUSTRATES THE MASSIVE CONSTRUCTION OF
ECHINOID TESTS AND THE NETWORK OF LARGE PORES
WHICH TRANSECT THE STRUCTURE )N MANY CASES
THE INTRAPLATE PORE SPACE EXCEEDS OF THE
TOTAL VOLUME OF THE PLATE $ESPITE THE SINGLE
CRYSTAL APPEARANCE OF THE PLATE IT CONSISTS OF
A MASS OF MICROCRYSTALS SO SMALL THAT THEY ARE
ONLY VISIBLE AT EXTREME MAGNIl CATIONS
3%- (! M
Recent echinoid, Florida Keys,
Florida
! CLOSE UP VIEW OF A SINGLE ECHINOID PLATE
.OTE PREDOMINANTLY SINGLE CRYSTAL EXTINCTION
ALSO TERMED UNIT EXTINCTION OF EACH PLATE AS
WELL AS REGULAR SPONGY OR hHOLEYv FABRIC PRO
DUCED BY TUNNELS THROUGH THE OTHERWISE SOLID
HIGH -G CALCITE PLATES $URING DIAGENESIS
THESE PORES TYPICALLY ARE EITHER l LLED WITH
SYNTAXIAL CALCITE CEMENT IN WHICH CASE THEY
BECOME VIRTUALLY IMPOSSIBLE TO SEE OR WITH
MICRITIC MATRIX ORGANIC MATTER OR OTHER CON
TRASTING MATERIAL THAT ALLOWS THE PORES TO RE
MAIN VISIBLE
00,80, EACH (! MM
CHAPTER 10: ECHINODERMS
Up. Eocene Ocala Gp., Citrus Co.,
Florida
! LARGE ECHINODERM FRAGMENT WITH CHARACTER
ISTIC SINGLE CRYSTAL OR UNIT EXTINCTION AND UNI
FORM hHONEYCOMBv MICROTEXTURE SMALL PORES
l LLED WITH MICRITE !LSO NOTE THE FACT THAT THE
GRAIN IS SURROUNDED BY CALCITE OVERGROWTHS THAT
FORMED IN OPTICAL CONTINUITY WITH THE GRAIN AND
PREDATE LATER SILICA CEMENT 4HE IRREGULAR SHAPE
AND LACK OF A CENTRAL CANAL HELP TO DISTINGUISH IT
FROM A CRINOID COLUMNAL
80, (! MM
Eocene Ocala Gp., Inglis Fm., Levy
Co., Florida
!N UNUSUAL EXAMPLE OF A STRONGLY ORNAMENTED
AND VERY POROUS ECHINOID PLATE (ERE THE PORES
WERE l LLED WITH MICRITIC MATERIAL THAT CONTRASTS
WITH THE OPTICALLY CLEAR CALCITE OF THE ECHINOID
80, (! MM
Up. Silurian Tonoloway-Keyser Ls.,
Mifin Co., Pennsylvania
!N ECHINODERM FRAGMENT WITH OPTICAL SINGLE
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE AND A LARGE OVERGROWTH IN
OPTICAL CONTINUITY SYNTAXIAL CEMENT 4HE
OPTICAL CONTINUITY IS ESPECIALLY APPARENT HERE
BECAUSE THE TWINNING LAMELLAE OF THE CALCITE
CRYSTAL ARE CONTINUOUS FROM GRAIN TO CEMENT
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Diagram of an echinoid spine and
its attachment
%CHINOID SPINES ARE ATTACHED TO THE BODY OF THE
ORGANISM WITH A TYPE OF BALL AND SOCKET STRUC
TURE DEPICTED HERE REDRAWN FROM -OORE ET AL
P 4HIS LINKAGE IS HELD TOGETHER
IN LIFE BY SURROUNDING ORGANIC TISSUE BUT WITH
DEATH OF THE ORGANISM DECOMPOSITION OF THE
ORGANIC MATERIAL AND MECHANICAL OR BIOLOGI
CAL REWORKING OF THE SEDIMENT SPINES ALMOST
ALWAYS BECOME DETACHED FROM THE ECHINOID
CORONAL PLATES
Up. Cretaceous chalk, Limburg,
The Netherlands
!N 3%- IMAGE OF AN ECHINOID SPINE IN A
CALCARENITIC CHALK 4HE ENTIRE SPINE APPEARS AS
A SINGLE CALCITE CRYSTAL ALTHOUGH AGAIN IT IS
A MASS OF SUBMICROSCOPIC CRYSTALS WITH VIRTU
ALLY IDENTICAL OPTICAL ORIENTATION .OTE BOTH
THE STRONG RIBBING ON THE EXTERIOR OF THE SPINE
AND THE CHARACTERISTIC ATTACHMENT SOCKET AT THE
LEFT END
3%- (! ^ MM
Lo.-Mid. Pennsylvanian Bloyd Fm.,
Mayes Co., Oklahoma
! LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH AN ECHINOID
SPINE .OTE THE BULBOUS ATTACHMENT SOCKET
AT ONE END AND THE ELONGATE RIBBED TAPERING
SPINE ITSELF !S WITH OTHER ECHINOID GRAINS THE
ENTIRE SPINE ACTS LIKE A SINGLE CALCITE CRYSTAL
WITH UNIT EXTINCTION 4HE EXTERNAL RIBBING VIS
IBLE ON THE SPINE IN THE 3%- ABOVE REVEALS THE
ORIGIN OF THE MICRITE l LLED STRIPES THAT PARALLEL
THE LONG AXIS OF THE THIN SECTIONED SPINE
80, (! MM
CHAPTER 10: ECHINODERMS
Mid. Jurassic (Bajocian) limestone,
Central High Atlas region, Morocco
!N ECHINOID SPINE SHOWING THE CHARACTERISTIC
ATTACHMENT hBALLv AT ITS BASE 4HE ELONGATE
SHAPE OF THE GRAIN THE APPARENT SINGLE CRYSTAL
STRUCTURE WITH UNIT EXTINCTION AND THE PRES
ENCE OF REGULARLY ARRANGED hDIRT l LLEDv PORES
ALSO HELP TO IDENTIFY THE ECHINOID ORIGIN OF THIS
GRAIN
00, (! MM
Recent sediment, Cary Cay, Belize
#ROSS SECTION OF AN ECHINOID SPINE SHOWING
SINGLE CRYSTAL OPTICAL BEHAVIOR UNIT EXTINC
TION AND A VERY CHARACTERISTIC LACY OR m OWER
LIKE PATTERN PRODUCED BY THE REGULAR RADIAL
ARRANGEMENT OF LARGE PORES WITHIN THE SPINE
80, (! MM
Plio-Pleistocene coastal sediment,
Crete, Greece
! TRANSVERSE SECTION THROUGH A SINGLE ECHINOID
SPINE SHOWING THE CHARACTERISTIC LOBATE OUT
LINE AND m OWER
LIKE STRUCTURE 4HE STRUCTURE
OF THE SPINE IS DELINEATED BECAUSE OF MICRITIC
INl LL ANDOR CEMENTATION THAT HELPS TO DISTIN
GUISH THE SPINE FROM ITS EXTENSIVE DIAGENETIC
OVERGROWTH SYNTAXIAL CALCITE CEMENT THAT HAS
GROWN IN OPTICAL CONTINUITY WITH ITS ECHINOID
SUBSTRATE
80, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
#2)./)$3
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
0HYLUM %CHINODERMATA
3UBPHYLUM 0ELMATOZOA #RINOZOA %ARLY #AMBRIAN
2ECENT
#LASS %OCRINOIDEA %ARLY #AMBRIAN THROUGH 3ILURIAN
#LASS #RINOIDEA "ASAL /RDOVICIAN
2ECENT
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
#RINOIDS ARE FULLY MARINE NORMAL SALINITY ORGANISMS
#RINOIDS ALSO KNOWN AS SEA LILIES WERE EXTREMELY IMPORTANT ROCK
FORMING CONSTITUENTS IN 0ALEOZOIC ESPECIALLY
$EVONIAN TO 0ENNSYLVANIAN STRATA 0ALEOZOIC FORMS OCCURRED MAINLY AS ATTACHED OR hROOTEDv ORGANISMS
PELMATOZOANS IN SHELF AND SHELF
MARGIN SETTINGS ALTHOUGH THEY ALSO LIVED IN DEEPER WATER
0OST
0ALEOZOIC DISTRIBUTION ISWAS MUCH REDUCED AND HAS SHIFTED SOMEWHAT TO DEEPER WATERS MODERN FORMS
EXTEND TO ABOUT KM DEPTH (OWEVER MODERN MOTILE FORMS COMMONLY KNOWN AS FEATHER STARS ARE FOUND IN
REEFS AND OTHER SHALLOW SHELF SETTINGS
0LANKTIC FORMS ALSO EXISTED ESPECIALLY IN THE -ESOZOIC
#RINOIDS ARE COMMON IN BOTH WARM
AND COLD
WATER SETTINGS EVEN EXTENDING INTO !RCTIC AND !NTARCTIC WATERS
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
#OMPOSED OF HIGH
-G CALCITE MODERN FORMS CONTAIN TO MOLE -G
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
#RINOIDS ARE HEAVILY CALCIl ED MOST CONSIST OF THREE PARTS A ROOT
LIKE ATTACHMENT A LONG STEM AND A CALYX WITH
RADIATING FEATHERY ARMS -OST ANCIENT POST
LARVAL CRINOIDS WERE ATTACHED ROOTED FORMS MOST LIVING SPECIES
HOWEVER ARE ROOTLESS MOBILE FORMS
!LL THREE PARTS ROOT STEM AND CALYX ARE FORMED OF INDIVIDUAL CALCITE PLATES ASSEMBLED LIKE STACKS OF POKER CHIPS
-OST SEDIMENT OCCURRENCES HOWEVER CONSIST OF DISARTICULATED PLATES
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
7HOLE CRINOIDS RANGE FROM LESS THAN CM TO MORE THAN M IN SIZE HOWEVER THEY NORMALLY DISAGGREGATE INTO
MM
TO CM
SIZED PLATES OR OSSICLES THAT HAVE CONSIDERABLE DIVERSITY IN SIZE AND SHAPE
3TEM PLATES COLUMNALS TYPICALLY HAVE A CIRCULAR OVOID OR PENTAGONAL OUTLINE WITH AN AXIAL CANAL THE LUMEN
THAT ALSO CAN BE CIRCULAR OR PENTAGONAL ARM PLATES TYPICALLY HAVE A h5v SHAPE )T IS MAINLY ON THE BASIS OF THE
SIZE AND SHAPES OF GRAINS THAT CRINOID REMAINS ARE DISTINGUISHED FROM ECHINOID FRAGMENTS ECHINOID REMAINS
TEND TO HAVE MORE ELONGATE OR IRREGULAR SHAPES CRINOID COLUMNALS HAVE UNIFORM SHAPES AND SIZES WITH AXIAL
CANALS VISIBLE IN TRANSVERSELY ORIENTED CUTS
%ACH INDIVIDUAL SKELETAL COMPONENT COLUMNAL OR ARM PLATE EFFECTIVELY ACTS AS A SINGLE CRYSTAL OF CALCITE AND
DISPLAYS UNIT EXTINCTION
#RINOID PLATES ARE PERFORATED WITH SMALL REGULARLY ARRANGED PORES WHICH MAY BE VISIBLE IN THIN SECTION WHERE
THEY ARE l LLED WITH CONTRASTING MATERIAL MOST COMMONLY MICRITE OR ORGANIC MATTER 4HESE l LLED PORES GIVE
CRINOID FRAGMENTS A DISTINCTIVE hDUSTYv APPEARANCE AT LOW MAGNIl CATION AND A REGULAR hCHECKERBOARDv
APPEARANCE AT HIGHER MAGNIl CATIONS
4HE SINGLE
CRYSTAL CRINOID PLATES COMMONLY HAVE SYNTAXIAL OVERGROWTHS SOME OF WHICH CAN FORM COARSE
EVEN POIKILOTOPIC CEMENTS )NDEED IN THE ABSENCE OF MICRITIC COATINGS ON CRINOID FRAGMENTS MOST CRINOIDAL
LIMESTONES BECOME HEAVILY CEMENTED BY OVERGROWTHS RELATIVELY EARLY IN THEIR DIAGENETIC HISTORY
CHAPTER 10: ECHINODERMS
Typical crinoid structure
4HIS DIAGRAMMATIC VIEW OF A CRINOID ADAPTED
FROM "OARDMAN ET AL P AND OTHER
SOURCES #RINOID STEMS CONSIST OF A SERIES
OF CORRUGATED CIRCULAR OR PENTAGONAL PLATES
COLUMNALS THAT RESEMBLE A STACK OF POKER
CHIPS AND EASILY DISARTICULATE UPON DEATH OF THE
CRINOID 4HESE COLUMNALS ALSO HAVE A READILY
RECOGNIZABLE CENTRAL CANAL TERMED A LUMEN
4HE ARMS THAT RADIATE FROM THE CALYX OR HEAD
OF THE CRINOID NOT SHOWN HAVE AN AMBULACRAL
GROOVE THAT GIVES THE PLATES A CHARACTERISTIC 5
OR 6 SHAPE
Up. Mississippian Salem Ls.,
Lawrence Co., Indiana
! LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF A CRINOID STEM
SHOWING A SERIES OF CONNECTED STEM SEGMENTS
COLUMNALS )T IS RELATIVELY UNUSUAL TO l ND
CRINOID COLUMNALS STILL ARTICULATED !LSO NOTE
THE PARTIAL CUT THROUGH THE AXIAL CANAL LUMEN
IN THE CENTER OF SOME OF THE COLUMNALS AND THE
UNIT EXTINCTION OF THE COLUMNALS EACH OF WHICH
ACTS OPTICALLY AS THOUGH IT WERE A SINGLE CALCITE
CRYSTAL WITH UNIT EXTINCTION
80, (! MM
Lo. Mississippian Lake Valley Fm.,
Otero Co., New Mexico
! LONGITUDINAL SECTION SHOWING THREE ARTICU
LATED CRINOID COLUMNALS WITH SLIGHTLY VARYING
UNIT EXTINCTION 4HE POKER CHIP SHAPE OF THE
COLUMNALS IS CLEAR BUT THE SECTION IS SUF
l CIENTLY OFF CENTER THAT IT MISSES THE LUMEN
AXIAL CANAL
80, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Mid. Ordovician Black River Gp.,
Lowville Fm., Kingston, Ontario,
Canada
2ANDOM CUTS THROUGH STACKS OF CRINOID
COLUMNALS WITH LARGE LUMENS 4HE GRAIN SHAPES
AND THE UNIT EXTINCTION SERVE TO UNIQUELY IDEN
TIFY THESE GRAINS AS BEING OF CRINOIDAL ORIGIN
00, (! MM
Up. Silurian Tonoloway-Keyser Ls.,
Mifin Co., Pennsylvania
! CRINOID FRAGMENT WITH SINGLE CRYSTAL STRUC
TURE A CLEARLY DISPLAYED LUMEN CENTRAL CANAL
AND MUCH OF THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE REPLACED BY
CHERT #RINOID FRAGMENTS ARE QUITE SUSCEPTIBLE
TO THIS TYPE OF REPLACEMENT
080, (! MM
Up. Mississippian Hindsville Ls.,
Mayes Co., Oklahoma
! CRINOIDAL LIMESTONE IN WHICH THE DISCOIDAL
CRINOID PLATES ARE THICKEST AT THEIR MARGINS AND
THINNER IN THEIR INTERIORS 4HE INTERNAL PORES
ARE COMPLETELY l LLED WITH MICRITIC CARBONATE
GIVING THE GRAINS A CHARACTERISTIC hDUSTYv OR
SPECKLED APPEARANCE AT THIS MAGNIl CATION !T
HIGHER MAGNIl CATION THE REGULAR ARRANGEMENT
OF PORES BECOMES MORE APPARENT
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 10: ECHINODERMS
Pennsylvanian Marble Falls Ls.,
Burnet Co., Texas
! CRINOID RICH SEDIMENT SHOWING GRAINS WITH
CIRCULAR AND PENTAMERAL OUTLINES &IVE FOLD
SYMMETRY IS COMMON TO ALL MEMBERS OF THE
%CHINODERMATA BUT IS APPARENT IN ONLY A MINOR
ITY OF CRINOID GRAINS .OTE THE hDUSTYv APPEAR
ANCE OF THE CRINOIDS DUE TO MICRITIC INl LLS OF THE
PORES 4HE ABSENCE OF SYNTAXIAL OVERGROWTHS
ALSO IS A RESULT OF THE PRESENCE OF EXTENSIVE
MICRITE MATRIX AROUND THE GRAINS
00, (! MM
Pennsylvanian Marble Falls Ls.,
Burnet Co., Texas
! CRINOID SHOWING THE UNIT EXTINCTION SINGLE
CRYSTAL EXTINCTION TRACES OF PORE STRUCTURE
AND THE AXIAL CANAL COMMON TO THIS GROUP
4HE GRAIN HAS BEEN SUBSTANTIALLY ALTERED BY
CEMENTATION WITHIN PORES BY ORGANIC BORING
AND l LLING OF THOSE BORINGS WITH MICRITE AND
BY PRESSURE SOLUTION ALONG GRAIN MARGINS !LL
THREE OF THESE ALTERATION PROCESSES CAN COMPLI
CATE GRAIN IDENTIl CATION
80, (! MM
Paleozoic limestone, midcontinent
U.S.A.
! CRINOID ARM PLATE FORMS THE NUCLEUS OF THIS
OOID #RINOID ARM PLATES CURVE AROUND AN
AMBULACRAL GROOVE WHICH GIVES THEM THEIR
CHARACTERISTIC 5
SHAPE #OUPLED WITH UNIT EX
TINCTION AND COARSE PORE STRUCTURE THE SHAPE DE
l NITIVELY MARKS THE GRAIN AS BEING OF CRINOIDAL
ORIGIN 4HE PRESENCE OF SYNSEDIMENTARY OOLITIC
COATINGS ON THE GRAIN PREVENTED LATER DIAGENETIC
FORMATION OF SYNTAXIAL OVERGROWTH CEMENTS
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Silurian Tonoloway-Keyser Ls.,
Mifin Co., Pennsylvania
! CRINOIDAL BIOMICRITIC LIMESTONE #RINOIDS
ARE COMMONLY FOUND AS THE DOMINANT ROCK
FORMING ELEMENT IN BOTH HIGH AND LOW ENERGY
SHELFAL STRATA )N THIS EXAMPLE CRINOIDS AND
BRYOZOANS ARE THE MAJOR FAUNAL CONTRIBUTORS
AND THE CRINOIDS ARE MARKED BY THEIR hDUSTYv
APPEARANCE l VE FOLD SYMMETRY ELEMENTS CEN
TRAL LUMEN AND SUSCEPTIBILITY TO SILICA REPLACE
MENT UPPER LEFT
00, (! MM
Up. Silurian Tonoloway-Keyser Ls.,
Mifin Co., Pennsylvania
0LANE AND CROSS POLARIZED VIEWS OF A CRINOIDAL
GRAINSTONE ENCRINITE FULLY CEMENTED WITH
SYNTAXIAL CALCITE OVERGROWTHS 4HE COARSE ES
SENTIALLY SINGLE CRYSTAL NATURE OF CRINOIDS AND
OTHER ECHINODERMS MAKES THEM EXTREMELY
SUSCEPTIBLE TO SYNTAXIAL OVERGROWTH CEMENTA
TION 4HUS CRINOIDAL LIMESTONES ARE COMMONLY
MARKED BY NEARLY COMPLETE POROSITY DESTRUC
TION AS IN THIS EXAMPLE
00,80, (! MM EACH
Up. Permian Park City Fm., Tosi
Chert Mbr., Thermopolis, Wyoming
! BRYOZOAN CRINOID PACKSTONE THAT IS CEMENTED
BY HIGHLY ZONED SYNTAXIAL OVERGROWTHS THAT
FORMED PREFERENTIALLY ON THE CRINOIDS 4HE
ZONATION OF IRON CONTENT MARKED BY THE DIF
FERENTIAL STAINING INDICATES THAT OVERGROWTH
FORMATION PROBABLY TOOK PLACE OVER AN EX
TENSIVE PERIOD OF PROGRESSIVE BURIAL )N THIS
EXAMPLE CALCITE CEMENTATION WAS FOLLOWED
BY HYDROCARBON l LLING OF THE REMNANT POROSITY
REDDISH BROWN TO OPAQUE MATERIAL
00, !&E3 (! ^ MM
CHAPTER 10: ECHINODERMS
",!34/)$3
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
0HYLUM %CHINODERMATA 3UBPHYLUM "LASTOZOA #AMBRIAN
,ATE 0ERMIAN
#LASS "LASTOIDEA -ID /RDOVICIAN BUT MOST COMMONLY -ID 3ILURIAN
,ATE 0ERMIAN
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
"LASTOIDS ARE FULLY MARINE OPEN
SHELF ORGANISMS WITH A VERY LIMITED SALINITY RANGE
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
#OMPOSED OF CALCITE PROBABLY ORIGINALLY HIGH
-G CALCITE
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
"LASTOIDS WERE SMALL HEAVILY CALCIl ED RELATIVELY PRIMITIVE ATTACHED STALKED ECHINODERMS WITH SMALL PENTAGONAL
hHEADSv CONSISTING OF NUMEROUS CALCITE PLATES 2ARELY A MAJOR ROCK
FORMING ELEMENT AND GENERALLY IDENTIl ED
AS CRINOIDAL REMAINS IN THIN SECTION
Carboniferous blastoid,
midcontinent, U.S.A.
! COMPLETE HEAD OF A BLASTOID 0ENTREMITES
GODONI $EFRANCE 4HE COARSELY CRYSTALLINE
CLOUDY CALCITE OF THE MARGINS SHOWS UNIT EX
TINCTION WITH SLIGHT UNDULOSITY DUE TO THE CUR
VATURE OF THE TEST UNDER CROSS
POLARIZED LIGHT
)N THIS EXAMPLE THE BLASTOID TEST WALL HAS
BEEN EXTENSIVELY REPLACED BY AUTHIGENIC SILICA
PATCHY BROWNISH TO WHITE AREAS 4HE LARGE
AREA OF COARSE UNREPLACED CALCITE AT THE CENTER
IS PORE
l LLING CEMENT WITHIN THE BLASTOID INTE
RIOR 4HE hUPv POSITION IN LIFE IS AT THE LEFT SIDE
OF THIS IMAGE
00, (! MM
Carboniferous blastoid,
midcontinent, U.S.A.
$ETAILED VIEW OF THE SIDE MARGIN OF THE PARTIALLY
SILICIl ED BLASTOID 0ENTREMITES GODONI $E
FRANCE SHOWN IN THE PREVIOUS PHOTOGRAPH
4HE CALCITE OF THE BLASTOID WALL IS CLOUDY DUE TO
THE PRIMARY PORE STRUCTURE OF THE SKELETON AND
SHOWS UNIT EXTINCTION 4HE PARTIAL SILICA CHERT
AND CHALCEDONY REPLACEMENT APPEARS GRAY AND
BLACK IN THIS CROSS
POLARIZED LIGHT VIEW
80, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
(/,/4(52)!.3
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
3UBPHYLUM %CHINOZOA
#LASS (OLOTHUROIDEA -ID /RDOVICIAN POSSIBLY -ID #AMBRIAN
2ECENT
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
(OLOTHURIANS SEA CUCUMBERS ARE FULLY MARINE ORGANISMS WITH A VERY LIMITED SALINITY RANGE AND ARE WIDESPREAD
IN BOTH SHALLOW
AND DEEP
WATER ENVIRONMENTS
-OST ARE FREE
LIVING ELEUTHEROZOAN GRAZING OR BURROWING SEDIMENT
INGESTING ECHINODERMS PELAGICNEKTIC AND
ATTACHED FORMS EXIST BUT ARE MUCH LESS COMMON
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
3CLERITES ARE COMPOSED OF INTERMEDIATE
TO HIGH
-G CALCITE MOST MODERN FORMS CONTAIN TO MOLE -G
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
(OLOTHURIANS ARE TUBE
OR SAUSAGE
LIKE ORGANISMS 5NLIKE PREVIOUSLY DISCUSSED ECHINODERMS THEY DO NOT HAVE A
HARD SKELETON )NSTEAD THEIR SOFT TISSUES CONTAIN MICROSCOPIC CALCITE BODIES TERMED DERMAL PLATES OR SCLERITES
THAT SERVE TO STIFFEN THE ORGANISM )NDIVIDUAL HOLOTHURIANS CAN CONTAIN MILLIONS OF INDIVIDUAL SCLERITES THAT ARE
RELEASED INTO THE SEDIMENTS UPON DEATH OF THE ORGANISM
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
(OLOTHURIAN DERMAL PLATES OCCUR IN A VARIETY OF SHAPES INCLUDING HOOKS WHEELS TABLES ANCHORS PERFORATED
PLATES RODS AND OTHERS
3CLERITES ARE SMALL TYPICALLY TO MM AND COMPOSED OF SINGLE CRYSTALS OF CALCITE 2ARELY IDENTIl ABLE IN
THIN SECTION BUT COMMONLY FOUND IN WASHED SAMPLES AND GRAIN MOUNTS OF MODERN SEDIMENTS THEY ARE MORE
RARELY FOUND IN DISAGGREGATED SAMPLES OF OLDER STRATA
)DENTIl CATION OF ANCIENT HOLOTHURIAN SCLERITES IS BASED LARGELY ON COMPARISON WITH MODERN FORMS NO ABSOLUTE
IDENTIl CATION CRITERIA EXIST
!34%2/)$3 !.$ /0()52/)$3
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
3UBPHYLUM !STEROZOA ,ATE #AMBRIAN OR %ARLY /RDOVICIAN
2ECENT
#LASS !STEROIDEA STARl SH %ARLY /RDOVICIAN
2ECENT
#LASS /PHIUROIDEA BRITTLE STARS %ARLY /RDOVICIAN
2ECENT
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
-ARINE GRAZING ORGANISM MODERN FORMS HAVE A WIDE RANGE OF LIFE SETTINGS FROM INTERTIDAL TO ABYSSAL WATER
DEPTHS #OASTAL FORMS CAN TOLERATE GREATER SALINITY VARIATIONS THAN OTHER ECHINODERMS
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
(IGH
-G CALCITE AS FOR OTHER ECHINODERMAL GROUPS
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
2ELATIVELY SOFT
BODIED MOST COMMONLY l VE
ARMED ORGANISMS THAT HAVE INTERNAL STIFFENING FROM NUMEROUS
WEAKLY CALCIl ED AND VERY POROUS PLATES AND SPINES
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
0LATES ARE MORE VARIABLY AND IRREGULARLY SHAPED THAN THE PLATES OF MOST OTHER TYPES OF ECHINODERMS
!STEROIDSOPHIUROIDS HAVE HIGHLY POROUS SKELETAL PLATES WITH UNIT EXTINCTION UNDER CROSS
POLARIZED LIGHT
0LATES NORMALLY ARE COMPLETELY DISARTICULATED AND RARELY FORM A SIGNIl CANT PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL SEDIMENT
VOLUME
CHAPTER 10: ECHINODERMS
Representative forms of
holothurian sclerites
4HE MAJOR TYPES OF SCLERITES FOUND IN MODERN
HOLOTHURIANS ADAPTED FROM &RIZZEL AND %XLINE
AND "OARDMAN ET AL 4HESE MI
CROSCOPIC OSSICLES ARE FOUND EMBEDDED IN THE
SOFT BODY OF HOLOTHURIANS WHERE THEY SERVE TO
STIFFEN THE TISSUE 4HEY RANGE IN SIZE FROM
TO MM AND HAVE A WIDE VARIETY OF DISTINCTIVE
SHAPES
Recent sediment, Florida Keys,
Monroe Co., Florida
! SMEAR MOUNT PHOTOMICROGRAPH DEPICTING A
VARIETY OF SCLERITES DERMAL PLATES OBTAINED
FROM THE DISAGGREGATION OF A SINGLE MODERN
HOLOTHURIAN SEA CUCUMBER 3TICHOPUS SP
4HESE CALCITIC PLATES ARE ONLY RARELY IDENTIl ED
IN ANCIENT SEDIMENTARY ROCKS ALTHOUGH THEY
ARE KNOWN FROM ROCKS AT LEAST AS OLD AS -IS
SISSIPPIAN 7HEN THEY ARE FOUND IT IS PRIMAR
ILY IN GRAIN MOUNTS OF DISAGGREGATED MATERIAL
RATHER THAN IN THIN SECTIONS
00, (! MM
Recent starsh, U.S.A.
)NTERNAL PLATES AND SPICULES DERIVED FROM THE
DISAGGREGATION OF A SINGLE SPECIMEN OF THE STAR
l SH !STERIAS SP .OTE THE GREAT VARIETY OF PLATE
AND SPICULE SHAPES AND SIZES 4HE BLUE COLOR IS
DUE TO THE DYED EPOXY THAT HAS PENETRATED THE
SPONGY MORE THAN INTRAPARTICLE POROSITY
FABRIC OF THESE SINGLE CRYSTAL PLATES
00, "3% (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Recent starsh, U.S.A.
$ETAILED VIEW OF THE INTERNAL PLATES AND SPIC
ULES DERIVED FROM THE DISAGGREGATION OF A SIN
GLE SPECIMEN OF THE STARl SH !STERIAS SP .OTE
THE GREAT VARIETY OF PLATE SHAPES AND SIZES 4HE
BLUE COLOR IS DUE TO THE DYED EPOXY THAT HAS
PENETRATED THE SPONGY FABRIC OF THESE SINGLE
CRYSTAL PLATES
80, "3% (! MM
#ITED 2EFERENCES AND !DDITIONAL )NFORMATION 3OURCES
"EAVER ( ( ED 4REATISE ON )NVERTEBRATE 0ALEONTOLOGY 0ART 3 -OSTLER ( /PHIURENSKELETTELEMENTE USSERE 3KELETTANHNGE
%CHINODERMATA 'ENERAL CHARACTERS (OMALOZOA #RINOZOA EXCEPT AUS DER ALPINEN 4RIAS 'EOLOGISCH
0ALONTOLOGISCHE -ITTEILUNGEN
#RINOIDEA 'EOLOGICAL 3OCIETY OF !MERICA AND 5NIVERSITY OF +ANSAS )NNSBRUCK V NO P
0RESS P -OSTLER ( (OLOTHURIENSKLERITE DER ALPINEN 4RIAS UND IHRE
"LAKE $ & AND $ 2 0EACOR "IOMINERALIZATION OF CRINOID SKELETAL STRATIGRAPHISCHE "EDEUTUNG .ACHBARGEBIETE -ITTEILUNGEN DER
ELEMENTS USING 4%- AND 34%- MICROANALYSIS 3CANNING %LECTRON 'ESELLSCHAFT DER 'EOLOGIE
UND "ERGBAUSTUDENTEN IN /ESTERREICH V
-ICROSCOPY ))) P
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$ICKSON * ! $ 0ALEOZOIC -G CALCITE PRESERVED )MPLICATIONS FOR .ISSEN ( 5 #RYSTAL ORIENTATION AND PLATE STRUCTURE IN ECHINOID
THE #ARBONIFEROUS OCEAN 'EOLOGY V P
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OVERGROWTHS ON ECHINODERM FRAGMENTS IN LIMESTONES 3EDIMENTOLOGY !BHANDLUNGEN V NO P
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6ERHLTNISSES IN 3EEIGELCORONEN BEI DER 5MWANDLUNG VON -G
#ALCIT
IN #ALCIT UNTER METEORISCH
VADOSEN "EDINGUNGEN .EUES *AHRBUCH FR
'EOLOGIE UND 0ALAEONTOLOGIE !BHANDLUNGEN V NO P
-ILLIMAN * $ -ARINE #ARBONATES 0ART 2ECENT 3EDIMENTARY
#ARBONATES .EW 9ORK 3PRINGER
6ERLAG P
-OORE 2 # # ' ,ALICKER AND ! ' &ISCHER )NVERTEBRATE
&OSSILS .EW 9ORK -C'RAW
(ILL "OOK #O P
& ACING 0AGE -ACROPHOTOGRAPH OF A TRILOBITE 0HACOPS SP FROM
THE $EVONIAN OF -OROCCO 3AMPLE FROM THE .EW -EXICO -U
SEUM OF .ATURAL (ISTORY AND 3CIENCE COURTESY OF 3PENCER ,UCAS
'2!).3 3KELETAL &RAGMENTS
ARTHROPODS
Trilobites
C
H Ostracodes
A
P
T Barnacles
E
R
11
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
42),/")4%3
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
0HYLUM !RTHROPODA
3UPERCLASS 4RILOBITOMORPHA
#LASS 4RILOBITA %ARLY #AMBRIAN LATE 0ROTEROZOIC
,ATE 0ERMIAN
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
-OST TRILOBITES WERE MOBILE BENTHIC DETRITUS FEEDING FULLY MARINE ORGANISMS WITH A LIMITED SALINITY TOLERANCE
THEY ARE NOT FOUND IN INFERRED SALINITY
STRESSED SETTINGS ! FEW GROUPS OF PELAGIC TRILOBITES ARE KNOWN
!LTHOUGH MOST COMMON IN SHALLOW SHELF SETTINGS TRILOBITES ESPECIALLY EYELESS FORMS ARE ALSO FOUND IN DEEPER
WATER ENVIRONMENTS 4HEY ARE MAJOR ROCK
FORMING ELEMENTS MAINLY IN SHALLOW SHELF DEPOSITS OF #AMBRO
/RDOVICIAN AGE
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
4RILOBITE CARAPACES WERE COMPOSED OF CHITIN WITH LARGE AMOUNTS OF CALCIUM CARBONATE AND VARIABLE AMOUNTS OF
CALCIUM PHOSPHATE UP TO IN SOME SPECIES 4HE CARBONATE CONSISTED OF CALCITE PROBABLY WITH MODERATE
TO HIGH -G CONTENT
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
4RILOBITES WERE CHARACTERIZED BY EXOSKELETAL CARAPACES WITH THREE LOBES THAT EXTENDED THE LENGTH OF THE ORGANISM
#ARAPACES WERE DIVIDED INTO A HEAD SHIELD CEPHALON AN ABDOMINAL SECTION THORAX WITH TO SEGMENTS
SCLERITES AND A TAIL SHIELD PYGIDIUM
4HE SHIELDS AND SEGMENTS WERE SHARPLY RECURVED INWARDS ALONG THE MARGINS OF THE ORGANISM #ARAPACES WERE
SHED DURING GROWTH STAGES MOLTING BEHAVIOR ADDING TO THE LARGE NUMBERS OF TRILOBITE GRAINS IN MANY
SEDIMENTARY DEPOSITS
!DULT TRILOBITES RANGED IN LENGTH FROM TO CM THEY AVERAGE ABOUT CM IN LENGTH AND
CM IN WIDTH
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
4HE SEGMENTED NATURE OF THE CARAPACES COUPLED WITH TRILOBITE MOLTING BEHAVIOR MEANS THAT THESE ORGANISMS
ARE NORMALLY FOUND AS FRAGMENTARY REMAINS )NDIVIDUAL SEGMENTS TYPICALLY ARE IN THE MM TO CM LENGTH RANGE
AND ARE LESS THAN A MM IN THICKNESS
4HE RECURVED MARGINS OF TRILOBITE SHIELDS AND THE MULTIDIRECTIONALLY CURVED FORMS OF THORACIC SEGMENTS
SCLERITES YIELDED FRAGMENTS THAT COMMONLY HAVE CHARACTERISTIC hHOOKv OR hSHEPHERDS CROOKv SHAPES
3KELETAL FRAGMENTS HAVE A HOMOGENEOUS PRISMATIC MICROSTRUCTURE WITH EXTREMELY l NE MICROMETER
SCALE
CALCITE PRISMS ORIENTED PERPENDICULAR TO THE CARAPACE SURFACE 4YPICALLY THE WALL APPEARS SMOOTH AND
UNIFORM WITH NO OBVIOUS CRYSTALS TRILOBITE FRAGMENTS HOWEVER SHOW SWEEPING UNDULOSE EXTINCTION WHEN
ROTATED UNDER CROSS
POLARIZED LIGHT 3OME TRILOBITES MAY ALSO HAVE l NELY LAMELLAR LAYERS
-ANY SPECIMENS SHOW SMALL PERFORATIONS CANALICULI THAT TREND PERPENDICULAR TO THE SKELETAL WALLS
&INE GROWTH LINES MAY BE VISIBLE THEY PARALLEL THE CARAPACE SURFACE BUT DO NOT INTERRUPT THE CONTINUITY OF
CALCITE PRISMS
4RILOBITE FRAGMENTS CAN BE VISIBLY MULTILAYERED WITH THIN INNER OR OUTER LAYERS OVER THE MAIN CARAPACE WALL
/UTER LAYER CAN BE ORGANIC RICH WITH A DARK COLORATION IN TRANSMITTED LIGHT
(OMOGENEOUS PRISMATIC WALL STRUCTURE AND CONSEQUENT EXTINCTION BEHAVIOR OF TRILOBITES IS SIMILAR TO THAT
SHOWN BY OSTRACODES AND A FEW BIVALVES 4RILOBITE FRAGMENTS HOWEVER GENERALLY ARE LARGER THAN OSTRACODES
AND ARE MORE IRREGULAR IN CURVATURE THAN EITHER OSTRACODES OR BIVALVES
0(/4/ 3#!,%3 !.$ !""2%6)!4)/.3 !2% %80,!).%$ ). 4(% "//+3 ).42/$5#4)/.
CHAPTER 11: ARTHROPODS
Characteristic features of trilobite
carapaces
4HIS DIAGRAM ADAPTED FROM -AJEWSKE
ILLUSTRATES THE MAIN FEATURES OF TRILOBITE CARA
PACES )T CLEARLY SHOWS THE THREE
LOBED BODY
CONSTRUCTION IN PLAN VIEW THE DETAILS OF
BOTH THE HEAD AND TAIL SHIELDS THE CEPHALON
AND PYGIDIUM RESPECTIVELY AND THE THORACIC
SEGMENTS OR SCLERITES "ECAUSE THESE PARTS
WERE HELD TOGETHER WITH SOFT TISSUE TRILOBITES
DISARTICULATED RELATIVELY READILY
Lo. Ordovician El Paso Gp.,
Franklin Mountains, Texas
! TRANSVERSE CUT THROUGH AN UNUSUALLY COMPLETE
TRILOBITE CARAPACE SHOWING THE HIGHLY RECURVED
NATURE OF THE CALCITIC SKELETON 4HESE FOSSILS
ARE MORE COMMONLY FOUND BROKEN INTO SMALLER
FRAGMENTS THAT SHOW SHAPES LIKE BOOMERANGS
OR SHEPHERDS CROOKS .OTE ALSO THE VERY l NELY
HOMOGENEOUS NATURE OF THE CARAPACE WALL
00, (! MM
Lo. Ordovician El Paso Gp.,
Franklin Mountains, Texas
3AME l ELD OF VIEW AS PREVIOUS PHOTOGRAPH
.OTE THE CHARACTERISTIC EXTINCTION BANDS THAT
SWEEP THROUGH THE GRAIN AS THE STAGE IS ROTATED
UNDER CROSS POLARIZED LIGHT 3UCH EXTINCTION
BEHAVIOR RESULTS FROM THE UNIFORM ORIENTATION
OF MINUTE CALCITE PRISMS PERPENDICULAR TO THE
CARAPACE MARGIN
80, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Mid, Ordovician Reedsville Fm.,
Mifin Co., Pennsylvania
4HIS TRILOBITE FRAGMENT SHOWS CHARACTERISTIC
COMPLEX CURVATURE OF THE SHELL AND HOMOGE
NEOUS PRISMATIC SHELL STRUCTURE ESSENTIALLY
SHOWING NO VISIBLE CRYSTAL STRUCTURE AT THIS
MAGNIl CATION 4HE PRESENCE OF TUBULAR PORES
AND A SLIGHTLY BROWNISH CARAPACE COLOR DUE TO
THE CHITINOUS AND ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF THE
SHELL ARE ALSO CHARACTERISTIC OF TRILOBITES
00, (! MM
Mid. Ordovician Reedsville Fm.,
Mifin Co., Pennsylvania
3AME VIEW AS ABOVE BUT UNDER CROSS
POLARIZED
LIGHT .OTE THE CHARACTERISTIC DARK EXTINCTION
BANDS AT THE CENTER AND LEFT OF THE GRAIN THE
PARTS OF THE GRAIN WHERE THE SHELL MARGINS
ARE PERPENDICULARPARALLEL TO THE MICROSCOPE
CROSS HAIRS NOT SHOWN 4HIS EXTINCTION PAT
TERN REm ECTS THE ORIENTATION OF TINY PRISMATIC
CRYSTALS PERPENDICULAR TO THE CARAPACE WALL
!S THE GRAIN IS ROTATED UNDER CROSS
POLARIZED
LIGHT THE EXTINCTION BANDS SWEEP THROUGH THE
ENTIRE GRAIN
80, (! MM
Mid. Ordovician Simpson Gp., Oil
Creek Fm., Murray Co., Oklahoma
! CURVED TRILOBITE FRAGMENT WITH A CHARACTER
ISTIC SHEPHERDS CROOK SHAPE .OTE VARIATIONS
IN CARAPACE THICKNESS ALONG THE LENGTH OF THE
GRAIN -ICRITIC ENCRUSTATIONS ON THE SURFACE
OF THE GRAIN EXTEND INTO THE EXTERIOR PORTIONS
OF CARAPACE PORES CANALICULI ENHANCING THEIR
VISIBILITY RELATIVE TO AREAS l LLED WITH LATER CLEAR
CALCITE CEMENT
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 11: ARTHROPODS
Mid. Ordovician Reedsville Fm.,
Mifin Co., Pennsylvania
! CURVED TRILOBITE FRAGMENT WITH LARGE AND
WELL DEl NED PORES CANICULI THAT PASS THROUGH
THE ENTIRE CARAPACE IN AN ORIENTATION ROUGHLY
PERPENDICULAR TO THE SHELL SURFACE 4HESE
FEATURES ARE CHARACTERISTIC OF TRILOBITES BUT
CAN BE MISTAKEN FOR THE PUNCTAE FOUND IN SOME
BRACHIOPOD SHELLS 4HE HOMOGENEOUS PRISMAT
IC STRUCTURE OF TRILOBITE CARAPACES HOWEVER AL
LOWS FOR RELIABLE DIFFERENTIATION FROM THE MORE
COMPLEX STRUCTURE OF BRACHIOPOD SHELLS
00, (! MM
Mid. Ordovician Simpson Gp., Oil
Creek Fm., Murray Co., Oklahoma
! CURVED TRILOBITE FRAGMENT WITH WELL DEl NED
PORES CANALICULI HERE CUT OBLIQUE TO THEIR LONG
AXIS 4HESE FEATURES ARE QUITE CLEARLY VISIBLE
ESPECIALLY WHERE l LLED WITH ORGANIC MATTER
GLAUCONITE OR OTHER MATERIALS THAT CONTRAST
WITH THE CALCITE OF THE SHELL ITSELF 4HE SLIGHTLY
FERROAN COMPOSITION OF THE SHELL SHOWN BY THE
PURPLE STAIN IS COMMON IN MANY #AMBRO /R
DOVICIAN TRILOBITES
00, !&E3 (! MM
Mid. Ordovician Reedsville Fm.,
Mifin Co., Pennsylvania
!N EXAMPLE OF A TRILOBITE RICH SEDIMENT WITH
NUMEROUS BROKEN FRAGMENTS OF TRILOBITE MA
TERIAL SET IN A MATRIX OF TERRIGENOUS SAND AND
COMMINUTED CARBONATE SKELETAL GRAINS 4HE
MULTIPLE EXTINCTION BANDS THAT REm ECT THE ORI
ENTED PRISMATIC CRYSTAL STRUCTURE IN TRILOBITE
CARAPACES ALSO ARE VISIBLE
80, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
/342!#/$%3
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
0HYLUM !RTHROPODA
3UPERCLASS #RUSTACEA
#LASS /STRACODA %ARLY #AMBRIAN
2ECENT
$IVIDED INTO l VE ORDERS OF WHICH THE !RCHAEOCOPIDA ,EPERDITICOPIDA AND 0ALEOCOPIDA BECAME EXTINCT IN THE
0ALEOZOIC
/STRACODE GENERA COMMONLY HAVE SHORT STRATIGRAPHIC RANGES AND WIDE GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION MAKING THEM
VALUABLE FOR STRATIGRAPHIC STUDIES ESPECIALLY IN BRACKISH
WATER AND NON
MARINE SETTINGS
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
/STRACODES ALSO TERMED OSTRACODS ARE AQUATIC ORGANISMS WITH BENTHIC OR MORE RARELY PLANKTICNEKTIC LIFESTYLES
-ANY BURROW INTO MUDDY SEDIMENT AND MOST ARE OMNIVOROUS SCAVENGERS
/STRACODES ARE DISTRIBUTED FROM ARCTIC TO TROPICAL LATITUDES 4HEY ARE COMMON IN FRESH BRACKISH AND MARINE
WATERS AND EXTEND INTO HYPERSALINE SETTINGS AS WELL 4HEY RARELY ARE MAJOR SEDIMENT FORMERS HOWEVER EXCEPT
IN STRESSED ESPECIALLY BRACKISH HYPERSALINE OR FRESHWATER ENVIRONMENTS
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
/STRACODE CARAPACES ARE COMPOSED OF CHITIN AND CALCITE SOME ARE ENTIRELY COMPOSED OF CHITIN 4HE CALCITE
TYPICALLY RANGES FROM LOW
TO HIGH
-G CONCENTRATION
MOLE -G BUT -G CONTENTS AS HIGH AS MOLE
HAVE BEEN REPORTED
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
/STRACODES HAVE CARAPACES CONSISTING OF PAIRS OF GENERALLY UNEQUAL VALVES THAT ARE SHED DURING MOLTING CYCLES
-OLTING RESULTS IN AN UNUSUAL ABUNDANCE OF DISARTICULATED VALVES IN SEDIMENTS
/STRACODE VALVES COMMONLY ARE OVOID IN SHAPE AND THEIR SURFACES MAY BE SMOOTH OR ORNAMENTED WITH GROOVES
RIDGES NODES OR OTHER FEATURES 4HE CARAPACES RECURVE AT THE MARGINS DUPLICATURE
-OST ADULT OSTRACODES ARE LESS THAN TO MM IN LENGTH MARINE FORMS OF
MM SIZE ARE KNOWN HOWEVER
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
/STRACODES HAVE SMALL GENERALLY THIN CURVED CARAPACES THAT CAN LOOK LIKE MOLLUSCAN BIVALVES BUT TYPICALLY ARE
SMALLER THAN MOST BIVALVE SHELLS
/STRACODES MOLT AND GROW NEW CARAPACES SO THEIR VALVES DO NOT HAVE GROWTH LINES AS DO MOLLUSCAN BIVALVE
SHELLS THIS HELPS DISTINGUISH LARGE OSTRACODES FROM BIVALVES
/STRACODE VALVES TYPICALLY HAVE AN OUTER CALCAREOUS AND AN INNER CHITINOUS LAYER VARIOUS GENERA EXHIBIT
BETWEEN AND LAYERS IN THEIR SHELLS SOME ARE KNOWN WITH PHOSPHATIC LAYERS
/STRACODE WALLS MAY BE PERFORATED BY NUMEROUS VERY SMALL TUBULAR CANALS 3UCH PORES ARE RARELY
PETROGRAPHICALLY VISIBLE IN FOSSIL OCCURRENCES PROBABLY BECAUSE OF l LLING WITH CEMENTS
/STRACODE VALVES UNLIKE BIVALVE SHELLS HAVE RECURVED l SH
HOOK
LIKE EDGES AND ONE VALVE COMMONLY OVERLAPS
THE OTHER ALONG ONE OR MORE MARGINS
4HE CALCITIC LAYERS OF OSTRACODE VALVES ARE NORMALLY WELL PRESERVED THEY HAVE HOMOGENEOUS PRISMATIC AND
l NELY PRISMATIC MICROSTRUCTURES WITH CRYSTAL ORIENTATION PERPENDICULAR TO CARAPACE MARGINS 4HUS THEY SHOW
SWEEPING EXTINCTION PATTERNS EXTINCTION BANDS MOVING ALONG THE LENGTH OF THE SHELL AS THE SECTION IS ROTATED
UNDER CROSS
POLARIZED LIGHT 4HIS TOO DIFFERENTIATES THEM FROM MOST BUT NOT ALL BIVALVE SHELLS
/STRACODE SHELLS MAY SHOW A LOCALIZED THICKENING AT THE CENTRAL SULCUS AREA
CHAPTER 11: ARTHROPODS
Typical ostracode carapace
morphology and structure
4HIS DIAGRAMMATIC VIEW OF A TYPICAL OSTRACODE
DEPICTS SOME OF THE CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF THE
OVERLAPPING CARAPACE VALVES AND MULTILAYERED
SHELL WALLS AS WELL AS THE EXTINCTION BANDING
VISIBLE UNDER CROSS
POLARIZED LIGHT
Recent, Belize
!N 3%- IMAGE OF THE SURFACE OF AN OSTRACODE
PROBABLY OF THE GENUS #ATIVELLA SHOWING AN IR
REGULAR CARAPACE DECORATED WITH SMALL PERFORA
TIONS AND SPINY PROTRUSIONS
3%- (! MM
Pliocene, U.S.A.
!N 3%- IMAGE OF A SMOOTH SURFACED
CALCAREOUS OSTRACODE CARAPACE PROB
ABLY OF THE GENUS #ANDONA .OTE THE
OVERLAP OF THE TWO VALVES AND THE CENTRAL DE
PRESSION ON THE ONE VALVE KNOWN AS A SULCUS
0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF 7ALTER % $EAN PHTO
GRAPH TAKEN BY 2ICHARD - &ORESTER
3%- (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Mississippian Arroyo Peasco
Gp., Terrero Fm., near Montezuma,
New Mexico
,ARGE RELATIVELY THICK WALLED ARTICULATE
OSTRACODE SHELLS .OTE MULTIPLE SHELL LAYERS
AND THICK CEMENTS IN INTERNAL CAVITIES 4HE
CEMENTS HAVE GROWN IN OPTICAL CONTINUITY WITH
THE l NELY PRISMATIC CRYSTALS OF THE CARAPACE
ORIENTED PERPENDICULAR TO THE CARAPACE MAR
GIN 3WEEPING EXTINCTION BANDS IN SHELLS AND
CEMENT MARK THIS CRYSTAL ORIENTATION WHEN THE
STAGE IS ROTATED
80, (! MM
Up. Devonian (Frasnian) Pillara Ls.,
Canning Basin, Western Australia
! WHOLE OSTRACODE CARAPACE 4HE SHELL SHOWS
THE HOMOGENEOUS TO RADIAL l BROUS SHELL
STRUCTURE CHARACTERISTIC OF THIS GROUP WHICH
ALSO AFFECTED THE PRECIPITATION OF EARLY STAGE
hSYNTAXIALv CEMENTS IN THE CARAPACE INTERIOR
.OTE ALSO THE OVERLAP OF THE TWO VALVES
00, (! MM
Up. Permian Zechstein Z1,
Bolechowice, Poland
/STRACODE CARAPACES FROM A MARGINAL MARINE
SETTING 4HE COMPLETE OSTRACODE SHOWS OVER
LAP OF VALVES AND A GEOPETAL INTERNAL SEDIMENT
l LL
00, !&E3 (! MM
CHAPTER 11: ARTHROPODS
Lo. Miocene Lower Otekaike Ls.,
northern Otago, New Zealand
! l SH HOOK LIKE TERMINATION OF A SINGLE
OSTRACODE VALVE 4HESE TERMINATIONS ARE DIS
TINCTIVE AND IN COMBINATION WITH CARAPACE
SIZE STRUCTURE AND WALL MORPHOLOGY HELP TO
RELIABLY IDENTIFY OSTRACODE REMAINS
00, (! MM
Oligocene Top Globigerina
Limestone Fm., Gozo, Malta
! PAIR OF l SH HOOK LIKE TERMINATIONS RECURVED
MARGINS OF THE TWO VALVES OF AN OSTRACODE
CARAPACE 4HE PRESENCE OF SUCH OVERLAPPING
MARGINS AND THE ABSENCE OF INTERLOCKED HINGED
TERMINATIONS HELP DISTINGUISH OSTRACODES FROM
SMALL BIVALVES
00, (! MM
Mid. Ordovician limestone,
Kingston, Ontario, Canada
,ARGE ,EPERDITID OSTRACODES WITH A STRAIGHT
SEGMENT OF A TRILOBITE SHELL FOR COMPARISON
! GOOD EXAMPLE OF A LIMESTONE IN WHICH
OSTRACODES MAKE UP A SIGNIl CANT PORTION OF THE
TOTAL DEPOSIT
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
"!2.!#,%3
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
0HYLUM !RTHROPODA
3UPERCLASS #RUSTACEA
#LASS #IRRIPEDIA 3ILURIAN
2ECENT
-EMBERS OF THE 3UBORDER "ALANOMORPHA ARE THE MOST HEAVILY CALCIl ED BARNACLES
"ARNACLES HAVE A LONG GEOLOGIC RECORD BUT THEY ARE SIGNIl CANT SEDIMENT FORMERS ONLY IN LOCAL AREAS OF #RETACEOUS
AND #ENOZOIC ESPECIALLY 0LIOCENE TO (OLOCENE DEPOSITION
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
"ARNACLES ARE ENTIRELY MARINE ORGANISMS REQUIRING HARD SUBSTRATES FOR ATTACHMENT THUS THEY THRIVE IN SOME
HIGH
ENERGY ENVIRONMENTS 4HEY ARE COMMONLY FOUND ATTACHED TO ROCKS OR OTHER HARD SUBSTRATES IN SHALLOW
MARINE TO INTERTIDAL SETTINGS BUT ARE ALSO PRESENT IN NERITIC SETTINGS 2OCK BORING FORMS ALSO ARE COMMON
"ARNACLES ARE A SIGNIl CANT COMPONENT OF SHALLOW MARINE TEMPERATE
AND HIGH
LATITUDE CARBONATE DEPOSITS THEY
ARE FAR LESS COMMON IN WARMER
WATER SETTINGS
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
"ARNACLE PLATES ARE COMPOSED OF LOW
-G CALCITE TYPICALLY LESS THAN MOLE -G ALTHOUGH THE BASAL ATTACHMENT
DISC MAY BE ARAGONITIC !RAGONITIC ATTACHMENT PLATES ARE MORE COMMON IN WARM
RATHER THAN COLD
WATER
AREAS AS THEY TEND TO DISSOLVE IN COLDER WATERS
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
"ARNACLES HAVE A MOTILE LARVAL STAGE THAT POSESSES A CARAPACE SIMILAR TO A SMOOTH
SHELLED OSTRACODE !DULT FORMS
ARE SESSILE AND SECRETE A SERIES OF CALCITIZED PLATES -OST BARNACLES HAVE A DISCOIDAL ATTACHMENT PLATE THAT IS
CEMENTED TO HARD SUBSTRATES )MMOVABLE COMPARTMENTALIZED CALCITIC WALL PLATES USUALLY TO IN NUMBER
ARE ATTACHED TO THE BASAL PLATE AND HOUSE THE ORGANISM WITH ITS MANY DELICATE FEEDING APPENDAGES -OVEABLE
OPERCULAR PLATES ARE USED TO SEAL OFF THE LIVING CHAMBER DURING TIMES OF STRESS EG LOW TIDE EXPOSURE
7HOLE BARNACLES ARE OF MM TO CM SIZE FRAGMENTS USUALLY ARE IN THE MM SIZE RANGE
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
4HE LOW
-G CALCITE COMPOSITION OF MOST BARNACLE HARD PARTS MEANS THAT PLATE STRUCTURE TYPICALLY IS WELL
PRESERVED
"ARNACLES LIVE PRIMARILY IN HIGH
ENERGY COASTAL OR SHALLOW SHELF ENVIRONMENTS AND SHED THEIR PLATES DURING
MOLTING 4HUS MOST BARNACLE FRAGMENTS ARE STRONGLY ABRADED ROUNDED ALTHOUGH THEY STILL TEND TO HAVE
TRIANGULAR SHAPES "ARNACLE PLATES AND FRAGMENTS NORMALLY ARE IN THE MM SIZE RANGE
4HE RIBBED AND FURROWED PARTIALLY HOLLOW NATURE OF BARNACLE WALL PLATES PRODUCES CHARACTERISTIC PLICATED
MOLAR
LIKE STRUCTURE IN THE LAMINATED PLATES
4HE LONGITUDINAL TUBULES THAT RUN THROUGH THE PLATES PRODUCE A VESICULAR FABRIC AND CAN GIVE PLATES A HOLLOW
APPEARANCE
3KELETAL FRAGMENTS HAVE HOMOGENEOUS GRANULAR OR FOLIATED MICROSTRUCTURE
,ARGELY INTACT BARNACLES SOMETIMES CAN BE FOUND AS ENCRUSTERS ON OTHER ORGANISMS OR ON LITHIl ED SURFACES
HARDGROUNDS
CHAPTER 11: ARTHROPODS
Characteristic features of a
representative barnacle
! DIAGRAM MODIl ED IN PART FROM -OORE ET AL
THAT ILLUSTRATES THE MAIN FEATURES OF MOD
ERN BALANOMORPH BARNACLES 5PPER LEFT VIEW
OF A WHOLE BARNACLE WITH COVER PLATES LARGELY
CLOSED 5PPER RIGHT CROSS SECTION OF A WHOLE
BARNACLE SHOWING ORIENTATION OF PLATES AND OR
GANISM ,OWER LEFT VIEW OF A SINGLE PLICATED
PLATE ,OWER RIGHT CROSS SECTION OF A SINGLE
PLATE SHOWING TUBULAR INTERNAL STRUCTURE
Pleistocene Caloosahatchee Fm.,
Hendry Co., Florida
! BARNACLE ENCRUSTING AN OYSTER SHELL 4HE
SHORT WHITE LINES MARK THE APPROXIMATE CON
TACT OF THE BARNACLE WALL PLATES AND BASE PLATE
WITH THE UNDERLYING VESICULAR OYSTER SHELL
4HE BARNACLE SHOWS hTUBULARv STRUCTURE IN THE
BASE PLATE AND COMPLEX STRUCTURE IN ITS SIDE
WALL PLATES
8
80, (! MM
Pleistocene Caloosahatchee Fm.,
Hendry Co., Florida
! DIFFERENT CUT THROUGH A BARNACLE ENCRUSTING
AN OYSTER SHELL 4HE BARNACLE SHOWS CHARAC
TERISTIC PLICATED FABRIC GIVING IRREGULAR LIGHT
AND DARK BANDING SOMETIMES DESCRIBED AS A
MOLAR LIKE STRUCTURE
80, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Pliocene Pukenui Ls., Mbr. B,
Wairarapa District, New Zealand
! BARNACLE FRAGMENT IN A SANDY LIMESTONE
.OTE THE COMPLEX VESICULAR POROUS TUBULAR
STRUCTURE SIMILAR TO THAT SEEN IN SOME RUDISTID
BIVALVES
00, "3% (! MM
Oligocene Otekaike Ls.,
Canterbury, New Zealand
! BARNACLE PLATE SHOWING A VARIETY OF INTERNAL
STRUCTURES -OST RECOGNIZABLE IS THE OUTER EDGE
THAT DISPLAYS DEEP PLICATIONS GIVING THE GRAIN A
TEXTURE SIMILAR TO A MOLAR TOOTH
00, (! MM
Oligocene Otekaike Ls.,
Canterbury, New Zealand
#LOSE UP VIEW OF A BARNACLE PLATE WITH CHARAC
TERISTIC PLICATED MOLAR LIKE INTERNAL STRUCTURE
-OST CUTS THROUGH BARNACLE PLATES WILL SHOW
SUCH PLICATIONS
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 11: ARTHROPODS
Oligocene Otekaike Ls.,
Canterbury, New Zealand
0LICATED TOOTH LIKE BARNACLE FRAGMENTS FORM
THE DOMINANT ELEMENT IN THIS SANDY SHALLOW
WATER LIMESTONE FROM A TEMPERATE TO COLD WA
TER DEPOSITIONAL SETTING 4WO ECHINOID SPINES
ARE ALSO VISIBLE AS THE m OWER LIKE GRAINS AT
UPPER RIGHT AND UPPER LEFT
00, "3% (! MM
Eocene-Oligocene? Hanmer
Marble, Canterbury, New Zealand
! BARNACLE AND BRYOZOAN RICH LIMESTONE 4HIS
IS A COMMON ASSOCIATION IN #ENOZOIC SHALLOW
SHELF TEMPERATE TO COLD WATER DEPOSITIONAL SET
TINGS %CHINOIDS RED ALGAE FORAMINIFERS OYS
TERS AND OTHER MOLLUSKS ARE ADDITIONAL COMMON
COMPONENTS OF THIS NON TROPICAL ASSEMBLAGE
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
#ITED 2EFERENCES AND !DDITIONAL )NFORMATION 3OURCES
"ATE 2 ( AND " ! %AST 4HE STRUCTURE OF THE OSTRACOD CARAPACE )NTRODUCTION TO -ARINE -ICROPALEONTOLOGY .EW 9ORK %LSEVIER P
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CHAPTER 12: PROBLEMATICA
'2!).3 3KELETAL &RAGMENTS
PROBLEMATICA
Receptaculitids
Nuia
C
H
A Palaeoaplysina
P
T Tubiphytes
E
R Lithocodium
12
Hensonella
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
02/",%-!4)#!
4HERE ARE THOUSANDS OF PROBLEMATIC ORGANISMS ORGANISMS UNASSIGNED TO A SPECIlC PHYLETIC GROUP OR ONES THAT
WERE ASSIGNED TO DIFFERENT GROUPS BY DIFFERENT WORKERS 7E HAVE SIMPLY PICKED A FEW THAT ARE PARTICULARLY
DISTINCTIVE ANDOR THAT ARE IMPORTANT IN ROCKS OF HYDROCARBON EXPLORATION INTEREST 7E LIST PRIOR PHYLETIC
ASSIGNMENTS AND AGE RANGES BELOW AND PROVIDE DESCRIPTIONS AND KEYS TO RECOGNITION IN THE lGURE CAPTIONS
0RIOR 4AXONOMIC !SSIGNMENTS AND !GE 2ANGES
2ECEPTACULITIDS
GROUPED WITH SPONGES CORALS DASYCLADACEAN GREEN ALGAE OR PROBLEMATICA COMMON FROM
%ARLY /RDOVICIAN TO ,ATE $EVONIAN WITH SMALLER MORE GLOBULAR FORMS EXTENDING INTO THE 0ERMIAN
.UIA
GROUPED WITH PROBLEMATIC CODIACEAN ALGAE OR AS AN UNASSIGNED ORGANISM ,ATE #AMBRIAN
/RDOVICIAN
0ALAEOAPLYSINA
GROUPED WITH SPONGES PHYLLOID ALGAE OR HYDROZOANS -ID 0ENNSYLVANIAN
%ARLY 0ERMIAN
4UBIPHYTES
VARIOUSLY GROUPED WITH CYANOBACTERIABLUE
GREEN ALGAE RED ALGAE CALCAREOUS SPONGES FORAMINIFERS
HYDROZOANS AT LEAST ,ATE #ARBONIFEROUS TO ,ATE *URASSIC
,ITHOCODIUM
GROUPED AS CODIACEAN ALGAE OR LOFTUSIID FORAMINIFERS ,ATE 4RIASSIC TO %ARLY #RETACEOUS !LBIAN
(ENSONELLA
GROUPED AS MOLLUSKS SCAPHOPODS CORALLINE RED ALGAE OR DASYCLADACEAN GREEN ALGAE #RETACEOUS
(AUTERIVIAN
!LBIAN
Lo. Ordovician (Canadian) Up. El
Paso Gp., El Paso Co., Texas
! CROSS SECTION OF THE WALL STRUCTURE OF
#ALATHIUM SP WITH ITS CENTRAL CAVITY AND
MODERATELY WELL PRESERVED RADIATING WALL
STRUCTURE #ALATHIDS ARE THE EARLIEST RECEPTACU
LITIDS THEY HAD OVOID OR TUBULAR SKELETONS
THAT STRONGLY RESEMBLE SPONGES ONE OF THE
GROUPS IN WHICH RECEPTACULITIDS COMMONLY
ARE CLASSED 4HE SPARRY CALCITE lLLED AREAS
AND MICRITE lLLED CIRCLES ARE RECRYSTALLIZED
ORIGINALLY ARAGONITIC ELONGATE PILLARS THAT
CONSTITUTED THE SKELETAL WALL SEE .ITECKI ET
AL THE REST OF THE MICRITIC SEDIMENT HAS
lLLED AREAS OF FORMER VOID SPACES OR SITES OF
LATER DECOMPOSED ORGANIC TISSUES
00, (! MM
Mid. Ordovician Trenton Ls., Ste.
Genevieve Co., Missouri
Receptaculitid colonies usually are globular
to platter shaped, hollow structures, and typi-
cally range from a few cm to 30 cm in diam-
eter. This transverse section SHOWS THE SIMPLE
WALL STRUCTURE OF 2ECEPTACULITES OWENI NOW
RENAMED &ISCHERITES OWENI )T CONSISTS OF A
SERIES OF THICK REGULARLY ARRAYED VERTICAL CAR
BONATE PILLARS SPAR lLLED CIRCULAR AREAS IN THIS
IMAGE 4HE PILLARS mARE AND MERGE NEAR THE
OUTER MARGIN OF THE COLONY TO FORM A SURFACE
OF RHOMBOHEDRAL OR HEXAGONAL FACETS OR PLATES
2ECEPTACULITIDS ARE WIDESPREAD IN SHALLOW
SHELF SECTIONS ESPECIALLY IN LOWER 0ALEOZOIC
STRATA SEE .ITECKI AND 4OOMEY
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 12: PROBLEMATICA
Lo. Ordovician (Canadian) Up. El
Paso Gp., El Paso Co., Texas
.UMEROUS GRAINS OF .UIA SIBIRICA -ASLOV THE
GRAINS WITH RADIAL FABRIC IN A SHALLOW
WATER
SHELF CARBONATE !LTHOUGH THE AFlNITIES OF THIS
GROUP REMAIN UNCERTAIN IT IS COMMON IN /RDO
VICIAN ROCKS IN THE SOUTHWESTERN 5NITED 3TATES
OFTEN IN CONJUNCTION WITH RECEPTACULITIDS SEE
4OOMEY AND +LEMENT 4OOMEY
4HESE SPHERICAL TO ELLIPTICAL GRAINS CAN BE MIS
TAKEN FOR RADIAL
FABRIC OOIDS IF NOT EXAMINED
CLOSELY
00, (! MM
Lo. Ordovician (Canadian) Up. El
Paso Gp., El Paso Co., Texas
! CLOSE UP VIEW OF .UIA SIBIRICA 4HE DARK
CENTRAL CANAL IS SURROUNDED BY SMALL CALCAREOUS
TUBULES AND THE WALLS ARE COMPOSED OF RADI
ALLY ORIENTED CALCITE PRISMS A STRUCTURE SIMILAR
IN MANY WAYS TO THAT OF -ICROCODIUM SEE
CHAPTER ON VADOSE DIAGENESIS 4HE CONSISTENT
PRESERVATION OF THESE GRAINS IMPLIES THAT CALCITE
WAS THE PRIMARY MINERALOGY
00, (! MM
Schematic reconstruction of
Palaeoaplysina
0ALAEOAPLYSINA IS MADE OF SHEET LIKE PLATES
THAT TYPICALLY ARE LESS THE CM THICK BUT
CAN BE UP TO M LONG 4HE TOP SURFACE HAS
PROMINENT MAMELON LIKE PROTUBERANCES AND
NUMEROUS PORES THAT EMERGE ON THE SURFACE
TUBULES AND REMNANTS OF A CELLULAR FABRIC
SOMETIMES REMAIN VISIBLE IN THE PLATE INTE
RIOR WHERE THE FABRIC HAS NOT BEEN DESTROYED
BY NEOMORPHISM 4HE PLATES ARE THOUGHT TO
HAVE BEEN ORIGINALLY ARAGONITIC NEVERTHELESS
REMNANTS OF INTERNAL STRUCTURE COMMONLY ARE
PRESERVED THROUGH SEDIMENT INlLL OF THE PORES
MICROBIAL ENCRUSTATION OR EARLY CEMENTATION
!DAPTED FROM "EAUCHAMP
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Lo. Permian (lo. Asselian)
Kholodnolozhsky Horizon,
Gubakha, Perm Region, Russia
7ELL PRESERVED SKELETAL STRUCTURE IN A PAIR OF
0ALAEOAPLYSINA PLATES 4HE ASYMMETRY OF THE
PLATES WITH ONE SURFACE BEARING MAMELONS AND
PORES PROBABLY INDICATES THAT THEY LAY mAT ON
THE SEAmOOR -AMELON LIKE PROTUBERANCES
TUBULES AND EVEN HINTS OF LATTICEWORK FABRIC IN
THE DARKER MARGINAL ZONES ARE VISIBLE IN THESE
EXAMPLES
00, (! MM
Lo. Permian (lo. Asselian)
Kholodnolozhsky Horizon,
Gubakha, Perm Region, Russia
!N ENLARGED VIEW OF WELL PRESERVED STRUCTURE
IN A 0ALAEOAPLYSINA PLATE 4HESE PROBLEMATIC
ORGANISMS HAVE BEEN CLASSED BY SOME WORKERS
AS PHYLLOID ALGAE AND IT IS WITH PHYLLOID ALGAL
PLATES THAT THEY ARE MOST EASILY CONFUSED 4HE
SURFACE PROTUBERANCES AND THE COARSE TUBULAR
STRUCTURE ARE CHARACTERISTIC OF 0ALAEOAPLYSINA
4HE RETICULATE OR LATTICEWORK FABRIC SEEN WELL
ALONG THE LOWER MARGIN IS REMINISCENT OF SOME
PHYLLOID ALGAE HOWEVER
00, (! MM
Pennsylvanian (Desmoinesian)
Minturn Fm., Robinson Mbr., Eagle
Co., Colorado
0OORLY PRESERVED PROBABLE 0ALAEOAPLYSINA
PLATES !N ORIGINALLY ARAGONITIC ORGANISM
0ALAEOAPLYSINA IS COMMONLY LEACHED OR OTH
ERWISE NEOMORPHOSED /NLY THROUGH INlLL OF
PORES BIOLOGICAL ENCRUSTATION OR EARLY CEMEN
TATION IS ANY WALL STRUCTURE PRESERVED (ERE
lLLED TUBULES AND POSSIBLE SURFACE MAMELONS
ARE STILL DISTINGUISHABLE BUT OTHER STRUCTURES
WERE DIAGENETICALLY DESTROYED
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 12: PROBLEMATICA
Lo. Permian (up. Artinskian)
Sylvinskaya Suite, Kungur, Perm
region, Russia
4HESE DENSELY MICROCRYSTALLINE IRREGULARLY
LOBATE STRUCTURES FORM PARTS OF A BRANCHING
COLONY OF 4UBIPHYTES SP 4HIS IS A PROBLEMATIC
ORGANISM THAT FORMS SMALL FRAMEWORK SHRUBS
SUPERlCIALLY SIMILAR TO MODERN STICK LIKE
GROWTH FORMS OF THE RED ALGA 'ONIOLITHON
4UBIPHYTES ALSO IS FOUND COMMONLY AS AN
ENCRUSTER OF OTHER ORGANISMS 4UBIPHYTES IS
ESPECIALLY PREVALENT IN 0ERMIAN REEFS WHERE
IT OCCURS IN FRAMEWORK ENCRUSTER CONSORTIA
ALONG WITH CALCAREOUS SPONGES PHYLLOID ALGAE
!RCHAEOLITHOPORELLA AND MARINE CEMENTS
00, "3% (! MM
Up. Permian Middle reef complex,
Djebel Tebaga, Tunisia
!N ENLARGEMENT SHOWING THE INTERNAL STRUC
TURE IN TRANSVERSE SECTION OF 4UBIPHYTES SP
4HIS PROBLEMATIC ORGANISM HAS VERY lNELY
MICROCRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE YIELDING GRAINS THAT
APPEAR ALMOST PURE WHITE IN REmECTED LIGHT OR
ON OUTCROP 4HE SKELETAL REMAINS SHOW SUC
CESSIVE IRREGULAR CONCENTRIC TO LOBATE ENCRUS
TATIONS AND A MESH OR WEB LIKE INTERNAL FABRIC
THAT ARE WELL ILLUSTRATED IN THIS EXAMPLE
00, (! MM
Up. Permian (up. Guadalupian)
Capitan Fm., Eddy Co., New Mexico
! TYPICAL 4UBIPHYTES ENCRUSTATION IN OBLIQUE
LONGITUDINAL SECTION HERE ASSOCIATED WITH
!RCHAEOLITHOPORELLA AND MARINE CEMENT IN A
SPONGE CEMENT REEF 4UBIPHYTES APPEARS TO
GROW EXTENSIVELY ON SEAmOOR SURFACES BUT IT
MAY ALSO HAVE BEEN A CONTRIBUTOR TO CRYPTIC
REEF COMMUNITIES GROWING IN DIMLY LIT RECESS
ES AND CAVITIES IN REEF AND FORE REEF SETTINGS
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Jurassic (Tithonian) Arranh
Fm., So Tiago dos Velhos,
Portugal
,ITHOCODIUM AGGREGATUM SHOWN HERE IN A
MULTILAYERED EXAMPLE IS COMMON IN -ESOZOIC
SHELF CARBONATES WHERE IT ENCRUSTS REEFS AND
FORMS ONCOIDS )NTERPRETED BY MANY EARLIER
WORKERS AS A CODIACEAN GREEN ALGA RECENT WORK
HAS SHOWN THAT THIS ORGANISM IS AN ENCRUSTING
FORAMINIFER 3CHMID AND ,EINFELDER )T
LIVED IN ASSOCIATION WITH ALGAL SYMBIONTS AND
ANOTHER FORAMINIFER 4ROGLOTELLA INCRUSTANS THAT
GREW INTO THE ALVEOLI OF ,ITHOCODIUM )T ALSO IS
COMMONLY ASSOCIATED WITH "ACINELLA ANOTHER
PROBLEMATIC ENCRUSTER 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF
2EINHOLD 2 ,EINFELDER AND $IETER 3CHMID
00, (! ^ MM
Up. Jurassic (Kimmeridgian) Ota
Ls., Alenquer, Portugal
4HE COMPLEX ALVEOLAR BUT IMPERFORATE
MICROGRANULAR WALL STRUCTURE OF ,ITHOCODIUM
AGGREGATUM IS SEEN HERE 4HE FORM IS IDENTICAL
TO THAT OF OTHER LOFTUSIID FORAMINIFERS ALTHOUGH
,ITHOCODIUM IS UNIQUE WITHIN THAT GROUP IN
HAVING AN ENCRUSTING LIFESTYLE ,ITHOCODIUM
IS COILED DURING JUVENILE GROWTH STAGES BUT
ITS IRREGULAR ENCRUSTING GROWTH FORM DEVELOPS
IN LATER STAGES OF LIFE 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF
2EINHOLD 2 ,EINFELDER AND $IETER 3CHMID
00, (! ^ MM
Diagrammatic reconstruction of
Lithocodium aggregatum
ALGAL ECTOPLASM !N INTERPRETED RECONSTRUCTION OF ,ITHOCODIUM
SYMBIONTS ENDOPLASM AGGREGATUM IN CONSORTIUM WITH 4ROGLOTELLA
OF AXIAL SECTION WITH ALGAL SYMBIONTS NOT TO
ABANDONED SCALE 4HE NUMERALS INDICATE THE SUCCES
,ITHOCODIUM
CHAMBER
SION OF LIVING CHAMBERS OF ,ITHOCODIUM 4HE
ALVEOLI PHRENOTHECA LIKE STRUCTURES WERE INTERPRETED TO
HAVE SERVED IN PART TO SHUT OFF CHAMBERS THAT
HAD BEEN DESERTED BY THE LIVING ,ITHOCODIUM
PHRENOTHECA
ECTOPLASM 2EDRAWN FROM 3CHMID AND ,EINFELDER
ENDOPLASM USED COURTESY OF 2EINHOLD 2 ,EINFELDER AND
OF 4ROGLOTELLA $IETER 3CHMID
MM
CHAPTER 12: PROBLEMATICA
Lo. Cretaceous (Barremian)
Kharaib Fm., offshore Qatar
! LARGE INTRACLASTIC FRAGMENT CENTER SHOWING
A FORAMINIFERAL
MICROBIAL COMMUNITY INCLUD
ING ,ITHOCODIUM AND OTHER ENCRUSTERS 4HIS
SEDIMENT IS PART OF A BROAD OPEN SHALLOW
SHELF SEQUENCE WITH SCATTERED SMALL BIOHERMS
AND MOUNDS THAT INCLUDE ,ITHOCODIUM AS AN
IMPORTANT ENCRUSTING FAUNAL COMPONENT
00, (! MM
Lo. Cretaceous (Barremian)
Kharaib Fm., offshore Qatar
! LONGITUDINAL CUT THROUGH A SINGLE SPECIMEN OF
(ENSONELLA DINARICA AN (AUTERIVIAN
!LBIAN
PROBLEMATIC ORGANISM 4HE CONICAL SHAPE AND
POSSIBLE TWO
LAYER WALL ARE VISIBLE THE
WALL HAS AN INNER GRANULAR OR MICROCRYSTALLINE
LAYER AND AN OUTER PRISMATIC CALCITE LAYER WITH
PRISMS ORIENTED PERPENDICULAR TO THE WALL SUR
FACE $ESPITE THE CONICAL FORM THIS ORGANISM
IS NOW GROUPED MOST COMMONLY WITH THE GREEN
ALGAE SEE %LLIOTT
00, (! MM
Lo. Cretaceous (Barremian)
Kharaib Fm., offshore Qatar
! TRANSVERSE CROSS SECTION THROUGH A SINGLE
SPECIMEN OF (ENSONELLA DINARICA 4HE CIR
CULAR TO OVOID SHAPE CORRESPONDS TO THE SHORT
AXIS SECTION OF A SLENDER TAPERING CONE 4HE
INNER MICROGRANULAR AND OUTER RADIAL PRISMATIC
WALL LAYERS ARE CLEARLY VISIBLE ALONG WITH THE
SOMEWHAT UNEVEN EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY 4HIS
ORGANISM IS A COMMON CONTRIBUTOR TO OPEN
SHELF CARBONATE DEPOSITS IN THE ,OWER #RETA
CEOUS OF THE -IDDLE %AST
00, !&E3 (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
#ITED 2EFERENCES AND !DDITIONAL )NFORMATION 3OURCES
"ABCOCK * ! 4HE PUZZLE OF ALGA
LIKE PROBLEMATICA OR RUMMAGING $EUTUNG IHRER 3TELLUNG IM 3YSTEM 3ENCKENBERGIANA ,ETHAEA V
AROUND IN THE ALGAL WASTEBASKET IN ! (OFFMAN AND - ( .ITECKI EDS P
0ROBLEMATIC &OSSIL 4AXA .EW 9ORK /XFORD 5NIVERSITY 0RESS P
2IDING 2 3HAMOVELLA OBSCURA THE CORRECT NAME FOR 4UBIPHYTES
"EAUCHAMP " 5PPER #ARBONIFEROUS TO ,OWER 0ERMIAN OBSCURUS 4AXON V P
0ALAEOAPLYSINA
PHYLLOID ALGAL BUILDUPS #ANADIAN !RCTIC !RCHIPELAGO 2IDING 2 AND , 'UO !FlNITY OF 4UBIPHYTES 0ALAEONTOLOGY V
IN ( ( * 'ELDSETZER . 0 *AMES AND ' % 4EBBUTT EDS 2EEFS P
#ANADA AND !DJACENT !REAS #ALGARY #ANADA #ANADIAN 3OCIETY OF 2OSS 2 * *R * % 6ALUSEK AND . 0 *AMES .UIA AND ITS
0ETROLEUM 'EOLOGISTS -EMOIR P
ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIlCANCE IN $ , 7OLBERG ED #ONTRIBUTIONS TO
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0ETROLEUM 'EOLOGISTS "ULLETIN V P
2ESOURCES -EMOIR P
#HUVASHOV " ) -ORFOLOGIYA EKOLOGIYA I SYSTEMATICHESKOE 3CHMID $ 5 h4UBIPHYTESv MORRONENSIS EINE FAKULTATIV
POLZHENYE RODA 0ALAEOAPLYSINA 0ALEONTOL :HUMAL V P
INKRUSTIERENDE &ORAMINIFERE MIT ENDOSYMBIONTISCHEN !LGEN
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THROUGH A PIECE OF SILICIlED WOOD FROM THE #RETACEOUS OF
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CHAPTER 13: VERTEBRATE AND PLANT REMAINS
'2!).3 3KELETAL &RAGMENTS
VERTEBRATE AND PLANT REMAINS
Bones and teeth
C
H Conodonts
A
P
T
Plant fragments
E
R Spores, pollen,
13 and organic
matter
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
6%24%"2!4% "/.%3 4%%4( !.$ 3#!,%3
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
0HYLUM #HORDATA SUBPHYLUM 6ERTEBRATA
6ERTEBRATES RANGE FROM #AMBRIAN TO 2ECENT INITIALLY AS JAWLESS lSH
*AWED VERTEBRATES %ARLY 3ILURIAN
2ECENT
4ERRESTRIAL VERTEBRATES ,ATE $EVONIAN #ARBONIFEROUS
2ECENT
2EPTILES #ARBONIFEROUS
2ECENT
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
%ARLY VERTEBRATE REMAINS #AMBRIAN
3ILURIAN ARE CONlNED TO MARINE SETTINGS SUBSEQUENT DIVERSIlCATION LED TO
EXPANSION INTO VIRTUALLY ALL ENVIRONMENTS FROM POLAR TO TROPICAL AND FROM TERRESTRIAL TO ABYSSAL MARINE -OST
VERTEBRATE REMAINS IN CARBONATE ROCKS ARE lSH SCALES AND TEETH FROM LACUSTRINE OR MARINE SETTINGS BONE AND
TOOTH MATERIAL FROM OTHER GROUPS HOWEVER ALSO CAN BE FOUND ON OCCASION
6ERTEBRATE REMAINS ARE RARE BUT CAN SOMETIMES BE FOUND CONCENTRATED BY WAVE OR CURRENT ACTION OR BY
NONSEDIMENTATION OF OTHER MATERIALS AT HIATUS SURFACES
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
"ONES AND TEETH ARE LARGELY COMPOSED OF ORGANIC PROTEINS MAINLY COLLAGEN AND CALCIUM PHOSPHATE CARBONATE
HYDROXYLAPATITE SOMETIMES TERMED COLLOPHANE WHEN IT IS MICROCRYSTALLINE 4HE INTERIOR PARTS OF BONES THE
CANCELLOUS PORTIONS HAVE A SPONGY TEXTURE THAT COMMONLY IS lLLED WITH PRECIPITATED CEMENT MOST COMMONLY
CARBONATE SILICA OR PHOSPHATE DURING DIAGENESIS
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
6ERTEBRATE ORGANISMS HAVE AN ENORMOUS RANGE OF EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGIES BUT ALL HAVE A VERTEBRAL COLUMN
AND OTHER HARD PARTS OTHER BONES TEETH OR SCALES THAT TYPICALLY DISARTICULATE UPON DEATH AND CAN BECOME
SCATTERED INTO CARBONATE AND NONCARBONATE SEDIMENTARY DEPOSITS
6ERTEBRATE DEBRIS CAN RANGE IN SIZE FROM LESS THAN A MM TO WELL OVER M BUT IS TYPICALLY IN THE MM TO CM SIZE
RANGE
-OST BONES SHARE COMMON FEATURES A DENSE SMOOTH OUTER OR CORTICAL PART AND AN INTERIOR COMPOSED OF MULTIPLE
LAYERS OF POROUS OR SPONGY CANCELLOUS MATERIAL IN LIFE THE POROUS AREAS ARE OCCUPIED BY MARROW
4EETH ARE CONSTRUCTED OF THREE LAYERS A PULPY CAVITY A COVERING OF DENTINE AND WHERE THE TOOTH IS EXPOSED AN
ADDITIONAL COVERING OF ENAMEL
$ENTINE IS RELATIVELY HARD AND DENSE AND HAS A MINERAL CONTENT OF ABOUT ENAMEL IS EVEN DENSER AND IS ALMOST
HYDROXYLAPATITE
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
"ONETOOTH MATERIAL IS PHOSPHATIC AND THUS IS COLORLESS TO DARK BROWN IN PLANE
POLARIZED LIGHT AND HAS
EXTREMELY LOW BIREFRINGENCE LIGHT GRAY TO BLACK AND SLIGHTLY UNDULOSE EXTINCTION IN CROSS
POLARIZED LIGHT
"ONE FRAGMENTS AND TOOTH MATERIAL HAVE A DISTINCTIVE DENSE EXTERIOR AND A SPONGY INTERIOR
"ONE FRAGMENTS HAVE IRREGULAR SHAPES AND A DISTINCTIVE VESICULAR FABRIC WITH BRANCHING TUBULAR CAVITIES
HAVERSIAN CANALS AND CONCENTRIC LAMINAR PHOSPHATIC STRUCTURES SURROUNDING THE CANALS !T HIGHER
MAGNIlCATIONS TINY HOLES CANICULI REPRESENTING INDIVIDUAL BONE CELLS ARE VISIBLE
&ISH SCALES OR DERMAL PLATES HAVE CONCENTRICALLY LAMINATED WALL STRUCTURES AND SOME HAVE A RIND OF ENAMEL
SIMILAR TO VERTEBRATE TEETH
%NAMEL LAYERS TYPICALLY APPEAR AS A BRIGHT EXTERIOR TO GRAINS AND CAN HAVE A RADIAL PRISMATIC STRUCTURE
0(/4/ 3#!,%3 !.$ !""2%6)!4)/.3 !2% %80,!).%$ ). 4(% "//+3 ).42/$5#4)/.
CHAPTER 13: VERTEBRATE AND PLANT REMAINS
Up. Cretaceous, Canterbury, New
Zealand
! MACROSCOPIC VIEW OF A SECTIONED CERVICAL
VERTEBRA OF AN ELASMOSAUR A MARINE REPTILE
.OTE THE ORIGINALLY SPONGY FABRIC OF THE BONE
MATERIAL WITH MOST OF THE PORES lLLED WITH
DIAGENETIC PRECIPITATES 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY
OF $ 7 ,EWIS
-AC (! CM
Eocene Green River Fm., Lincoln
Co., Wyoming
! GROUP OF PARTLY CRUSHED POROUS lSH BONES
AND SCALES YELLOWISH BROWN IN A LAMINATED
CALCAREOUS SHALE .OTE COMPACTIONAL DRAPE
OF THE SOFT SEDIMENT AROUND THE HARDER SKELETAL
MATERIAL 4HE CROSS POLARIZED LIGHT VIEW SHOWS
THE TYPICAL LOW BIREFRINGENCE OF THE COLLOPHANE
CARBONATE HYDROXYLAPATITE
00,80, (! MM EACH
Up. Cretaceous, Drumheller,
Alberta, Canada
! CROSS SECTION THROUGH A SINGLE TERRES
TRIAL DINOSAUR BONE 4HE LARGE PORES TERMED
HAVERSIAN CANALS ARE ELONGATE TUBES THAT EXTEND
AT RIGHT ANGLES TO THE PLANE OF THIS THIN SECTION
4HE CANALS ARE SURROUNDED BY CONCENTRICALLY
LAMINATED PHOSPHATIC MATERIAL COLLOPHANE
A STRUCTURE THAT IS ESPECIALLY VISIBLE IN CROSS
POLARIZED LIGHT RIGHT AND IS DIAGNOSTIC OF BONE
MATERIAL 4HE SMALL DOTS BARELY VISIBLE AT THIS
MAGNIlCATION ARE HOLES CANICULI REPRESENTING
INDIVIDUAL BONE CELLS 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF
!LBERT 6 #AROZZI
00,80, (! MM EACH
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Tertiary Vieja Gp., Presidio Co.,
Texas
4HIS 4ITANOTHERE MAMMALIAN BONE SHOWS A
STRUCTURE COMPARABLE TO THAT SEEN IN THE PREVI
OUS PHOTOGRAPHS OF REPTILIAN BONE )T HAS LARGE
HAVERSIAN CANALS CONCENTRIC STRUCTURE IN THE
SURROUNDING PHOSPHATIC MATERIAL AND BARELY
VISIBLE TRACES OF CANICULI
00, (! MM
Tertiary Vieja Gp., Presidio Co.,
Texas
4HE LARGE PORES AND CONCENTRICALLY LAMINATED
PHOSPHATIC STRUCTURE OF THE 4ITANOTHERE BONE
SHOWN ABOVE ARE ACCENTUATED HERE IN CROSS PO
LARIZED LIGHT .OTE THE hSTREAKYv BIREFRINGENCE
PATTERNS COMMON TO MANY PHOSPHATIC BONE
FRAGMENTS
80, (! MM
Permian (Leonardian-Guadalupian)
Phosphoria Fm., Caribou Co.,
Idaho
4HIS VIEW OF ONE OF THE WORLDS GREAT PHOS
PHATE DEPOSITS SHOWS A PHOSPHATIC OOLITE
IN WHICH PHOSPHATIC COLLOPHANE SHELL AND
BONE FRAGMENTS ACT AS CORES NUCLEI OF MANY
OF THE OOIDS 4HE SKELETAL DEBRIS IS RELATIVELY
CLEAR WHITE TO PALE YELLOW THE PRECIPITATED
PHOSPHATIC COATINGS OF THE OOIDS ARE YELLOWISH
BROWN IN THIS EXAMPLE
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 13: VERTEBRATE AND PLANT REMAINS
#/./$/.43
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
,ONG CONSIDERED AS PROBLEMATIC REMAINS CONODONTS HAVE BEEN ASSIGNED VARIOUSLY TO lSHES WORMS MOLLUSKS
AND ARTHROPODS 2ECENT DISCOVERIES MAKE IT VERY LIKELY THAT THESE ARE SUPPORT STRUCTURES OR SIEVINGSCREENING
FEATURES EMBEDDED IN THE SOFT TISSUES OF PRIMITIVE JAWLESS lSH POSSIBLY SIMILAR TO MODERN HAGlSH
0HYLUM #ONODONTA ,ATE 0ROTEROZOIC
,ATE 4RIASSIC
#LASS 0ARACONODONTIDA ,ATE 0ROTEROZOIC
-ID /RDOVICIAN
#LASS #ONODONTOPHORIDA #AMBRIAN
,ATE 4RIASSIC
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
#ONODONTS OCCUR WORLDWIDE AND WERE FULLY MARINE WITH A RANGE FROM NORMAL SALINITY TO VERY SLIGHTLY HYPERSALINE
SETTINGS "OTH PELAGIC AND BENTHIC FORMS MAY HAVE EXISTED !LTHOUGH MOST COMMON IN SHALLOW SHELF SETTINGS
CONODONTS ARE MORE RARELY FOUND IN DEEPER
WATER ENVIRONMENTS PRIMARILY IN AREAS OF STRONG UPWELLING
2ARELY A DOMINANT FAUNAL ELEMENT EXCEPT IN MINOR CONCENTRATIONS OR hBONE BEDSv BUT STILL COMMON IN CARBONATE
ROCKS ESPECIALLY PROMINENT IN INSOLUBLE RESIDUES 4HEY ARE EXTREMELY IMPORTANT FOR BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC
DETERMINATIONS
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
#ONODONT HARD PARTS hELEMENTSv ARE COMPOSED OF CALCIUM PHOSPHATE CARBONATE
HYDROXYLAPATITE SOMETIMES
TERMED COLLOPHANE WITH INCLUDED ORGANIC MATTER
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
-OST ARE UNCALCIlED AND THE REMAINDER HAVE LARGELY hNONSKELETALv OR hEXTRASKELETALv CALCIlCATION #ONODONT
ELEMENTS HAVE VARIED TOOTH
OR BLADE
LIKE SHAPES WITH THREE COMMON LONG
SECTION MORPHOLOGIES CONIFORM
CONE
SHAPED STRUCTURES WITH A BASE AND CUSP RAMIFORM A MAIN CUSP WITH mANKING RIDGES BEARING SMALLER
DENTICLES AND PECTINIFORM ELONGATE PLATFORMS WITH MULTIPLE SMALL DENTICLES -OST ARE CIRCULAR TO POLYGONAL
IN SHORT
AXIS CROSS SECTION
#ONODONT ELEMENTS RANGE FROM ABOUT MILLIMETERS TO MILLIMETERS IN LENGTH
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
)NDIVIDUAL ELEMENTS TYPICALLY ARE IN THE MM SIZE RANGE
4HEY HAVE MINUTE CALCIUM PHOSPHATE CRYSTALS WITH LARGE AMOUNTS OF ASSOCIATED ORGANIC MATTER 'RAINS RANGE
FROM NEARLY CLEAR TO OPAQUE WITH PALE YELLOW TO BROWN OR EVEN BLACK COLOR IN PLANE LIGHT DEPENDING ON THE
DEGREE OF THERMAL ALTERATION OF THE INCORPORATED ORGANIC MATTER THIS IS WIDELY USED AS INDICATOR OF THE PALEO
BURIAL HISTORY OF ASSOCIATED ROCKS IN THE FORM OF A CONODONT ALTERATION INDEX COMMONLY ABBREVIATED AS #!)
%PSTEIN ET AL
#ONODONT ELEMENTS ARE ISOTROPIC OR HAVE VERY LOW
ORDER BIREFRINGENCE GRAY TO WHITE IN CROSS
POLARIZED
LIGHT
#ONODONT ELEMENTS HAVE CHARACTERISTIC TOOTH
TO BLADE
SHAPES THAT SERVE TO DISTINGUISH THEM FROM MOST
VERTEBRATE FOSSIL FRAGMENTS
-OST EASILY MISTAKEN FOR PHOSPHATIC INARTICULATE BRACHIOPOD FRAGMENTS AND lSH SCALES #ONODONTS HOWEVER
HAVE MORE IRREGULAR CRENULATE INTERNAL STRUCTURE
4HE WALL STRUCTURE OF CONODONT ELEMENTS IS EXTREMELY lNELY CRYSTALLINE AND TYPICALLY IS lNELY LAMINATED
SOMETIMES WITH A CRENULATE FABRIC LIKE NESTED CONES ASSOCIATED WITH THE INDIVIDUAL DENTICLES 4HREE LAYERS
CAN SOMETIMES BE DISTINGUISHED A LAMINAR LAYER A NON
LAMINATED ONE TERMED hWHITE MATTERv AND A hBASAL
lLLINGv LAYER WITH EXTREMELY lNE LAMINATION
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Diagram showing generalized
conodont structures
4HE MORPHOLOGIES AND TERMINOLOGY APPLIED TO
SOME OF THE MAIN TYPES OF CONODONT ELEMENTS
ADAPTED FROM "RASIER AND ORIGINAL
SOURCES CITED THEREIN !LTHOUGH THESE ELE
MENTS APPEAR TOOTH LIKE HENCE THE NAME
CONODONT WHICH MEANS hCONE TOOTHv IT IS
NOT CERTAIN WHETHER THEY FUNCTIONED AS TEETH
BECAUSE THEY RARELY SHOW WEAR AND APPARENTLY
WERE EMBEDDED IN SOFT TISSUE !LTHOUGH THEIR
ACTUAL FUNCTION IS NOT FULLY KNOWN THEY MAY
HAVE BEEN TEETH SUPPORT STRUCTURES OR MAY
HAVE PLAYED A ROLE IN GRASPING OR SIEVING MATE
RIAL $ESPITE UNCERTAINTIES OF ORIGIN CONODONTS
ARE EXTREMELY USEFUL BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC MARKERS
IN BOTH CARBONATE AND NON CARBONATE ROCKS
Mississippian Lodgepole Ls.,
Montana
! MACROPHOTOGRAPH OF AN ETCHED LIMESTONE
SURFACE SHOWING A CONCENTRATION OF LARGE PHOS
PHATIC CONODONTS STILL PARTIALLY EMBEDDED IN
CARBONATE MATRIX .OTE THE CONSIDERABLE VARI
ETY OF SHAPES AND SIZES OF THE CONODONTS
-AC (! CM
Lo. Mississippian Lodgepole Ls.,
Cottonwood Canyon Mbr., Montana
3EVERAL CONODONTS MAINLY FROM THE GENUS 3I
PHONODELLA ARE VISIBLE IN A THIN SECTION .OTE
THE ELONGATE TOOTH
LIKE CHARACTER AND DIVERSITY
OF SHAPES OF THESE GRAINS *UST AS WITH HUMAN
TEETH A SINGLE ORGANISM HAD A VARIETY OF CON
ODONT ELEMENTS WITH DIFFERENT SHAPES THUS
CONODONT WORKERS REFER TO hASSOCIATIONSv OF
RELATED ELEMENTS
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 13: VERTEBRATE AND PLANT REMAINS
Lo. Mississippian Lodgepole Ls.,
Cottonwood Canyon Mbr., Montana
! NATURAL CONCENTRATION OF CONODONT ELEMENTS
IN A SANDSTONE INTERCALATION WITHIN A CARBONATE
UNIT .OTE THE TYPICAL EXTINCTION BEHAVIOR UN
DER CROSS
POLARIZED LIGHT THE LOW BIREFRINGENCE
OF CALCIUM PHOSPHATE AND THE PRONOUNCED AP
PEARANCE OF hWHITE MATTERv GIVE A DISTINCTIVE
SAW
TOOTHED APPEARANCE TO THE EXTINCTION PAT
TERN
80, (! MM
Lo. Mississippian (Kinderhookian)
beds near Ada, Oklahoma
!LTHOUGH CONODONTS CAN BE STUDIED IN THIN SEC
TIONS THEY ARE MUCH MORE EASILY EXAMINED IN
WASHED ACID CONCENTRATES 4HIS IS AN EXAMPLE
OF AN EXTRACTED CONODONT ELEMENT AN ANGULATE
PECTINIFORM ELEMENT TERMED 3OLENOGNATHUS
BY (ASS 4HE INTERNAL STRUCTURE REP
RESENTS NESTED CONE
LIKE CONCENTRIC GROWTH
LAMELLAE 4HE COLOR OF THESE CONODONTS HAS
BEEN USED AS AN INDEX OF THE TEMPERATURES
TO WHICH THE ROCK SECTION HAS BEEN EXPOSED
DARKER COLORS GENERALLY CORRESPOND WITH
HIGHER TEMPERATURES AND THIS SAMPLE HAS LIGHT
COLORS TYPICAL OF HEATING TO ONLY
#
0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF *OHN % 2EPETSKI
00, (! MM
Up. Devonian Saverton Shale, Pike
County, Illinois
! VIEW OF AN EXTRACTED CONODONT ASSEMBLAGE
.OTE THE CHARACTERISTIC MARGINAL DENTICLES THAT
GIVE THESE GRAINS THEIR TOOTH
LIKE APPEARANCE
AND THE SO
CALLED hWHITE MATTERv IN THE INTERNAL
PARTS OF THE ELEMENTS 4HE WHITE MATTER CON
SISTS OF ZONES OF PHOSPHATE THAT ARE ESPECIALLY
RICH IN SMALL AIR
OR WATER
lLLED INCLUSIONS AND
ACTUALLY APPEAR AS DARKER COLORED BANDS IN THIS
PHOTOMICROGRAPH 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF !L
BERT 6 #AROZZI
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
7//$9 0,!.4 2%-!).3
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
+INGDOM 0LANTAE INCLUDES ALL LAND PLANTS MOSSES FERNS CONIFERS mOWERING PLANTS
4HE PLANTS lRST APPEARED IN THE /RDOVICIAN AND TOOK ON MODERN FORMS BY ,ATE 3ILURIAN "Y ,ATE $EVONIAN A
VARIED mORA WITH DIVERSE SHAPES AND SIZES EXISTED
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
0HOTOSYNTHETIC AND THUS REQUIRE LIGHT FOR GROWTH
&OUND IN TERRESTRIAL INCLUDING LACUSTRINE AND SHALLOW MARINE ENVIRONMENTS OVER AN EXTREMELY WIDE CLIMATIC
RANGE FROM ARCTIC TO TROPICAL
4HE FACT THAT MOST PLANT MATERIAL CAN mOAT AT LEAST BEFORE BECOMING WATERLOGGED MEANS THAT IT CAN BE WIDELY
DISPERSED BEYOND ITS ALREADY WIDE RANGE THUS TERRESTRIAL PLANT DEBRIS IS VERY COMMON IN DEEP
MARINE
SEDIMENTS
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
0LANT MATERIAL CONSISTED ENTIRELY OF ORGANIC TISSUE IN LIFE AND CAN BE EITHER PRESERVED AS SUCH OR WOODY MATERIAL CAN
BE DIAGENETICALLY ENCASED INlLLED OR REPLACED BY INORGANIC MINERALS MOST COMMONLY CARBONATE OR SILICA
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
-ANY TYPES OF PLANT MATERIAL CAN BE FOUND 7OODY PLANT MATERIAL TYPICALLY IS FOUND AS LEAVES STEMS OR BRANCHES
WITH A SIZE RANGE FROM MILLIMETERS TO M OR MORE
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
7OODY TISSUE HAS ORGANIC COMPOSITION THAT MAY HAVE BEEN INlLLED OR REPLACED BY SILICA CARBONATE OR OTHER
MINERALS
0LANT MATERIALS ARE CHARACTERIZED BY DISTINCTLY CELLULAR STRUCTURES OFTEN WITH PROMINENT RADIATING RAYS ANDOR
CONCENTRIC GROWTH BANDING VARIATIONS IN CELL SIZE AND SHAPE 3PECIlC PATTERNS ARE DEPENDENT ON THE AGE TYPE
OF PLANT AND PART OF THE PLANT BEING EXAMINED
#OLOR OF WOODY MATERIAL CAN VARY FROM YELLOW TO REDDISH
BROWN TO DARK BROWN OR EVEN BLACK DEPENDING ON
THE DEGREE OF MATURATION COALIlCATION OF THE ORGANIC MATTER
Pennsylvanian Francis Creek
Shale, Mazon Creek, Illinois
! PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF AN ACETATE PEEL SHOWING
A PLANT FRAGMENT FROM A SIDERITIC CONCRETION
.OTE THE EXCELLENT PRESERVATION OF REPLACED
CELLULAR MATERIAL ALONG WITH RAY STRUCTURE AND
CONCENTRIC GROWTH BANDING IN THIS MEMBER OF
THE EXTINCT ORDER ,EPIDODENDRALES
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 13: VERTEBRATE AND PLANT REMAINS
Eocene Green River Fm., Laney
Mbr., Fremont Co., Wyoming
! SECTION OF A SMALL PART OF A FOSSIL TREE TRUNK
THAT WASHED INTO THE 'REEN 2IVER LAKE .OTE
THE REDDISH
BROWN COLOR TYPICAL OF RELATIVELY
LOW
MATURITY ORGANIC MATTER AND THE COARSELY
CELLULAR STRUCTURE WITH COMPLEX PATTERNS THAT
CHARACTERIZE MANY REMAINS OF WOODY MATERIAL
00, (! MM
Paleocene Trinidad Fm., Fremont
Co., Colorado
! CROSS SECTION OF FOSSILIZED WOOD SHOWING
VERY WELL PRESERVED CELLULAR FABRIC AND GROWTH
BANDING PROBABLY ANNUAL GROWTH RINGS OF
VARIED THICKNESS 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF ,EE
'ERHARD
080, (! ^ MM
Holocene-Pleistocene soil crust,
Sugarloaf Key, Monroe Co., Florida
4HIS SUB RECENT SOIL CONTAINS NUMEROUS FRAG
MENTS OF PLANT REMAINS THAT APPEAR BLACKENED
AND CRACKED BY DESICCATION AND SHRINKAGE YET
ALSO STILL SHOW PLANT CELLULAR STRUCTURE 4HESE
PROBABLY ARE PIECES OF BURNED WOOD THAT HAVE
BEEN CONVERTED TO CHARCOAL WHICH THEN WAS
PRESERVED IN THE CEMENTED SOIL CRUST 4HIS IS A
GOOD EXAMPLE TO SHOW THAT THE COLOR OF ISOLATED
WOODY FRAGMENTS DOES NOT ALWAYS CORRESPOND
WITH THE THERMAL MATURITY OF THE SURROUNDING
SEDIMENT
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
30/2%3 0/,,%. !.$ 5.$)&&%2%.4)!4%$ /2'!.)# -!44%2
4AXONOMY AND !GE 2ANGE
3PORES ARE REPRODUCTIVE BODIES PRODUCED BY ALGAE FUNGI MOSSES AND FERNS 4HE EARLIEST UNEQUIVOCAL TRIRADIATE
SPORES ARE 3ILURIAN IN AGE AND THEY EXTEND TO THE 2ECENT
0OLLEN ARE MALE REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES OF ANGIOSPERMS mOWERING PLANTS AND GYMNOSPERMS CONIFERS AND
OTHERS
#ONIFEROUS POLLEN 0ENNSYLVANIAN TO 2ECENT
!NGIOSPERM POLLEN %ARLY #RETACEOUS TO 2ECENT
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
3PORES PRODUCED BY ALGAE FUNGI AND BACTERIA ARE RARELY PRESERVED BUT TERRESTRIAL FORMS HAVE WALL COMPOSITIONS
THAT ARE HIGHLY RESISTANT TO DECOMPOSITION 4HUS SPORES AND POLLEN IN MARINE CARBONATES ARE ESSENTIALLY ALWAYS
TRANSPORTED AND THUS ARE NOT DIRECTLY RELATED TO THEIR ENVIRONMENT OF DEPOSITION 4HEY ARE EASILY MOVED BY
BOTH WIND AND WATER AND TRANSPORT DISTANCES OF UP TO KM ARE COMMON
3PORES AND POLLEN HOWEVER ARE COMMON IN CARBONATE ROCKS AND ARE IMPORTANT FOR BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC
DETERMINATIONS
4HEY ARE FOUND IN BOTH MARINE AND NONMARINE STRATA FROM A WIDE RANGE OF CLIMATIC ZONES 4HEY ARE MOST COMMON
IN LACUSTRINE OR NEARSHORE MARINE CARBONATE DEPOSITS
3KELETAL -INERALOGY
3PORES AND POLLEN HAVE A TOUGH DISSOLUTION RESISTANT MULTI LAYERED WALL COMPOSED OF A COMPLEX OF ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS INCLUDING SPOROPOLLENIN
-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURES
-OST POLLEN GRAINS ARE BETWEEN M AND M IN SIZE EXCEPTIONAL ONES ARE AS SMALL AS M OR LARGER THAN
M ,ATE #ENOZOIC SPORES HAVE SIMILAR SIZES OLDER ONES MAY BE AS LARGE AS MM
0OLLEN GRAINS HAVE A WIDE VARIETY OF SMOOTH OR SPINOSE GLOBULAR GENERALLY RADIALLY SYMMETRICAL SHAPES 3OME
HAVE A CENTRAL BODY WITH PERIPHERAL SACS OR WINGS 0OLLEN ALSO HAVE A VARIETY OF APERTURES THAT ARE A MAJOR
CRITERION FOR SPECIES LEVEL IDENTIlCATION
3PORES TYPICALLY ARE SPHERICAL ELONGATE OR TETRAHEDRAL AND HAVE SURFACE SCARES OR SUTURES MONOLETE FORMS HAVE
A SINGLE SUTURE TRILETE FORMS HAVE A TRIRADIATE SUTURE
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
/RGANIC COMPOSITION YELLOWISH TO BROWNISH COLOR RARELY IDENTIlABLE IN THIN SECTION BEST VIEWED IN SEPARATES
UNDER A STANDARD MICROSCOPE OR 3%-
#HARACTERISTICS AS NOTED ABOVE UNDER h-ORPHOLOGIC &EATURESv
Up. Cretaceous Red Bank Fm.,
coastal plain, New Jersey
3PORES AND POLLEN ARE SEEN IN THIN SECTIONS BUT
CANNOT BE ACCURATELY IDENTIlED UNLESS EXTRACT
ED THROUGH DISSOLUTION AND CONCENTRATION TECH
NIQUES (ERE ARE TWO STAINED PALYNOLOGICAL
PREPARATIONS OF SEPARATED SPORES
,EFT A SINGLE MONOLETE SPORE OF 3PHAGNUM A
MOSS
2IGHT ! TRILETE SPORE OF UNCERTAIN AFlNITY
00, /3 ,(! MM 2 (! MM
CHAPTER 13: VERTEBRATE AND PLANT REMAINS
Lo. Cretaceous Dakota Gp.,
Colorado
!N 3%- IMAGE OF A SIMPLE TRILETE SPORE #Y
ATHIDITES SP THAT IS PARTIALLY COLLAPSED 4HE
THREE RADIATING TETRAD SCARS ARE CLEARLY VISIBLE
3%- (! M
Up. Cretaceous Mount Laurel Fm.,
coastal plain, New Jersey
! PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF A STAINED PALYNOLOGICAL
PREPARATION SHOWING A SINGLE POLLEN GRAIN OF
0INUS 4HIS IS A TYPICAL BISACCATE FORM
00, /3 (! MM
Lo. Cretaceous Dakota Gp.(?),
Colorado
!N 3%- IMAGE OF TWO TRICOLPATE ANGIOSPERM
POLLEN GRAINS 4RICOPLITES SP WITH APERTURES
VISIBLE
3%- (! M
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Mid. Triassic (Ladinian)
Livinallongo Fm., western
Dolomites, Italy
! lNE GRAINED BASINAL PACKSTONE RICH IN
RADIOLARIANS THE SPHERICAL WHITE BODIES AND
KEROGEN -ANY CARBONATE ROCKS HAVE A VARI
ETY OF ORGANIC MATTER OF INDETERMINATE ORIGIN
VISIBLE HERE AS DARK BROWN STREAKS "ECAUSE
OF THE IMPORTANCE OF SOME TYPES OF ORGANIC
MATTER FOR GENERATION OF HYDROCARBONS EX
TENSIVE WORK HAS BEEN DONE ON METHODS FOR
CONCENTRATION AND ANALYSIS BOTH MICROSCOPIC
AND GEOCHEMICAL TO DETERMINE THE ORIGIN OF
SUCH ORGANIC DETRITUS 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF
-ARCO 3TEFANI
00, (! ^ MM
#ITED 2EFERENCES AND !DDITIONAL )NFORMATION 3OURCES
"ARRON *! $IATOMS IN * ( ,IPPS ED &OSSIL 0ROKARYOTES AND -LLER +* #ONODONTS AND OTHER PHOSPHATIC MICROFOSSILS IN " 5
0ROTISTS /XFORD "LACKWELL 3CIENTIlC 0UBL P
(AQ AND ! "OERSMA EDS )NTRODUCTION TO -ARINE -ICROPALEONTOLOGY
"ERTRAND 0 *
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SEDIMENTARY ORGANIC MATTER IN RELATION TO ITS CHEMICAL COMPOSITION .ICOLL 2 3 #ONODONT ELEMENT MORPHOLOGY APPARATUS
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RECONSTRUCTIONS AND ELEMENT FUNCTION A NEW INTERPRETATION OF CONODONT
"URCKLE ,( -ARINE DIATOMS IN " 5 (AQ AND ! "OERSMA BIOLOGY WITH TAXONOMIC IMPLICATIONS IN 2 -AWSON AND * ! 4ALENT
EDS )NTRODUCTION TO -ARINE -ICROPALEONTOLOGY .EW 9ORK %LSEVIER EDS &IRST !USTRALIAN #ONODONT 3YMPOSIUM V 3ENCKENBERGISCHE
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$ONOGHUE 0 # * 0 , &OREY AND 2 * !LDRIDGE #ONODONT AFlNITY 3TEIN # , 3ILICA RECRYSTALLIZATION IN PETRIlED WOOD *OURNAL OF
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AND ! "OERSMA EDS )NTRODUCTION TO -ARINE -ICROPALEONTOLOGY .EW
9ORK %LSEVIER P
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+OZARIC : - 3PARICA AND : "AJRAKTAREVIC (ISTOLOGICAL BONE
STRUCTURE OF ,OWER #RETACEOUS DINOSAURS FROM SOUTHWEST )STRIA
& ACING 0AGE 4OP
3PACE 3HUTTLE IMAGE OF THE TIDAL OOLITE
BELT AT THE SOUTHERN END OF THE 4ONGUE OF THE /CEAN "AHAMAS
IN -ARCH 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF .!3! *OHNSON 3PACE
#ROATIA #RETACEOUS 2ESEARCH V P
&LIGHT #ENTER
,INDSTROM - #ONODONTS !MSTERDAM %LSEVIER 0UBLISHING "OTTOM
-ACROPHOTOGRAPH OF MODERN OOIDS FROM #AT #AY 'REAT
#OMPANY P "AHAMA "ANKS "AHAMAS 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF #LIF *ORDAN
CHAPTER 14: OOIDS, PISOIDS, AND OTHER COATED GRAINS
'2!).3 .ON
SKELETAL 'RAINS
OOIDS, PISOIDS, AND OTHER COATED GRAINS
C
H
A
P
T
E
R
14
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
//)$3 0)3/)$3 !.$ /4(%2 #/!4%$ '2!).3
$ElNITIONS
/OID OOLITH
A SPHERICAL TO ELLIPSOIDAL GRAIN TO MM IN DIAMETER WITH A NUCLEUS COVERED BY ONE OR
MORE PRECIPITATED CONCENTRIC COATINGS CORTICAL LAYERS WITH RADIAL ANDOR CONCENTRIC ORIENTATION OF CONSTITUENT
CRYSTALS .UCLEI TYPICALLY CONSIST OF DETRITAL TERRIGENOUS GRAINS SKELETAL FRAGMENTS OR PELLETS AND PELOIDS AND
COATINGS CAN HAVE A VARIETY OF COMPOSITIONS ! ROCK COMPOSED DOMINANTLY OF OOIDS IS TERMED AN hOOLITEv 4HAT
TERM IS COMMONLY MISUSED HOWEVER TO DESCRIBE THE CONSTITUENT OOID GRAINS
3PASTOLITH OR DEFORMED OOID
!N OOID OR OTHER COATED GRAIN THAT HAS BEEN DEFORMED GENERALLY BY SHEARING THE
CONCENTRIC LAMINATIONS AWAY FROM EACH OTHER OR FROM THE NUCLEUS )N RARER CASES THE DEFORMATION IS TECTONIC
3UPERlCIAL OOID
!N OOID WITH AN INCOMPLETE OR VERY THIN CORTICAL COATING SPECIlCALLY ONE IN WHICH THE THICKNESS
OF THE ACCRETIONARY COATING IS LESS COMMONLY FAR LESS THAN THE RADIUS OF THE NUCLEUS
0ISOID
! SMALL SPHEROIDAL PARTICLE WITH CONCENTRICALLY LAMINATED INTERNAL STRUCTURE LARGER THAN MM AND IN
SOME USAGES LESS THAN MM IN DIAMETER ! PISOLITE IS A ROCK CONTAINING ABUNDANT PISOIDS
/NCOID
)N .ORTH !MERICAN USAGE AN ONCOID IS A COATED GRAIN OF ALGAL BUT NOT RED ALGAL OR MICROBIAL ORIGIN THAT
IS COARSER THAN MM IN DIAMETER A SPHEROIDAL FORM OF MICROBIAL STROMATOLITE SHOWING A SERIES OF CONCENTRIC
OFTEN IRREGULAR OR SCALLOPED LAMINATIONS 4HESE UNATTACHED STROMATOLITES ARE PRODUCED BY MECHANICAL
TURNING OR ROLLING EXPOSING NEW SURFACES TO MICROBIALALGAL GROWTH #OMMON %UROPEAN USAGE IS LESS GENETIC
AND IN THAT USAGE A MICROBIALALGAL ORIGIN IS NOT A PREREQUISITE !N ONCOLITE IS A ROCK COMPOSED OF ONCOIDS THE
TERM HOWEVER IS OFTEN USED IMPROPERLY AS A SYNONYM FOR hONCOIDv
2HODOID RHODOLITH
!N IRREGULARLY LAMINATED CALCAREOUS NODULE COMPOSED OF ENCRUSTING CORALLINE ALGAE
ARRANGED IN MORE OR LESS CONCENTRIC LAYERS ABOUT A CORE SPHEROIDAL BUT KNOBBY SURFACED AND UP TO SEVERAL
CENTIMETERS IN DIAMETER FORM IN WARM TO COOL CLEAR SHALLOW SEA WATER DOWN TO DEPTHS OF
M
!GE 2ANGE
#ALCAREOUS OOIDS AND PISOIDS ARE KNOWN FROM THE ,ATE !RCHEAN TO 2ECENT SPECIlC COATED GRAINS SUCH AS
'IRVANELLA ONCOIDS OR RED ALGAL NODULES RHODOIDS ARE RESTRICTED BY THE AGE RANGES OF THE CONSTITUENT ORGANISMS
LISTED IN CHAPTERS ON ORGANIC GRAINS
#OMPOSITION
-ODERN CALCAREOUS OOIDS ARE KNOWN WITH ARAGONITE OR -G
CALCITE COMPOSITIONS OR COMBINATIONS OF BOTH AND
THERE IS EVIDENCE THAT THESE SAME COMPOSITIONS EXISTED THROUGHOUT 0HANEROZOIC TIME PERHAPS WITH SPECIlC
TEMPORAL PREFERENCES EG 3ANDBERG 7ILKINSON AND 'IVEN ,AMINAE OF ORGANIC MATERIAL ARE
FOUND INTERLAYERED IN MOST OOID CORTICES AND HELP PRESERVE STRUCTURE DURING DIAGENESIS
#ALCAREOUS CAVE AND SOIL PISOIDS TYPICALLY HAVE LOW
-G CALCITE COMPOSITIONS /THER OOIDSPISOIDS COVERED IN LATER
CHAPTERS CAN HAVE FERRUGINOUS ESPECIALLY HEMATITE OR CHAMOSITE SILICEOUS BAUXITIC PHOSPHATIC EVAPORITIC
GYPSUM HALITE OR OTHER COATINGS
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
/OIDS AND OTHER COATED GRAINS REQUIRE CONDITIONS SUITABLE FOR INORGANIC OR MICROBIAL PRECIPITATION AND FOR
BIOLOGICAL ENCRUSTATION OF GRAINS 4HEY ALSO REQUIRE REPEATED ROTATION OF GRAINS TO ALLOW THE FORMATION OF
CONCENTRIC COATINGS 4HUS THE BEST ENVIRONMENTS FOR OOID FORMATION ARE TIDAL DELTAS AND BARS OR BEACHES
MARINE OR LACUSTRINE WHERE SURlCIAL GRAINS ARE KEPT IN DAILY MOTION "ECAUSE REEFS OR BIOHERMS hCOMPETEv
WITH OOIDS IN HIGH
ENERGY SETTINGS BIOLOGICALLY STRESSED AREAS WITH ABNORMAL SALINITIES OR TEMPERATURES CAN
FAVOR OOID FORMATION BY INHIBITING ORGANISM GROWTH AND ENHANCING RATES OF CARBONATE PRECIPITATION "ECAUSE
OF THEIR ROUNDED SHAPE OOIDS ARE EASILY REWORKED INTO ADJACENT ENVIRONMENTS ESPECIALLY EOLIANITES
/THER COATED GRAINS SUPERlCIAL OOIDS PISOIDS AND ONCOIDS CAN BE FORMED IN SOILS AND CAVES VADOIDS CAVE
PEARLS IN RELATIVELY DEEP
WATER CURRENT
SCOURED PLATFORM AREAS RHODOIDS IN SHELF AREAS PRONE TO PERIODIC
STORM ACTION IN PARTIALLY PROTECTED LAGOONS AND IN A WIDE VARIETY OF OTHER SETTINGS
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
2OUNDED GRAINS WITH ONE OR MORE SMOOTHLY CONCENTRIC TO SCALLOPED COATINGS
3IZE TO MM FOR OOIDS MM FOR PISOIDS
/OIDS HAVE CONCENTRIC OR RADIAL PRIMARY CRYSTAL ORIENTATION TYPICALLY WITH A PSEUDO
UNIAXIAL EXTINCTION CROSS
!RAGONITIC OOIDS ARE PRONE TO DISSOLUTION OFTEN POORLY PRESERVED FORMING lLLED OR OPEN MOLDIC POROSITY
/NCOIDS ARE CHARACTERIZED BY SCALLOPED COATINGS AND SOMETIMES BY THE PRESENCE OF CALCIMICROBIAL FABRICS
CHAPTER 14: OOIDS, PISOIDS, AND OTHER COATED GRAINS
The structural and diagenetic
patterns of ooids
! DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE GEN
ERALIZED STRUCTURE OF OOIDS LEFT SHOWING
THE CENTRAL NUCLEUS AND CONCENTRIC CORTICAL
LAMINATIONS COMPOSED OF CALCIUM CARBONATE
ARAGONITE OR CALCITE AND ORGANIC MATTER &OUR
COMMON TYPES OF OOID WALL STRUCTURE PRIMARY
OR SECONDARY ALSO ARE SHOWN RIGHT AND ARE
EXPLAINED IN SUBSEQUENT CAPTIONS 0ARTIALLY
ADAPTED FROM 4UCKER
!
Recent sediment, Joulters Cay,
Great Bahama Bank, Bahamas
4HESE MODERN OOIDS HAVE PELOIDAL NUCLEI AND
NUMEROUS CONCENTRIC CORTICAL COATINGS OF PRE
CIPITATED ARAGONITE 4HE OOIDS COME FROM AN
AREA WHERE STRONG TIDAL CURRENTS ROLL AT LEAST
THE SURlCIAL GRAINS EVERY FEW HOURS LARGE
STORMS CAN MOVE EVEN THOSE GRAINS THAT ARE
WELL BELOW THE NORMAL SEDIMENT
WATER INTER
FACE 4HE BROWNISH COLOR REmECTS INTERCRYSTAL
MICROPOROSITY AND A HIGH ORGANIC CONTENT ASSO
CIATED WITH ORGANIC lLMS INTERLAYERED WITH THE
ARAGONITE CRYSTALS !DDITIONAL ORGANIC MATTER
IS ASSOCIATED WITH MICROBIAL BORINGS THE SMALL
DARK BROWN PATCHES VISIBLE IN MANY GRAINS
00,80, (! MM EACH
Holocene (<2700 yBP) eolianite,
Isla Cancun, Yucatan Peninsula,
Mexico
!N 3%- IMAGE OF AN OOID SHOWING THE EGG
SHELL LIKE LAYERING OF THE PRECIPITATED ARAGONITE
COATINGS CORTICAL LAYERS 3PALLING IS A RESULT
OF SAMPLE PREPARATION THE PRESENCE OF ORGANIC
lLMS THAT SEPARATE INDIVIDUAL THIN LAYERS OF
ARAGONITE CRYSTALS AND THE PARTIAL DISSOLUTION
OF LAYERS THAT RESULTED FROM A SHORT DURATION
OF VADOSE DIAGENESIS .OTE ALSO THE TUBULAR
MICROBIAL BORINGS IN SOME PARTS OF THE GRAIN
0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF 2OBERT ,OUCKS
3%- (! M
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Holocene (<2700 yBP) eolianite,
Isla Cancun, Yucatan Peninsula,
Mexico
!N 3%- IMAGE OF A LIGHTLY ACID
ETCHED SECTION
OF A MODERN ARAGONITIC OOID 4HE OOID SHOWS
ALTERNATING LAYERS OF TANGENTIALLY ORIENTED AND
RANDOMLY ARRANGED ARAGONITE NEEDLES WITH HIGH
MICROPOROSITY 4HE TANGENTIALLY ORIENTED LAYERS
ACCOUNT FOR THE OPTICAL BEHAVIOR OF THE GRAINS
THE RANDOMLY ORIENTED LAYERS ETCH MORE RAPIDLY
INDICATING THAT THEY MAY BE MORE SUSCEPTIBLE TO
SELECTIVE DISSOLUTION DURING DIAGENESIS -UCH
OF THE ARAGONITE PRECIPITATION HAS RECENTLY BEEN
ASCRIBED TO NANNOBACTERIAL ACTIVITY &OLK AND
,YNCH 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF 2OBERT
,OUCKS
3%- (! M
Recent sediment, Bimini area,
Great Bahama Bank, Bahamas
! DETAILED VIEW OF A MODERN CONCENTRICALLY
COATED OOID SHOWING THE PELOIDAL NUCLEUS
AND MULTIPLE CONCENTRIC LAYERS REPRESENTING
ARAGONITIC COATINGS OF VARIED THICKNESS 4HE
DARKER INTERLAYERS ARE RICH IN ORGANIC MATTER
THE SMALL DARK CIRCLES AND LINES REPRESENT ALGAL
AND FUNGAL BORINGS SOME lLLED WITH MICRITIC
CEMENTS 4HESE FEATURES REmECT THE BATTLE BE
TWEEN CONSTRUCTIVE AND DESTRUCTIVE FORCES IN
THE LIFE OF AN OOID CONSTRUCTION BY PRECIPITA
TION WHILE THE GRAIN IS IN MOTION AT THE SURFACE
AND DESTRUCTION BY ENDOLITHIC ORGANISMS WHEN
IT IS AT REST
00, (! MM
Recent sediment, Bimini area,
Great Bahama Bank, Bahamas
4HE SAME GRAIN AS SHOWN IN THE PREVIOUS
PHOTOGRAPH HERE UNDER CROSS POLARIZED LIGHT
ING 4HE INDIVIDUAL LAYERS AND BORINGS REMAIN
CLEARLY VISIBLE AND THE WEAK PSEUDO UNIAXIAL
CROSS DARKER COLORATION BANDS AT THE
AND POSITIONS REmECTS THE PREDOMI
NANTLY TANGENTIAL LONG AXIS AND C AXIS ORIEN
TATIONS OF THE ARAGONITE NEEDLES THAT COMPOSE
THE COATING LAYERS
80, (! MM
CHAPTER 14: OOIDS, PISOIDS, AND OTHER COATED GRAINS
Holocene Cat Cay area, west side
of Great Bahama Bank, Bahamas
4HIS THIN SECTION OF AN OOID WAS DE CALCI
lED USING HYDROCHLORIC ACID 4HUS ALL THAT
REMAINS ARE THE THIN LAYERS OF ORGANIC MATTER
THAT ORIGINALLY WERE SANDWICHED BETWEEN THE
LAYERS OF NOW REMOVED ARAGONITE CRYSTALS AL
GAL BORINGS ARE ALSO CLEARLY OUTLINED BY ORGANIC
RESIDUES 4HERE HAS BEEN SUBSTANTIAL DEBATE
OVER THE ROLE OF THE ORGANIC MATERIAL IN FA
CILITATING OR INHIBITING CARBONATE PRECIPITATION
AND OOID GROWTH EG -ITTERER
,OREAU !LSO NOTE RELATIVELY UNIFORM
THICKNESS OF COATING LAMINAE
00, (! ^ MM
Holocene, Joulters Cay, Great
Bahama Bank, Bahamas
4HESE ARE SUB 2ECENT AND SLIGHTLY CEMENTED
ARAGONITIC OOIDS THAT SHOW STRONG PSEUDO UNI
AXIAL CROSSES 3%- STUDIES HAVE DEMONSTRATED
THAT THIS REmECTS THE FACT THAT A MAJORITY OF THE
ARAGONITE NEEDLES FORMING THE COATINGS LIE RAN
DOMLY IN PLANES TANGENTIAL TO THE OOID SURFACE
AS ONE MIGHT EXPECT FOR GRAINS THAT ARE BEING
ACTIVELY ABRADED BY WAVES AND CURRENTS !
SIMILAR CROSS CAN ALSO BE PRODUCED HOWEVER
WHEN CRYSTALS ARE ORIENTED PERPENDICULAR TO
THE OOID SURFACE IE RADIAL CRYSTAL STRUCTURE A
FABRIC THAT IS FOUND IN SOME OOIDS
80, (! MM
Recent sediment, Joulters Cay,
Great Bahama Bank, Bahamas
! MODERN OOID THAT HAS UNDERGONE CONSIDER
ABLE ALGAL AND FUNGAL BORING THE lRST OF THREE
PICTURES SHOWING PROGRESSIVE STAGES OF GRAIN
ALTERATION -OST OF THESE BORINGS ARE STILL
UNlLLED SHOWING THEIR TUBULAR SHAPE BUT SOME
HAVE BEEN lLLED WITH -G CALCITE CEMENT AND
THUS APPEAR AS DIFFUSE MICRITIC PATCHES 4HE UL
TIMATE RECOGNIZABILITY OF OOIDS DEPENDS GREATLY
ON THE DEGREE AND NATURE OF SYNDEPOSITIONAL
TEXTURAL AND MINERALOGICAL MODIlCATION
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Recent sediment, Joulters Cay,
Great Bahama Bank, Bahamas
4HESE OOIDS HAVE UNDERGONE MORE BORING
AND EVEN MORE CEMENTATION OF THOSE BORINGS
THAN THE OOIDS IN THE PREVIOUS PHOTOGRAPH
!LTHOUGH A FEW INDIVIDUAL BORINGS ARE STILL
VISIBLE MOST OF THE GRAIN NOW HAS A UNIFORM
MICRITIC TEXTURE WITH SOME AREAS OF PARTIALLY
UNALTERED STRUCTURE IN THE INTERIOR PARTS OF THE
OOIDS 4HIS LEVEL OF GRAIN DESTRUCTION COM
MONLY OCCURS WHEN OOIDS ARE TRANSPORTED FROM
THE SITE OF ACTIVE COATING FORMATION IN TIDAL BARS
TO ADJACENT MORE PROTECTED SETTINGS WASHOVER
INTO GRASSY SUBTIDAL mATS FOR EXAMPLE
00, (! MM
Recent sediment, Joulters Cay,
Great Bahama Bank, Bahamas
!N EXAMPLE OF A PROBABLE FORMER OOID THAT HAS
BEEN COMPLETELY MICRITIZED !LTHOUGH THE SEC
TION MAY BE SOMEWHAT TANGENTIAL TO THE OOID
CENTER NO REMNANT STRUCTURE IS VISIBLE IN THIS
CUT AND THE GRAIN WOULD HAVE TO BE CLASSED AS A
PELOID /THER THAN SIZE AND SHAPE NO TEXTURAL
CHARACTERISTICS REMAIN THAT WOULD ALLOW IDENTI
lCATION OF THIS GRAIN AS AN OOID
00, (! MM
Holocene (<2700 yBP) eolianite,
Isla Cancun, Yucatan Peninsula,
Mexico
!LTERATION OF OOIDS ALSO CAN TAKE PLACE IN
FRESH WATER SETTINGS ESPECIALLY WHERE OOIDS
HAVE A PRIMARY ARAGONITIC COMPOSITION 4HIS
OOLITIC EOLIANITE HAS UNDERGONE BOTH VADOSE
AND PHREATIC DIAGENESIS WITH CEMENTATION
OF PRIMARY POROSITY AND SELECTIVE hCHALKYv
DISSOLUTION OF ORIGINAL OOIDS 4HE REMARKABLE
LACK OF COLLAPSE OF THE REMAINING CORES WITHIN
THESE GRAINS IS LARGELY DUE TO PRESERVATION OF
THE ORGANIC LAYERS AND RETENTION OF SOME MINI
MAL FRAMEWORK OF PRIMARY CARBONATE MATERIAL
0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF 2OBERT ,OUCKS
00, "3% (! MM
CHAPTER 14: OOIDS, PISOIDS, AND OTHER COATED GRAINS
Pleistocene (120kyBP) Miami Ls.,
Dade Co., Florida
4HIS OOID HAS UNDERGONE ABOUT YEARS
OF SUBAERIAL EXPOSURE AND METEORIC DIAGENESIS
)NTERPARTICLE POROSITY WAS lLLED WITH SPARRY
CALCITE WHITE AND A SUBSTANTIAL PART OF THE
ORIGINAL ARAGONITE SOME OF WHICH IS STILL PRES
ENT IN THE BROWNISH AREAS NEAR THE CENTER WAS
DISSOLVED AS IN THE PREVIOUS EXAMPLE (ERE
HOWEVER THE SECONDARY PORE SPACE CREATED BY
ARAGONITE DISSOLUTION LATER WAS lLLED WITH LOW
-G CALCITE THE WHITE MATERIAL IN THE OUTER LAY
ERS !LTHOUGH THE SECONDARY CALCITE IS FAIRLY
COARSE AND BLOCKY IT STILL PRESERVES ELEMENTS OF
THE ORIGINAL CONCENTRIC LAMINATION THANKS TO THE
DURABILITY OF THE ORGANIC INTERLAYERS
00, (! ^ MM
Up. Cambrian Gallatin Ls., Wind
River Range, Wyoming
%VEN THE PRESENCE OF ORGANIC INTERLAYERS CAN
NOT PREVENT THE COMPLETE DESTRUCTION OF INTER
NAL FABRIC IN SOME CASES 4HIS EXAMPLE SHOWS
A COMPLETELY NEOMORPHOSED OOLITE 4HESE
GRAINS HAVE PROBABLY UNDERGONE DISSOLUTION
OF COATINGS AS WELL AS CORES AND LATER lLLING
BY SPARRY CEMENT !LTHOUGH NOTHING REMAINS
TO CONCLUSIVELY IDENTIFY THESE AS OOIDS THE
GRAIN SIZE THE HIGH DEGREE OF ROUNDING AND
THE EXCELLENT SORTING ALL MAKE AN OOID ORIGIN
LIKELY 4HE APPARENT PREFERRED ORIENTATION OF
ELONGATE OOIDS MAY RESULT FROM DEFORMATION
DURING BURIAL
00, (! MM
Up. Cambrian Allentown Ls., State
College area, Pennsylvania
4HIS IS ANOTHER EXAMPLE OF ALTERATION OF OOIDS
THAT ORIGINALLY WERE AT LEAST PARTIALLY ARAGONITIC
3ELECTIVE DISSOLUTION OF THE CORTICAL LAYERS LEFT
THE APPARENTLY LESS SOLUBLE CALCITIC NUCLEI
UNSUPPORTED 4HIS RESULTED IN GRAVITATIONAL
COLLAPSE OF THE UNDISSOLVED MATERIAL TO THE BOT
TOMS OF THE OOID MOLDS PRODUCING A STRIKING
GEOPETAL FABRIC 4HE COLLAPSE WAS FOLLOWED
AT SOME LATER DATE BY SPAR INlLL OF THE MOLDIC
PORES
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Cambrian Lynx Gp.?, Mountain
Park, Alberta, Canada
$ESTRUCTION OF OOID FABRICS CAN ALSO TAKE PLACE
DURING BURIAL DIAGENESIS NO AN OOID CAN NEVER
RELAX )N THIS EXAMPLE THE OOID COATINGS WERE
SELECTIVELY REPLACED BY SADDLE BAROQUE DOLO
MITE THE COARSE CRYSTALS WITH CURVED FACES
THAT ARE STAINED PALE BLUE IN THIS SECTION 4HE
SELECTIVE PRESERVATION OF OOID NUCLEI AND INNER
CORTICAL COATINGS HOWEVER MAKES IT EASY TO
IDENTIFY THESE GRAINS AS OOIDS DESPITE THEIR LATE
STAGE ALTERATION
00, !&E3 (! MM
Recent sediment, Point of Rocks,
Bafn Bay, Laguna Madre, Texas
.OT ALL MODERN OR ANCIENT OOIDS WERE ORIGI
NALLY COMPOSED OF ARAGONITE )N THE VARIABLE
SOMETIMES QUITE HIGH SALINITY AND ONLY EPI
SODICALLY HIGH ENERGY ENVIRONMENT OF ,AGUNA
-ADRE AND "AFlN "AY OOIDS WITH GENERALLY
THIN AND OFTEN INCOMPLETE COATINGS OF MIXED
MINERALOGY ARE PRODUCED 4HE CORTICAL COAT
INGS CONSIST OF INTERLAYERS OF APHANOCRYSTALLINE
EQUANT GRANULAR HIGH -G CALCITE AND COARSER
RADIAL ARAGONITE BOTH SEEN HERE 4HE NUCLEUS
OF THE GRAIN IN THE CENTER OF THE lELD OF VIEW IS
A DETRITAL METAQUARTZITE FRAGMENT
80, (! MM
Lo. Permian (up. Kungurian)
Irenskaya/Nevolinskaya Suite,
Perm Region, Russia
!NCIENT OOIDS AS WELL AS MODERN ONES CAN HAVE
GRANULAR OR MICRITIC CORTICAL FABRICS IN THIS
CASE WITH ONLY TRACES OF PRESERVED CONCENTRIC
STRUCTURE 4HESE OOIDS ARE ASSOCIATED WITH A
STRONGLY EVAPORITIC CARBONATE SECTION AND MAY
HAVE HAD ORIGINALLY HIGH
-G CALCITE COMPOSI
TIONS
00, "3% (! MM
CHAPTER 14: OOIDS, PISOIDS, AND OTHER COATED GRAINS
Jurassic (Corallian) Lo. Osmington
Oolite, Dorset, England, U.K.
0REVIOUS PICTURES HAVE ILLUSTRATED MAINLY
ARAGONITIC OOIDS AND THEIR EXTENSIVE ALTERATION
OR -G CALCITE OOIDS WITH GRANULARMICRITIC FAB
RICS #ALCITIC OOIDS HOWEVER PREDOMINATED AT
MANY TIMES IN THE PAST 3ANDBERG AND
CAN SHOW DIVERSE AND WELL PRESERVED FABRICS
4HIS OOSPARITE FOR EXAMPLE HAS EXTREMELY
WELL PRESERVED OOID FABRICS INCLUDING CONCEN
TRIC LAYERING BROWNISH COLOR PSEUDO UNIAXIAL
CROSSES BORINGS AND SOME TRACES OF RADIAL AS
WELL AS CONCENTRIC STRUCTURE
00,80, (! MM EACH
Up. Jurassic (Oxfordian) Up.
Smackover Fm., 10,216 ft (3,114 m)
depth, south Arkansas
4HIS IS ANOTHER EXAMPLE OF EXCEPTIONAL FABRIC
PRESERVATION IN OOIDS AGAIN OF *URASSIC AGE
4HIS ULTRA
THIN SECTION SHOWS SUPERB RETENTION
OF lNE
SCALE CORTICAL LAMINAE WITH RADIAL MI
CRO
CRYSTAL ORIENTATION YIELDING CLEAR PSEUDO
UNIAXIAL CROSSES .OTE THE FACT THAT THE MARINE
CEMENT THAT SURROUNDS THE OOIDS HAS FORMED IN
OPTICAL CONTINUITY WITH THE RADIAL OOID CRYSTAL
STRUCTURE 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF #LYDE (
-OORE
80, (! ^ MM
Recent sediment, Promontory
Point, Great Salt Lake, Utah
2ADIAL CRYSTAL STRUCTURE IS ALSO FOUND IN MOD
ERN OOIDS ESPECIALLY BUT BY NO MEANS EXCLU
SIVELY IN LACUSTRINE SETTINGS 4HESE OOIDS HAVE
COARSE RADIATING CRYSTALS OF BLADED TO lBROUS
ARAGONITE INTERSPERSED WITH LAYERS OF TANGEN
TIAL VERY lNELY CRYSTALLINE ARAGONITE #OARSELY
RADIAL OOID DEPOSITS COMMONLY HAVE VERY HIGH
PERCENTAGES OF GRAINS THAT HAVE BROKEN ALONG
THE PLANES OF THE CRYSTAL FABRIC
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Recent sediment, Great Salt Lake,
Utah
! MAGNIlED VIEW OF A MODERN OOID WITH A
WELL DElNED RADIAL ARAGONITIC STRUCTURE AS
WELL AS STRONG TRACES OF CONCENTRIC LAMINA
TION !LTHOUGH THE COARSE RADIAL ARAGONITE
RAYS APPEAR TO CROSS CUT FABRIC AND HAVE
THUS BEEN INTERPRETED BY SOME AS A PRODUCT OF
RECRYSTALLIZATION THEY ARE PRIMARY FEATURES IN
THESE MODERN GRAINS
00, (! ^ MM
Recent sediment, Florida City,
Dade Co., Florida
!N EXAMPLE OF RADIAL OOIDS FROM THE BOIL
ERS OF A THERMAL WATER DESALINIZATION PLANT
4HE CALCITIC PRECIPITATES HAVE FORMED AROUND
QUARTZ GLAUCONITE AND OTHER GRAINS THAT PASSED
THROUGH THE PLANTS INTAKE lLTERS 2ADIAL STRUC
TURE CLEARLY CAN BE A PRIMARY FABRIC AS IN THIS
CASE BUT IT CAN ALSO FORM DIAGENETICALLY IN
OTHER CASES
00,80, (! MM EACH
Mid. Jurassic (Bajocian) limestone,
Central High Atlas region, Morocco
!N EXAMPLE OF AN ANCIENT OOID WITH COARSE
RADIAL CRYSTAL STRUCTURE AND CONCENTRIC LAMINA
TION 4HIS APPEARS TO BE A PREDOMINANTLY PRI
MARY FABRIC IN AN ORIGINALLY CALCITIC OOID $E
TERMINING THE ORIGINAL MINERALOGY OF ANCIENT
OOIDS CAN BE DIFlCULT UNLESS THEY STILL HAVE
ARAGONITE OR HIGH -G CALCITE COMPOSITIONS
$ETERMINATION TYPICALLY INVOLVES LOOKING FOR
MICRO INCLUSIONS OF ORIGINAL MATERIAL OR EXAM
INING TRACE ELEMENT COMPOSITIONS ORIGINALLY
ARAGONITIC OOIDS MAY HAVE HIGH 3R CONCENTRA
TIONS AND ORIGINALLY HIGH -G CALCITE OOIDS MAY
HAVE HIGH -G CONCENTRATIONS OR MICRO DOLO
MITE INCLUSIONS
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 14: OOIDS, PISOIDS, AND OTHER COATED GRAINS
Lo. Ordovician Arbuckle Gp., Cool
Creek Ls., Murray Co., Oklahoma
!N OLDER OOLITE WITH RADIAL CRYSTAL STRUCTURE AND
CONCENTRIC LAMINATION IN ITS CONSTITUENT OOIDS
)N THIS CASE THE RADIAL FABRIC COMPLETELY CROSS
CUTS OTHER FABRIC AND MAY BE AT LEAST PARTIALLY
A DIAGENETIC FEATURE
00, (! MM
Up. Cambrian Lynx Gp.?, Mountain
Park, Alberta, Canada
!N EXAMPLE OF A MY OLD OOLITE IN WHICH
THE OOIDS HAVE RADIAL FABRICS THAT YIELD STRONG
PSEUDO UNIAXIAL EXTINCTION CROSSES 5PON
CLOSER EXAMINATION HOWEVER IT IS CLEAR THAT
SUBSTANTIAL DIAGENETIC ALTERATION HAS OCCURRED
IN THIS DEPOSIT 4HE ORIGINAL RADIATING lBROUS
CRYSTALS IN THE CENTRAL PARTS OF THE OOIDS HAVE
BEEN INCORPORATED INTO LARGE SINGLE CRYSTALS
CONTAINING SUBSECTORS WITH DIVERGENT C AXIS
ORIENTATIONS
80, !3 (! MM
Up. Jurassic (Oxfordian) Up.
Smackover Fm., U.S. Gulf Coast
&ABRIC PRESERVATION OR LACK THEREOF CAN YIELD
EVIDENCE OF MIXED MINERALOGY OOIDS 3OME OF
THESE OOIDS HAVE A RELATIVELY WELL PRESERVED
LAMINATED GRANULAR WALL FABRIC THAT PROBABLY
WAS ORIGINALLY CALCITIC /THER PARTS PRESUM
ABLY ORIGINALLY COMPOSED OF MORE SOLUBLE
ARAGONITE WERE COMPLETELY LEACHED )N SOME
CASES LEACHING LED TO COLLAPSE OF UNDISSOLVED
CORES AND RESIDUES OF CORTICAL LAYERS INTO
GEOPETAL HEAPS ON THE CAVITY mOORS $OLOMITE
HAS PARTIALLY REPLACED THE PRIMARY CALCITE AND
THE LEACHED SECONDARY PORES WERE LATER lLLED
WITH BLOCKY CALCITE 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF
#LYDE ( -OORE
00, !3 (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Some common types of ooids
! DIAGRAMMATIC SKETCH OF SOME OF THE COM
MON VARIANTS OF NORMAL OOIDS 3UPERlCIAL
OOIDS HAVE ONLY A FEW THIN COATINGS COLLAPSED
OOIDS HAVE UNDERGONE PARTIAL DISSOLUTION AND
INTERNAL COLLAPSE OF REMAINING UNDISSOLVED
MATERIALS TO THE BOTTOM OF THE MOLD COMPOSITE
OOIDS REPRESENT THE COALESCENCE OF TWO OR MORE
OOIDS WITH CONCENTRIC LAYERS COVERING ALL THE
INCORPORATED PARTICLES AND DEFORMED OOIDS
REmECT COMPACTION OR TECTONIC COMPRESSION
OR SHEARING COMMONLY WITH SOME SEPARATION
OF CORTICAL LAYERS FROM THEIR NUCLEI 0ARTIALLY
ADAPTED FROM 4UCKER
Up. Permian (Umian) Solikamsky
Horizon, Perm Region, Russia
4HESE BEAUTIFULLY LAMINATED OOIDS ARE FROM A
HIGH ENERGY HYPERSALINE COASTAL DEPOSIT 4HIS
VIEW SHOWS A BROKEN AND OVERGROWN OOID
WITH INTERNAL MICROPOROSITY lLLED WITH BLUE
DYED EPOXY )T IS COMMON IN HIGH ENERGY
SETTINGS FOR OOIDS TO FRACTURE AND FOR THE FRAG
MENTS TO BECOME NUCLEI FOR FURTHER OOIDS 4HIS
OCCURS MOST FREQUENTLY IN OOIDS WITH RADIAL
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE BUT CAN ALSO OCCUR AS HERE IN
OOIDS WITH TANGENTIAL STRUCTURE
00, !&E3 "3% (! MM
Up. Permian (Umian) Solikamsky
Horizon, Perm Region, Russia
4HIS IS AN EXAMPLE OF A COMPOSITE OR COM
POUND OOID AGAIN WITH INTERNAL MICROPOROSITY
lLLED WITH BLUE DYED EPOXY .OTE THE THICK
CORTICAL COATINGS THAT SURROUND THE COMPOSITED
SMALLER OOIDS
00, !&E3 "3% (! MM
CHAPTER 14: OOIDS, PISOIDS, AND OTHER COATED GRAINS
Recent sediment, Isla Cancun,
Quintana Roo, Mexico
3UPERlCIAL OOIDS HAVE THIN SOMETIMES INCOM
PLETE OOLITIC CORTICAL COATINGS 4HIS EXAMPLE
SHOWS GRAINS WITH LARGE NUCLEI AND ONLY ONE OR
TWO THIN BIREFRINGENT ARAGONITE COATINGS 4HE
OOID IN THE LOWER CENTER WAS BROKEN AFTER THE
FORMATION OF ITS COATINGS
80, (! MM
Recent sediment, Point of Rocks,
Laguna Madre, Texas
4HIS ILLUSTRATES AN INCOMPLETE OR ECCENTRIC
CORTICAL COATING ON AN OOID 4HESE OCCUR MOST
COMMONLY ON GRAINS FROM LOW ENERGY OR ONLY
INTERMITTENTLY HIGH ENERGY OOID FORMING AR
EAS 4HE -G CALCITE AND ARAGONITIC COATINGS
ARE QUITE THICK BUT ONLY COVER A PORTION OF THE
GRAIN 4HE REST OF THE GRAIN WAS PROBABLY REST
ING ON THE BOTTOM SEDIMENT AND AGITATION WAS
INSUFlCIENT TO CAUSE GRAIN ROTATION
80, (! MM
Recent sediment, Isla Cancun,
Quintana Roo, Mexico
3UPERlCIAL OOIDS AND ECCENTRIC OOIDS ARE COM
MON IN BOTH MODERN AND ANCIENT DEPOSITS
3UPERlCIAL OR ECCENTRIC CORTICAL COATINGS ARE
GENERALLY FORMED ON IRREGULARLY SHAPED GRAINS
(ERE THIN AND IRREGULAR OOLITIC COATINGS THIN
SUBSTANTIALLY IN SOME PLACES AND THICKEN IN
OTHERS ESPECIALLY WHERE THEY lLL INDENTATIONS
IN THE GRAIN 4HIS INlLLING PROCESS ALLOWS
MANY OOIDS TO HAVE A MORE SPHERICAL SHAPE
THAN THEIR NUCLEI
80, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Pennsylvanian (Missourian) Dennis
Fm., Winterset Ls., Jackson Co.,
Missouri
0ARTIALLY DISSOLVED ANDOR DEFORMED OOIDS
SPASTOLITHS THAT ARE SURROUNDED BY BOTH PRE
AND POST DEFORMATIONAL CALCITE CEMENT 5NLESS
OOIDS ARE SURROUNDED BY MASSIVE EARLY CALCITE
CEMENT BEFORE OR DURING THE TIME OF THEIR DISSO
LUTION OVERBURDEN LOADING OR TECTONIC SHEARING
CAN EASILY DEFORM THE GRAINS PRODUCING THESE
ODDLY JOINED FABRICS THAT 2 , &OLK HAS LIKENED
TO hAN ELEPHANT PARADEv WHERE EACH PACHY
DERM HOLDS THE TAIL OF THE PREVIOUS ONE IN ITS
TRUNK )N THIS EXAMPLE SOME SPARRY CALCITE CE
MENT HAS COLLAPSED INTO THE CAVITIES INDICATING
THAT SOME SPAR PREDATED COMPACTION
00, "3% (! MM
Lo.-Mid. Pennsylvanian Bloyd Fm.,
Mayes Co., Oklahoma
4HESE DEFORMED OOIDS HAVE UNDERGONE A COM
PLEX SEQUENCE OF ALTERATION 4HEY WERE COM
PLETELY DISSOLVED DURING THE ALTERATION FROM
ARAGONITE TO CALCITE AND ALSO HAVE BEEN COM
PACTED OR SHEARED YIELDING A SPASTOLITH TEXTURE
4HE OUTER CORTICAL LAYERS HAVE BEEN SHEARED OFF
TO PRODUCE WHAT LOOKS LIKE A SERIES OF LINKED
GRAINS WITH NO REMAINING INTERNAL FABRIC
00, (! MM
Up. Permian (Umian) Solikamsky
Horizon, Perm Region, Russia
)N THESE OOIDS THE PRESENCE OF SOFT CORES OR
THE SELECTIVE DISSOLUTION OF HARD CORES COUPLED
WITH PARTIAL DISSOLUTION OF CORTICAL LAYERS LED
TO COMPACTIONAL CRUSHING AND lTTING TOGETHER
OF THE OOIDS
00, "3% (! MM
CHAPTER 14: OOIDS, PISOIDS, AND OTHER COATED GRAINS
Late Tertiary-Quaternary caliche,
Midland Co., west Texas
0ISOIDS ARE COATED GRAINS LARGER THAN MM
IN DIAMETER 4HIS IS AN EXAMPLE OF A MATURE
CALICHE CONTAINING SOIL PISOIDS VADOIDS .OTE
THE IRREGULAR ASYMMETRICALLY COATED GRAINS
WITH ABUNDANT INCLUSIONS OF DETRITAL TERRIGENOUS
SILT AND SAND #ALICHE PISOIDS GROW WITH PREF
ERENTIAL DOWNWARD ELONGATION BUT THE PISOIDS
TYPICALLY ARE ROTATED INTO A VARIETY OF POSITIONS
4HUS ONE CAN SEE DIFFERENT DIRECTIONS OF ELON
GATION BETWEEN GRAINS AND EVEN AT DIFFERENT
STAGES OF GROWTH WITHIN A SINGLE GRAIN
00, (! MM
Tertiary Arkansas Bauxite, near
Little Rock, Arkansas
4HESE TOO ARE SOIL RELATED PISOIDS BUT NOT OF
CARBONATE COMPOSITION THEY ARE FERRUGINOUS
PISOIDS IN A COMMERCIAL BAUXITE DEPOSIT .OTE
THE COATED GRAINS CONTAINING A VARIETY OF
ALUMINOUS CLAYS AND OTHER MINERALS 4HIS ROCK
IS THE PRODUCT OF LONG TERM WEATHERING AND
LATERITICBAUXITIC hSOILv FORMATION
00, (! MM
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Park
City Fm., Ervay Mbr., Big Horn Co.,
Wyoming
4HESE DOLOMITIZED PISOIDS ARE FROM AN
EVAPORITIC COASTAL ENVIRONMENT PROBABLY A
SHALLOW HYPERSALINE LAGOON TO TIDAL mAT SETTING
4HESE PISOIDS ARE OF UNCERTAIN ORIGIN CALICHE
ALGALMICROBIAL MARINE SEEPAGE SPRING OR
OTHER 4HEY ARE HOWEVER INTERBEDDED WITH
FENESTRAL MICROBIALLY LAMINATED MATERIAL
3UCH DEPOSITS ARE ESPECIALLY COMMON IN 0ER
MO 4RIASSIC STRATA IN MANY AREAS OF THE WORLD
AND ARE USUALLY FOUND IN PERITIDAL SETTINGS 4HE
FENESTRAE HERE ARE PARTIALLY lLLED BY DOLOMITE
CLEAR AND CALCITE CEMENTS STAINED RED
00, !&E3 "3% (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Yates
Fm., subsurface, Eddy Co., New
Mexico
4HESE TOO ARE DOLOMITIZED PISOIDS OF UNCERTAIN
ORIGIN 4HESE HAVE BEEN INTERPRETED BY VARIOUS
AUTHORS AS THE PRODUCT OF MICROBIAL GROWTH
COASTAL CALICHE FORMATION BACK
BARRIER SPRING
SEEPAGE WAVE AGITATION IN A COASTAL SETTING AND
OTHER CAUSES -ARINE CEMENTS BIND THE GRAINS
TOGETHER AND INDEED MARINE CEMENTATION AND
PISOID FORMATION ARE VIRTUALLY CONTINUOUS IN
MANY SAMPLES .OTE THE FREQUENCY OF BROKEN
OLDER PISOIDS AS CORES THE LUMPY COATINGS IN
DICATING INFREQUENT ROTATION OF THE GRAINS AND
THE REMARKABLE STRUCTURAL PRESERVATION IN THIS
APHANOCRYSTALLINE REPLACEMENT DOLOMITE
00, "3% (! MM
Pleistocene-Holocene sediment,
Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
! MODERN EXAMPLE OF A LUMPY INCOMPLETELY
COATED GRAIN PISOID OF PROBABLE INORGANIC
ORIGIN PRODUCED IN A COASTAL CALICHE ALONG AN
EVAPORITIC COASTLINE 4HESE ARE SPRAY ZONE
CALICHE DEPOSITS IN WHICH ARAGONITE AND HIGH
-G CALCITE PRECIPITATE IN A VADOSE SETTING
FREQUENTLY WETTED BY SEA WATER 3CHOLLE AND
+INSMAN
80, (! ^ MM
Holocene precipitate, Carlsbad
Cavern, Eddy Co., New Mexico
!N EXAMPLE OF A hCAVE PEARLv AN INORGANICALLY
FORMED PISOID VADOID FOUND ON CAVE mOORS )T
SHOWS COARSE lBROUS LOW
-G CALCITE CRYSTALS
GROWN IN RADIALLY ORIENTED FAN
SHAPED CLUSTERS
INTERSPERSED IN THIS EXCEPTIONAL CASE WITH THIN
RINDS OF GYPSUM
80, (! MM
CHAPTER 14: OOIDS, PISOIDS, AND OTHER COATED GRAINS
Up. Pennsylvanian (Virgilian)
Holder Fm., Otero Co., New Mexico
!N ONCOID WITH LUMPY LAYERED ENCRUSTATIONS
AROUND A BIVALVE SHELL 0ROVING A MICROBIAL
ALGAL ORIGIN NECESSARY IN SOME DElNITIONS OF
ONCOIDS CAN BE DIFlCULT FOR MANY SUCH GRAINS
)N THIS CASE lLAMENTOUS CYANOBACTERIAL STRUC
TURE CAN BE SEEN AT VERY HIGH MAGNIlCATIONS
SEE PHOTOGRAPHS OF 'IRVANELLA IN THE CHAPTER
ON #ALCIMICROBES AND #ALCAREOUS !LGAE
00, (! MM
Mid. Triassic Muschelkalk, Gminny,
central Poland
! MICRITIC ONCOID WITH WEAKLY LAYERED
FENESTRAL ENCRUSTATIONS AROUND A SHELL FRAGMENT
THESE ARE COMMON FEATURES OF MICROBIAL
ONCOIDS AND THEY CAN BE FOUND QUITE TYPICALLY
IN SHALLOW TO OUTER SHELF SETTINGS
00, (! MM
Eocene Totara Fm., Up. Rhodolith
Ls., Oamaru, northern Otago, New
Zealand
2HODOIDS SUCH AS THE ONE SHOWN HERE ARE A
SPECIAL CLASS OF COATED GRAINS THAT WERE DEMON
STRABLY FORMED BY RED ALGAE )N THIS EXAMPLE
THE IRREGULAR STRIPS OF APPARENTLY DENSE MICRITE
ARE CORALLINE RED ALGAL ENCRUSTATIONS AS SHOWN
BY THE lNE SCALE CELLULAR STRUCTURE VISIBLE AT
HIGHER MAGNIlCATIONS !LSO PRESENT IN THIS
RHODOID ARE ENCRUSTING FORAMINIFERS AND A WIDE
RANGE OF BORINGS
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
#ITED 2EFERENCES AND !DDITIONAL )NFORMATION 3OURCES
"ALL - - #ARBONATE SAND BODIES OF &LORIDA AND THE "AHAMAS 'ULF .EW 9ORK 3PRINGER
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(ANDFORD # 2 ! # +ENDALL $ 2 0REZBINDOWSKI * " $UNHAM 7ILKINSON " ( AND 2 + 'IVEN 3ECULAR VARIATION IN ABIOTIC
AND " 7 ,OGAN 3ALINA
MARGIN TEPEES PISOLITHS AND ARAGONITE MARINE CARBONATES CONSTRAINTS ON 0ALEOZOIC ATMOSPHERIC CARBON
CEMENTS ,AKE -AC,EOD 7ESTERN !USTRALIA THEIR SIGNIlCANCE IN DIOXIDE CONTENTS AND OCEANIC -G#A RATIOS *OURNAL OF 'EOLOGY V
INTERPRETING ANCIENT ANALOGS 'EOLOGY V P
P
(ARRIS 0 - &ACIES ANATOMY AND DIAGENESIS OF A "AHAMIAN OOID 7ILKINSON " ( AND % ,ANDING h%GGSHELL DIAGENESISv AND
SHOAL 3EDIMENTA 5NIVERSITY OF -IAMI #OMPARATIVE 3EDIMENTOLOGY PRIMARY RADIAL FABRIC IN CALCITE OOIDS *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY
,ABORATORY V P
V P
(ARRIS 0 - 2 " (ALLEY AND + * ,UKAS %NDOLITH MICROBORINGS
AND THEIR PRESERVATION IN (OLOCENE
0LEISTOCENE "AHAMA
&LORIDA
OOIDS 'EOLOGY V P
(ILL # ! #AVE PEARLS AND PISOLITHS A SEDIMENTOLOGICAL COMPARISON
7EST 4EXAS 'EOLOGICAL 3OCIETY "ULLETIN V NO P
& ACING 0AGE 4OP
$RIED AND MUD
CRACKED SEDIMENT MAINLY
CARBONATE MUD DEPOSITED IN AN ISLAND
INTERIOR PONDMICROBIAL
mAT ENVIRONMENT DURING mOODING ASSOCIATED WITH (URRICANE "ETSY
+AHLE # & /OIDS FROM 'REAT 3ALT ,AKE 5TAH AS AN ANALOGUE FOR #LUETT +EY &LORIDA "AY &LORIDA 0HOTOGRAPH BY 2ON
THE GENESIS AND DIAGENESIS OF OOIDS IN MARINE LIMESTONES *OURNAL OF 0ERKINS COURTESY OF % ! 3HINN
3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
"OTTOM
0HOTOGRAPH OF SEDIMENT SURFACE IN ISLAND
INTERIOR POND
,OREAU *
0 5LTRASTRUCTURE DE LA PHASE CARBONATE DES OOLITHES
ALGAL mAT SETTING SHOWING LARGE INTRACLASTS OF TORN
UP PARTIALLY
MARINES ACTUELLES #OMPTES RENDUS DES SANCES DE L!CADMIE DES
3CIENCES 0ARIS 3RIE $ V P
LITHIlED CARBONATE MUD FROM DESICCATION POLYGONS -ATERIAL WAS
,OREAU *
0 AND " ( 0URSER $ISTRIBUTION AND ULTRASTRUCTURE OF REDEPOSITED DURING (URRICANE $ONNA IN #LUETT +EY &LORIDA
(OLOCENE OOIDS IN THE 0ERSIAN 'ULF IN " ( 0URSER ED 4HE 0ERSIAN "AY &LORIDA 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF % ! 3HINN
CHAPTER 15: INTRACLASTS AND EXTRACLASTS
'2!).3 .ON
SKELETAL 'RAINS
INTRACLASTS AND EXTRACLASTS
C
H
A
P
T
E
R
15
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
).42!#,!343 !.$ %842!#,!343
$ElNITIONS
)NTRACLAST
! FRAGMENT OF PENECONTEMPORANEOUS COMMONLY WEAKLY CONSOLIDATED CARBONATE SEDIMENT THAT HAS
BEEN ERODED AND REDEPOSITED GENERALLY NEARBY WITHIN THE SAME DEPOSITIONAL SEQUENCE IN WHICH IT FORMED
&OLK AND
,UMPS
)N MODERN SEDIMENTS IRREGULAR COMPOSITE AGGREGATES OF SILT
OR SAND
SIZED CARBONATE PARTICLES THAT
ARE CEMENTED TOGETHER AT POINTS OF CONTACT IN ANCIENT CARBONATES SIMILAR
APPEARING LOBATE GRAINS THAT ARE
COMPOSED OF CARBONATE MUD MICRITE !FTER )LLING NO LONGER WIDELY USED
'RAPESTONE
3OMETIMES USED TO DESCRIBE AGGREGATES OF SILT
SIZED CARBONATE CRYSTALS OR GRAINS BUT MORE PROPERLY
APPLIED TO GRAPE
LIKE CLUSTERS OF SUCH AGGREGATES BOUND TOGETHER BY CEMENTS OR ORGANIC ENCRUSTATIONS
%XTRACLAST
! DETRITAL GRAIN OF LITHIlED CARBONATE SEDIMENT LITHOCLAST DERIVED FROM OUTSIDE THE DEPOSITIONAL AREA
OF CURRENT SEDIMENTATION &OLK
#ALCLITHITE
! ROCK FORMED CHIEmY OF CARBONATE CLASTS EXTRACLASTS DERIVED FROM OLDER LITHIlED LIMESTONE
GENERALLY EXTERNAL TO THE CONTEMPORANEOUS DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEM #OMMONLY LOCATED IN ARID SETTINGS ALONG
DOWNTHROWN SIDES OF FAULT SCARPS 4ERM COINED BY &OLK
!GE 2ANGE
)NTRACLASTS AND EXTRACLASTS ARE FOUND IN DEPOSITS OF ANY AGE FROM !RCHEAN TO 2ECENT )NTRACLASTS ARE ESPECIALLY
COMMON IN 0RECAMBRIAN TO -ID /RDOVICIAN STRATA WHERE THEY FORM WIDESPREAD mAT
PEBBLE CONGLOMERATES
3UCH DEPOSITS PROBABLY REmECT THE ABUNDANCE OF MICROBIAL DEPOSITS AND THE SCARCITY OR ABSENCE OF MACROFAUNAL
GRAZERS AND BURROWERS DURING THAT TIME PERIOD EG 'ARRETT
-INERALOGY
"ECAUSE INTRACLASTS AND EXTRACLASTS REPRESENT FRAGMENTS OF PREEXISTING CARBONATE SEDIMENT OR ROCK THEY CAN HAVE
ESSENTIALLY ANY MINERALOGY )NTRACLASTS NORMALLY ARE ARAGONITIC CALCITIC OR DOLOMITIC WHEN FORMED THOSE
ASSOCIATED WITH HARDGROUNDS MAY CONTAIN SIGNIlCANT PHOSPHATE OR GLAUCONITE
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
)NTRACLASTS CAN FORM IN MANY ENVIRONMENTS BUT MOST TYPICALLY ARE PRODUCED IN SETTINGS WITH INTERMITTENTLY HIGH
ENERGY CONDITIONS )N SUCH SETTINGS SEDIMENTS CAN BE WEAKLY CEMENTED OR ORGANICALLY BOUND DURING TIMES OF
RELATIVELY LOW
ENERGY CONDITIONS AND THEN BE TORN UP INTO CLASTS DURING MAJOR STORMS OR OTHER HIGH
ENERGY
CONDITIONS INCLUDING EARTHQUAKES ANDOR TSUNAMI EVENTS 4HE MOST COMMON SITES OF INTRACLAST FORMATION
ARE AT MARINE HIATUS SURFACES lRM
OR HARDGROUNDS IN REEFS FORE
REEF SLOPES OR CARBONATE BEACHES WHERE
BIOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL PROCESSES LEAD TO RAPID CEMENTATION OR ON TIDAL mATS WHERE DESICCATION CEMENTATION
ANDOR DOLOMITIZATION MAY SPEED LITHIlCATION
%XTRACLASTS ARE TYPICALLY FOUND IN CLOSE PROXIMITY TO EXPOSED SOURCES OF OLDER CARBONATES BECAUSE CARBONATE CLASTS
ARE RAPIDLY ABRADED OR DISSOLVED DURING TRANSPORT 4HUS MOST EXTRACLAST
RICH DEPOSITS ARE FORMED WHERE
RAPID SEDIMENTATION OCCURS IN PROXIMITY TO A SOURCE AREA ANDOR IN RELATIVELY COLD OR ARID CLIMATES WITH LIMITED
CHEMICAL WEATHERING SUCH SETTINGS INCLUDE ARID
REGION FAULT
SCARP FANS MARINE ENVIRONMENTS ADJACENT TO
COASTAL CLIFFS OR TOE
OF
SLOPE APRONS ALONG ERODING SUBMARINE ESCARPMENTS IN DEBRIS mOWS AND TURBIDITES
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
)NTRACLASTS ARE TYPICALLY LARGE GRAINS SEVERAL MM TO SEVERAL CM OR MORE WITH MODERATE TO GOOD ROUNDING
AND WITH MULTI
GRAINED INTERNAL FABRICS DERIVED FROM A PRECURSOR DEPOSIT )NTRACLASTS FORMED BY BINDING
OF MULTIPLE ALLOCHEMS MAY BE MORE EQUANT AND BOTRYOIDAL COMMONLY TERMED hLUMPSv OR hGRAPESTONESv
)NTRACLASTS ARE USUALLY MONOMICT THAT IS THEY WERE ALL DERIVED FROM A COMMON NEARBY ENVIRONMENT AND THUS
HAVE SIMILAR COMPOSITION AND TEXTURE )NTRACLASTS MAY SHOW SIGNS OF EARLY CEMENTATION MARINE CEMENTS OR
APHANOCRYSTALLINE DOLOMITE OR OF BINDING BY ORGANISMS ENCRUSTING ALGAE FORAMINIFERS OR OTHERS
%XTRACLASTS ARE LARGE SUB
ROUNDED TO WELL ROUNDED GRAINS UNLIKE ANGULAR GRAINS IN COLLAPSE BRECCIAS AND
TEND TO OCCUR AS POLYMICT ASSEMBLAGES IE GRAINS WITH A VARIETY OF TEXTURES AND COMPOSITIONS SOMETIMES
INCLUDING CEMENTED FRACTURES )NDEED BECAUSE THEY ARE DETRITAL GRAINS DERIVED FROM AN OLDER SEDIMENTARY
SOURCE TERRAIN THEY MAY BE MIXED WITH NON
CARBONATE SEDIMENTARY ROCK FRAGMENTS ESPECIALLY CHERT 4HEY
MAY CONTAIN FOSSILS OLDER THAN THOSE IN THEIR HOST DEPOSITS AND MAY HAVE DISTINCT WEATHERING RINDS
CHAPTER 15: INTRACLASTS AND EXTRACLASTS
Recent sediment, north of Bimini,
Bahamas
4HESE ARE GRAPESTONE INTRACLASTS THAT WERE
FORMED ON AN OPEN SHELF WITH A LOW SEDIMENTA
TION RATE 4HE EXTENSIVELY MICRITIZED PELOIDAL
GRAINS MAINLY ALTERED SUPERlCIAL OOIDS AND
SKELETAL FRAGMENTS ARE BOUND TOGETHER BY IN
ORGANIC CEMENTS AS WELL AS MICROBIAL COATINGS
AND ENCRUSTING ORGANISMS 4HE LUMPY CLASTS
LOOK A BIT LIKE BUNCHES OF GRAPES HENCE THE
TERMS hLUMPSv AND hGRAPESTONEv THAT ARE AP
PLIED TO SUCH GRAINS /CCASIONAL HURRICANES
THAT SWEEP ACROSS THE PLATFORM INTERRUPT THE
CEMENTATION PROCESS AND CONTRIBUTE TO THE GEN
ERATION OF INTRACLASTIC FRAGMENTS RATHER THAN A
CONTINUOUS HARDGROUND
00, "3% (! MM
Recent sediment, northwestern
Little Bahama Bank, Bahamas
! GRAPESTONE SEDIMENT FROM ANOTHER SHELF AREA
OF INTERMITTENTLY ACTIVE TRANSPORT 4HE CROSS
POLARIZED LIGHTING ENHANCES RECOGNITION OF THE
CONSTITUENTS OF THE GRAPESTONE GRAINS OOIDS
GASTROPODS AND OTHER SKELETAL FRAGMENTS AND
LARGE AMOUNTS OF SYNSEDIMENTARY lBROUS ARA
GONITE CEMENT 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF !LBERT
# (INE TAKEN BY 2 *UDE 7ILBER
80, (! ^ MM
Recent sediment, Berry Islands,
Bahamas
! HIGHER MAGNIlCATION VIEW OF A MODERN
hGRAPESTONEv INTRACLAST 4HIS CLUSTER OR AGGRE
GATE OF OTHER GRAINS MOSTLY PELOIDS ARE HELD
TOGETHER BY MICRITIC HIGH -G CALCITE CEMENT
ALONG WITH MICROBIAL FORAMINIFERAL AND OTHER
ENCRUSTATIONS 4HIS GRAPESTONE AS IN THE PREVI
OUS EXAMPLES FORMED IN AN AREA OF INTERMIT
TENT STORM AGITATION A SETTING THAT ALLOWED
CEMENTATION AND ENCRUSTATION TO TAKE PLACE BUT
WHERE EPISODIC REWORKING PREVENTED FORMA
TION OF THICK AND CONTINUOUS CEMENTED CRUSTS
HARDGROUNDS
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Lo. Paleozoic limestone, Canada
! 0ALEOZOIC EXAMPLE OF COMPOUND GRAPESTONE
INTRACLASTS CONTAINING OOIDS WITH THIN COATINGS
-ICRITIC POSSIBLY MICROBIAL PRECIPITATES AP
PEAR TO BE THE MAIN BINDING MATERIAL WITHIN
THESE INTRACLASTS 3AMPLE FROM .OEL 0 *AMES
00, (! MM
Mid. Triassic Gipsdalen Fm.,
Jameson Land, East Greenland
4HESE IRREGULAR ELONGATE INTRACLASTS OF MICRITIC
CARBONATE ARE ASSOCIATED WITH STORM
INmU
ENCED STROMATOLITIC TIDAL mAT ARES 4HEY ARE
TERMED hmAT
PEBBLE CONGLOMERATESv BECAUSE
OF THE SHAPE OF THEIR CLASTS THE PLANAR SHAPE
IS CONTROLLED BY THE lNE
SCALE HORIZONTAL
INTERLAMINATION OF CARBONATE MUD AND MICRO
BIAL CRUSTS FOUND IN TYPICAL CARBONATE TIDAL mAT
DEPOSITS 4HE INTRACLASTS COMMONLY ACCUMU
LATE IN TIDAL CHANNELS BEACH RIDGES OR OFFSHORE
SHELF DEPOSITS
00, (! MM
Up. Cambrian Gallatin Ls., Hot
Springs Co., Wyoming
! COARSE GRAINED mAT PEBBLE CONGLOMER
ATE FROM A TIME PERIOD WHEN SUCH DEPOSITS
WERE EXTREMELY WIDESPREAD 4HESE SILTY AND
MICRITIC INTRACLASTS REPRESENT RIP UP OF THINLY
LAMINATED SEDIMENTS BUT DURING THIS TIME PE
RIOD PRIOR TO COMPLETE DOMINANCE OF GRAZING
AND BURROWING ORGANISMS LAMINATED MICROBIAL
DEPOSITS MAY HAVE BEEN COMMON IN SUBTIDAL
AS WELL AS INTERTIDAL AREAS )N ANY CASE STRONG
STORM ACTION WAS REQUIRED TO GENERATE THESE
ROUNDED RIP UP CLASTS
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 15: INTRACLASTS AND EXTRACLASTS
Mid. Ordovician Black River Gp.,
Kingston area, Ontario, Canada
! LARGE COMPOUND INTRACLAST AMONG DOMINANT
LY lNE
GRAINED OOIDS AND PELOIDS ! COMPOUND
INTRACLAST IS A REWORKED SEDIMENT FRAGMENT THAT
INCLUDES OTHER INTRACLASTS FROM AN EARLIER
GENERATION OF REWORKING "ECAUSE SEDIMENT
FORMATION AND DESTRUCTION CAN BE EPISODIC AND
OFT
REPEATED IN STORM
INmUENCED COASTAL AND
SHALLOW SHELF SETTINGS COMPOUND INTRACLASTS
ARE COMMON IN SUCH DEPOSITS 3AMPLE FROM
.OEL 0 *AMES
00, (! ^ MM
Up. Cretaceous (Maastrichtian?)
limestone, Paxos, Ionian Islands,
Greece
)NTRACLASTS ALSO ARE COMMON IN SHELF MARGIN
AND SLOPE LIMESTONES 4HESE REWORKED GRAINS
INCLUDE MARINE CEMENTED RUDISTID REEF MATERIAL
AS WELL AS lNER GRAINED BACK REEF ANDOR UPPER
SLOPE CARBONATE FRAGMENTS !LL HAVE BEEN RE
WORKED INTO BASINAL DEPOSITS BY TURBIDITY CUR
RENTS AND DEBRIS mOWS )NTRACLASTIC SLOPE DE
POSITS AND SLOPE DERIVED BASINAL LIMESTONES
COMMONLY HAVE A MORE DIVERSE OR POLYMICT
ASSEMBLAGE OF GRAIN LITHOLOGIES THAN DO MOST
COASTAL OR OPEN SHELF DEPOSITS
00, "3% (! MM
Up. Cretaceous (Maastrichtian?)
limestone, Paxos, Ionian Islands,
Greece
! HIGHER MAGNIlCATION VIEW OF AN INTRACLAST
IN A DEEP WATER DEBRIS mOW )T CONTAINS SHELF
MARGIN RUDISTID BIOSPARITE WITH COMPLETE OC
CLUSION OF POROSITY BY EXTREMELY EARLY MARINE
CEMENTS "OTH THE RUDISTID FRAGMENTS AND
MARINE CEMENTS WERE TRUNCATED DURING THE
FORMATION OF THIS CLAST %XAMINATION OF SUCH
DEEPER WATER INTRACLASTS CAN PROVIDE CONSIDER
ABLE INFORMATION ABOUT NEARBY PLATFORMS AND
THEIR EARLY DIAGENETIC HISTORY INFORMATION
COMMONLY OF GREAT VALUE TO EXPLORATIONISTS
00, "3% (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Lo. Jurassic (Liassic) limestone,
Central High Atlas region, Morocco
3EVERAL DIFFERENT INTRACLAST COMPOSITIONS
OOLITIC MICRITIC BIOMICRITIC ARE FOUND IN
THIS TYPICALLY POORLY SORTED DEBRIS mOW DE
POSIT FROM A LOWER SLOPE SETTING $ESPITE
THE FACT THAT SOME CLASTS WERE FULLY CEMENTED
PRIOR TO TRANSPORT THESE ARE STILL CONSIDERED
AS PENECONTEMPORANEOUSLY REWORKED MATERI
ALS WITHIN THE SAME BASIN OF DEPOSITION THE
GRAINS THEREFORE lT THE DElNITION OF INTRACLASTS
#IRCUMGRANULAR MARINE CEMENTS ARE CLEARLY
VISIBLE IN THE LARGE GRAIN IN THE LOWER RIGHT
CORNER
00, (! MM
Up. Pennsylvanian (Virgilian)
Collings Ranch Cgl., Murray Co.,
Oklahoma
$ISTINGUISHING INTRACLASTS FROM EXTRACLASTS CAN
BE DIFlCULT 4HIS CALCLITHITE DEPOSIT FORMED IN
A SMALL FAULT
BOUNDED BASIN DURING A REGIONAL
TECTONIC EVENT AND THE CLASTS REPRESENT LIME
STONE AND CHERT ERODED FROM A THICK UPLIFTED
SECTION OF PRIMARILY /RDOVICIAN CARBONATES
4HESE WERE CLEARLY NOT PENECONTEMPORANEOUS
WITH 0ENNSYLVANIAN DEPOSITION BUT EXAMINA
TION OF REGIONAL RELATIONSHIPS OR THE FOSSILS
CONTAINED IN THE CLASTS ARE REQUIRED TO DETER
MINE THAT THESE ARE EXTRACLASTS RATHER THAN
INTRACLASTS
00, !&E3 (! MM
Up. Eocene Oberaudorf Schichten,
Northern Calcareous Alps, Austria
.UMEROUS EXTRACLASTS IN A CALCLITHITE 4HESE
FRAGMENTS INCLUDE SHALLOW WATER CARBONATES
AND DEEP WATER CHERTS FROM STRATA AS OLD AS *U
RASSIC 4HE DEPOSIT WAS DERIVED BY EROSION OF
OLDER STRATA FROM ADVANCING THRUST SHEETS DUR
ING THE !LPINE OROGENY 4HE DIVERSITY OF ROCK
TYPES AND ESPECIALLY THE INCLUSION OF CHERT
FRAGMENTS ARE CLUES THAT THESE ARE EXTRACLASTS
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 15: INTRACLASTS AND EXTRACLASTS
Up. Permian (Umian) Top
Solikamskaya Suite, Perm Region,
Russia
!NOTHER VIEW OF EXTRACLASTS IN A CALCLITHITE
4HE HIGHLY POLYMICT NATURE OF THE CLASTS AND
THE SIGNIlCANT ROUNDING OF EVEN THE VERY HARD
CHERT FRAGMENTS BOTH ARE CLUES TO AN EXTRACLASTIC
ORIGIN OF GRAINS $ETAILED LITHOLOGIC AND PALE
ONTOLOGIC EXAMINATION OF SUCH CLASTS RELATIVE
TO ANY ASSOCIATED NON REWORKED MATERIAL GEN
ERALLY IS REQUIRED TO PROVE THAT HYPOTHESIS
00, (! MM
Up. Silurian hiatus surface on
Fusselman Fm., El Paso Co., Texas
3OLUTION
COLLAPSE AND TECTONIC BRECCIAS CAN AP
PEAR VERY SIMILAR TO INTRACLAST OR EXTRACLAST
RICH
ROCKS 4HESE CLASTS ARE PART OF AN EXPOSURE
RE
LATED SOLUTION BRECCIA .OTE THE ANGULARITY AND
SIZE VARIATION LACK OF SORTING OF THESE ROCK
FRAGMENTS THE UNIFORMITY OF LITHOLOGY AND THE
FERRUGINOUS TERRA ROSSA MATRIX !LL OF THOSE ARE
CLUES TO THE ORIGIN OF THIS DEPOSIT BUT NONE IS
COMPLETELY DIAGNOSTIC
00, (! MM
Neogene breccia, near Lamia,
central Greece
!N EXAMPLE OF A CARBONATE RICH FAULT BRECCIA
WITH HEMATITIC TERRA ROSSA MATRIX 4HIS SAMPLE
CAME FROM WITHIN THE FAULT ZONE AND HAS UN
DERGONE ESSENTIALLY NO SEDIMENTARY TRANSPORT
(OWEVER THE SOLUBILITY AND SOFTNESS OF CAR
BONATE CLASTS MAKES EVEN MODERATE DISTANCE
mUVIAL TRANSPORT OF CARBONATE CLASTS UNLIKELY
ESPECIALLY IN HUMID CLIMATIC SETTINGS 4HUS
MOST TECTONIC CALCLITHITES REPRESENT DEPOSITION
IN CLOSE PROXIMITY TO ACTIVE BLOCK FAULTS ME
TERS TO JUST A FEW KILOMETERS
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Lo. Cretaceous (Albian) Glen Rose
Ls., near Johnson City, Texas
3OME GRAINS THAT LOOK VERY MUCH LIKE
INTRACLASTS MAY IN REALITY HAVE VERY DIFFERENT
ORIGINS 4HESE ARE STEINKERNS INTERNAL BODY
CAVITY lLLINGS OF ARTICULATE #ORBULA BIVALVES
4HE SEDIMENT lLLINGS OF THE BIVALVES MUST
HAVE UNDERGONE VERY EARLY LITHIlCATION FOR
SOME GRAINS PRESERVE MULTIPLE GENERATIONS OF
GEOPETAL STRUCTURES AND IN SITU lBROUS RIM
CEMENTS 3UBSEQUENTLY THE ARAGONITIC SHELLS
WERE COMPLETELY DISSOLVED LEAVING ONLY THE
LITHIlED INTERNAL CAVITY lLLS 4HESE GRAINS CAN
BE DIFFERENTIATED FROM TRUE INTRACLASTS BY THEIR
CONSISTENT hTEARDROPv SHAPE AND THEIR UNUSUAL
INTERNAL FABRICS
00, (! MM
#ITED 2EFERENCES AND !DDITIONAL )NFORMATION 3OURCES
!INARDI 2 AND 9 #HAMPETIER 0ROCESSUS DE FORMATION -OUNT * & AND $ +IDDER #OMBINED mOW ORIGIN OF EDGEWISE
DINTRACLASTES PAR DESSICCATION EN MILIEU MARGINO
LITTORAL EXEMPLE DANS INTRACLAST CONGLOMERATES 3ELLICK (ILL &ORMATION ,OWER #AMBRIAN
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,INDHOLM 2 # )NTRACLAST ORIENTATION IN #AMBRO
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#LOSE
UP VIEW OF ONE OF THE MOUNDS SHOWN ABOVE .OTE
P
THE ABUNDANCE OF LARGE ROD
SHAPED CRUSTACEAN FECAL PELLETS
CHAPTER 16: PELLETS AND PELOIDS
'2!).3 .ON
SKELETAL 'RAINS
PELLETS AND PELOIDS
C
H
A
P
T
E
R
16
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
0%,,%43 !.$ 0%,/)$3
$ElNITIONS
0ELLETS
3MALL TYPICALLY TO MM LONG SPHERICAL TO OVOID OR ROD
SHAPED GRAINS COMPOSED OF CARBONATE
MUD MICRITE -OST PELLETS LACK INTERNAL STRUCTURE AND ARE UNIFORM IN SIZE AND SHAPE IN ANY SINGLE SAMPLE IN
THE STRICT SENSE PELLETS ARE THE FECAL PRODUCTS OF INVERTEBRATE ORGANISMS SEE &OLK
0ELOIDS
!LLOCHEMS FORMED OF CRYPTOCRYSTALLINE OR MICROCRYSTALLINE CALCIUM CARBONATE WITH NO RESTRICTIONS ON THE
SIZE OR ORIGIN OF THE GRAINS -C+EE AND 'UTSCHICK 4HIS TERM ALLOWS REFERENCE TO GRAINS COMPOSED OF
MICRITIC MATERIAL WITHOUT THE NEED TO IMPLY ANY PARTICULAR MODE OF ORIGIN IT IS THEREFORE A USEFUL hTERM OF
IGNORANCEv COVERING POSSIBLE PELLETS INDISTINCT INTRACLASTS MICRITIZED OOIDS OR FOSSIL FRAGMENTS AND EVEN SOME
MICROBIAL OR INORGANIC PRECIPITATES THAT ARE NOT NECESSARILY EVEN hGRAINSv IN THE SENSE OF PRIMARY CONSTITUENTS
AS OPPOSED TO INTERSTITIAL EARLY DIAGENETIC hCEMENTSv
!GE RANGE
0ELLETS AND PELOIDS OCCUR IN 0RECAMBRIAN THROUGH 0HANEROZOIC STRATA PELLETS ARE IMPORTANT SEDIMENT CONSTITUENTS
MAINLY IN 0HANEROZOIC STRATA 3TRUCTURED CRUSTACEAN PELLETS ARE ESPECIALLY PROMINENT IN *URASSIC AND
#RETACEOUS ROCKS ALTHOUGH THEY ARE KNOWN FROM MIDDLE 0ALEOZOIC TO 2ECENT STRATA
#OMPOSITION
0ELLETS AND PELOIDS ARE COMPOSED OF AGGREGATED CARBONATE MUD ANDOR PRECIPITATED CALCIUM CARBONATE 4HUS
THEIR ORIGINAL COMPOSITION IS OR WAS ARAGONITE OR CALCITE OF ANY -G LEVEL OR A MIXTURE OF BOTH 0ELLETAL
GLAUCONITES AND PHOSPHORITES ALSO ARE COMMON
%NVIRONMENTAL )MPLICATIONS
&ECAL PELLETS ARE PRODUCED WHEREVER WORMS CRUSTACEANS HOLOTHURIANS AND OTHER GRAZING BURROWING OR SWIMMING
INVERTEBRATES OR VERTEBRATES EXIST BUT MOST PELLETS ARE DESTROYED PRIOR TO BURIAL 2APID CEMENTATION USUALLY
BACTERIALLY MEDIATED AIDS PRESERVATION AS DOES RAPID SEDIMENTATION IN LOW
ENERGY SETTINGS 4HUS LAGOONS
ESPECIALLY HYPERSALINE ONES LOW
ENERGY TIDAL mATS AND SHELTERED OR RELATIVELY DEEP
WATER PLATFORMS ARE
COMMON SITES OF PELLET PRESERVATION &ECAL PELLETS OF PELAGIC ZOOPLANKTON ESPECIALLY COPEPODS ARE COMMON IN
#RETACEOUS TO 2ECENT DEEP
SEA DEPOSITS
&ECAL PELLETS MUST BE DISTINGUISHED FROM MICROBIAL PELOIDS OR INORGANIC PELOIDAL MARINE CEMENTS ESPECIALLY THOSE
COMPOSED OF HIGH
-G CALCITE 3UCH PRECIPITATES ARE ESPECIALLY COMMON IN REEF CAVITIES SUBTIDAL TO INTERTIDAL
STROMATOLITES HOT SPRINGS OR OTHER TRAVERTINE DEPOSITS AND SUBMARINE VENT AREAS
0ELOIDS HAVE VARIED ORIGINS AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS !LGAL OR FUNGAL BORING AND MICRITIZATION OF GRAINS
ARE COMMON IN A VARIETY OF OPEN MARINE TO RESTRICTED OR COASTAL SETTINGS WITH RELATIVELY SLOW OR INTERMITTENT
SEDIMENTATION RATES )N PARTICULAR AREAS SUBJECT TO OCCASIONAL STORMS THAT MOVE GRAINS FROM ACTIVE AREAS
OF FORMATION TO QUIET SITES OF DESTRUCTION ARE ESPECIALLY PRONE TO PELOID FORMATION 3UCH SITES INCLUDE BACK
BARRIER OR BACK
BAR GRASS mATS LAGOONS AND PROTECTED DEEPER SHELF SETTINGS
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
#ARBONATE FECAL PELLETS OF INVERTEBRATE ORGANISMS ARE TYPICALLY MICRITIC AND HAVE NO INTERNAL FABRIC 3OME
CRUSTACEANS PRODUCE PELLETS THAT HAVE REGULARLY SPACED HOLES NORMALLY lLLED WITH SPARRY CALCITE
-OST FECAL PELLETS ARE RELATIVELY SMALL TYPICALLY TO MM LONG ALTHOUGH SOME CAN EXCEED
CM AND ARE
ROD
SHAPED OR OVOID "ECAUSE MOST PELLETS IN ANY SINGLE SEDIMENT SAMPLE WILL HAVE BEEN PRODUCED BY JUST ONE
OR TWO TYPES OF ORGANISMS THEY ARE GENERALLY VERY UNIFORM IN BOTH SHAPE AND SIZE
"ECAUSE PELLETS ARE SOFT WHEN FORMED THEY CAN BE EMBAYED OR PARTIALLY mATTENED BY COMPATION DURING BURIAL
WHEREVER EARLY CEMENTATION HAS NOT THOROUGHLY LITHIlED THEM
0ELLETS COMMONLY OCCUR IN CLUSTERS PARTICULARLY WHERE THEY HAVE BEEN PACKED INTO BURROWS OR HAVE
ACCUMULATED AT OR NEAR THE SURFACE OPENINGS OF BURROWS
0ELOIDS FORMED BY THE BIOLOGICAL DEGRADATION OR hMICRITIZATIONv OF OTHER CARBONATE GRAINS MAINLY OOIDS OR
BIOCLASTS MAY RETAIN SLIGHT VESTIGES OF THEIR ORIGINAL INTERNAL STRUCTURE ALBEIT NOT ENOUGH TO IDENTIFY THOSE
ORIGINS ! WIDE RANGE OF BORINGS ALGAL FUNGAL AND OTHER ALSO MAY BE VISIBLE WITHIN PELOIDS
0ELOIDAL GRAINS ALLOCHEMS CAN SOMETIMES BE DISTINGUISHED FROM PELOIDAL CEMENTS OR BIOLOGICALLY
MEDIATED
PRECIPITATES BY THEIR DISTRIBUTION 0RECIPITATES CAN COMPLETELY LINE CAVITIES WHEREAS ALLOCHEMS ARE
GRAVITATIONALLY CONlNED TO CAVITY mOORS
CHAPTER 16: PELLETS AND PELOIDS
Recent sediment, Cancun Lagoon,
Quintana Roo, Mexico
4WO PELLETS FROM A MODERN LAGOONAL SETTING
4HESE APPARENTLY ARE TRUE FECAL PELLETS AS
THEY SHOW THE COMMON ROUNDED ROD SHAPED
OUTLINE OF SUCH MATERIAL )N THIS SEDIMENT THE
UNIFORMITY OF SIZE AND SHAPE OF PELLETS AIDS IN
THEIR IDENTIlCATION AS BEING OF FECAL ORIGIN
3UCH FECAL PELLETS ARE COMMON AND IT HAS BEEN
ESTIMATED THAT ALL MODERN MUDDY CARBONATE
SEDIMENT PASSES THROUGH THE GUT OF ONE OR
MORE ORGANISMS DURING ITS TIME AT OR NEAR THE
SEAmOOR
00, (! MM
Recent sediment, Coorong Lagoon,
South Australia
!N EXAMPLE OF MODERN CRUSTACEAN FECAL
PELLETS FROM A VARIABLE SALINITY HYPERSALINE
TO SUBSALINE CARBONATE LAGOON 4HE PELLETS
ARE ROD SHAPED IN LONGITUDINAL SECTION AND
ROUND IN TRANSVERSE SECTION AND HAVE RELATIVELY
LARGE AND UNIFORM SIZES &ORMING PELLETS IS
RELATIVELY EASY BUT HARDENING THEM AND THUS
MAKING THEM PRESERVABLE IS MORE DIFlCULT )N
HYPERSALINE LAGOONS HIGH RATES OF CARBONATE
PRECIPITATION COUPLED WITH MICROBIAL ACTIVITY
IN THE PELLETS CAN LEAD TO RAPID LITHIlCATION OF
PELLETS AND THUS CAN SUBSTANTIALLY INCREASE THE
PROBABILITY OF THEIR PRESERVATION 3AMPLE FROM
5NIVERSITY OF #ANTERBURY .: COLLECTION
00, (! MM
Lo.-Mid. Ordovician Deepkill Shale,
Rensselaer Co., New York
!N ANCIENT PELSPARITE CONTAINING ABUNDANT
PELLETS OF UNKNOWN BUT POSSIBLY FECAL ORIGIN
.OTE THE UNIFORMLY SMALL PARTICLE SIZE AND
CONSISTENT SHAPE OF THESE GRAINS MUCH SMALLER
THAN THE #OORONG PELLETS BUT ABOUT AVERAGE FOR
PELLETS AS DElNED BY &OLK ! BROWN
COLOR IN REmECTED LIGHT OR hWHITE CARDv ILLUMI
NATION ALSO FAVORS A FECAL ORIGIN AS IT INDICATES
A HIGH CONTENT OF ORGANIC MATTER 3UBSTANTIAL
SYNSEDIMENTARY LITHIlCATION OF THESE PELLETS
MUST HAVE BEEN FOLLOWED BY RELATIVELY EARLY
SPARRY CALCITE CEMENTATION OF THE ROCK IN ORDER
TO PREVENT COMPACTION OF THESE GRAINS
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Mississippian (Meramecian) Ste.
Genevieve Ls., Milltown, Indiana
4HESE ROUNDED GRAINS ARE INFERRED FROM THEIR
UNIFORM SIZE OVOID SHAPE AND CONSISTENT
COMPOSITION TO BE FECAL PELLETS POSSIBLY CRUS
TACEAN PELLETS .OTE THE INCLUSION OF SILT
SIZED
CARBONATE AND TERRIGENOUS PARTICLES THROUGHOUT
THE GRAINS THIS DIFFERENTIATES THEM FROM
MICRITIZED OOIDS AND THE RANDOMNESS OF DISTRI
BUTION OF THE INCLUDED PARTICLES RULES OUT TESTS
OF ARENACEOUS FORAMINIFERS &INALLY THE CON
SISTENT SIZE AND ROUNDING OF THE GRAINS MAKES IT
VERY UNLIKELY THAT THEY COULD BE INTRACLASTS
00, (! MM
Lo. Jurassic (Liassic) limestone,
Central High Atlas region, Morocco
4HE GRAIN IN THE CENTER OF THIS IMAGE IS A MI
CRO
COPROLITE PELLET OF AN ANOMURAN DECAPOD
CRUSTACEAN 4HIS PELLET PROBABLY BELONGS TO
THE ICHNOGENUS &AVREINA AND THE DIAGNOSTIC
INTERNAL TUBULAR STRUCTURES THAT PARALLEL THE LONG
AXIS OF THE PELLET ARE THE KEY TO THE RECOGNITION
OF THESE GRAINS 4HE TUBULAR FABRIC IS PRODUCED
BY ELONGATE SOMETIMES STRING
LIKE mAPS IN THE
ORGANISMS DIGESTIVE TRACT
00, (! MM
Up. Jurassic (Oxfordian)
Smackover Fm., subsurface,
Choctaw Co., Alabama
! TRANSVERSE SECTION THROUGH A &AVREINA CRUS
TACEAN PELLET WITH INTERNAL TUBULAR STRUCTURE
.OTE THE CIRCULAR OUTLINE AND VERY DISTINCTIVE
PATTERN OF INTERNAL SPAR
lLLED PORES THAT CHARAC
TERIZE THESE READILY RECOGNIZABLE PELLETS
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 16: PELLETS AND PELOIDS
Pleistocene Ironshore Fm., Grand
Cayman, Cayman Islands, B.W.I.
'RAINS THAT HAVE MICRITIC INTERNAL STRUCTURE
LIKE PELLETS BUT THAT HAVE DIVERSE AND IRREGULAR
SHAPES AND SIZES OR VAGUE REMNANTS OF INTERNAL
FABRIC ARE GENERALLY TERMED PELOIDS 4HIS IS A
CONVENIENT hTERM OF IGNORANCEv FOR GRAINS FOR
WHICH A DElNITE ORIGIN CANNOT BE DETERMINED
4HIS SEDIMENT SHOWS A VARIETY OF MICRITIZED
GRAINS IN MANY OF THEM NO DElNITIVE FABRIC
REMAINS AND THUS THOSE GRAINS WOULD BEST BE
TERMED hPELOIDSv
00, "3% (! MM
Recent sediment, coastal Abu
Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
!LTHOUGH THE GENERAL PROCESS OF GRAIN
MICRITIZATION WAS ILLUSTRATED IN THE SECTION ON
OOIDS AND PISOIDS ANOTHER EXAMPLE IS PRO
VIDED HERE IN THE CONTEXT OF PELOID FORMATION
4HIS PHOTOGRAPH SHOWS AN ADVANCED STAGE OF
MICRITIZATION AFFECTING A PENEROPLID FORAMINI
FER -ICRO BORING OF GRAINS ON THE SEAmOOR AND
lLLING OF THOSE PORES AND PRIMARY INTRAPARTICLE
PORES WITH APHANOCRYSTALLINE CEMENT IS THE
MAIN CAUSE OF SUCH ALTERATION !LTHOUGH THIS
GRAIN IS STILL RECOGNIZABLE AS A FORAMINIFER
CONTINUED ALTERATION WILL PRODUCE AN UNIDENTI
lABLE MICRITIC GRAIN A PELOID 0HOTOGRAPH
COURTESY OF "RUCE ( 0URSER
00, (! ^ MM
Oligocene Deborah Volcanic Fm.,
Oamaru, Otago, New Zealand
3MALL ROUNDED MICRITIC GRAINS CAN ALSO BE
PRODUCED BY CARBONATE PRECIPITATION AROUND
A VARIETY OF MICROBES 4HIS EXAMPLE SHOWS
MICROBIAL SHRUBS THAT GREW IN THE PROTECTED
INTERSTICES BETWEEN BASALTIC PILLOW LAVAS ON THE
OCEAN mOOR 4HE SHRUBS WERE PRESERVED AS A
RESULT OF RAPID CEMENTATION BY SPARRY CALCITE
-ANY OF THE SHRUBS DISAGGREGATED PRIOR TO SPAR
FORMATION HOWEVER AND THE CONSTITUENT SMALL
MICRITIC PELOIDS FORMED LAYERS OF INTERNAL
SEDIMENT WITHIN THIS CAVITY 4HE FORMATION OF
INTERNAL MICROBIAL CRUSTS IS IN A SENSE A CE
MENTATION PROCESS BUT IT BLURS THE LINE BETWEEN
WHAT IS A CEMENT AND WHAT IS A GRAIN
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Holocene sediment, Tobacco Cay,
Belize
! DETAIL OF A LARGE AREA OF CEMENTED INTERNAL
SEDIMENT CONSISTING OF lNE SILT SIZED PELOIDAL
HIGH -G CALCITE THAT HAS BEEN STAINED RED WITH
#LAYTON 9ELLOW 4HESE PELOIDAL PARTICLES ACT AS
GRAINS IN THIS CEMENTED INTERNAL SEDIMENT BUT
MAY IN FACT BE MICROBIALLY INmUENCED PRECIPI
TATES 4HIS BLURRING OF THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN
SMALL PELOIDAL GRAINS AND CEMENT HAS PROVOKED
MUCH DISCUSSION IN THE PAST DECADE AND MOST
LIKELY WILL CONTINUE TO POSE PROBLEMS FOR PE
TROGRAPHERS WELL INTO THE FUTURE 0HOTOGRAPH
COURTESY OF 2OBERT . 'INSBURG
00, #93 (! MM
#ITED 2EFERENCES AND !DDITIONAL )NFORMATION 3OURCES
"ROWN 0 2 0ETROGRAPHY AND ORIGIN OF SOME UPPER *URASSIC BEDS FURTHER INSIGHT INTO THE MICRITIZATION PROCESS *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY
FROM $ORSET %NGLAND *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
2ESEARCH 3ECTION ! 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY AND 0ROCESSES V P
#HAFETZ ( 3 -ARINE PELOIDS A PRODUCT OF BACTERIALLY INDUCED 2OTH 0 ( - - -ULLIN AND 7 ( "ERGER #OCCOLITH
PRECIPITATION OF CALCITE *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P SEDIMENTATION BY FECAL PELLETS LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS AND lELD
OBSERVATIONS 'EOLOGICAL 3OCIETY OF !MERICA "ULLETIN V P
%ARDLEY ! * 3EDIMENTS OF THE 'REAT 3ALT ,AKE 5TAH !MERICAN
!SSOCIATION OF 0ETROLEUM 'EOLOGISTS "ULLETIN V P
3COFlN 4 0 #RUSTACEAN FAECAL PELLETS &AVREINA FROM THE -IDDLE
&HRUS , % 2 - 3LATT AND ' 3 .OWLAN /RIGIN OF CARBONATE *URASSIC OF %IGG )NNER (EBRIDES 3COTTISH *OURNAL OF 'EOLOGY V P
PSEUDOPELLETS *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
&OLK 2 , 0RACTICAL PETROGRAPHIC CLASSIlCATION OF LIMESTONES 4AGHON ' , ! 2 - .OWELL AND 0 ! *UMARS 4RANSPORT
!MERICAN !SSOCIATION OF 0ETROLEUM 'EOLOGISTS "ULLETIN V P
AND BREAKDOWN OF FECAL PELLETS BIOLOGICAL AND SEDIMENTOLOGICAL
&RIEDMAN ' - 4HE TERM MICRITE OR MICRITIC CEMENT IS A CONSEQUENCES ,IMNOLOGY AND /CEANOGRAPHY V P
CONTRADICTION DISCUSSION OF MICRITIC CEMENT IN MICROBORINGS IS 4RIPLEHORN $ - -ORPHOLOGY INTERNAL STRUCTURE AND ORIGIN OF
NOT NECESSARILY A SHALLOW
WATER INDICATOR *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY GLAUCONITE PELLETS 3EDIMENTOLOGY V P
0ETROLOGY V P
(ATTIN $ % 0ETROLOGY AND ORIGIN OF FECAL PELLETS IN 5PPER
#RETACEOUS STRATA OF +ANSAS AND 3ASKATCHEWAN *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY
0ETROLOGY V P
(ONJO 3 AND - 2 2OMAN -ARINE COPEPOD FECAL PELLETS
PRODUCTION PRESERVATION AND SEDIMENTATION *OURNAL OF -ARINE
2ESEARCH V P
+ORNICKER , 3 AND % ' 0URDY ! "AHAMIAN FECAL
PELLET SEDIMENT
*OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
-ACINTYRE ) ' 3UBMARINE CEMENTS THE PELOIDAL QUESTION IN .
3CHNEIDERMANN AND 0 - (ARRIS EDS #ARBONATE #EMENTS 4ULSA /+
3%0- 3PECIAL 0UBLICATION .O P
-C+EE % $ AND 2 # 'UTSCHICK (ISTORY OF THE 2EDWALL
,IMESTONE OF NORTHERN !RIZONA "OULDER #/ 'EOLOGICAL 3OCIETY OF
!MERICA -EMOIR P
-OORE ( " 4HE FAECAL PELLETS OF THE !NOMURA 0ROCEEDINGS OF THE
2OYAL 3OCIETY OF %DINBURGH V P
0URDY % ' 2ECENT CALCIUM CARBONATE FACIES OF THE 'REAT "AHAMA
"ANK 0ETROGRAPHY AND REACTION GROUPS *OURNAL OF 'EOLOGY V
P
2EID 2 0 AND ) ' -ACINTYRE #ARBONATE RECRYSTALLIZATION
IN SHALLOW MARINE ENVIRONMENTS A WIDESPREAD DIAGENETIC PROCESS
FORMING MICRITIZED GRAINS *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 2ESEARCH 3ECTION
& ACING 0AGE: 4HIN
SECTION PHOTOMICROGRAPHS PLANE
AND
CROSS
POLARIZED LIGHT SHOWING PHOSPHATIC OOIDS WITH
PHOSPHATIC SHELL AND BONE CORES IN A SHELFAL PHOSPHATE
CARBONATE
! 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY AND 0ROCESSES V P
UNIT 0ERMIAN ,EONARDIAN
'UADALUPIAN 0HOSPHORIA &M
2EID 2 0 AND ) ' -ACINTYRE -ICROBORING VERSUS RECRYSTALLIZATION #ARIBOU #O )DAHO (! MM EACH
CHAPTER 17: NON-CARBONATE GRAINS
'2!).3 .ON
SKELETAL 'RAINS
NON-CARBONATE GRAINS
Terrigenous
C material
H
A
P Glauconite
T
E Phosphatic
R detritus
17
Ferruginous
grains
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
/4(%2 ./. #!2"/.!4% '2!).3
)NTRODUCTION
! WIDE VARIETY OF NON CARBONATE GRAINS CAN BE FOUND AS CONSTITUENTS OF CARBONATE ROCKS )N SOME CASES THESE
GRAINS ARE ISOLATED AND VERY SUBORDINATE PARTICLES IN OTHER EXAMPLES THEY CAN BE IMPORTANT ROCK FORMING
ELEMENTS -OST OF THESE MINERALS CAN ALSO BE FOUND AS DIAGENETIC PRECIPITATES IN CARBONATE ROCKS BUT IN THIS
SECTION ONLY EXAMPLES OF TRUE GRAINS ARE ILLUSTRATED ALTHOUGH SOME WERE SYNSEDIMENTARY DIAGENETIC MATERIALS
THAT EFFECTIVELY ACTED AS SEDIMENT GRAINS
)T IS BEYOND THE SCOPE OF THIS BOOK TO EXAMINE THESE NON CARBONATE GRAINS IN DETAIL BUT A FEW OF THE MORE
IMPORTANT TYPES CLASTIC TERRIGENOUS GRAINS GLAUCONITE hPELLETSv AND FERRUGINOUS AND PHOSPHATIC OOIDS
WILL BE DISCUSSED BRIEmY 4HE CRITERIA FOR THEIR RECOGNITION AND THE COMPOSITIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THESE
GRAINS ARE GIVEN IN THE INDIVIDUAL lGURE CAPTIONS
4HE RECOGNITION OF NON CARBONATE GRAINS IN CARBONATE ROCKS IS IMPORTANT FOR THE INTERPRETATION OF DEPOSITIONAL
ENVIRONMENTS AND FOR THE PROPER CLASSIlCATION OF MIXED COMPOSITION ROCKS -OST SPECIALIZED CLASSIlCATIONS OF
CARBONATE ROCKS SIMPLY USE ADJECTIVES SUCH AS hQUARTZOSEv hVERY QUARTZOSEv hFELDSPATHICv OR hGLAUCONITICv TO
NOTE THE PRESENCE AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF NON CARBONATE GRAINS THE TERM hSILICIlEDv IS APPROPRIATELY USED
WHERE A SIGNIlCANT AMOUNT OF SILICA REPLACEMENT HAS AFFECTED THE DEPOSIT
Up. Cambrian Copper Ridge Dol./
Conococheague Ls., Giles Co.,
Virginia
7ELL ROUNDED DETRITAL QUARTZ SAND GRAINS ARE
SCATTERED THROUGHOUT THIS DOLOMITIZED CARBON
ATE MUDSTONE 4HE QUARTZ GRAINS ARE AT VARIOUS
STAGES OF EXTINCTION BUT NONE SHOW BIREFRIN
GENCE COLORS HIGHER THAN lRST ORDER 3UCH EX
CELLENT ROUNDING TYPICALLY INDICATES A PRECURSOR
SEDIMENTARY SOURCE OR LONG TERM ABRASION IN A
HIGH ENERGY SETTING
80, (! MM
Lo. Cretaceous (Albian) Nahr Umr
Fm., offshore Qatar
!BUNDANT ANGULAR TO SUBANGULAR DETRITAL QUARTZ
GRAINS AND SUBORDINATE FELDSPAR IN A SIDERITIC
CARBONATE 3UCH ANGULAR GRAINS ARE MORE COM
MON AS TERRIGENOUS CONTRIBUTIONS TO CARBONATE
SEDIMENTS THAN THE VERY WELL ROUNDED GRAINS OF
THE PREVIOUS EXAMPLE 4HE SIDERITE CRYSTALS ARE
CLEAR TO BROWNISH AND HAVE HIGH RELIEF
00, "3% (! MM
CHAPTER 17: NON-CARBONATE GRAINS
Up. Cretaceous Navesink Fm.,
Monmouth Co., New Jersey
,ARGE OVOID PELLETAL GLAUCONITE GRAINS IN A
GLAUCONITIC MARL 4HE LIGHT GREEN COLOR IN
PLANE POLARIZED LIGHT AND SPECKLED DARK GREEN
APPEARANCE UNDER CROSS POLARIZED ILLUMINATION
ARE CHARACTERISTIC FOR GLAUCONITE !LTHOUGH
hGLAUCONITEv BASICALLY IS AN IRON AND MAG
NESIUM RICH ILLITE TYPE MINERAL THE TERM
REALLY REFERS TO A FAMILY OF RELATED MINERALS
hGLAUCONYv IS SOMETIMES USED AS A GENERIC
TERM FOR SUCH MATERIALS WHEN DETAILED MINERAL
OGICAL DATA IS LACKING 'LAUCONITE GRAINS CAN
HAVE VARYING DEGREES OF MINERAL ORDERING AS
WELL AS A COMPLEX RANGE OF INTERLAYERED CLAY
MINERALS ESPECIALLY SMECTITE
80, (! MM
Lo. Miocene Otekaike Ls., Otago,
New Zealand
4HESE ARE PELLETALPELOIDAL GLAUCONITE GRAINS
FROM A CALCAREOUS GREENSAND A hGLAUCONY
FACIESv 4HESE GLAUCONITE GRAINS HAVE A CHAR
ACTERISTIC PALE GREEN TO YELLOWISH COLOR SOME
ARE INTERNALLY FEATURELESS WHEREAS OTHERS SHOW
LOBATE OR CEREBROID STRUCTURES 'LAUCONITE IS
A SEAmOOR DIAGENETIC PRODUCT FORMED PRIMAR
ILY IN MID TO OUTER SHELF SETTINGS ESPECIALLY
DURING INTERVALS OF SLOW SEDIMENTATION AND
MILDLY REDUCING CONDITIONS &ECAL PELLETS OF A
VARIETY OF ORGANISMS PROVIDE AN EXCELLENT SITE
FOR NEOFORMATION OF GLAUCONITE DUE TO THE LO
CALIZED REDUCING ENVIRONMENT THAT EXISTS IN THE
PRESENCE OF RESIDUAL FECAL ORGANIC MATTER
00, (! MM
Up. Oligocene-Lo. Miocene
Otekaike Ls., Canterbury, New
Zealand
! VARIETY OF GLAUCONITE GRAINS IN A GREENSAND
!LL SHOW CHARACTERISTIC PALE GREEN COLOR MOST
ARE INTERNALLY FEATURELESS PELLET
LIKE GRAINS
BUT A FEW HAVE A FOLIATED OR VERMICULAR STRUC
TURE 4HE FOLIATED GRAINS MOST LIKELY REPRESENT
SYNSEDIMENTARY SEAmOOR GLAUCONITIZATION
OF DETRITAL BIOTITES A SLOW PROCESS THAT TAKES
PLACE UNDER REDUCING CONDITIONS AND REQUIRES
LOW RATES OF SEDIMENT ACCUMULATION TO ALLOW
LONG
TERM CONTACT OF THE DETRITAL GRAINS WITH
SEAWATER
00, "3% (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Lo. Oligocene McDonald Ls.,
Oamaru, Otago, New Zealand
0HOSPHATIC NODULES IN A HARDGROUND SECTION
4HE YELLOW BROWN COLOR AND NEARLY ISOTRO
PIC EXTINCTION BEHAVIOR ARE CHARACTERISTIC OF
PHOSPHATIC MATERIAL 4HESE ARE EFFECTIVELY
INTRACLASTS ALBEIT NOT OF CARBONATE COMPOSI
TION AS THEY REPRESENT TEAR UP CLASTS FROM
A MINERALIZED AND LITHIlED SYNSEDIMENTARY
CEMENTATION HORIZON HARDGROUND ASSOCIATED
WITH A WIDESPREAD HIATAL SURFACE 2ECOGNI
TION OF SUCH CLASTS AND THEIR ASSOCIATED HIATUS
SURFACES IS AN IMPORTANT COMPONENT OF MODERN
SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY
00,80, (! MM EACH
Permian (Leonardian-Guadalupian)
Park City Fm., up. Grandeur Mbr.,
Bonneville Co., Idaho
!N INTRACLAST CONTAINING OOIDS AND FRAGMENTED
SHELL AND BONE MATERIAL ALL ARE COMPOSED OF
PHOSPHATE AND ARE PART OF ONE OF THE WORLDS
LARGEST PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS 4HE CLEAR TO YEL
LOWISH BROWN COLOR OF THE PHOSPHATE IS TYPICAL
FOR THIS MINERAL ! THIN SECOND GENERATION OF
PALE
YELLOW PHOSPHATE COATS THE EXTERIOR OF THE
LARGE INTRACLASTIC GRAIN
00, (! MM
Permian (Leonardian-Guadalupian)
Phosphoria Fm., Meade Peak Mbr.,
Bear Lake Co., Idaho
7ELL FORMED PHOSPHATIC OOIDS WITH PHOSPHATIC
SHELL AND BONE CORES 3EDIMENTATION OF THIS
UNIT TOOK PLACE ON A COOL
WATER RAMP DURING
TRANSGRESSIVE CYCLES ACROSS BROAD CARBONATE
BANKS 4HE INTRACLASTS ABOVE AND HEAVILY
COATED OOIDS OF PRIMARY PHOSPHATE BOTH INDI
CATORS OF STRONG WAVE OR CURRENT ACTION IMPLY A
VERY SHALLOW WATER ENVIRONMENT OF PHOSPHATE
FORMATION
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 17: NON-CARBONATE GRAINS
Pliocene Bone Valley Fm., Polk Co.,
Florida
2OUNDED PHOSPHATIC GRAINS ASSOCIATED WITH A
MAJOR PEBBLE PHOSPHATE DEPOSIT )N THIS EX
AMPLE PHOSPHATE ACCUMULATED MAINLY IN THE
FORM OF VERTEBRATE BONES TEETH AND SCALES IN
A SHALLOW COASTAL SHELF SETTING 4HE PHOSPHATE
WAS THEN CONCENTRATED AND REWORKED INTO GRAN
ULES AND PEBBLES BY LATER SUBAERIAL EXPOSURE
AND WEATHERING .OTE THE CLEAR COLOR OF THE
PEBBLE PHOSPHATES IN PLANE POLARIZED LIGHT AND
VIRTUAL ISOTROPISM UNDER CROSS POLARIZED LIGHT
00,80, (! MM EACH
Jurassic Eisenoolith, western
Bavaria, Germany
(EMATITE OOIDS ILLUMINATED WITH THE CONOSCOPIC
CONDENSER IN PLACE THIS PRODUCES A VERY IN
TENSE TRANSMITTED LIGHT BEAM THAT SHOWS THE
REDDISH
YELLOW COLOR OF THIS SLIGHTLY WEATH
ERED HEMATITE NEARLY OPAQUE UNDER NORMAL
ILLUMINATION 4HESE ARE INFERRED TO HAVE BEEN
ORIGINALLY CARBONATE OOIDS THAT WERE REPLACED
BY VARIOUS IRON MINERALS 4WO MAJOR PERIODS
OF OOLITIC IRONSTONE FORMATION ARE RECOGNIZED
%ARLY /RDOVICIAN TO $EVONIAN AND %ARLY
*URASSIC TO MID
#ENOZOIC 6AN (OUTEN AND
"HATTACHARYYA 4HESE WERE GENERALLY
TIMES OF HIGH SEA
LEVEL STANDS WITH REDUCED
TERRIGENOUS SEDIMENT INmUX
00, (! MM
Lo. Cretaceous (Albian) Nahr Umr
Fm., offshore Qatar
#HAMOSITE OOIDS IN A GLAUCONITIC AND SIDERITIC
SANDSTONE INTERVAL WITHIN A SHALLOW
SHELF
CARBONATE SECTION #HAMOSITE AN IRON
RICH
CHLORITE MINERAL IS MOST COMMONLY FORMED IN
INNER SHELF ENVIRONMENTS DURING TIMES OF RELA
TIVELY SLOW SEDIMENTATION SOME WAVE OR CUR
RENT ACTIVITY AND MILDLY REDUCING CONDITIONS
ESPECIALLY DURING TRANSGRESSIVE EVENTS 6AN
(OUTEN AND 0URUCKER 3OME CHAMOSITE
OOIDS MAY BE REPLACEMENTS OF CARBONATE PRE
CURSORS BUT MOST PROBABLY ARE DIRECTLY PRECIPI
TATED ON THE SEAmOOR
00, "3% (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Jurassic ironstone, Midlands,
England, U.K.
!N ENLARGED VIEW OF CHAMOSITE OOIDS FROM
AN OOLITIC IRONSTONE FORMATION AN ECONOMIC
IRON ORE 4HE OOLITIC COATINGS HERE ARE NOT AS
CLEARLY DEVELOPED AS IN THE PREVIOUS SAMPLE
4HE BEAN LIKE SHAPE OF THE OOIDS IN THIS AND
THE PREVIOUS SAMPLE IS A COMMON FEATURE IN
CHAMOSITE OOIDS 3AMPLE FROM 5NIVERSITY OF
#ANTERBURY COLLECTION
00, (! MM
#ITED 2EFERENCES AND !DDITIONAL )NFORMATION 3OURCES
!MOURIC - AND # 0ARRON 3TRUCTURE AND GROWTH MECHANISM OF :EALAND AND NEW PROPOSALS FOR CLASSIlCATION .EW :EALAND *OURNAL OF
GLAUCONITE AS SEEN BY HIGH RESOLUTION TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY 'EOLOGY AND 'EOPHYSICS V P
#LAYS AND #LAY -INERALS V P
-C2AE 3 ' 'LAUCONITE %ARTH
3CIENCE 2EVIEWS V P
"ATURIN ' . 0HOSPHORITES ON THE 3EA &LOOR /RIGIN #OMPOSITION /DIN ' 3 /BSERVATIONS ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE GLAUCONITE
AND $ISTRIBUTION .EW 9ORK %LSEVIER P VERMICULAR PELLETS A DESCRIPTION OF THE GENESIS OF THESE GRANULES BY
"ENTOR 9 + AND - +ASTNER .OTES ON MINERALOGY AND ORIGIN OF NEOFORMATION 3EDIMENTOLOGY V P
GLAUCONITE *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
/DIN ' 3 'REEN -ARINE #LAYS ;$EVELOPMENTS IN 3EDIMENTOLOGY
"HATTACHARYYA $ 0 AND 0 + +AKIMOTO /RIGIN OF FERRIFEROUS = .EW 9ORK %LSEVIER P
OOIDS AN 3%- STUDY OF IRONSTONE OOIDS AND BAUXITE PISOIDS *OURNAL OF 0ACEY . 2 4HE MINERALOGY GEOCHEMISTRY AND ORIGIN OF PELLETAL
3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
PHOSPHATES IN THE %NGLISH #HALK #HEMICAL 'EOLOGY V P
"RAITHWAITE # * 2 4HE PETROLOGY OF OOLITIC PHOSPHORITES FROM 0ORRENGA $ ( 'LAUCONITE AND CHAMOSITE AS DEPTH INDICATORS IN
%SPRIT !LDABRA 7ESTERN )NDIAN /CEAN 0HILOSOPHICAL 4RANSACTIONS OF THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT -ARINE 'EOLOGY V P
THE 2OYAL 3OCIETY OF ,ONDON 3ERIES " V P
2IGGS 3 2 0ETROLOGY OF THE 4ERTIARY PHOSPHORITE SYSTEM OF
"ROMLEY 2 ' -ARINE PHOSPHORITES AS DEPTH INDICATORS -ARINE &LORIDA %CONOMIC 'EOLOGY V P
'EOLOGY V P
3HELDON 2 0 !NCIENT MARINE PHOSPHORITES !NNUAL 2EVIEW OF
"URST * & h'LAUCONITEv PELLETS THEIR MINERAL NATURE AND %ARTH AND 0LANETARY 3CIENCES V P
APPLICATION TO STRATIGRAPHIC INTERPRETATION !MERICAN !SSOCIATION OF 3OUDRY $ AND 0 . 3OUTHGATE 5LTRASTRUCTURE OF A -IDDLE
0ETROLEUM 'EOLOGISTS "ULLETIN V P
#AMBRIAN PRIMARY NONPELLETAL PHOSPHORITE AND ITS EARLY TRANSFORMATION
#ARSON ' ! AND 3 & #ROWLEY 4HE GLAUCONITE
PHOSPHATE INTO PHOSPHATE VADOIDS 'EORGINA "ASIN !USTRALIA *OURNAL OF
ASSOCIATION IN HARDGROUNDS EXAMPLES FROM THE #ENOMANIAN OF $EVON 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
SOUTHWEST %NGLAND #RETACEOUS 2ESEARCH V P
3WETT + AND 2 + #ROWDER 0RIMARY PHOSPHATIC OOLITES FROM THE
#OOK 0 * 3EDIMENTARY PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS IN + ( 7OLF ED ,OWER #AMBRIAN OF 3PITSBERGEN *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V
(ANDBOOK OF 3TRATA
"OUND AND 3TRATIFORM /RE $EPOSITS !MSTERDAM P
%LSEVIER 3CIENTIlC 0UBLISHING #O P
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+IMBERLEY - - /RIGIN OF OOLITIC IRON FORMATIONS *OURNAL OF GLAUCONITE PELLETS 3EDIMENTOLOGY V P
3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
6AN (OUTEN & " AND $ 0 "HATTACHARYYA 0HANEROZOIC OOLITIC
+NOX 2 7 / " #HAMOSITE OOLITHS FROM THE 7INTER 'ILL IRONSTONE IRONSTONES GEOLOGIC RECORD AND FACIES MODEL !NNUAL 2EVIEW OF
*URASSIC OF 9ORKSHIRE %NGLAND *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V %ARTH AND 0LANETARY 3CIENCES V P
P
6AN (OUTEN & " AND 2 - +ARASEK 3EDIMENTOLOGIC FRAMEWORK
,AMBOY - -ICROBIAL MEDIATION OF PHOSPHATOGENESIS NEW DATA OF LATE $EVONIAN OOLITIC IRON FORMATION 3HATTI 6ALLEY WEST
CENTRAL
FROM THE #RETACEOUS PHOSPHATIC CHALKS OF NORTHERN &RANCE IN ! * ' ,IBYA *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
.OTHOLT AND ) *ARVIS EDS 0HOSPHORITE 2ESEARCH AND $EVELOPMENT 6AN (OUTEN & " AND - % 0URUCKER 'LAUCONITIC PELOIDS AND
,ONDON 'EOLOGICAL 3OCIETY 3PECIAL 0UBLICATION P
CHAMOSITIC OOIDS FAVORABLE FACTORS CONSTRAINTS AND PROBLEMS
-ANHEIM & 4 AND 2 ! 'ULBRANDSEN -ARINE PHOSPHORITES IN %ARTH
3CIENCE 2EVIEWS V P
2 ' "URNS ED -ARINE -INERALS 7ASHINGTON $# -INERALOGICAL
3OCIETY OF !MERICA 3HORT #OURSE .OTES V P
-ARTINDALE 3 ' $EPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS AND PHOSPHATIZATION
OF THE -EADE 0EAK 0HOSPHATIC 3HALE 4ONGUE OF THE 0HOSPHORIA
&ORMATION ,EACH -OUNTAINS .EVADA 5NIVERSITY OF 7YOMING
& ACING 0AGE 4OP
!LFRED ' &ISCHER SHOWING STUDENTS HOW IT
FEELS TO BE A GRAIN SURROUNDED BY CARBONATE MATRIX %VERGLADES
COAST OF &LORIDA "AY SOUTH &LORIDA
#ONTRIBUTIONS TO 'EOLOGY V P
"OTTOM
0HOTOMICROGRAPH OF A MOLLUSCAN UMBRELLA OR SHELTER VOID
-C#ONCHIE $ - AND $ 7 ,EWIS 6ARIETIES OF GLAUCONITE IN WITH A GEOPETAL lLL OF PELOIDAL MATRIX ,O 0ERMIAN "ONE 3PRING
LATE #RETACEOUS AND EARLY 4ERTIARY ROCKS OF THE 3OUTH )SLAND OF .EW ,S #ULBERSON #O 4EXAS (! MM
CHAPTER 18: CARBONATE MATRIX
#ARBONATE -ATRIX
CARBONATE MUD, MICRITE AND MICROSPAR
C
H
A
P
T
E
R
18
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
#!2"/.!4% -!42)8
)NTRODUCTION
#ARBONATE MUD IS THE EQUIVALENT OF CLAY IN TERRIGENOUS ROCKS AND CAN FORM PURE DEPOSITS VARIOUSLY TERMED
MICRITES CARBONATE MUDSTONES LIME MUDSTONES OR CALCIMUDSTONES ON THE CARBONATE SIDE AND CLAYSTONES OR
SHALES ON THE CLASTIC TERRIGENOUS SIDE #LAY
SIZED PARTICLES ALSO ACT AS MATRIX MATERIAL THAT SUPPORTS LARGER
GRAINS OR ARE LODGED INTERSTITIALLY BETWEEN A SELF
SUPPORTING FRAMEWORK OF LARGER GRAINS $ECADES AGO WHEN
BOTH LIFE AND MUDS SEEMED PURE AND SIMPLE BOTH CLAYS AND CARBONATE MUDS WERE VIEWED AS MINIATURE VERSIONS
OF LARGER GRAINS ACTING PRIMARILY AS REWORKED PARTICLES )T IS NOW KNOWN THAT SOME CLAYS ARE DETRITAL SOME
ARE ALTERED OR NEOFORMED ON THE SEAmOOR AND SOME ARE PRECIPITATED DURING THE LONG DIAGENETIC HISTORY THAT
ACCOMPANIES BURIAL ADDING CONSIDERABLE COMPLEXITY TO THE INTERPRETATION OF TERRIGENOUS SHALY DEPOSITS 4HE
SAME IS TRUE ON THE CARBONATE SIDE #ARBONATE MUDS CAN BE PART OF THE SPECTRUM OF DISINTEGRATION PRODUCTS
OF CARBONATE ORGANISMS SOME CAN BE FORMED BY DIRECT INORGANIC PRECIPITATION AND SOME MAY BE FORMED
IN ASSOCIATION WITH MICROBIAL METABOLISM &URTHERMORE SOME MAY BE PRIMARY SEDIMENT THAT RESPONDED TO
HYDRODYNAMIC FORCES DURING SEDIMENT FORMATION AND SOME MAY BE PRECIPITATED INTERSTITIALLY AT OR NEAR THE
SEAmOOR THROUGH ORGANIC OR INORGANIC PROCESSES OR DURING LATER DIAGENESIS )T IS EVEN POSSIBLE FOR GRAINS
TO BREAK DOWN INTO SMALLER CARBONATE PARTICLES DURING DIAGENESIS OR FOR DIAGENETIC CONVERSION OF FORMER
CARBONATE MUD TO A MOSAIC OF COARSER CALCITE CRYSTALS MICROSPAR !LTHOUGH WE HAVE LEARNED MUCH OVER THE
PAST DECADES ABOUT MUD
SIZED MATERIALS WE ARE FAR FROM HAVING A FULL UNDERSTANDING OF THEM 7E ALSO HAVE NOT
YET DEVELOPED RELIABLE CRITERIA FOR THE CONSISTENT DISTINCTION BETWEEN ORGANICALLY PRODUCED AND INORGANICALLY
PRECIPITATED MATERIALS OR EVEN BETWEEN DETRITAL PARTICLES AND AUTHIGENIC PRECIPITATES
$ElNITIONS
-ICRITE
!N ABBREVIATION OF hMICROCRYSTALLINE CALCITEv 4HE TERM IS USED BOTH AS A SYNONYM FOR CARBONATE MUD
OR hOOZEv AND FOR A ROCK COMPOSED OF CARBONATE MUD CALCILUTITE -ICRITE CONSISTS OF TO M
DIAMETER
CRYSTALS AND FORMS AS AN INORGANIC PRECIPITATE OR THROUGH BREAKDOWN OF COARSER CARBONATE GRAINS -ICRITE IS
PRODUCED WITHIN THE BASIN OF DEPOSITION AND SHOWS LITTLE OR NO EVIDENCE OF SIGNIlCANT TRANSPORT &OLK
-ICROSPAR
'ENERALLY
TO
M
SIZED CALCITE PRODUCED BY RECRYSTALLIZATION NEOMORPHISM OF MICRITE CAN BE
AS COARSE AS M &OLK 2ESTRICTED TO RECRYSTALLIZATION PRODUCTS NOT PRIMARY PRECIPITATES
0SEUDOSPAR
! NEOMORPHIC RECRYSTALLIZATION CALCITE FABRIC WITH AVERAGE CRYSTAL SIZE LARGER THAN
M &OLK
-INERALOGY
-ODERN MARINE SHELFAL CARBONATE MUD IS MAINLY ARAGONITE WITH SOME HIGH
-G CALCITE DEEP
SEA CHALK OOZES ARE
LOW
-G CALCITE AS ARE MOST LACUSTRINE CALCAREOUS MUDS 4HE COMPOSITION OF CARBONATE MUDS PRODUCED FROM
BREAKDOWN OF SKELETAL MATERIAL ARE CLEARLY CONTROLLED BY THE MINERALOGY OF THOSE ORGANISMS 0ALEOZOIC SHELLS
WERE GENERALLY MORE CALCITIC THAN THE ARAGONITE
DOMINATED SHELLED FAUNA OF THE MODERN WORLD &URTHERMORE
EVEN THE MINERALOGY OF hINORGANICv MARINE PRECIPITATES MUDS AS WELL AS CEMENTS IS NOW KNOWN TO HAVE VARIED
THROUGHOUT GEOLOGIC TIME ,ASEMI AND 3ANDBERG
+EYS TO 0ETROGRAPHIC 2ECOGNITION
-ODERN CARBONATE MUD CONSISTS LARGELY OF THE BREAKDOWN PRODUCTS OF ORGANISMS DUE TO DECOMPOSITION OF
ORGANIC BINDING MATERIALS AND ABRASION OR MACERATION OF SHELLS -ACROSCOPIC ALGAE ESPECIALLY GREEN ALGAE
ARE MAJOR CONTRIBUTORS OF NEEDLE
SHAPED MUD
SIZED ARAGONITIC PARTICLES IN TROPICAL PLATFORM AND PLATFORM
MARGIN SETTINGS -ODERN INORGANIC ARAGONITIC PRECIPITATES IN THE WATER COLUMN OR ON THE SEAmOOR ALSO ARE
NEEDLE
LIKE WITH INDIVIDUAL CRYSTALS TYPICALLY
M IN LENGTH AND MAY CONTRIBUTE TO CARBONATE MUDS
4HE CALCITIC MICRITE OF OLDER CARBONATE ROCKS WAS NEOMORPHICALLY FORMED FROM MIXED MINERALOGY PRECURSORS
TO FORM AN EQUANT MOSAIC OF
TO
M CRYSTALS 4HE PRECURSOR MATERIAL ACTED AS DETRITAL PARTICLES AND SO
MAY SHOW GEOPETAL FABRICS SCATTERED COARSER PARTICLES AND OTHER INDICATIONS OF MECHANICAL SEDIMENTATION
)NCLUSIONS OR MOLDS OF PRECURSOR MINERALS MAY BE SEEN WITHIN MICRITIC CALCITES ESPECIALLY USING 3%-
.EOFORMED MICROCRYSTALLINE CEMENT AND MICROBIAL PRECIPITATES MAY SHOW CLOTTED OR PELOIDAL FABRICS AND CAN
GROW IN ANY POSITION WITHIN INTERPARTICLE PORES OR LARGER CAVITIES NON
GEOPETAL FABRICS
-ICROSPAR AND PSEUDOSPAR TYPICALLY HAVE PATCHY DISTRIBUTIONS GRADING INTO NORMAL MICRITE CRYSTAL OUTLINES
TEND TO BE ELONGATE LOAF
SHAPED OR HAVE IRREGULAR SUTURED BOUNDARIES
CHAPTER 18: CARBONATE MATRIX
Recent sediment, Belize
!N 3%- IMAGE OF A (ALIMEDA PLATE SHOW
ING THE LOOSELY ARRANGED INORGANIC ARAGONITE
NEEDLES FROM THE CALCIlED PORTION OF THIS
GREEN ALGAL GRAIN .EEDLES SUCH AS THESE ARE
FOUND IN MANY SPECIES OF GREEN ALGAE INCLUD
ING 0ENICILLUS 5DOTEA AND OTHERS 7HEN THE
ALGAE DECOMPOSE THE NEEDLES AND SHORTER
MORE ROUNDED NANNOBACTERIAL CRYSTALS MAY BE
SCATTERED AND CAN ADD SIGNIlCANTLY TO THE LOCAL
PRODUCTION OF CLAY SIZED CALCAREOUS PARTICLES
)NDEED A MODERN PLATFORM CARBONATE MUD CAN
LOOK MUCH LIKE THE MATERIAL SHOWN IN THIS IM
AGE
3%- (! M
Up. Jurassic Solnhofen Ls.,
Kelheim, Bavaria, Germany
4HIS ANCIENT MICRITIC LIMESTONE IS ALSO KNOWN
AS A LITHOGRAPHIC LIMESTONE AND IS SO NAMED
BECAUSE IT IS PURE AND lNE
GRAINED ENOUGH TO
BE USED FOR HIGH
QUALITY LITHOGRAPHIC PRINT
ING PLATES .OTE THE INTERLOCKING MOSAIC OF
MICRON
SIZED EQUANT CALCITE CRYSTALS THAT IS
TYPICAL FOR MICRITE )NORGANIC PRECIPITATES OF
THIS AGE WERE PREDOMINANTLY LOW
-G CALCITE
SEE DIAGRAM BELOW BUT SOME ARAGONITIC SKEL
ETAL
BREAKDOWN MATERIAL MAY ALSO HAVE CON
TRIBUTED TO THIS DEPOSIT 7HATEVER VARIATIONS
WERE PRESENT IN THE PRECURSOR MATERIAL WERE
HOMOGENIZED IN THE NEOMORPHIC PROCESSES THAT
PRODUCED THIS CRYSTAL MOSAIC
80, (! MM
Temporal variability of inorganic
carbonate mineralogy
! DIAGRAM SHOWING THE VARIABILITY OF INORGANIC !!
!
CARBONATE MINERALOGY THROUGH TIME IN COM !
PARISON TO INFERRED SECULAR CHANGES IN CLIMATE
SEA LEVEL AND GRANITE EMPLACEMENT RATES 4HIS # ! " !
COMPILATION BY 3ANDBERG IS BASED ON
STUDIES OF MARINE CEMENTS OOIDS AND CARBON !
ATE MUDS "ASED ON THIS WORK AND A NUMBER OF
#" #
CONlRMING STUDIES ONE CAN EXPECT SIGNIlCANT #!
TEMPORAL VARIATIONS IN THE STARTING MINERALOGY
AND THUS THE hDIAGENETIC POTENTIALv OF CARBON
ATE MATRIX MATERIALS
!
! !
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Lo. Cretaceous (Aptian) Shuaiba
Fm., offshore Qatar
&ROM THE *URASSIC ONWARD NANNOFOSSILS HAVE
FORMED A SIGNIlCANT COMPONENT OF MICRITIC
SEDIMENT ESPECIALLY BUT NOT EXCLUSIVELY IN
OUTER SHELF AND DEEPER WATER DEPOSITS 4HIS
EXAMPLE IS FROM A SHALLOW SHELF LIMESTONE AND
SHOWS ABUNDANT CIRCULAR SECTIONS THROUGH CUP
SHAPED NANNOCONIDS 4HE INDIVIDUAL PLATES
OF MOST SUCH NANNOFOSSILS ARE LESS THAN M
LONG BUT DIAGENETIC OVERGROWTH CAN INCREASE
THAT SIZE !S ORIGINALLY CALCITIC ORGANISMS
SUCH MICROFOSSILS PRODUCE MATRIX MATERIAL THAT
IS FAR MORE STABLE THAN THE TYPICAL ARAGONITE
MUDS OF MODERN TROPICAL SHELF CARBONATES
00, "3% (! MM
Up. Cretaceous (up. Maastrichtian)
Tor Fm., Danish North Sea
!N EXAMPLE OF A CLASSIC SHELF CHALK IN WHICH
COCCOLITHS ARE VIRTUALLY THE ONLY CONSTITUENTS
!LTHOUGH A FEW LARGER COCCOLITHS REMAIN INTACT
MOST OF THIS DEPOSIT CONSISTS OF THE
M
CRYSTALS FROM DISAGGREGATED COCCOLITHS 7ITH
NORMAL LIGHT MICROSCOPY THIS WOULD APPEAR
AS A PURE MICRITE WITH VERY UNIFORM CRYSTAL
SIZE 4HE REMARKABLY HIGH POROSITY
IN THIS MODERATELY DEEPLY BURIED MILLION
YEAR
OLD LIMESTONE IS LARGELY DUE TO THE LACK OF
DIAGENETICALLY REACTIVE ARAGONITE IN THE ORIGI
NAL SEDIMENT
3%- (! M
Up. Cretaceous (up. Maastrichtian)
Tor Fm., Danish North Sea
! MAGNIlED VIEW OF A SLIGHTLY MORE ALTERED
CHALK 0OROSITY HERE HAS BEEN REDUCED TO
MAINLY THROUGH MICRO SCALE SYNTAXIAL
OVERGROWTH OF INDIVIDUAL COCCOLITH CRYSTALS
.OTE THE RATHER UNIFORM CRYSTAL SIZE AND SHAPE
WITH PRESERVATION OF ONLY A FEW RECOGNIZABLE
NANNOFOSSIL FRAGMENTS 3UCH NEARLY COMPLETE
DISAGGREGATION OF NANNOFOSSIL DETRITUS WAS
PROBABLY FACILITATED BY REPEATED INGESTION AND
EXCRETION OF THESE GRAINS ON THE SEAmOOR AND IN
THE WATER COLUMN
3%- (! M
CHAPTER 18: CARBONATE MATRIX
Lo. Cretaceous, Aptian, Shuaiba
Fm., offshore Qatar
4HIS SPARSELY FOSSILIFEROUS MICRITE CONSISTS
OF A MIX OF NANNOCONIDS AND OTHER MICRITIC
MATERIAL INCLUDING OTHER lNELY COMMINUTED
SKELETAL PARTICLES 3OME OF THOSE SKELETAL
FRAGMENTS ARE IN THE MICRITE CLAY SIZE RANGE
BUT OTHERS ARE SILT SIZED A COMMON FEATURE IN
FRAGMENTAL MICRITE
00, "3% (! MM
Lo. Jurassic (mid. Liassic)
limestone, Central High Atlas
region, Morocco
4HIS hCLOTTEDv FABRIC REPRESENTS PROBABLE
MICROBIAL CRUSTS IN A SPONGE REEF 4HE DARKER
COLORED SLIGHTLY MORE PELOIDAL MICROBIAL
MATERIAL CONTRASTS HERE WITH THE LIGHTER COLORED
hTRUEv MICRITE )N THE ABSENCE OF THAT COLOR
CONTRAST HOWEVER RECOGNITION THAT THE MAJOR
PART OF THIS MICROCRYSTALLINE CARBONATE WAS
FRAMEWORKCEMENT RATHER THAN MATRIX WOULD
BE DIFlCULT AT BEST
00, (! MM
Mid. Jurassic (Bajocian) limestone,
Central High Atlas region, Morocco
4HIS POORLY WASHED BIOSPARITE CONTAINING
ECHINOID SPINES CORALS BIVALVES AND OTHER
GRAINS ALSO HAS PATCHY MICROCRYSTALLINE CALCITE
MATRIX #AREFUL EXAMINATION OF THE DISTRIBUTION
AND FABRIC OF THE hMICRITEv HOWEVER SHOWS
THAT IT MAY NOT REALLY BE MATRIX )T BRIDGES
CAVITIES IN PLACES HAS NO CONSISTENT GEOPETAL
RELATIONSHIPS HAS A CLOTTED OR PELOIDAL TEXTURE
AND IS DARKER COLORED THAN THE FEW PATCHES OF
UNIFORMLY MICRITIC SEDIMENT WITHIN PART OF THE
CORAL SKELETON FOR EXAMPLE 4HUS MUCH OF
THIS PELOIDAL hMATRIXv REPRESENTS MICROBIALLY
INDUCED PRECIPITATES AND SHOULD BE CONSIDERED
AS FRAMEWORK OR CEMENT RATHER THAN MATRIX
00, !&E3 (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Plio-Pleistocene Caloosahatchee
Fm., Hendry Co., Florida
4HIS EXAMPLE OF TRUE MICRITIC MATRIX SHOWS
A MIX OF VARIOUS SIZES OF SKELETAL MATE
RIAL THROUGH SAND AND SILT GRADES AND
MICROCRYSTALLINE MATERIAL BOTH EXTERNAL TO THE
GRAINS AND AS A GEOPETAL lLLING WITHIN A GAS
TROPOD CHAMBER #ARBONATE MUD MICRITE lLLS
THE LOWER PART OF THE CAVITY WHILE SPARRY CALCITE
lLLS THE UPPER PART THE CONTACT INDICATES
AN APPROXIMATELY LEVEL SURFACE AT THE TIME OF
DEPOSITION 3UCH STRUCTURES ARE VERY USEFUL IN
DETERMINING ORIGINAL DIP OF STRATA AND IN CON
lRMING AT LEAST SLIGHT TRANSPORT OF MATRIX
00, (! MM
Lo. Permian (Leonardian) Bone
Spring Ls., Culberson Co., Texas
! ROCK WITH NUMEROUS UMBRELLA VOIDS SHELTER
PORES BENEATH BIVALVE SHELLS 4HE GEOPETAL
MATRIX IS SUBSTANTIALLY CLOTTED OR PELOIDAL AND
IN SOME CASES DOES NOT SHOW PLANAR CONTACTS
BETWEEN MICROCRYSTALLINE MATERIAL AND LATER
SPAR )S THIS TRUE MATRIX /R IS THIS AGAIN MI
CROBIAL MATERIAL DECOMPOSED PELOIDAL
SHRUBS OR PELOIDAL CEMENTS 4HE ANSWER WILL
VARY WITH THE PETROGRAPHER BECAUSE THERE ARE
NO ABSOLUTE CRITERIA FOR THE DISTINCTION OF THESE
FABRICS IN THIN SECTION 4HE ANSWER IS OF IMPOR
TANCE THOUGH FOR IT CHANGES THE INTERPRETATIONS
OF DEPOSITIONAL CONDITIONS FOR THIS ROCK
00, "3% (! MM
Mid. Ordovician Chazy-Black River
Fms., Mifin Co., Pennsylvania
-ICRITIC MATERIALS CAN BE FORMED WITHIN CAR
BONATE ROCKS AS SHOWN IN EARLIER SLIDES BUT
THEY CAN ALSO BE DESTROYED OR TRANSFORMED
4HIS EXAMPLE SHOWS A TRANSITION FROM
MICRITE RIGHT TO MICROSPAR LOWER CENTER TO
PSEUDOSPAR UPPER LEFT .OTE THE BLADED OR
hLOAF SHAPEDv SHAPE OF THE PSEUDOSPAR CRYSTALS
AND THE REMNANTS OF MATRIX BETWEEN THOSE CRYS
TALS 4HE CAUSES OF MICROSPAR AND PSEUDOSPAR
RECRYSTALLIZATION ARE NOT WELL DElNED BUT EARLY
METEORIC EXPOSURE AND TECTONIC STRESSES HAVE
BEEN IMPLICATED IN SOME CASES
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 18: CARBONATE MATRIX
Up. Pennsylvanian (Virgilian)
Holder Fm., Otero Co., New Mexico
! VIEW OF THE TRANSITIONS FROM MICRITE TO
MICROSPAR AND PSEUDOSPAR .OTE THE BLADED
SHAPE OF THE PSEUDOSPAR CRYSTALS AND THE
REMNANTS OF ORIGINAL MATRIX BETWEEN THOSE
CRYSTALS 4HIS IS AN EXAMPLE OF A UNIT THAT UN
DERWENT EARLY mUSHING BY METEORIC PORE mUIDS
A POSSIBLE CAUSE OF SUCH ALTERATION AS A RESULT
OF LARGE SCALE SYNDEPOSITIONAL GLACIOEUSTATIC
SEA LEVEL mUCTUATIONS
00, (! MM
Mid. Jurassic (Bajocian) limestone,
Central High Atlas region, Morocco
! HIGH MAGNIlCATION VIEW OF ADJACENT AREAS
OF TRUE PRECIPITATED SPAR THE CLEAR COARSE
SPAR AND MICROSPAR FORMED BY NEOMORPHISM
OF MICRITIC MATRIX .OTE THE DARKER COLOR THE
SMALLER CRYSTAL SIZE AND THE hLOAF LIKEv SHAPE
OF THE MICROSPAR CRYSTALS
00, (! MM
Early Ordovician (Canadian)
Arbuckle Gp., West Spring Creek
Ls., Murray Co., Oklahoma
-ICRITE CAN ALSO BE DESTROYED THROUGH REPLACE
MENT BY NORMAL SPAR CRYSTALS A PROCESS THAT
GENERALLY IS DIFlCULT TO PROVE (ERE REPLACIVE
CALCITE SPAR HAS EMBAYED THE ORIGINALLY SMOOTH
MARGINS OF A REWORKED AND THUS SUBSTANTIALLY
LITHIlED MICRITIC INTRACLAST )N MANY OTHER
CIRCUMSTANCES WHERE ONE CANNOT SHOW THAT
THE MICRITE WAS LITHIlED PRIOR TO GROWTH OF THE
SPAR IT IS DIFlCULT OR IMPOSSIBLE TO PROVE THAT
THE SPAR DID NOT SIMPLY DISPLACE RATHER THAN
REPLACE THE MICRITE OR THAT MICRITIC INTERNAL
SEDIMENT WAS NOT DEPOSITED ATOP EARLY SPAR
00, !&E3 (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
#ITED 2EFERENCES AND !DDITIONAL )NFORMATION 3OURCES
!NDREWS * % 3 #HRISTIDIS AND 0 & $ENNIS !SSESSING 4HE *OHNS (OPKINS 0RESS P
MINERALOGICAL AND GEOCHEMICAL HETEROGENEITY IN THE SUB
MICRON -ACINTYRE ) ' 3UBMARINE CEMENTS THE PELOIDAL QUESTION IN .
SIZE FRACTION OF (OLOCENE LIME MUDS *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 2ESEARCH 3CHNEIDERMANN AND 0 - (ARRIS EDS #ARBONATE #EMENTS 4ULSA /+
3ECTION ! 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY AND 0ROCESSES V P
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6ERLAG P
SPONGES BORE LIVING CHAMBERS INTO THEIR ROCK OR CORAL SUBSTRATE
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TIPPED PSEUDO
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CEMENTATION IN / 0 "RICKER ED #ARBONATE #EMENTS "ALTIMORE -$ -OORE
CHAPTER 19: PRIMARY SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES
02)-!29 3%$)-%.4!29
3425#452%3
Burrows
C
H Borings
A
P
T Geopetal fabrics
E
R
Fenestral fabrics
19
Lamination
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
02)-!29 3%$)-%.4!29 3425#452%3
)NTRODUCTION
0RIMARY SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES ARE PHYSICAL ANDOR BIOLOGICAL FEATURES FORMED DURING THE PROCESS OF SEDIMENT
DEPOSITION 'ENERALLY SUCH STRUCTURES ARE BEST SEEN IN OUTCROP CORE OR POLISHED HAND SAMPLE BUT SMALLER
FEATURES SUCH AS BORINGS OR FENESTRAL FABRICS ARE BOTH READILY APPARENT IN THIN SECTION AND IMPORTANT TO
RECOGNIZE 4HEIR IDENTIlCATION CAN IMPROVE INTERPRETATIONS OF DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS AND CAN ALSO HELP TO
DECIPHER PATTERNS AND TIMING OF DIAGENESIS 4HE CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES FOR THE RECOGNITION AND INTERPRETATION
OF PRIMARY SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES ARE PROVIDED IN THE lGURE CAPTIONS $IAGENETIC SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES
SUCH AS HARDGROUNDS SOIL CRUSTS OR STYLOLITES ARE COVERED IN THE APPROPRIATE DIAGENETIC CHAPTERS
$ElNITIONS
"ORINGS
/PENINGS CREATED IN RELATIVELY RIGID ROCK SHELL OR OTHER MATERIAL BY BORING ORGANISMS 4HE RIGID HOST
SUBSTRATE IS THE FEATURE THAT DISTINGUISHES BORINGS FROM SOFT
SEDIMENT BURROWS
"URROW POROSITY
&EATURE CREATED BY ORGANIC BURROWING IN RELATIVELY UNCONSOLIDATED SEDIMENT IN CONTRAST
TO BORINGS -OST BURROWS COLLAPSE BECOME lLLED WITH SEDIMENT OR ARE BACK
lLLED BY THE BURROW
FORMING
ORGANISM ITSELF
&ENESTRAE FENESTRAL FABRIC
0RIMARY OR PENECONTEMPORANEOUS GAPS IN ROCK FRAMEWORK LARGER THAN GRAIN
SUPPORTED INTERSTICES 3UCH FEATURES MAY BE OPEN PORES OR MAY HAVE BEEN PARTIALLY OR COMPLETELY lLLED
WITH INTERNAL SEDIMENT ANDOR SPARRY CEMENT &ENESTRAE OCCUR AS SOMEWHAT ROUNDED FEATURES OF SPHERICAL
LENTICULAR OR MORE IRREGULAR SHAPES THEIR LARGE SIZE IN COMPARISON TO NORMAL INTERPARTICLE OPENINGS AND THEIR
MULTIGRANULAR ROOFS mOORS AND OTHER MARGINS ARE KEY CHARACTERISTICS &ENESTRAE ARE COMMONLY SOMEWHAT
mATTENED PARALLEL WITH THE LAMINAE 4HEY MAY HOWEVER BE ROUND OR VERY IRREGULAR AND SOME ARE ELONGATE IN
A VERTICAL DIMENSION !LTHOUGH ISOLATED FENESTRAE OCCUR IN SEDIMENTARY CARBONATES IT IS MORE COMMON TO lND
MANY IN CLOSE ASSOCIATION &ENESTRAE ARE GENERALLY ASSOCIATED WITH MICROBIAL MATS AND RESULT FROM SHRINKAGE
GAS FORMATION ORGANIC DECAY TRAPPING OF AIR THROUGH SWASH
ZONE WAVE ACTION OR OTHER SYNSEDIMENTARY
PROCESSES #HOQUETTE 0RAY
'EOPETAL STRUCTURE
!NY INTERNAL STRUCTURE OR ORGANIZATION OF A ROCK INDICATING ORIGINAL ORIENTATION SUCH AS TOP
AND BOTTOM OF STRATA #OMMON EXAMPLES ARE INTERNAL SEDIMENT ACCUMULATING ON THE mOOR OF A CAVITY WHICH IT
PARTLY lLLS OR SOLUTION
COLLAPSE RESIDUE THAT HAS FALLEN TO THE BOTTOM OF A VUG OR CAVE
3TROMATACTIS
! CAVITY STRUCTURE COMMON IN MUDDY CARBONATE SEDIMENTS TYPICALLY TO CM IN DIAMETER
CHARACTERIZED BY A mAT mOOR AND AN IRREGULAR ROOF 4HE mOOR OF THIS FORMER CAVITY TYPICALLY IS OVERLAIN BY
PELOIDAL INTERNAL SEDIMENT THE REMAINING VOID IS lLLED WITH MARINE CEMENT OR LATER SPARRY CEMENT 4HESE
POORLY UNDERSTOOD VUGS HAVE BEEN ATTRIBUTED TO THE DECAY OF UNKNOWN SOFT
BODIED ORGANISMS TO GAS FORMATION
IN IMPERMEABLE SEDIMENTS TO GRAVITY SLIDING AND SHEAR TO THE ALTERATION OF SPONGES AND SPONGE HOLDFASTS AND
TO SEVERAL OTHER CAUSES
Up. Cretaceous (Campanian-
Maastrichtian) Monte Antola Fm.,
Liguria, Italy
3MALL PARTIALLY mATTENED BURROWS AT THE UPPER
CONTACT OF A DEEP
MARINE CARBONATE TURBIDITE
"URROWS ARE RECOGNIZABLE IN MANY INSTANCES
BECAUSE OF THE TEXTURAL CONTRAST BETWEEN THE
BURROW lLL AND SURROUNDING SEDIMENT /RGAN
ISMS SOMETIMES BACKlLL THEIR BURROWS WITH
SEDIMENT OR SEDIMENT INlLTRATES DOWNWARD
INTO OPEN BURROWS ,ENTICULAR
SHAPED BUR
ROWS ARE COMMON IN MUDDY CARBONATE UNITS
THAT DID NOT UNDERGO EARLY MARINE OR SUBAERIAL
LITHIlCATION
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 19: PRIMARY SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES
Lo. Cretaceous (Aptian) Shuaiba
Fm., offshore Qatar
4HIS BURROW IS RECOGNIZABLE NOT BECAUSE OF A
SUBSTANTIAL DIFFERENCE IN COMPOSITION BETWEEN
IT AND THE SURROUNDING SEDIMENT BUT BECAUSE
THE BURROW lLL HAS A HIGHER POROSITY THAN THE
OTHERWISE COMPARABLE SURROUNDING MATERIAL
SHOWN BY THE MORE BLUISH COLOR CAUSED BY
MORE EPOXY lLLED PORES 4HE POROSITY VARIA
TION MAY BE A FUNCTION OF DIFFERENTIAL PACKING
BUT MORE LIKELY RELATES TO DIFFERING DIAGENESIS
INSIDE AND OUTSIDE THE BURROW .OTE ALSO THE
DIAGENETIC PYRITE CORE TO THE BURROW A FAIRLY
COMMON FEATURE IN BURROWS IN lNE GRAINED
CARBONATE STRATA
00, "3% (! MM
Lo. Cretaceous (Aptian) Shuaiba
Fm., offshore Qatar
!LTHOUGH MANY BURROWS ARE BACKlLLED BY OR
GANISMS OR ARE lLLED BY SEDIMENT INlLTRATION
OTHER BURROWS REMAIN OPEN AND UNDEFORMED
ESPECIALLY IN lRM SUBSTRATES 4HIS TANGENTIAL
CUT THROUGH A SINUOUS BURROW SHOWS A STRUC
TURE THAT REMAINED OPEN UNTIL lLLED WITH PYRITE
AND SPARRY CALCITE CEMENT /PEN BURROWS OR
LOOSELY PACKED BURROWS CAN ACT AS SIGNIlCANT
CONDUITS FOR DIAGENETIC mUID mOW
80, "3% (! MM
Lo. Ordovician St. George Gp.,
western Newfoundland, Canada
0ARTIALLY DOLOMITIZED STRATA COMMONLY SHOW
BURROW ASSOCIATED PATTERNS OF SELECTIVE RE
PLACEMENT SOMETIMES WITH PREFERENTIAL
DOLOMITIZATION OF BURROWS SOMETIMES WITH SE
LECTIVE REPLACEMENT OF UNBURROWED HOST ROCK
4HIS EXAMPLE SHOWS DOLOMITIZED BURROW lLLS
UNDOLOMITIZED HOST ROCK AND MICROSPAR RIMS
AROUND BURROW WALLS 3ELECTIVELY DOLOMITIZED
BURROW MOTTLED CARBONATE ROCKS ARE COMMON
IN /RDOVICIAN STRATA THROUGHOUT .ORTH !MERI
CA 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF .OEL 0 *AMES
00, !&E3 (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Cretaceous White Ls., Co.
Antrim, Northern Ireland
-ANY DIFFERENT ORGANISMS CAN BORE INTO HARD
SUBSTRATES RASPING DISSOLVING OR CHIPPING
THEIR WAY INTO HARDGROUNDS SHELLS OR OTHER
LITHIlED MATERIALS )N THIS EXAMPLE A MASSIVE
CALCITE BELEMNITE ROSTRUM WAS PENETRATED BY
A SPONGE BORING SEE PHOTOGRAPH OF MODERN
BORING SPONGES ON TITLE PAGE OF THIS SECTION
4HIS IS IDENTIlABLE AS A SPONGE BORING BECAUSE
OF THE LARGE EXCAVATED LIVING CHAMBER AND THE
NARROW CONNECTING TUBE TO THE GRAIN SURFACE
80, (! ^ MM
Recent sediment, Belize
4HIS SECTION SHOWS THE TOP OF A CORAL THAT HAS
BEEN BORED BY THE SPONGE #LIONA 4HE EX
CAVATED CAVITIES AND THEIR SMALL CONNECTING
TUBES WERE SUBSEQUENTLY lLLED WITH CEMENTED
lNE
GRAINED CARBONATE SEDIMENT 4HE GRAINS
ARE CEMENTED BY -G
CALCITE SHOWN BY THE RED
STAINING #LIONIDS AND OTHER BORING SPONGES
ARE MAJOR WEAKENERS OR DESTROYERS OF REEF
FRAMEWORK AT THE SAME TIME THEY ARE SUBSTAN
TIAL PRODUCERS OF SILT
SIZED CARBONATE SEDIMENT
CREATED DURING THE EXCAVATION PROCESS SEE
SUBSEQUENT IMAGES 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF
.OEL 0 *AMES
00, #93 (! MM
Recent sediment, St. Croix, U.S.
Virgin Islands
#LIONID SPONGES BORE LIVING CHAMBERS INTO
THEIR ROCK OR CORAL SUBSTRATE BY ETCHING OUT
SMALL ROCK FRAGMENTS USING ACID TIPPED PSEU
DOPODS 4HEY THEREBY CREATE LARGE PROTECTED
CAVITIES WITHIN THE ROCK IN WHICH THEY RESIDE
4HESE ARE SILT SIZED CLIONID PRODUCED CARBON
ATE CHIPS TAKEN FROM SUSPENDED SEDIMENT AT
M FT DEPTH ON A FORE REEF SLOPE 0HO
TOGRAPH COURTESY OF #LYDE ( -OORE
00, (! ^ MM
CHAPTER 19: PRIMARY SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES
Recent sediment, St. Croix, U.S.
Virgin Islands
4HIS 3%- IMAGE SHOWS THE CHARACTERISTIC
SCALLOPED SHAPE OF A CLIONID SPONGE BORING
CHIP 4HE COMPOSITION AND THUS THE PRESERV
ABILITY OF THESE DISTINCTIVE GRAINS DEPENDS ON
THE COMPOSITION OF THE SUBSTRATE BEING BORED
0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF #LYDE ( -OORE
3%- (! M
Recent sediment, Joulters Cay,
Bahamas
!LTHOUGH SPONGES PRODUCE LARGE AND DISTINC
TIVE BORINGS MANY OTHER BORING ORGANISMS
ALSO INFEST HARD SUBSTRATES 4HIS MODERN OOID
FOR EXAMPLE HAS UNDERGONE CONSIDERABLE ALGAL
AND FUNGAL BORING -OST OF THE BORINGS ARE
STILL UNlLLED SHOWING THEIR TUBULAR SHAPE BUT
SOME WERE lLLED WITH -G CALCITE CEMENT AND
THUS APPEAR AS DIFFUSE MICRITIC PATCHES 4HE
ALGAL BORINGS ARE THE LARGE TUBULAR OPENINGS
THE FUNGAL BORING APPEAR AS LONG THIN STRAIGHT
DARK COLORED LINES
00, (! MM
Recent sediment, Bimini Lagoon,
Bahamas
! STRONGLY BORED MOLLUSK FRAGMENT .UMER
OUS SMALL DARK ALGAL AND FUNGAL TUBES HAVE
CUT THE CROSSED LAMELLAR STRUCTURE OF THIS GRAIN
2ECOGNITION OF ALGAL BORINGS IS IMPORTANT IN
THAT IT IS EVIDENCE THAT THE GRAIN WAS DERIVED
FROM THE PHOTIC ZONE 4HE BORINGS OR PORTIONS
OF BORINGS OF CLIONID SPONGES ACROTHORACIAN
BARNACLES AND CTENOSTOME BRYOZOANS COULD ALL
BE MISTAKEN FOR ALGAL BORINGS UNLESS CAREFULLY
EXAMINED
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Recent sediment, Belize
!N 3%- IMAGE OF AN ALGAL TUBULE WITHIN A
CORAL SKELETON !LGAL PHOTOSYNTHETIC ACTIVI
TIES CAN LEAD TO THE PRECIPITATION OF A SHEATH OF
CARBONATE GENERALLY ARAGONITE OR HIGH -G CAL
CITE AROUND THE lLAMENTS THESE ARE COMMON
IN 3%- VIEWS OF MODERN SEDIMENTS !GAIN
RECOGNITION OF ALGAL TUBULES ALLOWS DETERMINA
TION OF A DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT WITHIN THE
PHOTIC ZONE !LGAL TUBULES CAN BE FREE STAND
ING BUT THE DISSOLUTION OF ARAGONITIC GRAINS
ALSO CAN EXPOSE -G CALCITE lLLED TUBULES THAT
FORMED AS ENDOLITHIC BORINGS
3%- (! M
Late Mississippian Hindsville Ls.
Mayes Co., Oklahoma,
'EOPETAL STRUCTURES ARE INDICATORS OF ORIGINAL
HORIZONTAL SURFACES IN SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 0AR
TIAL MUD lLLS WITHIN THE PROTECTED CHAMBERS
OF ORGANISMS SUCH AS THIS SEDIMENT INlLL OF A
BIVALVE SHELL ARE ESPECIALLY RELIABLE GEOPETAL
STRUCTURES .OTE THE ALTERATION OF THE SHELL
WALL WITHOUT THE DOWNWARD DISPLACEMENT OF
THE SEDIMENT lLLING 4HIS MAY INDICATE INVER
SION RATHER THAN COMPLETE DISSOLUTION AND
SUBSEQUENT VOID lLL .OT ALL GEOPETAL lLLS ARE
PRECISELY HORIZONTAL SO A STATISTICAL SAMPLING
SHOULD BE USED 7HEN PROPERLY APPLIED STUD
IES OF GEOPETAL FEATURES CAN AID IN DETERMINING
PRE TECTONIC DEPOSITIONAL SLOPES
80, (! MM
Plio-Pleistocene Caloosahatchee
Fm., Hendry Co., Florida (left)
! GEOPETAL hUMBRELLAv VOID FORMED WHERE A
LARGE BIVALVE FRAGMENT PREVENTED INlLTRATION OF
MICRITE AND MAINTAINED AN OPEN CAVITY lLLED BY
LATER BLADED AND EQUANT SPAR
00, (! MM
Lo. Jurassic, Central High Atlas
region, Morocco (right)
4WO GENERATIONS OF GEOPETAL MICRITE lLL
INGS WITHIN SOME BUT NOT ALL OF THE LEACHED
SCLERACTINIAN CORALLITES FROM A SLOPE LIMESTONE
4HIS PRESUMABLY REmECTS PENECONTEMPORANEOUS
EROSION AND ROTATION OF A REEF TALUS BLOCK WITH
REPEATED INlLL AND LITHIlCATION OF MATRIX
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 19: PRIMARY SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES
Lo. Permian (up. Leonardian) Bone
Spring Ls., Culberson Co., Texas
5MBRELLA VOID IN A BIVALVE LIMESTONE 4HE
PELOIDAL NATURE OF THE lLL THE PRESENCE OF SOME
MICROCRYSTALLINE MATERIAL ON THE ROOF OF THE
CAVITIES AND THE IRREGULAR TOPS OF THE CAVITY
SEDIMENT lLLS ALL INDICATE THAT THESE MAY BE AT
LEAST IN PART MICROBIAL PRECIPITATES RATHER THAN
PURELY MECHANICALLY TRANSPORTED MATRIX lLLS
4HIS CAN GIVE MISLEADING RESULTS IF NOT PROPERLY
EVALUATED 4WO GENERATIONS OF CALCITE CEMENT
ONE CLOUDY AND ONE CLEAR lLLED THE REMAINING
GEOPETAL PORE SPACE
00, (! MM
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Yates
Fm., subsurface well, Eddy Co.,
New Mexico
&ENESTRAL FABRICS GENERALLY CONSIST OF A SERIES
OF REGULAR LAMINATION PARALLEL OR IRREGULAR
CAVITIES VUGS THAT ARE LARGER THAN THE GRAINS
THAT CONSTITUTE THE SEDIMENT )N THIS EXAMPLE
ELONGATE ANHYDRITE lLLED PORES PARALLEL THE
LAMINAE IN A STROMATOLITIC DOLOMITE 4HE
ALLOCHEMS TRAPPED WITHIN THIS STROMATOLITE
ARE MAINLY PELLETS PELOIDS OR SMALL PISOIDS
&ENESTRAL FABRICS ARE OF PARTICULAR IMPORTANCE
TO SEDIMENTOLOGISTS BECAUSE THEY COMMONLY
DENOTE PERITIDAL DEPOSITION SEDIMENTATION
ESSENTIALLY AT SEA LEVEL
80, (! MM
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Park
City Fm., Ervay Mbr., Big Horn Co.,
Wyoming
!N EXAMPLE OF SOMEWHAT MORE IRREGULAR
FENESTRAE THAT STILL MAINTAIN A PREFERRED LAMI
NATION PARALLEL ORIENTATION 4HESE FENESTRAE
ARE lLLED WITH BLOCKY CALCITE AND DOLOMITE
CEMENTS THAT COMPLETELY OCCLUDED POROSITY IN
THIS PELOIDAL AND PISOLITIC PERITIDAL DEPOSIT
00, !&E3 (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Devonian (Frasnian) Pillara Ls.,
Canning Basin, Western Australia
&ENESTRAL FABRIC WITH VERY IRREGULAR FENESTRAE IN
A RELATIVELY COARSE
GRAINED ROCK AN OOLITIC
LIMESTONE &ENESTRAL FABRIC MAY RESULT FROM
GAS BUBBLES GRAIN BRIDGING hKEYSTONE VUGSv
BIOTURBATION DECOMPOSITION OF ORGANIC MATE
RIAL AND OTHER CAUSES ALL OF THESE ARE PROCESSES
COMMONLY BUT NOT EXCLUSIVELY ASSOCIATED
WITH PERITIDAL SEDIMENTS
00, !&E3 (! MM
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Tansill
Fm., Eddy Co., New Mexico
&ENESTRAL FABRICS OFTEN ALSO HAVE INCLUDED
GEOPETAL FABRICS 4HESE IRREGULAR FENESTRAE IN
A PISOLITIC DOLOSTONE HAVE hINTERNAL SEDIMENTv
mOORS WITH RELATIVELY LEVEL TOPS THAT ARE OVER
LAIN BY BLOCKY CALCITE CEMENTS
00, !&E3 AT LEFT ONLY (! MM
Up. Devonian (Famennian) Napier
Fm., Canning Basin, Western
Australia
! SLOPE FACIES hSTROMATACTISv LIMESTONE
3TROMATACTIS CAVITIES LIKE MANY OTHER FENESTRAL
CAVITIES ARE VUGS THAT ARE LARGER THAN SURROUND
ING GRAINS 4HEY HAVE mAT mOORS GENERALLY
COVERED WITH INTERNAL SEDIMENT AND IRREGULAR
CAVITY TOPS 4HESE PARTICULAR STROMATACTIS
CAVITIES ARE BELIEVED TO HAVE FORMED THROUGH
THE DECAY OF SPONGES 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF
0HILLIP % 0LAYFORD
-AC (! CM
CHAPTER 19: PRIMARY SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES
Carboniferous (Waulsortian, phase
A) limestone, Dinant, Belgium
! RETICULATE BIOMICRITE FRAMEWORK WITH
hSTROMATACTISv CAVITIES mOORED WITH GEOPETAL
INTERNAL SEDIMENT 4HE CAVITY TOPS ARE IRREGU
LAR AND THE MAJORITY OF THE CAVITY IS lLLED WITH
lBROUS TO BLADED MARINE OR LATER CALCITE CE
MENTS 3TROMATACTIS HAS BEEN ATTRIBUTED TO THE
DECAY OF VARIOUS SOFT BODIED ORGANISMS TO GAS
FORMATION IN IMPERMEABLE SEDIMENTS TO GRAV
ITY SLIDING AND SHEAR TO THE ALTERATION OF SPONG
ES AND SPONGE HOLDFASTS AND TO OTHER CAUSES
0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF "RIAN 2 0RATT
00, (! MM
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Zechstein
Ca2, Poznan area, Poland
!N EXAMPLE OF A lNELY LAMINATED SHALY CAR
BONATE FROM A SMALL BUT DEEP BASIN SETTING
SURROUNDED BY CONTINENTAL SHELVES AND LAND
MASSES !S THIS SEDIMENT PREDATES THE ADVENT
OF MOST CALCAREOUS PELAGIC MICROORGANISMS
THE CARBONATE MUST REPRESENT EITHER DIRECT
PRECIPITATION FROM SEAWATER OR THE REWORKING
OF CARBONATE MUDS FROM SHELF AREAS INTO THE
BASIN
00, (! MM
Mid. Ordovician dolostone, Ontario,
Canada
4RACES OF LAMINATION CAN REMAIN VISIBLE IN
THIN SECTION EVEN AFTER SUBSTANTIAL DIAGENESIS
LARGELY BECAUSE COMPOSITIONAL AND GRAIN SIZE
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ADJACENT LAMINAE MAY
CONTROL THE NATURE AND INTENSITY OF DIAGENETIC
ALTERATION (ERE ORIGINAL LAMINATION IS PRE
SERVED IN A SYNSEDIMENTARY lNELY CRYSTALLINE
DOLOMITE 3AMPLE FROM .OEL 0 *AMES
00, !3 (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Cretaceous (Campanian-
Maastrichtian) Monte Antola Fm.,
Liguria, Italy
/THER TYPES OF INTERNAL SEDIMENTARY INTERFACES
CAN SOMETIMES BE SEEN IN THIN SECTION AL
THOUGH THEY ARE GENERALLY BETTER SEEN IN HAND
SPECIMEN OR OUTCROP 4HIS SHARP AND IRREGU
LARLY ERODED SURFACE REPRESENTS THE CONTACT BE
TWEEN A lNE
GRAINED PELAGIC CARBONATE AND AN
OVERLYING SANDY CARBONATE TURBIDITE IN ABYSSAL
WATER DEPTHS
00, (! MM
#ITED 2EFERENCES AND !DDITIONAL )NFORMATION 3OURCES
"ATHURST 2 ' # 4HE CAVERNOUS STRUCTURE OF SOME -ISSISSIPPIAN OF THE 2OYAL 3OCIETY OF ,ONDON 3ERIES " V NO P
3TROMATACTIS REEFS IN ,ANCASHIRE %NGLAND *OURNAL OF 'EOLOGY V -AZZULLO 3 * AND " ! "IRDWELL 3YNGENETIC FORMATION OF
P
GRAINSTONES AND PISOLITES FROM FENESTRAL CARBONATES IN PERITIDAL SETTINGS
"ATHURST 2 ' # "ORING ALGAE MICRITE ENVELOPES AND LITHIlCATION *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
OF MOLLUSCAN BIOSPARITES 'EOLOGICAL *OURNAL V P
-ONTY # , 6 $ 7 * "OSENCE 0 ( "RIDGES AND " 2 0RATT EDS
"ATHURST 2 ' # 'ENESIS OF STROMATACTIS CAVITIES BETWEEN #ARBONATE -UD -OUNDS /XFORD %NGLAND )NTERNATIONAL
SUBMARINE CRUSTS IN 0ALEOZOIC CARBONATE MUD BUILDUPS *OURNAL OF THE !SSOCIATION OF 3EDIMENTOLOGISTS 3PECIAL 0UBLICATION .O P
'EOLOGICAL 3OCIETY OF ,ONDON V P
/SGOOD 2 ' *R 4RACE FOSSILS IN 2 3 "OARDMAN ! (
"OURQUE 0
! AND ( 'IGNAC 3PONGE
CONSTRUCTED STROMATACTIS #HEETHAM AND ! * 2OWELL EDS &OSSIL )NVERTEBRATES 0ALO !LTO #!
MUD MOUNDS 3ILURIAN OF 'ASP 1UBEC *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY "LACKWELL 3CIENTIlC 0UBLICATIONS P
0ETROLOGY V P
0RATT " 2 3TROMATOLITIC FRAMEWORK OF CARBONATE MUD MOUNDS
"OYD $ 7 &ENESTRAL FABRIC IN 0ERMIAN CARBONATES OF THE "IGHORN *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
"ASIN 7YOMING IN & ! %XUM AND ' 2 'EORGE EDS 'EOLOGY AND 2ISK - * AND 2 " 3ZCZUCZKO ! METHOD FOR STAINING TRACE
-INERAL 2ESOURCES OF THE "IGHORN "ASIN TH !NNUAL &IELD #ONFERENCE FOSSILS *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
'UIDEBOOK #ASPER 79 7YOMING 'EOLOGICAL !SSOCIATION P
2OEHL 0 / 3TONY -OUNTAIN /RDOVICIAN AND )NTERLAKE 3ILURIAN
#HOQUETTE 0 7 AND , # 0RAY 'EOLOGIC NOMENCLATURE AND FACIES ANALOGS OF 2ECENT LOW
ENERGY MARINE AND SUB
AERIAL CARBONATES
CLASSIlCATION OF POROSITY IN SEDIMENTARY CARBONATES !MERICAN "AHAMAS !MERICAN !SSOCIATION OF 0ETROLEUM 'EOLOGISTS "ULLETIN V
!SSOCIATION OF 0ETROLEUM 'EOLOGISTS "ULLETIN V P
P
$UNHAM 2 * +EYSTONE VUGS IN CARBONATE BEACH DEPOSITS ;ABS= 2TZLER + 4HE ROLE OF BORING SPONGES IN BIOEROSION /ECOLOGIA
!MERICAN !SSOCIATION OF 0ETROLEUM 'EOLOGISTS "ULLETIN V P V P
%KDALE ! ! 2 ' "ROMLEY AND 3 ' 0EMBERTON )CHNOLOGY 3ANDER " + #ONTRIBUTIONS TO THE 3TUDY OF $EPOSITIONAL &ABRICS
4RACE &OSSILS IN 3EDIMENTOLOGY AND 3TRATIGRAPHY 4ULSA /+ 3%0- RHYTHMICALLY DEPOSITED 4RIASSIC LIMESTONES AND DOLOMITES ;TRANSLATED
3HORT #OURSE .O P FROM ORIGINAL BY % " +NOPF= 4ULSA /+ !MERICAN !SSOCIATION
'OLUBIC 3 2 $ 0ERKINS AND + * ,UKAS "ORING MICROORGANISMS OF 0ETROLEUM 'EOLOGISTS P
AND MICROBORINGS IN CARBONATE SUBSTRATES IN 2 7 &REY ED 4HE 3TUDY 3ANDER " + !N )NTRODUCTION TO THE 3TUDY OF &ABRICS OF 'EOLOGICAL
OF 4RACE &OSSILS .EW 9ORK 3PRINGER
6ERLAG P
"ODIES ;TRANSLATED BY & # 0HILLIPS ' 7INDSOR= .EW 9ORK
'OREAU 4 & AND 7 $ (ARTMAN "ORING SPONGES AS CONTROLLING 0ERGAMON 0RESS P
FACTORS IN THE FORMATION AND MAINTENANCE OF CORAL REEFS IN 2 & 3HROCK 2 2 3EQUENCE IN ,AYERED 2OCKS .EW 9ORK -C'RAW
3OGNNAES ED -ECHANISMS OF (ARD 4ISSUE $ESTRUCTION 7ASHINGTON (ILL P
$# !MERICAN !SSOCIATION FOR THE !DVANCEMENT OF 3CIENCE 7ARME * % "ORINGS AS TRACE FOSSILS AND THE PROCESSES OF MARINE
0UBLICATION P
BIOEROSION IN 2 7 &REY ED 4HE 3TUDY OF 4RACE &OSSILS .EW 9ORK
'ROVER ' *R &ENESTRAL AND ASSOCIATED VADOSE DIAGENETIC FABRICS 3PRINGER
6ERLAG P
OF TIDAL mAT CARBONATES -IDDLE /RDOVICIAN .EW -ARKET ,IMESTONE 7IECZOREK * 'EOPETAL STRUCTURES AS INDICATORS OF TOP AND BOTTOM
SOUTHWESTERN 6IRGINIA *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P !NNALES 3OCIETATIS 'EOLOGORUM 0OLONIAE V P
+ENNEDY 7 * 4RACE FOSSILS IN CARBONATE ROCK IN 2 7 &REY ED
4HE 3TUDY OF 4RACE &OSSILS .EW 9ORK 3PRINGER
6ERLAG P
+OBLUK $ 2 AND $ & +AHLE 'EOLOGIC SIGNIlCANCE OF BORING
AND CAVITY
DWELLING MARINE ALGAE "ULLETIN OF #ANADIAN 0ETROLEUM
& ACING 0AGE &UNDAMENTAL TO UNDERSTANDING SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS IS THE DISTINCTION OF THREE BASIC COMPONENTS '2!).3
TERMED ALLOCHEMS BY &OLK -!42)8 CARBONATE MUD AND PO
'EOLOGY V P
ROSITY OR POROSITY
lLLING #%-%.4 4YPICAL CARBONATE ROCKS ARE
,EES ! 4HE STRUCTURE AND ORIGIN OF THE 7AULSORTIAN ,OWER PLOTTED HERE ON A TERNARY DIAGRAM USING THOSE THREE END MEMBERS
#ARBONIFEROUS hREEFSv OF WEST
CENTRAL %IRE 0HILOSOPHICAL 4RANSACTIONS REDRAWN FROM &OLK
#!2"/.!4% #,!33)&)#!
ROCKS AND SEDIMENTS
Folk (1959/1962)
C
H
A Dunham (1962)
P
T
E Embry & Klovan
R (1971)
20
Wright (1992)
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
).42/$5#4)/. 4/ ,)-%34/.% #,!33)&)#!4)/.3
#ONSISTENT CLASSIl CATION AND CONCISE NAMING OF ROCKS AND SEDIMENTS ARE ESSENTIAL FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
THROUGHOUT THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIl C COMMUNITY !N IDEAL CLASSIl CATION SCHEME COMBINES OBJECTIVE QUANTIl ABLE
DESCRIPTION OF READILY OBSERVABLE FEATURES THAT ARE GROUPED INTO NAMED CATEGORIES !T THE SAME TIME IT IS DESIRABLE
TO HAVE GROUPINGS THAT INCORPORATE A MAXIMUM LEVEL OF GENETIC OR INTERPRETIVE SIGNIl CANCE GROUPINGS THAT REm ECT
MECHANISMS OF FORMATION ENVIRONMENTS OF DEPOSITION AND THE LIKE !LTHOUGH MANY CLASSIl CATIONS HAVE BEEN
PROPOSED FOR CARBONATE ROCKS AND SEDIMENTS ONLY TWO THE &OLK AND $UNHAM CLASSIl CATIONS
HAVE SUCCESSFULLY MET THE TEST OF TIME ALONG WITH TWO OTHERS THAT ARE VARIANTS OF THE $UNHAM SCHEME !LL FOUR
SCHEMES ARE BASED ON THE DISTINCTION OF THREE FUNDAMENTAL COMPONENTS GRAINS SKELETAL FRAGMENTS OOIDS PELLETS
PELOIDS INTRACLASTS AND NON
CARBONATE DETRITUS MATRIX OR CARBONATE MUD AND OPEN PORES OR SPARRY
CALCITE
l LLED
PRIMARY INTERPARTICLE POROSITY SEE DIAGRAM ON PREVIOUS PAGE 4HE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE CLASSIl CATIONS ARE MAINLY
THAT &OLK USES THE RELATIVE PERCENTAGES OF GRAINS AND MATRIX $UNHAM AS WELL AS %MBRY AND +LOVAN USE MUD
VERSUS
GRAIN
SUPPORTED FABRICS AND 7RIGHT USES A MORE GENETIC DIVISION INTO BIOLOGICAL DIAGENETIC AND DEPOSITIONAL FABRICS
4HIS CHAPTER SUMMARIZES THE FEATURES OF EACH CLASSIl CATION AND PROVIDES PETROGRAPHIC EXAMPLES OF CARBONATE ROCKS
WITH THEIR &OLK AND $UNHAM NAMES DOLOSTONE CLASSIl CATIONS AND EXAMPLES ARE COVERED IN THE CHAPTER ON DOLOMITES
&/,+ !.$ #,!33)&)#!4)/.3
-ETHODOLOGY
4HE &OLK CLASSIl CATION USES MULTIPLE DESCRIPTIVE TERMS 4HE FUNDAMENTAL NAME IS BASED ON THE FOUR GRAIN TYPES
AND THE RELATIVE ABUNDANCES OF GRAINS ALLOCHEMS MATRIX AND CEMENT OR PORE SPACE %LEVEN BASIC TERMS
ARE GENERATED TOP DIAGRAM ON FACING PAGE INCLUDING ONES FOR PURE MUD ROCKS MICRITES MUDDY ROCKS WITH
SPAR PATCHES DISMICRITES AND ORGANICALLY
BOUND ROCKS BIOLITHITES "ECAUSE OF THEIR SPECIAL ENVIRONMENTAL
SIGNIl CANCE INTRACLASTS AND OOIDS ARE FAVORED IN THE NAMING PROCESS SEE TOP DIAGRAM CAPTION
4O DESCRIBE THE FEATURES OF CARBONATE ROCKS THAT REm ECT THE DEGREE OF SORTING AND ROUNDING &OLKS TERMINOLOGY
INCLUDES TEXTURAL MODIl ERS MIDDLE DIAGRAM ON FACING PAGE )N GENERAL DEPOSITS CLASSED ON THE LEFT SIDE OF
THE DIAGRAM WERE FORMED IN hLOW
ENERGYv SETTINGS ROCK TYPES FARTHER TO THE RIGHT REPRESENT DEPOSITION IN
INCREASINGLY HIGH
ENERGY DEPOSITIONAL SETTINGS
! THIRD COMPONENT OF A FULL &OLK NAME RELATES TO THE AVERAGE GRAIN OR CRYSTAL SIZE OF THE ROCK 4HAT TERMINOLOGY
IS SUMMARIZED IN THE BOTTOM DIAGRAM ON THE FACING PAGE
! CARBONATE ROCK NAMED UNDER THE &OLK CLASSIl CATION CAN INCLUDE ANY OR ALL OF THE TERMS GENERATED IN THESE THREE
CATEGORIES PLUS ANY ADDITIONAL DESCRIPTIVE TERMS THE USER DESIRES 4HUS FOR EXAMPLE THE SAME ROCK COULD BE
TERMED A hBIOSPARITEv OR A hROUNDED BIOSPARITEv OR A hCOARSE CALCARENITE ROUNDED BIOSPARITEv OR A hCOARSE
CALCARENITE ROUNDED RUDIST
CORAL BIOSPARITEv OR A hSLIGHTLY DOLOMITIZED COARSE CALCARENITE ROUNDED RUDIST
CORAL BIOSPARITEv DEPENDING ON THE LEVEL OF DETAIL DESIRED
!DVANTAGES
1UANTIl ABLE DESCRIPTIVE OBJECTIVE TERMINOLOGY
!LTHOUGH PRIMARILY DESCRIPTIVE ROCK TERMS CONVEY CONSIDERABLE GENETIC ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION
-ULTIPLE OPTIONAL TERMS FOR GRAIN SIZE FAUNAL COMPOSITION ALTERATION NON
CARBONATE CONSTITUENTS AND
OTHER FEATURES ALLOW INFORMATIVE NAMES AT ANY DESIRED LEVEL OF DETAIL
5SED WORLDWIDE ESPECIALLY BY PETROGRAPHERS IN ACADEMIC SETTINGS
$RAWBACKS
-ICROSCOPE WORK NEEDED FOR ACCURATE NAMING ESPECIALLY TO IDENTIFY PELLETS AND OTHER SMALL GRAINS OR TO
DETERMINE EXACT PERCENTAGES OF GRAINS MATRIX AND CEMENT
3OMEWHAT AWKWARD TO USE WITH MODERN SEDIMENTS EG CALLING SEDIMENT LACKING CEMENT A hSPARITEv
$OES NOT DESCRIBE THE VARIED FABRICS OF REEFAL CARBONATES AS WELL AS OTHER CLASSIl CATIONS
.OT WIDELY USED IN INDUSTRIAL SETTINGS PROBABLY BECAUSE IT IS NOT AS EASY TO USE FOR GENERAL CORE DESCRIPTIONS AS
THE $UNHAM CLASSIl CATION
#AN BE VERY DIFl CULT TO DISTINGUISH TRUE MICRITIC MATRIX FROM MICROBIAL OR INORGANIC IN
SITU MICROCRYSTALLINE
PRECIPITATES A PROBLEM FOR ALL CLASSIl CATIONS
CHAPTER 20: CARBONATE ROCK/SEDIMENT CLASSIFICATION
Graphic classication table of
limestones (Folk, 1962)
!" $ "$ $"% "$ $"%
4HE &OLK LIMESTONE NOMENCLATURE IS BASED #
ON THE NATURE OF THE CONSTITUENT GRAINS AND
THE RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF MICRITIC MATRIX
VERSUS OPEN PORE SPACE OR SPARRY CALCITE CE
$"#!"$
$" "$
"$
MENT l LLING SUCH PORES !LL GRAINS ARE NOT
TREATED EQUALLY HOWEVER )F INTRACLASTS ARE
OF THE GRAINS THE ROCK IS AN INTRACLASTIC
#!"$ "$
LIMESTONE IF INTRACLASTS ARE AND OOIDS # "$
ARE THE ROCK IS AN OOLITIC LIMESTONE
IF INTRACLASTS AND OOIDS ARE EACH THEN
THE ROCK IS A BIOGENIC OR PELLETAL LIMESTONE #!"$ "$
DEPENDING ON THE RELATIVE PERCENTAGES OF THOSE
GRAINS 4ERMS CAN BE COMBINED IF DESIRED EG
A BIOPELSPARITE ! DISMICRITE IS A MICRITE WITH
SPAR
l LLED BLEBS GENERALLY BURROWS AND A #!"$ "$ $$
BIOLITHITE IS A BIOLOGICALLY BOUND ROCK
A textural spectrum for carbonate
deposits (Folk, 1962)
4HESE EIGHT STAGES OF SORTING AND ROUNDING
&0$&-2
REm ECT IN GENERAL DEPOSITION OF SEDIMENTS "++.$)&,1
"*%
"*%
IN A SPECTRUM FROM LOW ENERGY SETTINGS
LEFT TO HIGH ENERGY SETTINGS RIGHT )N VERY !
&4230"+ "*%
LOW ENERGY ENVIRONMENTS PURE OR NEARLY
-",&
PURE CARBONATE MUDS TYPICALLY ACCUMULATE
IN INTERMEDIATE ENERGY ENVIRONMENTS MUDS
WITH HIGHER GRAIN CONCENTRATIONS OR PARTIALLY 5/*$"+
WINNOWED GRAIN AND MUD ACCUMULATIONS ARE '"#0*$
FORMED IN HIGH ENERGY SETTINGS SORTING AND
"*%1 ("1&1+- 0# 0,&-
ROUNDING OF GRAINS OCCUR AND VIRTUALLY ALL MUD &00* "/0-&
("1./+*& $("1 '))"/0-& )"/0-& )"/0-&
(&-.31 ."*%
MATRIX IS REMOVED 4EXTURAL INVERSIONS OCCUR ./+*& ."*%./+*& ."*%
./+*&
."*%
"-"+.(1 ./+*& ./+*&
WHERE UNUSUAL OR EPISODIC EVENTS TSUNAMIS OR
HURRICANES MIX SEDIMENT FROM DIFFERENT ENVI
RONMENTS OR INTRODUCE SHORT TERM HIGH ENERGY
CONDITIONS INTO A NORMALLY LOW ENERGY AREA
A grain- and crystal-size scale for
carbonate rocks (Folk, 1962)
4HE LEFT CENTER COLUMN PROVIDES STANDARDIZED
TERMS FOR VARIOUS SIZES OF TRANSPORTED MATERI
ALS FOSSIL FRAGMENTS OOIDS INTRACLASTS PELLETS
AND OTHER GRAINS THE RIGHT CENTER COLUMN PRO
VIDES COMPARABLE TERMINOLOGY FOR AUTHIGENIC
PRECIPITATES AS WELL AS THE PRODUCTS OF
RECRYSTALLIZATION OR REPLACEMENT DOLOMITE OR
MARBLE FOR EXAMPLE 4HE &OLK CLASSIl CATION
INCLUDES TERMS NOT SHOWN IN ANY OF THESE DIA
GRAMS FOR DOLOMITES OF VARIOUS CRYSTAL SIZES
WITH AND WITHOUT PRESERVED PRIMARY FABRICS
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
$5.(!- #,!33)&)#!4)/. 7)4( %-"29 +,/6!. !.$
72)'(4 -/$)&)#!4)/.3
-ETHODOLOGY
4HE $UNHAM CLASSIl CATION IS BASED ON THE CHARACTERIZATION OF THE SUPPORT FRAMEWORK OF THE ROCK OR SEDIMENT
)F THE GRAINS GENERALLY TOUCH EACH OTHER AND SUPPORT THE OVERALL FRAMEWORK THE ROCK IS GRAIN SUPPORTED IF
GRAINS ARE hm OATINGv IN MUD THE ROCK IS MUD SUPPORTED $UNHAM DEl NED MUD AS MATERIAL OF LESS THAN
M SIZE AS CONTRASTED TO &OLKS DEl NITION OF LESS THAN M 4HE RELATIVE PERCENTAGES OF GRAINS AND MUD ARE
THEN USED TO GENERATE THE FOUR MAIN NAMES MUDSTONE WACKESTONE PACKSTONE AND GRAINSTONE TOP DIAGRAM
FACING PAGE !DDITIONAL TERMS ARE PROVIDED FOR ORGANICALLY LITHIl ED STRATA EG REEFS STROMATOLITES AND
RECRYSTALLIZED CARBONATES &URTHER MODIl ERS CAN BE APPLIED TO DESCRIBE GRAIN TYPES DOMINANT ORGANISMS AND
DIAGENESIS ALTHOUGH THESE ARE NOT ALL EXPLICITLY CODIl ED BY $UNHAM
4HE %MBRY +LOVAN CLASSIl CATION MODIl ED THE $UNHAM SCHEME BY FURTHER SUBDIVIDING COARSE GRAINED
SKELETAL DEPOSITS AND ORGANICALLY FORMED OR ORGANICALLY BOUND CARBONATE ROCKS 4HE l VE NEW TERMS SEE CENTER
DIAGRAM FACING PAGE ADD TO THE DESCRIPTIVE CAPABILITY OF THE $UNHAM CLASSIl CATION IN THE AREA OF BIOGENIC
DEPOSITS ESPECIALLY REEFS AND BIOHERMS
4HE CLASSIl CATION OF 7RIGHT IS A FURTHER MORE FUNDAMENTAL MODIl CATION OF THE $UNHAM AND %MBRY
+LOVAN TERMINOLOGIES )T IS BASED ON THE PREMISE THAT LIMESTONE TEXTURES RESULT FROM AN hINTERPLAY OF
THREE FACTORS DEPOSITIONAL REGIME BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY AND DIAGENESISv SEE BOTTOM DIAGRAM FACING PAGE
$EPOSITIONAL COMPONENTS WERE EMPHASIZED IN THE $UNHAM CLASSIl CATION BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY WAS EMPHASIZED
IN THE %MBRY AND +LOVAN TERMINOLOGY AND THE DIAGENETIC COMPONENTS ARE EXPANDED UPON IN THE 7RIGHT
CLASSIl CATION 3EVERAL NEW TERMS WERE DEVELOPED IN THE 7RIGHT CLASSIl CATION THE $UNHAM TERM hMUDSTONEv
WAS CHANGED TO hCALCIMUDSTONEv FOR INCREASED CLARITY AND l VE NEW TERMS WERE ADDED TO COVER DIAGENETIC
TEXTURES THAT MAY OR MAY NOT HAVE OBLITERATED EARLIER FABRICS
$UNHAM%MBRY +LOVAN CLASSIl CATION ADVANTAGES
0ARTIALLY QUANTIl ABLE DESCRIPTIVE OBJECTIVE TERMINOLOGY
4ERMS REm ECT ENVIRONMENTAL hENERGYv AND THUS CONVEY GENETIC INFORMATION
2ELATIVELY EASY TO USE IN THE l ELD OR WHEN LOOKING AT CORE USABLE WITHOUT MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
3ENSIBLE NAMES FOR USE IN MODERN SEDIMENTS LACKING CEMENT
5SED WORLDWIDE ESPECIALLY IN THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
$UNHAM%MBRY +LOVAN CLASSIl CATION DRAWBACKS
'ENERALLY NOT AS DETAILED AS THE &OLK CLASSIl CATION ALTHOUGH &OLKIAN MODIl ERS CAN BE USED
/FTEN DIFl CULT TO DECIDE WHETHER A ROCK IS GRAIN
OR MUD
SUPPORTED ESPECIALLY IN ROCKS WITH VERY LARGE OR
IRREGULARLY
SHAPED GRAINS EG FENESTRATE BRYOZOANS 4HIS DETERMINATION IS ALSO COMPLICATED BECAUSE THIN
SECTIONS ARE TWO
DIMENSIONAL CUTS THROUGH A THREE
DIMENSIONAL FABRIC AND GRAINS THAT APPARENTLY hm OATv IN
MATRIX MAY ACTUALLY TOUCH OUTSIDE THE PLANE OF THE THIN SECTION
/FFERS LITTLE m EXIBILITY IN CLASSIFYING DIAGENETICALLY ALTERED ROCKS
,ESS WIDELY USED IN ACADEMIC SETTINGS
7RIGHT CLASSIl CATION ADVANTAGES
(AS ALL THE POSITIVE FEATURES OF THE $UNHAM AND %MBRY +LOVAN CLASSIl CATIONS
0ROVIDES BALANCE IN TERMINOLOGY BETWEEN PRIMARY SEDIMENTOLOGIC
BIOLOGIC AND SECONDARY DIAGENETIC
FEATURES OF LIMESTONES
4HIS SCHEME TEMPERS THE SOMETIMES SIMPLISTIC ASSUMPTIONS ON WHICH PREVIOUS CLASSIl CATIONS WERE BASED IE IT
TAKES ADVANTAGE OF INCREASED KNOWLEDGE OF MICROBIAL AND DIAGENETIC PROCESS GAINED IN THE THREE DECADES FROM
TO
7RIGHT CLASSIl CATION DRAWBACKS
(AS SAME DRAWBACKS AS $UNHAM AND %MBRY +LOVAN CLASSIl CATIONS
2ECOGNIZES COMPLEX DEPOSITIONAL AND DIAGENETIC ORIGINS OF MICRITE MATRIX BUT DOES NOT FULLY INTEGRATE SUCH
REALITIES IN ITS TERMINOLOGY
2ELATIVELY NEW AND NOT YET VERY WIDELY USED
CHAPTER 20: CARBONATE ROCK/SEDIMENT CLASSIFICATION
Classication table of carbonate
rocks (Dunham, 1962)
! DIAGRAM SHOWING THE $UNHAM CLASSIl CATION
OF CARBONATE ROCKS ACCORDING TO THEIR DEPOSI
TIONAL TEXTURES 4HE DISTINCTION AS TO WHETHER
A ROCK IS SUPPORTED BY MATRIX MUD OR FRAME
WORK GRAINS IS FUNDAMENTAL TO THIS SCHEME
4HE FOUR BASIC TERMS FOR NORMAL NON
CRYSTAL
LINE LIMESTONES CAN BE FURTHER MODIl ED WITH
TERMS DESCRIBING CONSTITUENT GRAINS OR OTHER
FEATURES 4HE MOST DIFl CULT ASPECT OF THIS CLAS
SIl CATION IN MANY CASE IS IN DECIDING WHETHER
A ROCK WITH LARGE AND IRREGULAR SKELETAL OR
INTRACLASTIC GRAINS OR ONE THAT HAS UNDERGONE
SUBSTANTIAL POST
DEPOSITIONAL COMPACTION WAS
ORIGINALLY MUD
OR GRAIN
SUPPORTED
Classication table of skeletal
limestones (Embry & Klovan, 1971)
"! "!
! DIAGRAMMATIC SUMMARY OF THE MAJOR MODI " & # & #
l CATIONS PROVIDED BY THE %MBRY AND +LOVAN
#
!"
#
!"
SCHEME TO THE $UNHAM CLAS !
SIl CATION &OR BIOGENIC LIMESTONES THE TERM ! ! ! ! ! !
hm OATSTONEv REPLACES $UNHAMS hPACKSTONEv " % # "& "! #!" #"
!# " "! ! # $
&OR COARSER GRAIN SUPPORTED BIOGENIC LIME
"
STONES THE TERM hRUDSTONEv WAS COINED )N
ADDITION AN ORGANICALLY BOUND ROCK CAN BE
"!" #!" !" !" !"
TERMED A hBAFm ESTONEv A hBINDSTONEv OR A
hFRAMESTONEv DEPENDING ON THE NATURE OF THE
ORGANIC STRUCTURES 4HESE LAST THREE TERMS
IN PARTICULAR HAVE BEEN WIDELY ADOPTED BY
THOSE WORKING ON REEFS BIOHERMS AND OTHER
BIOGENIC CARBONATES
Classication table of limestones
(Wright, 1992)
.,%2-/++*,.! '%.!,
, %)-/++*,.! )-%./*,# )%-(- *)* '%.!, .%0!
' 3-%'.#, ! .%0!
4HIS SUMMARY DIAGRAM SHOWING THE ESSEN
1%.$ )* ) ,/-.%)# ,# )%-(- %#% %) )3 *-.'3 ,3-. '-
#, %)- #, %)- ( .,%2 ( .,%2 %) %)# .! .* *,# )%-(- *(+*)!). (% ,* (% ,* (
TIAL COMPONENTS OF THE 7RIGHT CLASSIl CATION *,# )%-(- ""'! *(%) ). %- !(!). -.3'*'%.% -.3'*'%.%
#, %) #, %)
EMPHASIZES THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN CARBONATE *). .- *). .-
STRATA INm UENCED BY DEPOSITIONAL PROCESSES ' % &!
(/ -.*)! -.*)!
&
-.*)!
, %)
-.*)!
*/)
-.*)!
""'!
-.*)!
, (!
-.*)!
!(!). *) !)-!
-.*)!
%..!
#, %)-.*)! #, %)-.*)!
+ ,
-.*)!
PHYSICAL BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES OR DIAGENETIC '* . / ,3-. '-
PROCESSES BOTH SYNSEDIMENTARY AND POST -.*)! -.*)!
(
%*'*#% ' % ,*-+ ,
DEPOSITIONAL !LTHOUGH THE NAMES ARE MAINLY , %)- (( -.*)!
DERIVED FROM THE $UNHAM OR %MBRY +LOVAN
CLASSIl CATIONS SEVERAL USEFUL NEW TERMS WERE
COINED INCLUDING hCEMENTSTONEv hCONDENSED
GRAINSTONEv AND hl TTED GRAINSTONEv FOR CE
MENT RICH OR CHEMICALLY COMPACTED LIME
STONES
!+*-%.%*) ' % #!)!.%
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Recent sediment, Bimini, Bahamas
! MODERN SEDIMENT COMPOSED OF GRAPESTONE
INTRACLASTS AND PELOIDAL GRAINS 4HE MICRITIZED
PELOIDAL GRAINS ARE BOUND TOGETHER WITH
THIN HIGH -G CALCITE CEMENTS AS WELL AS OR
GANIC COATINGS AND ENCRUSTATIONS &OLK NAME
POORLY SORTED INTRASPARITE $UNHAM NAME
LITHOCLAST GRAINSTONE
00, "3% (! MM
Paleozoic limestone, midcontinent,
U.S.A.
!N OOLITIC LIMESTONE WITH COATED FOSSIL FRAG
MENTS &OLK NAME ROUNDED OOSPARITE
$UNHAM NAME OOLITIC GRAINSTONE
80, (! MM
Up. Oligocene Suwanee Ls., Citrus
Co., Florida
! BIOCLASTIC LIMESTONE CONTAINING ECHINO
DERMS MILIOLID FORAMINIFERS MOLLUSKS AND
OTHER GRAINS WITH A WIDE VARIETY OF SHAPES
AND SIZES &OLK NAME UNSORTED BIOSPARITE
$UNHAM NAME MIXED FOSSIL GRAINSTONE
80, (! MM
CHAPTER 20: CARBONATE ROCK/SEDIMENT CLASSIFICATION
Mississippian (Meramecian) Arroyo
Peasco Gp., San Miguel Co., New
Mexico
! PELLET
RICH LIMESTONE WITH POSSIBLE EARLY CE
MENTS AND LITTLE OR NO MATRIX 4HE PELLETS ARE IN
FERRED FROM THEIR SMALL AND UNIFORM SIZE TO BE
OF FECAL ORIGIN &OLK NAME SORTED PELSPARITE
$UNHAM NAME PELLETAL GRAINSTONE
00, (! MM
Up. Permian (up. Guadalupian)
Capitan Fm., Eddy Co., New Mexico
! COMPACTED INTRACLAST RICH LIMESTONE WITH
EXTENSIVE CARBONATE MUD MATRIX 3EVERAL
DIFFERENT TYPES OF REEF AND SLOPE LIMESTONE
FRAGMENTS ARE FOUND IN THIS SLOPE DEBRIS m OW
DEPOSIT $ESPITE THE FACT THAT SOME CLASTS WERE
FULLY CEMENTED PRIOR TO TRANSPORT THESE ARE
STILL CONSIDERED AS PENECONTEMPORANEOUSLY
REWORKED MATERIALS WITHIN THE SAME BASIN OF
DEPOSITION AND THUS QUALIFY AS INTRACLASTS &OLK
NAME PACKED INTRAMICRITE $UNHAM NAME
LITHOCLASTIC WACKESTONE %MBRY AND +LOVAN
NAME LITHOCLASTIC m OATSTONE OR RUDSTONE DE
PENDING ON WHETHER ONE CONSIDERS THIS TO BE A
GRAIN OR MUD SUPPORTED FABRIC
00, (! MM
Up. Cambrian Beekmantown Ls.,
Washington Co., Maryland
4ECTONICALLY DEFORMED OOIDS IN A CARBONATE
MUD MATRIX #LOOS !N UNUSUAL ROCK
TYPE BECAUSE OOIDS TYPICALLY REm ECT HIGH ENER
GY SETTINGS OF FORMATION BUT THE MICRITE MATRIX
IMPLIES A LOW ENERGY DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRON
MENT 4HIS hTEXTURAL INVERSIONv MAY HAVE RE
SULTED FROM BIOTURBATION OR STORM REWORKING OF
OOIDS INTO A NEARBY LAGOON OR OTHER PROTECTED
ENVIRONMENT &OLK NAME PACKED OOMICRITE
$UNHAM NAME OOLITH LIME PACKSTONE OR
OOLITH LIME WACKESTONE DEPENDS ON WHETHER
YOU SEE THIS AS GRAIN OR MUD SUPPORTED A MA
JOR DIFl CULTY WITH THE $UNHAM CLASSIl CATION
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Cretaceous Chalk, Kent,
England, U.K.
! VARIETY OF SKELETAL CONSTITUENTS IN A SHELF
CHALK 4HE LARGEST GRAIN IS AN ECHINOID FRAG
MENT NUMEROUS INOCERAMID PRISMS FORAMINI
FERS AND CALCISPHERES ARE ALSO VISIBLE &OLK
NAME PACKED BIOMICRITE $UNHAM NAME
MIXED FOSSIL LIME WACKESTONE
00, (! ^ MM
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
! ROCK THAT ORIGINALLY CONSISTED MAINLY OF
FALLEN FRONDS OF FENESTRATE BRYOZOANS #LOUDY
BLADED MARINE CEMENT l LLED THE PORE
SPACE PRIOR TO BURIAL PREVENTING COMPACTION
#LEARLY GIVEN THE ABSENCE OF MATRIX THIS MUST
HAVE BEEN A GRAIN SUPPORTED DEPOSIT BUT IF CAR
BONATE MUD HAD INl LTRATED INTO THE POROUS SED
IMENT IT WOULD NOW BE DIFl CULT TO DETERMINE
THAT THIS ONCE WAS A GRAIN SUPPORTED FABRIC
&OLK NAME UNSORTED BRYOZOAN BIOSPARITE
$UNHAM NAME BRYOZOAN GRAINSTONE %MBRY
+LOVAN NAME BRYOZOAN BAFm ESTONE 7RIGHT
NAME BRYOZOAN CEMENTSTONE
00, (! MM
Up. Jurassic Solnhofen Ls.,
Kelheim, Bavaria, Germany
! LITHIl ED PURE CARBONATE MUD HERE MICRITE IS
NOT JUST MATRIX BUT ESSENTIALLY IS THE ONLY ROCK
CONSTITUENT &OLK NAME MICRITE $UNHAM
NAME LIME MUDSTONE
80, (! MM
CHAPTER 20: CARBONATE ROCK/SEDIMENT CLASSIFICATION
Up. Miocene (Tortonian-Messinian)
Up. Coralline Limestone Fm., Malta
! SEDIMENT FORMED OF INTERGROWN RED ALGAL AND
FORAMINIFERAL ENCRUSTATIONS AND SMALL AMOUNTS
OF OTHER TRAPPED SKELETAL AND PELOIDAL GRAINS
&OLK NAME RED ALGAL BIOLITHITE $UNHAM AND
7RIGHT NAME RED ALGAL BOUNDSTONE %MBRY
+LOVAN NAME RED ALGAL BINDSTONE
00, "3% (! MM
Paleozoic limestone, unknown
location
! ROCK WITH BOTH LARGE IRREGULARLY SHAPED
CALCITE l LLED CAVITIES AND OOIDS SCATTERED IN
A MICRITE MATRIX A VERY UNUSUAL CARBONATE
SEDIMENT FABRIC &OLK NAME OOLITIC DISMI
CRITE $UNHAM NAME OOLITIC WACKESTONE
3AMPLE FROM .OEL 0 *AMES
00, (! MM
Lo. Cretaceous dolostone,
Cephalonia, Ionian Islands, Greece
! COARSELY CRYSTALLINE SUBHEDRAL ZONED
NONFERROAN REPLACEMENT DOLOMITE 4HE
RHOMBS HAVE CLOUDY CORES AND CLEAR RIMS A
COMMON FEATURE IN REPLACEMENT DOLOMITES
AND COMPLETELY OBLITERATED PRIMARY FABRICS
&OLK NAME COARSELY CRYSTALLINE DOLOMITE
$UNHAM NAME CRYSTALLINE DOLOMITE 7RIGHT
NAME DOLOMITIC SPARSTONE
80, !&E3 (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
#ITED 2EFERENCES AND !DDITIONAL )NFORMATION 3OURCES
!RCHIE ' % #LASSIl CATION OF CARBONATE RESERVOIR ROCKS AND +LEMENT + 7 0RACTICAL CLASSIl CATION OF REEFS AND BANKS BIOHERMS
PETROPHYSICAL CONSIDERATIONS !!0' "ULLETIN V P
AND BIOSTROMES !!0' "ULLETIN V P
"AISERT ( !NALYSE DER .OMENKLATUREN SEDIMENTRER +ARBONAT
,EIGHTON - 7 AND # 0ENDEXTER #ARBONATE ROCK TYPES IN 7 %
GESTEINE :EITSCHRIFT FR !NGEWANDTE 'EOLOGIE V P
(AM ED #LASSIl CATION OF #ARBONATE 2OCKS A SYMPOSIUM 4ULSA /+
"ISSELL ( * AND ' 6 #HILINGAR #LASSIl CATION OF SEDIMENTARY !MERICAN !SSOCIATION OF 0ETROLEUM 'EOLOGISTS -EMOIR P
CARBONATE ROCKS IN ' 6 #HILINGAR ( * "ISSELL AND 2 7 &AIRBRIDGE -ONTY # "ASES DUNE NOMENCLATURE DES ROCHES CALCAIRES MARINES
EDS #ARBONATE 2OCKS /RIGIN /CCURRENCE AND #LASSIl CATION $EVELOP
!NNALES DE LA 3OCIT 'OLOGIQUE DE "ELGIQUE V P "
"
MENTS IN 3EDIMENTOLOGY ! .EW 9ORK %LSEVIER 0UBL #O P
-ORROW $ 7 $ESCRIPTIVE l ELD CLASSIl CATION OF SEDIMENTARY AND
"OSELLINI ! 3UL SIGNIl CATO GENETICO E AMBIENTALE DI ALCUNI TIPI DIAGENETIC BRECCIA FABRICS IN CARBONATE ROCKS "ULLETIN OF #ANADIAN
DE ROCCE CALCAREE IN BASE ALLE PI RECENTI CLASSIl CAZIONI -EMORIE DEL 0ETROLEUM 'EOLOGY V P
-USEO DI STORIA NATURALE DELLA 6ENEZIA TRIDENTINA 4RENTO V P
-UNOZ . ' $UNHAMS CARBONATE ROCK CLASSIl CATION A 3PANISH
#ATALOV ' ! 3TRUCTURAL CLASSIl CATION OF THE LIMESTONES ;IN TERMINOLOGY #ARBONATES AND %VAPORITES V P
"ULGARIAN WITH %NGLISH SUMMARY= "ULLETIN OF THE 'EOLOGICAL )NSTITUTE .ELSON ( & # 7 "ROWN AND * ( "RINEMAN 3KELETAL LIMESTONE
"ULGARIAN !CADEMY OF 3CIENCES 3Ol A 3ERIES 3TRAT ,ITHOLOGY V CLASSIl CATION IN 7 % (AM ED #LASSIl CATION OF #ARBONATE 2OCKS A
P
3YMPOSIUM 4ULSA /+ !MERICAN !SSOCIATION OF 0ETROLEUM 'EOLOGISTS
#HILINGAR ' 6 #LASSIl CATION OF LIMESTONES AND DOLOMITES ON THE -EMOIR P
BASIS OF #A-G RATIO *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
0ERYT 4 - #LASSIl CATION OF COATED GRAINS IN 4 - 0ERYT ED
#HILINGAR ' 6 .OTES ON CLASSIl CATION OF CARBONATE ROCKS ON THE #OATED 'RAINS .EW 9ORK 3PRINGER
6ERLAG P
BASIS OF CHEMICAL COMPOSITION *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V 0LUMLEY 7 * ' ! 2ISLEY 2 7 'RAVES *R AND - % +ALEY
P
%NERGY INDEX FOR LIMESTONE INTERPRETATION AND CLASSIl CATION IN 7 %
#HILINGAR ' 6 ( * "ISSELL AND 2 7 &AIRBRIDGE EDS #ARBONATE (AM ED #LASSIl CATION OF #ARBONATE 2OCKSA SYMPOSIUM 4ULSA /+
2OCKS /RIGIN /CCURRENCE AND #LASSIl CATION .EW 9ORK %LSEVIER !MERICAN !SSOCIATION OF 0ETROLEUM 'EOLOGISTS -EMOIR P
0UBLISHING #O P 0OWERS 2 7 !RABIAN 5PPER *URASSIC CARBONATE RESERVOIR ROCKS
#LOOS % /OLITE DEFORMATION IN THE 3OUTH -OUNTAIN FOLD -ARYLAND IN 7 % (AM ED #LASSIl CATION OF #ARBONATE 2OCKSA SYMPOSIUM
'EOLOGICAL 3OCIETY OF !MERICA "ULLETIN V P
4ULSA /+ !MERICAN !SSOCIATION OF 0ETROLEUM 'EOLOGISTS -EMOIR
#UFFEY 2 * %XPANDED REEF
ROCK TEXTURAL CLASSIl CATION AND THE P
GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF BRYOZOAN REEFS 'EOLOGY V P
2IDING 2 #LASSIl CATION OF MICROBIAL CARBONATES IN 2 2IDING
$UNHAM 2 * #LASSIl CATION OF CARBONATE ROCKS ACCORDING TO THEIR ED #ALCAREOUS !LGAE AND 3TROMATOLITES "ERLIN 3PRINGER
6ERLAG P
DEPOSITIONAL TEXTURE IN 7 % (AM ED #LASSIl CATION OF #ARBONATE
2OCKSA SYMPOSIUM 4ULSA /+ !MERICAN !SSOCIATION OF 0ETROLEUM 3ANDER . * #LASSIl CATION OF CARBONATE ROCKS OF MARINE ORIGIN
'EOLOGISTS -EMOIR P
!MERICAN !SSOCIATION OF 0ETROLEUM 'EOLOGISTS "ULLETIN V P
%MBRY ! & AND * % +LOVAN ! ,ATE $EVONIAN REEF TRACT ON 3HVETZOV - 3 -AIN TYPES OF LIMESTONES AND THEIR CLASSIl CATION
NORTHEASTERN "ANKS )SLAND .74 "ULLETIN OF #ANADIAN 0ETROLEUM %CLOGAE GEOLOGICAE (ELVETIAE V P
'EOLOGY V P
3IBLEY $ & AND * - 'REGG #LASSIl CATION OF DOLOMITE ROCK
&ERAY $ % *R % (EUER AND 7 ' (EWATT "IOLOGICAL GENETIC TEXTURES *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
AND UTILITARIAN ASPECTS OF LIMESTONE CLASSIl CATION IN 7 % (AM 3TROHMENGER # AND ' 7IRSING ! PROPOSED EXTENSION OF &OLKS
ED #LASSIl CATION OF #ARBONATE 2OCKSA SYMPOSIUM 4ULSA /+ TEXTURAL CLASSIl CATION OF CARBONATE ROCKS #ARBONATES AND
!MERICAN !SSOCIATION OF 0ETROLEUM 'EOLOGISTS -EMOIR P
%VAPORITES V P
&OLK 2 , 0RACTICAL PETROGRAPHIC CLASSIl CATION OF LIMESTONES 4HOMAS ' % 'ROUPING OF CARBONATE ROCKS INTO TEXTURAL AND
!!0' "ULLETIN V P
POROSITY UNITS FOR MAPPING PURPOSES IN 7 % (AM ED #LASSIl CATION
&OLK 2 , 3PECTRAL SUBDIVISION OF LIMESTONE TYPES IN 7 % (AM OF #ARBONATE 2OCKSA 3YMPOSIUM 4ULSA /+ !MERICAN !SSOCIATION
ED #LASSIl CATION OF #ARBONATE 2OCKSA SYMPOSIUM 4ULSA /+ OF 0ETROLEUM 'EOLOGISTS -EMOIR P
!MERICAN !SSOCIATION OF 0ETROLEUM 'EOLOGISTS -EMOIR P
4ODD 4 7 0ETROGENETIC CLASSIl CATION OF CARBONATE ROCKS *OURNAL
&RIEDMAN ' - 4ERMINOLOGY OF CRYSTALLIZATION TEXTURES AND OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
FABRICS IN SEDIMENTARY ROCKS *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V 7ILSON 2 # , 0ARTICLE NOMENCLATURE IN CARBONATE SEDIMENTS
P
.EUES *AHRBUCH FR 'EOLOGIE UND 0ALONTOLOGIE -ONATSHEFTE V
&RIEDMAN ' - 4HE PROBLEM OF SUBMARINE CEMENT IN CLASSIFYING P
REEFROCK AN EXPERIENCE IN FRUSTRATION IN . 3CHNEIDERMANN AND 0 - 7OLF + ( 3IMPLIl ED LIMESTONE CLASSIl CATION !!0' "ULLETIN V
(ARRIS EDS #ARBONATE #EMENTS 4ULSA /+ 3%0- 3PECIAL 0UBLICATION P
P
7OLF + ( !N INTRODUCTION TO THE CLASSIl CATION OF LIMESTONES
&RIEDMAN ' - 4HE TERM MICRITE OR MICRITIC CEMENT IS A .EUES *AHRBUCH FR 'EOLOGIE UND 0ALONTOLOGIE -ONATSHEFTE V
CONTRADICTIONDISCUSSION OF MICRITIC CEMENT IN MICROBORINGS IS P
NOT NECESSARILY A SHALLOW
WATER INDICATOR *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 7RIGHT 6 0 ! REVISED CLASSIl CATION OF LIMESTONES 3EDIMENTARY
0ETROLOGY V P 'EOLOGY V P
'RABAU ! 7 /N THE CLASSIl CATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS !MERICAN 9ANG # AND ! 6 #AROZZI 0RACTICAL #LASSIl CATION AND -ICROFACIES
'EOLOGIST V P
!NALYSIS OF #ARBONATE 2OCKS "EIJING 0EKING 5NIVERSITY 0RESS P
(AM 7 % AND , # 0RAY -ODERN CONCEPTS AND CLASSIl CATIONS
OF CARBONATE ROCKS IN 7 % (AM ED #LASSIl CATION OF #ARBONATE
2OCKSA SYMPOSIUM 4ULSA /+ !MERICAN !SSOCIATION OF 0ETROLEUM
'EOLOGISTS -EMOIR P
)MBRIE * AND % ' 0URDY #LASSIl CATION OF MODERN "AHAMIAN
& ACING 0AGE 4OP
4HE WORLD AS VIEWED FROM A MACROPORE
%NTRANCE TO #ARLSBAD #AVERN %DDY #O .EW -EXICO
"OTTOM
4HIN
SECTION VIEW OF SLIGHTLY REDUCED PRIMARY INTER
CARBONATE IN 7 % (AM ED #LASSIl CATION OF #ARBONATE 2OCKSA PARTICLE POROSITY COUPLED WITH LEACHED AND THEN SLIGHTLY REDUCED
SYMPOSIUM 4ULSA /+ !MERICAN !SSOCIATION OF 0ETROLEUM 'EOLOGISTS SECONDARY POROSITY WITHIN OOIDS %OCENE 'REEN 2IVER &M ,ANEY
-EMOIR P
-BR &REMONT #O 7YOMING 00, "3% (! MM
CHAPTER 21: CARBONATE POROSITY CLASSIFICATION
#!2"/.!4% #,!33)&)#!
POROSITY
C
H
A
P
T
E
R
21
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
0/2/3)49
)NTRODUCTION
!LTHOUGH MOST OF THIS BOOK FOCUSES ON THE IDENTIlCATION OF GRAINS AND CEMENTS WHAT IS OFTEN OF PRIME INTEREST
TO HYDROCARBON EXPLORATIONISTS IS UNDERSTANDING THE ABSENCE OF THOSE MATERIALS IN OTHER WORDS THE ORIGIN
AND HISTORY OF OPEN PRIMARY OR SECONDARY PORE SPACE 4HIS CHAPTER THEREFORE WILL DEAL WITH RECOGNITION
OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF POROSITY THE CHAPTERS ON DIAGENESIS WILL COVER THE MECHANISMS AND RELATIVE TIMING OF
POROSITY CREATION RETENTION REDUCTION OR DESTRUCTION
#LASSIlCATION
! NUMBER OF CLASSIlCATIONS OF POROSITY IN CARBONATE ROCKS HAVE BEEN PROPOSED SEE CITATIONS AT END OF SECTION
BUT ONLY THE #HOQUETTE AND 0RAY SCHEME HAS MET WITH WIDESPREAD ACCEPTANCE 4HUS IT WILL BE THE
ONLY ONE DESCRIBED AND APPLIED IN THIS BOOK 4HIS CLASSIlCATION COMBINES TERMS THAT ENCOMPASS FOUR SEPARATE
CATEGORIES OF OBSERVATIONS 4HE MAIN TERM CALLED THE hBASIC POROSITY TYPEv CODIlES THE LOCATION AND TYPE OF
PORE SPACE 4HAT TERM IS PREFACED WITH A GENETIC MODIlER OR MODIlERS THAT RELATE TO THE PROCESS DIRECTION OR
STAGE ENLARGED REDUCED OR lLLED OF POROSITY EVOLUTION AND THE TIME OF PORE FORMATION AN ADDITIONAL TERM
DESCRIBING PORE SIZES CAN ALSO BE ADDED &INALLY AN ABUNDANCE TERM CAN BE APPENDED AT THE END OF THE NAME
TO DESCRIBE THE PERCENTAGE OF PORE SPACE )N PRACTICE MOST GEOLOGISTS SIMPLY SPECIFY THE BASIC POROSITY TYPE
ALONG WITH THE ONE OR TWO MODIlERS THAT ARE BEST SUITED TO THEIR NEEDS
4HE BASIC POROSITY TYPES ARE ILLUSTRATED IN TWO DIAGRAMS BELOW AND AT THE TOP OF THE NEXT PAGE 4HE BASIC
POROSITY TYPES ARE ORGANIZED ACCORDING TO WHETHER THEY ARE FABRIC SELECTIVE NOT FABRIC SELECTIVE OR EITHER FABRIC
SELECTIVE OR NOT 4HE MODIFYING TERMS ARE SHOWN IN THE MIDDLE DIAGRAM NEXT PAGE %XAMPLES OF THE MAJOR
POROSITY TYPES AND SOME MORE MINOR ONES ARE GIVEN IN SUBSEQUENT ILLUSTRATIONS
! lNAL NOTE THE PROPER CLASSIlCATION OF POROSITY REQUIRES ACCURATE OBSERVATION OF THE AMOUNT AND NATURE OF PORE
SPACES 3OME POROSITY IS EITHER TOO LARGE OR TOO SMALL TO BE RECOGNIZABLE IN THIN SECTION SEE UPPER PHOTOGRAPH
ON THE TITLE PAGE OF THIS CHAPTER BUT MOST IS VISIBLE AT THIN
SECTION SCALES 4O RECOGNIZE AND MEASURE POROSITY
PROPERLY UNDER THE MICROSCOPE ONE -534 USE THIN SECTIONS PREPARED FROM ROCK CHIPS THAT WERE PRESSURE
IMPREGNATED WITH COLOR
DYED EPOXY 'RAINS OR CRYSTALS COMMONLY ARE PLUCKED OUT OF SECTIONS DURING CUTTING
AND GRINDING ONLY WITH COLORED IMPREGNATION MEDIA CAN ONE DISTINGUISH PRE
SECTIONING hREALv PORES FROM
ONES CREATED DURING SECTION PREPARATION )NTENSELY DYED EPOXY ALSO LENDS EMPHASIS TO POROSITY AND HELPS TO
REVEAL MICROPORES THAT COULD OTHERWISE BE OVERLOOKED 4O DO QUANTITATIVE OR SEMIQUANTITATIVE MEASUREMENTS
OF POROSITY USING MICROSCOPY ONE MUST MATHEMATICALLY CORRECT THE OBSERVATIONS MADE IN TWO
DIMENSIONAL
SPACE SEE FOR EXAMPLE (ALLEY MODERN DIGITAL IMAGE ANALYSIS METHODOLOGIES CAN ALSO BE APPLIED TO THIS
PROCESS EG !NSELMETTI ET AL
Choquette & Pray (1970) basic
fabric-selective porosity types
! DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE BASIC
FABRIC SELECTIVE POROSITY TYPES USED IN THE
#HOQUETTE AND 0RAY CARBONATE POROSITY
CLASSIlCATION 7HAT IS MEANT BY FABRIC SELEC
TIVITY IS THAT THE POROSITY IS CONTROLLED BY THE
GRAINS CRYSTALS OR OTHER PHYSICAL STRUCTURES IN
THE ROCK AND THE PORES THEMSELVES DO NOT CROSS
THOSE PRIMARY BOUNDARIES
CHAPTER 21: CARBONATE POROSITY CLASSIFICATION
Choquette & Pray (1970) basic non-
fabric-selective or variable porosity
types
! DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE BASIC
NON
FABRIC
SELECTIVE OR VARIABLY FABRIC
SELEC
TIVE POROSITY TYPES USED IN THE #HOQUETTE AND
0RAY CARBONATE POROSITY CLASSIlCATION
4HESE ARE ALL POROSITY PATTERNS THAT ACTUALLY OR
POTENTIALLY CAN CROSS
CUT PRIMARY GRAINS AND
DEPOSITIONAL FABRICS 4HEY ALSO INCLUDE POROS
ITY TYPES THAT POTENTIALLY CAN BE MUCH LARGER
THAN ANY SINGLE PRIMARY FRAMEWORK ELEMENT
Choquette & Pray (1970) genetic,
size, and abundance modiers /&+(6+.) '1-2
"
4HE LIST OF GENETIC MODIlERS THAT CAN BE USED --
TO DESCRIBE THE PROCESS DIRECTION OR STAGE AND /,43+/. .,#1)'&
,#1)'
TIME OF FORMATION OF POROSITY IF KNOWN OR '-'.3#3+/. '&4%'& ')#0/1'
2-#,,
NEEDED !S SHOWN IN THE EXAMPLE AT THE BOT .3'1.#,2'&+-'.3 +,,'&
,#1)'
TOM OF THE GENETIC COLUMN MULTIPLE TERMS CAN '2/0/1'
2-#,,
BE COMBINED 0ORE SIZE AND ABUNDANCE MODI
1+-#16 +%1/0/1' (/11')4,#12*#0'&
lERS CAN ALSO BE ADDED TO THE NAME IF DESIRED 01'&'0/2+3+/.#, 24$%#5'1./420/1'2
4HIS hMODULARv NOMENCLATURE ALLOWS CONSIDER &'0/2+3+/.#,
ABLE mEXIBILITY OF NAMING BASED ON THE USERS '%/. !
'/)'.'3+%
NEEDS WHILE STILL ALLOWING A UNIVERSALLY COM -'2/)'.'3+% '1%'.30/1/2+36
PREHENSIBLE TERMINOLOGY $ElNITIONS OF THE 3',/)'.'3+% /1
MAIN TERMS IN THIS CLASSIlCATION ARE PROVIDED #3+//(0/1/2+36360'2
IN THE GLOSSARY NEAR THE END OF THE BOOK AND /1
')%'-'.31'&4%'&01+-#16
COMPLETE DISCUSSIONS ARE FOUND IN #HOQUETTE 2'&+-'.3(+,,'&'/)'.'3+%
#3+/#.&0'1%'.3
AND 0RAY
Recent sediment, Grand Cayman,
Cayman Islands, B.W.I.
! MODERN CALCARENITE A MIXED ALGAL
FORAMINIFERAL MOLLUSCAN LIMESTONE THAT HAS
TWO TYPES OF INITIAL POROSITY SHOWN IN BLUE
INTERPARTICLE PORE SPACES OPENINGS BETWEEN
FRAMEWORK GRAINS AND INTRAPARTICLE PORE SPACE
CONSISTING OF VOIDS WITHIN THE CONSTITUENT
GRAINS )NTRAPARTICLE POROSITY IS RELATIVELY
MINOR IN MOST OF THE GRAINS BUT IS CLEARLY VIS
IBLE IN THE (ALIMEDA GREEN ALGAL PLATES AND
PENEROPLID FORAMINIFERAL TESTS
00, "3% !&E3 (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Eocene limestone, Zakinthos,
Ionian Islands, Greece
3UBSTANTIAL UNlLLED PRIMARY INTRAPARTICLE PO
ROSITY WITHIN A NUMMULITE BENTHIC FORAMINIFER
3UBSTANTIAL INTERPARTICLE POROSITY IS ALSO PRES
ENT OUTSIDE THE FORAMINIFERAL TEST
00, "3% (! MM
Mid. Pliocene Up. Haurangi Ls.,
Wairarapa District, New Zealand
4HIS POROUS BRYOZOAN RICH TEMPERATE WATER
LIMESTONE CONTAINS BOTH INTRAPARTICLE AND IN
TERPARTICLE POROSITY -ECHANICAL COMPACTIONAL
CRUSHING HAS REDUCED INTERPARTICLE PORE SPACE
BUT IN THE ABSENCE OF CEMENTATION THE VOLUME
OF INTRAPARTICLE POROSITY HAS REMAINED HIGH
)N GENERAL INTERPARTICLE POROSITY IS BETTER
CONNECTED AND IS THUS ASSOCIATED WITH HIGHER
PERMEABILITIES THAN INTRAPARTICLE POROSITY
"ARNACLE FRAGMENTS AND ECHINOID SPINES ARE
ALSO VISIBLE IN THIS SECTION
00, "3% (! MM
Mid. Ordovician Black River Gp.,
Kingston area, Ontario, Canada
.EOMORPHOSED ORIGINALLY ARAGONITIC BIVALVE
SHELLS WITH UNDERLYING hUMBRELLAv VOIDS 4HIS
IS AN EXAMPLE OF CEMENT REDUCED PRIMARY SHEL
TER POROSITY 3AMPLE FROM .OEL 0 *AMES
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 21: CARBONATE POROSITY CLASSIFICATION
Permian (Guadalupian?) Park City
Fm., Ervay Mbr., Washakie Co.,
Wyoming
!N EXAMPLE OF hFENESTRAL FABRICv WITH ELON
GATE SPAR lLLED PORES IN MICRITIC SEDIMENT
&ENESTRAL FABRIC SOMETIMES CALLED BIRDSEYE
POROSITY MAY RESULT FROM GRAIN BRIDGING
BIOTURBATION GAS BUBBLE FORMATION ASSOCIATED
WITH DECOMPOSITION OF ORGANIC MATERIAL AND
OTHER CAUSES )T IS MOST COMMONLY ASSOCIATED
WITH TIDAL mAT DEPOSITS AND OTHER PERITIDAL SEDI
MENTS )N THE #HOQUETTE AND 0RAY SCHEME THIS
ROCK WOULD BE CLASSIlED AS HAVING CEMENT RE
DUCED PRIMARY FENESTRAL POROSITY
00, (! MM
Lo. Cretaceous (Aptian-Albian)
limestone, Cephalonia, Ionian
Islands, Greece
3OLUTION ENLARGED BORING POROSITY IS VIS
IBLE HERE WITHIN A MASSIVE RUDISTID BIVALVE
FRAGMENT 4HE PRIMARY BORING POROSITY WAS
REDUCED BY MICRITE INlLL OR MICROCRYSTALLINE
CALCITE CEMENTATION !LTHOUGH INDIVIDUAL
GRAINS CAN BE EXTENSIVELY BORED BORING POROS
ITY RARELY IS A MAJOR CONTRIBUTOR TO RESERVOIR
PRODUCTIVITY
00, "3% (! MM
Up. Permian Wegener Halv Fm.,
Jameson Land, East Greenland
4HIS SAMPLE SHOWS EXTENSIVE DEVELOPMENT
OF SECONDARY POROSITY THROUGH LEACHING OF
OOIDS FROM A GRAINSTONE 4HE SAMPLE COMES
FROM JUST BELOW A 0ERMIAN SUBAERIAL EXPOSURE
SURFACE A THIRD ORDER SEQUENCE BOUNDARY
6ADOSE DIAGENESIS LED TO COMPLETE lLLING OF
PRIMARY INTERPARTICLE PORES BY BLOCKY CALCITE
CEMENT AND NEAR COMPLETE LEACHING OF OOIDS
GENERATING OOMOLDIC SECONDARY POROSITY !L
THOUGH POROSITY REMAINED HIGH PERMEABILITY
WAS SUBSTANTIALLY REDUCED BECAUSE THE MOLDIC
PORES ARE POORLY CONNECTED MAINLY AT POINT
CONTACTS OR THROUGH INTERCRYSTAL GAPS
00, "3% !&E3 (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Oligocene Bluff Fm., Grand
Cayman, Cayman Islands, B.W.I.
-ETEORICALLY LEACHED BIVALVE SHELLS HAVE
ADDED SOME BIOMOLDIC POROSITY TO THIS MARINE
LIMESTONE 4HE MOLDIC SECONDARY POROSITY HAS
BEEN PARTIALLY REDUCED THROUGH CEMENTATION
WITH BLOCKY PROBABLY ALSO METEORIC CALCITE
CEMENT
00, "3% (! MM
Lo. Permian (up. Kungurian)
Irenskaya/Nevolinskaya Suite,
Perm Region, Russia
)N THIS ROCK SLIGHTLY REDUCED PRIMARY INTERPAR
TICLE POROSITY IS COUPLED WITH LEACHED SECOND
ARY MOLDIC POROSITY WITHIN THE OOIDS 4HE
LEACHED OOID NUCLEI MAY HAVE HAD A DIFFERENT
MINERALOGY FROM AT LEAST SOME OF THE COATINGS
.OTE THE COMPACTIONAL CRUSHING OF SOME OF THE
PARTIALLY LEACHED OOIDS AND THEIR CEMENT COAT
INGS A PROCESS THAT REDUCES TOTAL POROSITY BUT
HELPS TO ESTABLISH THE RELATIVE TIMING OF CEMEN
TATION AND COMPACTION
00, "3% (! MM
Eocene Green River Fm., Laney
Mbr., Fremont Co., Wyoming
#EMENTATION REDUCED THE PRIMARY INTERPARTICLE
POROSITY COLORED RED USING COMPUTER PROCESS
ING IN THIS LACUSTRINE LIMESTONE 4HAT WAS FOL
LOWED BY SELECTIVE LEACHING OF OOLITIC COATINGS
FORMING SECONDARY MOLDIC POROSITY MARKED
BY BLUE EPOXY IMPREGNATION 4HE MOLDIC PO
ROSITY IN TURN WAS REDUCED BY FURTHER CALCITE
CEMENTATION #OMPUTER COLORIZATION CAN HELP
TO MAKE THE RELATIVE VOLUMES OF VARIOUS TYPES
OF POROSITY EASIER TO ESTIMATE OR TO MEASURE
QUANTITATIVELY USING IMAGE ANALYSIS PROGRAMS
00, "3% (! MM
CHAPTER 21: CARBONATE POROSITY CLASSIFICATION
Jurassic Ronda unit (Subbetic),
near Ronda, Spain
#RYSTAL
MOLDIC POROSITY PRODUCED BY SELECTIVE
LEACHING OF DOLOMITE CRYSTALS 4HIS IS PROBABLY
A TELOGENETIC UPLIFT STAGE PROCESS THAT IS EN
HANCED BY THE PRESENCE OF EVAPORITE SULFATE
MINERALS IN THE SECTION #RYSTAL
MOLDIC POROS
ITY COMMONLY ALSO RESULTS FROM DISSOLUTION
OF GYPSUM ANHYDRITE HALITE AND OTHER VERY
SOLUBLE MINERALS
80, (! MM
Lo. Permian (Leonardian) Skinner
Ranch Fm., Brewster Co., Texas
)NTERCRYSTAL POROSITY IN A MEDIUM TO COARSELY
CRYSTALLINE REPLACEMENT DOLOMITE )N A SENSE
THIS TOO IS MOLDIC POROSITY OR ENLARGED
INTERCRYSTAL POROSITY AS IT INVOLVED REPLACE
MENT OF A PRECURSOR LIMESTONE FOLLOWED BY
PROBABLE DISSOLUTION OF UNDOLOMITIZED LIME
STONE REMNANTS
00, "3% (! MM
Lo. Cretaceous (Aptian) Shuaiba
Fm., offshore Qatar
3OLUTION ENLARGED INTERCRYSTAL POROSITY IN A
MEDIUM CRYSTALLINE REPLACEMENT DOLOMITE
4HE ENORMOUS VOLUME OF POROSITY COUPLED
WITH THE LARGE AND IRREGULAR SHAPES OF THE
INTERCRYSTAL PORES RELATIVE TO THE SIZE OF THE
DOLOMITE RHOMBS CLEARLY INDICATES EXTENSIVE
POST DOLOMITE DISSOLUTION OF CALCITE MATRIX
00, "3% !&E3 (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Cretaceous (lo. Maastrichtian)
Tor Fm. chalk, Danish North Sea
3UBSTANTIAL INTERCRYSTAL POROSITY CAN BE OF A
SIZE SO SMALL THAT IT IS IMPOSSIBLE TO OBSERVE
WITH STANDARD LIGHT MICROSCOPY 4HIS 3%-
IMAGE ILLUSTRATES CHALK MICROPOROSITY ROUGHLY
POROSITY AND MD PERMEABILITY
MOST INDIVIDUAL INTERCRYSTAL PORES ARE LESS
THAN M ACROSS AND SOME ARE SMALLER THAN
M )MPREGNATION AND PORE CASTING USING
ULTRA LOW VISCOSITY IMPREGNATION MEDIA AND
VACUUMHIGH PRESSURE TECHNIQUES ALLOW $
IMAGING OF MICROPOROSITY NETWORKS WITH AN
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
3%- (! M
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
4HIS STAINED SECTION REVEALS A COMPLEX HIS
TORY OF POROSITY VARIATIONS ! LARGE VOID IN A
BIOHERM WAS COMPLETELY lLLED WITH A BOTRYOID
OF ARAGONITIC MARINE CEMENT BOTRYOID STILL
PARTIALLY VISIBLE AS CLOUDY DIVERGENT RAYS
3UBAERIAL EXPOSURE LED TO PARTIAL METEORIC
LEACHING OF THE ARAGONITE CEMENT AND PARTIAL
CONVERSION OF IT TO NON FERROAN CALCITE 4HE
SECONDARY POROSITY GENERATED BY LEACHING WAS
lLLED BY BURIAL STAGE FERROAN CALCITE STAINED
BLUE
00, !&E3 (! MM
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
!N OBLIQUE CUT THROUGH STYLOLITE ASSOCIATED
POROSITY 5PLIFT AND LOAD RELEASE COMMONLY
LEAD TO SEPARATION OF THE ROCK FABRIC ALONG
WEAK SOMETIMES CLAY RICH STYLOLITES GENER
ATING ELONGATE OFTEN UNCONNECTED SECONDARY
POROSITY ZONES (YDROCARBON RESIDUES ARE SEEN
THROUGHOUT THESE STYLOLITIC PORE SPACES
00, "3% !&E3 (! MM
CHAPTER 21: CARBONATE POROSITY CLASSIFICATION
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Road
Canyon Fm., Brewster Co., Texas
-ULTIPLE GENERATIONS OF CEMENT REDUCED
FRACTURE POROSITY IN A SHELF LIMESTONE .OTE
OFFSET OF AN EARLIER GENERATION OF COMPLETELY
lLLED FRACTURES BY LATER PARTIALLY lLLED ONES
&RACTURE POROSITY COMMONLY CONSTITUTES ONLY
A FEW PERCENT OF TOTAL POROSITY IN CARBONATE
ROCKS HOWEVER IT CAN HAVE A DISPROPORTIONATE
IMPORTANCE TO PERMEABILITY AND HYDROCARBON
PRODUCTION BECAUSE IT CONNECTS PORES THAT MAY
OTHERWISE BE LARGELY ISOLATED
00, "3% (! MM
Up. Cretaceous limestone,
Zakinthos, Ionian Islands, Greece
4HE IRREGULAR SHAPE OF THIS LARGE POROUS FRAC
TURE INDICATES THAT SOME SOLUTION
ENLARGEMENT
OCCURRED ALONG THE FRACTURE THUS CREATING WHAT
IS TERMED CHANNEL POROSITY IN THE #HOQUETTE
AND 0RAY CLASSIlCATION
00, "3% (! MM
Pleistocene (120 ky) Coral Rock
Fm., St. James Parish, Barbados
!N EXAMPLE OF VUGGY POROSITY CREATED BY
ROUGHLY YEARS OF METEORIC DISSOLU
TION 4HE FACT THAT THE SIZE OF THE PORES GREATLY
EXCEEDS THE SIZE OF SURROUNDING GRAINS IS A
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURE OF VUGS
00, "3% (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Lo. Cretaceous (Aptian) Shuaiba
Fm., offshore Qatar
! LARGE VUG RESULTING FROM LATE STAGE LEACH
ING IN A PARTIALLY DOLOMITIZED ORBITOLINID
WACKESTONE .OTE THE CORROSION AROUND EARLIER
CALCITE lLLED FRACTURES INDICATING THAT DISSOLU
TION OCCURRED LATE IN THE DIAGENETIC HISTORY OF
THIS ROCK 0ETROGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS SUCH AS
THESE ARE ESSENTIAL FOR THE PROPER UNDERSTANDING
OF THE ORIGIN AND TIMING OF POROSITY DEVELOP
MENT OR RETENTION IN CARBONATE RESERVOIR ROCKS
00, "3% !&E3 (! MM
#ITED 2EFERENCES AND !DDITIONAL )NFORMATION 3OURCES
!NSELMETTI & 3 3 ,UTHI AND ' 0 %BERLI 1UANTITATIVE CARBONATE RESERVOIRS IN THE 0ERMIAN "ASIN IN - 0 #ANDELLARIA ED
CHARACTERIZATION OF CARBONATE PORE SYSTEMS BY DIGITAL IMAGE ANALYSIS 0ERMIAN "ASIN 0LAYS 4OMORROWS 4ECHNOLOGY 4ODAY -IDLAND 48
!!0' "ULLETIN V P
7EST 4EXAS 'EOLOGICAL 3OCIETY 0UBLICATION .O
P
#HOQUETTE 0 7 AND , # 0RAY 'EOLOGIC NOMENCLATURE AND -OORE # ( #ARBONATE $IAGENESIS AND 0OROSITY .EW 9ORK
CLASSIlCATION OF POROSITY IN SEDIMENTARY CARBONATES !MERICAN %LSEVIER P
!SSOCIATION OF 0ETROLEUM 'EOLOGISTS "ULLETIN V P
-OSHIER 3 / -ICROPOROSITY IN MICRITIC LIMESTONES A REVIEW
%HRLICH 2 3 * #RABTREE + / (ORKOWITZ AND * 0 (ORKOWITZ 3EDIMENTARY 'EOLOGY V P
0ETROGRAPHY AND RESERVOIR PHYSICS ) /BJECTIVE CLASSIlCATION OF -URRAY 2 # /RIGIN OF POROSITY IN CARBONATE ROCKS *OURNAL OF
RESERVOIR POROSITY !MERICAN !SSOCIATION OF 0ETROLEUM 'EOLOGISTS 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
"ULLETIN V P
0ITTMAN % $ -ICROPOROSITY IN CARBONATE ROCKS !MERICAN
%NOS 0 AND , ( 3AWATSKY 0ORE NETWORKS IN (OLOCENE CARBONATE !SSOCIATION OF 0ETROLEUM 'EOLOGISTS "ULLETIN V P
SEDIMENTS *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
0ITTMAN % $ AND 2 7 $USCHATKO 5SE OF PORE CASTS AND SCANNING
%TRUS % , $ 3 "RUMlELD 2 %HRLICH AND 3 * #RABTREE *R ELECTRON MICROSCOPY TO STUDY PORE GEOMETRY *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY
2ELATIONS BETWEEN PORES THROATS AND PERMEABILITY A PETROGRAPHIC 0ETROLOGY V P
PHYSICAL ANALYSIS OF SOME CARBONATE GRAINSTONES AND PACKSTONES 0URSER " ( ! "ROWN AND $ - !ISSAOUI .ATURE ORIGINS AND
#ARBONATES AND %VAPORITES V P
EVOLUTION OF POROSITY IN DOLOMITES IN " ( 0URSER - % 4UCKER AND
(ALLEY 2 " %STIMATING PORE AND CEMENT VOLUMES IN THIN SECTION $ ( :ENGER EDS $OLOMITES
! 6OLUME IN (ONOUR OF $OLOMIEU
*OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
)NTERNATIONAL !SSOCIATION OF 3EDIMENTOLOGISTS 3PECIAL 0UBLICATION .O
(ARRIS * & #ARBONATE ROCK CHARACTERISTICS AND EFFECT ON OIL #AMBRIDGE "LACKWELL 3CIENTIlC 0UBLICATIONS P
ACCUMULATION IN -ID
#ONTINENT AREA !MERICAN !SSOCIATION OF 3TOUT * , 0ORE GEOMETRY AS RELATED TO CARBONATE STRATIGRAPHIC TRAPS
0ETROLEUM 'EOLOGISTS "ULLETIN V P
!MERICAN !SSOCIATION OF 0ETROLEUM 'EOLOGISTS "ULLETIN V P
(ELING $ -ICROPOROSITY OF CARBONATE ROCKS IN ' -LLER AND ' 4HOMAS ' % 'ROUPING OF CARBONATE ROCKS INTO TEXTURAL AND
- &RIEDMAN EDS 2ECENT $EVELOPMENTS IN #ARBONATE 3EDIMENTOLOGY POROSITY UNITS FOR MAPPING PURPOSES IN 7 % (AM ED #LASSIlCATION
IN #ENTRAL %UROPE .EW 9ORK 3PRINGER
6ERLAG P
OF #ARBONATE 2OCKSA 3YMPOSIUM 4ULSA /+ !MERICAN !SSOCIATION
*ODRY 2 , 0ORE GEOMETRY OF CARBONATE ROCKS BASIC GEOLOGIC OF 0ETROLEUM 'EOLOGISTS -EMOIR P
CONCEPTS IN ' 6 #HILINGAR 2 7 -ANNON AND ( ( 2IEKE EDS 7ALDSCHMIDT 7 ! 0 % &ITZGERALD AND # , ,UNSFORD
/IL AND 'AS 0RODUCTION FROM #ARBONATE 2OCKS .EW 9ORK %LSEVIER #LASSIlCATION OF POROSITY AND FRACTURES IN RESERVOIR ROCKS !MERICAN
P
!SSOCIATION OF 0ETROLEUM 'EOLOGISTS "ULLETIN V P
+OPASKA
-ERKEL $ # AND 3 $ -ANN #LASSIlCATION OF LITHIlED 7ARDLAW . # 0ORE GEOMETRY OF CARBONATE ROCKS AS REVEALED BY
CARBONATES USING TERNARY PLOTS OF PORE FACIES EXAMPLES FROM THE PORE CASTS AND CAPILLARY PRESSURE !MERICAN !SSOCIATION OF 0ETROLEUM
*URASSIC 3MACKOVER &ORMATION IN 2 2EZAK AND $ , ,AVOIE EDS 'EOLOGISTS "ULLETIN V P
#ARBONATE -ICROFABRICS .EW 9ORK 3PRINGER
6ERLAG P
,UCIA & * 0ETROPHYSICAL PARAMETERS ESTIMATED FROM VISUAL
&
DESCRIPTIONS OF CARBONATE ROCKS A lELD CLASSIlCATION OF CARBONATE PORE ACING 0AGE 4OP 0ETROGRAPHIC STUDIES CAN BE hHANDYv IN UN
SPACE *OURNAL OF 0ETROLEUM 4ECHNOLOGY V P
RAVELING COMPLEX DIAGENETIC HISTORIES 5P 0ERMIAN 7EGENER
,UCIA & * 2OCK
FABRICPETROPHYSICAL CLASSIlCATION OF CARBONATE
(ALV &M *AMESON ,AND %AST 'REENLAND 00, !&E3 (!
PORE SPACE FOR RESERVOIR CHARACTERIZATION !MERICAN !SSOCIATION OF
0ETROLEUM 'EOLOGISTS "ULLETIN V P
MM
,UCIA & * #ARBONATE 2ESERVOIR #HARACTERIZATION .EW 9ORK .9 "OTTOM !N EUHEDRAL AUTHIGENIC QUARTZ CRYSTAL REPLACING LIMESTONE
3PRINGER
6ERLAG P NOTE ABUNDANT CARBONATE INCLUSIONS ,OWER *URASSIC TURBIDITE
-AZZULLO , * AND 0 - (ARRIS !N OVERVIEW OF DISSOLUTION POROSITY LIMESTONE #ENTRAL (IGH !TLAS REGION -OROCCO 00, !&E3 (!
DEVELOPMENT IN THE DEEP
BURIAL ENVIRONMENT WITH EXAMPLES FROM MM
CHAPTER 22: DIAGENETIC PROCESSES AND TERMINOLOGY
#!2"/.!4% $)!'%.%3)3
PROCESSES AND TERMINOLOGY
C
H
A
P
T
E
R
22
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
$)!'%.%4)# 02/#%33%3 !.$ 4%2-)./,/'9
)NTRODUCTION
$IAGENESIS ENCOMPASSES ANY PHYSICAL OR CHEMICAL CHANGES IN SEDIMENTS OR SEDIMENTARY ROCKS THAT OCCUR AFTER
DEPOSITION EXCLUDING PROCESSES INVOLVING HIGH ENOUGH TEMPERATURES AND PRESSURES TO BE CALLED METAMORPHISM
$IAGENESIS THUS CAN BEGIN AT THE SEA mOOR SYNGENETIC OR EOGENETIC ALTERATION CONTINUE THROUGH DEEP BURIAL
MESOGENETIC ALTERATION AND EXTEND TO SUBSEQUENT UPLIFT TELOGENETIC ALTERATION $IAGENESIS CAN OBSCURE
INFORMATION ABOUT PRIMARY FEATURES BUT DIAGENESIS ALSO CAN LEAVE BEHIND SUBSTANTIAL INFORMATION ABOUT THE
HISTORY OF POST
DEPOSITIONAL SETTINGS PORE WATER COMPOSITIONS AND TEMPERATURES
$IAGENESIS CAN REDUCE POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY OR IT CAN INCREASE THEM )N GENERAL THOUGH THE TREND IS
TOWARD PROGRESSIVE LOSS OF POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY WITH INCREASED TIME AND DEPTH OF BURIAL AND THAT SHIFT IS
COMMONLY QUITE SUBSTANTIAL 4HE TOP DIAGRAM OPPOSITE PAGE SHOWS THE HIGHLY GENERALIZED AVERAGE POROSITIES
OF MODERN CARBONATE SEDIMENTS TYPICAL ANCIENT CARBONATES AND THE hEXCEPTIONALLY POROUSv ROCKS THAT
CONSTITUTE HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS -ODERN SEDIMENT POROSITIES RANGE FROM
FOR GRAINSTONES TO
OR MORE FOR MUDSTONES OR CHALKS 4YPICAL ANCIENT CARBONATES HAVE LESS THAN POROSITY AND EVEN RESERVOIR
ROCKS AVERAGE FAR LESS THAN HALF THE POROSITY OF THEIR MODERN CARBONATE EQUIVALENTS 4HUS UNDERSTANDING
DIAGENETIC PROCESSES THE FACTORS THAT INHIBIT POROSITY LOSS AND THE RELATIVE TIMING OF OIL MIGRATION VERSUS
POROSITY EVOLUTION ARE CRITICAL TO EXPLORATION FOR HYDROCARBONS AND CARBONATE
HOSTED MINERAL DEPOSITS
$IAGENESIS TYPICALLY INVOLVES A VARIETY OF PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROCESSES THE MOST COMMON OF THESE ARE
#EMENTATION THE lLLING OF OPEN PORE SPACE OF PRIMARY OR SECONDARY ORIGIN WITH NEWLY PRECIPITATED
MATERIALS
$ISSOLUTION THE LEACHING OF UNSTABLE MINERALS FORMING SECONDARY PORES VUGS OR CAVERNS
2EPLACEMENT OF ONE MINERAL BY ANOTHER OR hINVERSIONv THE REPLACEMENT OF ONE POLYMORPH OF A MINERAL BY
ANOTHER
2ECRYSTALLIZATION OR STRAIN RECRYSTALLIZATION CHANGES IN CRYSTAL SIZE STRAIN STATE OR GEOMETRY WITHOUT
CHANGE IN MINERALOGY
0HYSICAL OR MECHANICAL COMPACTION INCLUDING DEWATERING AND DEFORMATION OR REORIENTATION OF GRAINS
#HEMICAL COMPACTION DISSOLUTION MAINLY ALONG SURFACES SUCH AS STYLOLITES OR SOLUTION SEAMS
&RACTURING
4HE TERMINOLOGY APPLIED TO SUCH A COMPLEX RANGE OF CARBONATE DIAGENETIC PROCESSES AND PRODUCTS IS UNDERSTANDABLY
ALSO COMPLEX AND IS GENERALLY APPLIED WITH DISCONCERTING INCONSISTENCY &OLK PROVIDED WHAT IS STILL THE
MOST CONCISE YET INCLUSIVE TERMINOLOGY FOR DIAGENETIC FABRICS 0ORE
lLLING CEMENTS ARE DESCRIBED BASED ON
THEIR MODE OF FORMATION PASSIVE OR DISPLACIVE PRECIPITATION CRYSTAL MORPHOLOGY BASED ON LENGTH
WIDTH
RATIOS AS SHOWN IN THE MIDDLE DIAGRAM FACING PAGE CRYSTAL SIZE SEE TABLE IN LIMESTONE CLASSIlCATION CHAPTER
AND RELATIONSHIP TO FOUNDATION OVERGROWTH CRUST OR SPHERULITIC GROWTH WITHOUT OBVIOUS NUCLEUS
4HE &OLK TERMINOLOGY FOR THE COMPLEX GROUP OF PROCESSES LOOSELY TERMED hRECRYSTALLIZATIONv IS SHOWN AND
EXPLAINED ON THE BOTTOM DIAGRAM FACING PAGE /F PARTICULAR NOTE ARE TWO USEFUL TERMS hSOLUTION AND CAVITY
lLLv WHICH DESCRIBES THE COMMON TWO
STAGE DIAGENETIC PROCESS OF DISSOLUTION OF ONE MINERAL FORMING A VOID THAT
IS lLLED BY LATER SOMETIMES MUCH LATER PRECIPITATION OF A DIFFERENT MINERAL THE SECOND TERM hNEOMORPHISMv
IS A hTERM OF IGNORANCEv FOR ALL DIAGENETIC TRANSFORMATIONS BETWEEN ONE MINERAL AND ITSELF OR A POLYMORPH
WHETHER THE NEW CRYSTALS ARE LARGER OR SMALLER SIMPLY DIFFER IN SHAPE FROM THE PREVIOUS ONES OR REPRESENT A
NEW MINERAL SPECIES 4HIS IS AN ESSENTIAL TERM WHEN THERE IS UNCERTAINTY ABOUT THE PRECURSOR MINERALS
4HIS CHAPTER ILLUSTRATES SOME OF THE MAIN TYPES OF DIAGENESIS TO CLARIFY THEIR NOMENCLATURE (OWEVER BECAUSE THE
PURPOSE OF MOST DIAGENETIC STUDIES IS TO INTERPRET THE ORIGIN AND TIMING OF ALTERATION THE DETAILS OF DIAGENESIS
WILL BE PRESENTED BY ENVIRONMENT SYNSEDIMENTARY MARINE PROCESSES SUBAERIAL METEORIC AND SHALLOW PHREATIC
ALTERATION AND BURIAL DIAGENESIS 4HIS MIXES DIFFERENT PROCESSES DISSOLUTION PRECIPITATION RECRYSTALLIZATION
TOGETHER BUT IT ALLOWS THE PRESENTATION OF A MORE UNIlED PICTURE OF THE FABRICS INDICATIVE OF DIFFERENT STAGES
AND ENVIRONMENTS OF ALTERATION !LTERATION BY NON
CALCIUM CARBONATE MINERALS DOLOMITE SIDERITE SILICA
EVAPORITES AND OTHERS IS DEALT WITH IN SEPARATE CHAPTERS
!LTHOUGH THE DIAGENETIC PRODUCTS OF DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTS ARE PRESENTED SEPARATELY IN THIS BOOK MOST ANCIENT
LIMESTONES CONTAIN A MIX OF FEATURES GENERATED IN DIFFERENT SETTINGS /FTEN THE MOST USEFUL PART OF PETROGRAPHIC
STUDIES IS THE DETERMINATION OF THE SEQUENCING TERMED PARAGENESIS OF DIAGENETIC EVENTS RELATIVE TO EACH OTHER
AND TO EXTERNAL MARKER EVENTS UPLIFT HYDROCARBON GENERATION AND OTHERS
CHAPTER 22: DIAGENETIC PROCESSES AND TERMINOLOGY
A comparison of porosities in
modern and ancient carbonate
deposits
! GENERALIZED PLOT SHOWING THE REMARKABLE
DIFFERENCE IN POROSITIES AMONG TYPICAL MODERN
CARBONATE SEDIMENTS ANCIENT CARBONATE STRATA
AND TYPICAL CARBONATE HYDROCARBON RESERVOIR
!
ROCKS 4HE POROSITY LOSS IS RELATED TO A VARIETY
OF MARINE METEORIC AND BURIAL DIAGENETIC PRO
!
CESSES THAT ACT THROUGHOUT THE SYN
AND POST
DEPOSITIONAL HISTORY OF THESE STRATA 2EDRAWN
FROM A SLIDE BY ,LOYD 0RAY AND 0HILLIP
#HOQUETTE
!
Folk (1965) terminology for
carbonate crystal shapes
#ARBONATE CRYSTAL SHAPES ARE CLASSIlED BASED
ON THEIR RELATIVE LENGTH TO WIDTH RATIOS (IGHLY
ELONGATE lBROUS CRYSTALS HAVE LENGTH TO WIDTH
RATIOS GREATER THAN TO %QUANT CRYSTALS HAVE
LENGTH TO WIDTH RATIOS OF LESS THAN TO
"LADED CRYSTALS HAVE LENGTH TO WIDTH RATIOS IN
TERMEDIATE BETWEEN THOSE OF lBROUS AND EQUANT
CRYSTALS 4HE &OLK CLASSIlCATION ALSO INCLUDES
CRYSTAL SIZE TERMS AND TERMS DESCRIBING THE
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CEMENT AND SUBSTRATE
CRUST OVERGROWTH OR SPHERULITE
Folk (1965) terminology for
diagenetic mineral alteration
processes
' &$' * %* )% + % $, (%(&$,
4HIS CLASSIlCATION OF CARBONATE DIAGENETIC '(,# *(! $!! * ',
)/*$, ,
PHENOMENA IS BASED ON A DETERMINATION OF THE (&)(+$,$('
OPERATIVE ALTERATION PROCESSES AS INTERPRETED &$' * %$+* )% * "('$, &- (*
FROM THE COMPOSITIONAL AND TEXTURAL RELATION
/$,+)(%/&(*)# +# %% % $, &(+ $
SHIPS BETWEEN PRECURSOR AND SUCCESSOR MINER
!(*& &$' * % # '" +
,* $' % $,
ALS 4HIS TABLE DESCRIBES THOSE PROCESS AND ,( &(+ $ (!-' !(*&
-'+,* $' % $,
GIVES EXAMPLES OF THE TYPES OF TRANSFORMATIONS */+, %+(!+ & &$' * %
INVOLVED IN EACH CASE '-' !(*& &$' * %
% $, &- (*!$ *+
# '" +$,+!(*&"* $'
% $, &(+ $ ,
+$0 (*(*$ ', ,$('
&$' * % $++(%. + %%( # &
% .$'" .$,/ .$,/$+ .$,/ % $,
!$%% % , *
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Recent beachrock, Grand Cayman,
Cayman Islands, B.W.I.
#EMENTATION lBROUS ALSO CALLED ACICULAR
MARINE CEMENT HERE PARTIALLY lLLS FORAMINIFERAL
CHAMBERS 4HE RELATIONSHIP OF THIS lBROUS ARA
GONITE CEMENT TO ITS SUBSTRATE WOULD BE TERMED
A hCRUSTv IN THE &OLK TERMINOLOGY AS
OPPOSED TO AN hOVERGROWTHv OR A hSPHERULITIC
GROWTHv -OST MODERN MARINE ARAGONITE CE
MENT HAS A lBROUS ENCRUSTING HABIT
00, "3% (! MM
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
#EMENTATION EQUANT OR BLOCKY CALCITE SPAR
CEMENTING A METEORICALLY ALTERED OOLITIC
LIMESTONE #EMENT INlLL OF PRIMARY POROSITY
PROBABLY WAS TEMPORALLY ASSOCIATED WITH THE
LEACHING OF ORIGINALLY ARAGONITIC GRAINS
00, "3% !&E3 (! MM
Oligocene Gambier Fm., South
Australia
#EMENTATION A SKELETAL GRAINSTONE COMPOSED
OF BRYOZOANS WITH NO CEMENT AND AN ECHINOID
FRAGMENT WITH ZONED SYNTAXIAL OVERGROWTH CE
MENT THE EARLY NON FERROAN INTERMEDIATE
FERROAN AND LATE NON FERROAN STAGES HAVE BEEN
REVEALED BY STAINING 3UCH SYNTAXIAL CEMENTS
FORM AS OVERGROWTHS IN OPTICAL CONTINUITY WITH
THEIR SUBSTRATE )N THE CASE OF LARGE ECHINODERM
OVERGROWTHS SUCH CEMENTS MAY FORM OVER
LONG PERIODS OF TIME FROM THE EARLIEST STAGES
OF MARINE DIAGENESIS THROUGH EXTENSIVE BURIAL
0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF .OEL 0 *AMES
00, !&E3 (! MM
CHAPTER 22: DIAGENETIC PROCESSES AND TERMINOLOGY
Cretaceous White Ls., Co. Antrim,
Northern Ireland
#EMENTATION AN 3%- IMAGE SHOWING THAT THE
PROCESS OF OVERGROWTH CEMENTATION ALSO OCCURS
DURING BURIAL DIAGENESIS OF MICROCRYSTALLINE
GRAINS 4HIS SINGLE COCCOLITH SHIELD ISOLATED
INSIDE A FORAMINIFERAL CHAMBER HAS HAD DIF
FERENTIAL OVERGROWTH OF ITS INDIVIDUAL RADIAL
CALCITE ELEMENTS EACH OF WHICH WAS ORIGINALLY
THE SAME LENGTH %VEN THE LARGE PORE lLLING
CALCITE CRYSTALS ARE IN CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC CONTINU
ITY WITH ONE OF THE COCCOLITH ELEMENTS 3UCH
OVERGROWTH CRYSTALS ARE MUCH MORE DIFlCULT
TO IDENTIFY HOWEVER WHEN THEY OCCUR IN THE
JUMBLED MATRIX OF A CHALK
3%- (! ^ M
Holocene sediment, Dead Sea,
Israel and Jordan
#EMENTATION SPHERULITIC GROWTH OF lBROUS CAL
CITE !N 3%- IMAGE OF BUNDLES OF ARAGONITE
FROM A CORE RETRIEVED FROM THE NORTHERN BASIN
OF THE $EAD 3EA !LTHOUGH THESE MAY BE PRI
MARY PRECIPITATES RATHER THAN DIAGENETIC PROD
UCTS THEY DO ILLUSTRATE THE &OLK CONCEPT
OF SPHERULITIC GROWTH WITH NO OBVIOUS NUCLEUS
0RIMARY SPHERULES MAY UNDERGO DIAGENETIC
OVERGROWTH THAT PRESERVES AND ENLARGES THE
RADIATING FABRIC 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF 2AY
MOND ! 'ARBER
3%- (! ^ M
Up. Permian reefal ls., Guangxi
Province, Peoples Republic of
China
#EMENTATION RADIAXIAL
lBROUS CALCITE CEMENTS
GROWING AS A CRUST ON AN !RCHAEOLITHOPORELLA
REEFAL BOUNDSTONE LEFT 2ADIAXIAL
lBROUS
CALCITE 2&# MOSAICS CONSIST OF lBROUS CRYS
TALS AND SUBCRYSTALS RADIATING AWAY FROM THE
INITIAL GROWTH SURFACE AND ALLIED TO OPTIC AXES
THAT CONVERGE AWAY FROM THE PORE WALL 2&#
IS CHARACTERIZED BY CURVED CLEAVAGES WELL
SHOWN IN THIS EXAMPLE UNDULOSE EXTINCTION
AND IRREGULAR INTERGRANULAR BOUNDARIES WHICH
DISTINGUISH THIS FABRIC FROM SIMPLE RADIAL
l
BROUS CALCITE
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Lo. Permian? Nansen Fm.,
Ellesmere Island, Arctic
Archipelago, Canada
#EMENTATION BOTRYOIDAL CEMENTS 4HESE LARGE
BOTRYOIDS OF RADIAL
ARRAY CALCITE AFTER SUBMA
RINE BOTRYOIDAL ARAGONITE ARE CUT BY FRACTURES
LINED BY RADIAL
lBROUS CALCITE AFTER -G CALCITE
SUBMARINE CEMENT "OTRYOIDAL GROWTH FORMS
ARE HEMISPHERICAL ARRAYS OF lBROUS CRYSTALS
THAT COMMONLY HAVE FORMED AS SEAmOOR
GROWTHS OR AS GROWTHS WITHIN LARGE REEFAL CAVI
TIES -ICROPROBE AND CHEMICAL ANALYSES SHOW
PRESERVATION OF UP TO PPM 3R IN THIS RE
PLACEMENT CALCITE AFTER ARAGONITE 0HOTOGRAPH
COURTESY OF 'RAHAM 2 $AVIES
-AC (! CM
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
#EMENTATION A DETAILED VIEW OF A SMALL POR
TION OF A LARGE BOTRYOID OF MARINE CEMENT
4HIS CEMENT FROM A BRYOZOAN BIOHERM HAS
AN ORGANIZED PELOIDAL FABRIC 3UCH ORIGINALLY
HIGH -G CALCITE PELOIDS MAY BE INORGANIC
OR MORE LIKELY REPRESENT BACTERIALLY INDUCED
PRECIPITATES THAT WERE INTERGROWN WITH INOR
GANIC lBROUS ARAGONITE 4HE ARAGONITE WAS
SUBSEQUENTLY DISSOLVED AND THE VOIDS lLLED
WITH NON FERROAN TO SLIGHTLY FERROAN CALCITE
PINK TO BLUE STAINED 4HIS IS AN EXAMPLE OF
THE COMPLEX DIAGENETIC HISTORY TO WHICH EVEN
CEMENTS ARE SUBJECT
00, "3% !&E3 (! MM
Holocene limestone, Abu Dhabi,
United Arab Emirates
#EMENTATION THE SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION AND COM
POSITION OF CEMENTS ARE IMPORTANT FACTORS IN
THE INTERPRETATION OF THEIR ORIGIN 4HESE COASTAL
SPRAY
ZONE CEMENTS SHOW A PENDANT GRAVITA
TIONAL OR MICROSTALACTITIC MORPHOLOGY BENEATH
A BIVALVE SHELL 4HAT IS THE SMALL CEMENT
BOTRYOIDS ARE FOUND ONLY ON THE UNDERSIDES
OF THE GRAIN WHERE WATER DROPLETS HANG IN A
VADOSE SETTING 4HE MINERALOGY BANDED l
BROUS ARAGONITE AND MICROCRYSTALLINE HIGH
-G
CALCITE HOWEVER INDICATES A MARINE SOURCE OF
WATER 4HIS COMBINATION OF VADOSE CONDITIONS
AND SALINE mUIDS OCCURS PRIMARILY BUT NOT EX
CLUSIVELY IN MARINE COASTAL SETTINGS
80, (! ^ MM
CHAPTER 22: DIAGENETIC PROCESSES AND TERMINOLOGY
Lo. Cretaceous (Albian) Up.
Folkestone Beds, Kent, England,
U.K.
#EMENTATION A POIKILITIC CALCITE CEMENT
IN A CALCAREOUS SANDSTONE 0OIKILITIC OR
POIKILOTOPIC CEMENTS HAVE SMALL GRANULAR
CRYSTALS OR GRAINS HERE CLASTIC TERRIGENOUS SAND
GRAINS THAT ARE IRREGULARLY SCATTERED WITHOUT
COMMON ORIENTATION IN A LARGER CRYSTAL OF AN
OTHER MINERAL GENERALLY CALCITE OR GYPSUM
0OIKILITIC CALCITE CEMENTS CAN HAVE AN OVER
GROWTH RELATIONSHIP TO A CARBONATE GRAIN SUCH
AS AN ECHINODERM FRAGMENT THAT MAY OR MAY
NOT BE VISIBLE IN THE PLANE OF SECTION
80, (! MM
Mid-Cretaceous Tamabra Ls., San
Luis Potos, Mexico
#EMENTATION AND INlLTRATION THIS COMBINATION
OF MARINE CEMENTS COUPLED WITH LAYERED INTER
NAL SEDIMENT REmECTS A DIAGENETIC HISTORY THAT IS
APPARENTLY COMPLETELY MARINE ! THICK BAND OF
RADIAXIAL lBROUS CALCITE CEMENT LINES ALL FORMER
PORES 4HE MARINE CEMENT IS OVERLAIN BY VAGUE
LY LAYERED PELOIDAL INTERNAL SEDIMENT CONTAINING
SPARSE PLANKTONIC FOSSILS ! SECOND THIN LAYER OF
MARINE CEMENT AND ANOTHER DEPOSIT OF MICRITIC
SEDIMENT WITH PLANKTONIC FOSSILS IS VISIBLE NEAR
THE TOP OF THE IMAGE 3UCH MULTIGENERATIONAL
INTERLAYERS OF CEMENT AND SEDIMENT ARE COMMON
IN REEFAL AND BIOHERMAL LIMESTONES 0HOTOGRAPH
COURTESY OF 0AUL %NOS
00, (! MM
Holocene (<2700 yBP) eolianite,
Isla Cancun, Quintana Roo, Mexico
$ISSOLUTION LEACHING AN OOLITIC EOLIANITE WITH
SUBSTANTIAL LEACHING OF ORIGINALLY ARAGONITIC
OOIDS AS A RESULT OF METEORIC EXPOSURE !C
COMPANYING CEMENTATION BY EQUANT CALCITE
HAS COMPLETELY OCCLUDED PRIMARY INTERPARTICLE
POROSITY 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF 2OBERT '
,OUCKS
00, "3% (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Oligocene Nile Gp., Karamea,
Westland, New Zealand
!RAGONITE INVERSION SOLUTION lLL SECONDARY
LEACHED BIVALVE POROSITY WAS SELECTIVELY
lLLED lRST WITH A THIN COATING OF NON FERROAN
CEMENT PALE PINK AND LATER BY FERROAN CALCITE
CEMENT STAINED PURPLE BLUE 4HESE RELATIONS
COUPLED WITH COLLAPSED lLLS OF SHELL BORINGS
INDICATE A VOID PHASE AND A TEMPORAL GAP
BETWEEN DISSOLUTION AND CEMENTATION
00, "3% !&E3 (! MM
Plio-Pleistocene Caloosahatchee
Fm., Glades Co., Florida
)NVERSION AN EXAMPLE OF PARTIAL INVERSION
OF A VERMETID GASTROPOD SHELL 4HE PATCHY
BROWN INCLUSIONS ARE UNALTERED REMNANTS OF THE
PRIMARY ARAGONITIC SHELL WHILE THE REST OF THE
SHELL HAS BEEN CONVERTED TO COARSELY CRYSTALLINE
SPARRY CALCITE 6IRTUALLY NO RELICT TEXTURES ARE
VISIBLE IN INVERTED AREAS YET IT IS UNLIKELY THAT A
VOID SPACE WAS EVER PRESENT BECAUSE THERE HAS
BEEN NO COLLAPSE OF THE SMALL REMNANTS OF PRI
MARY SHELL !LSO NOTE THE EXTENSION OF CALCITE
CRYSTALS INTO THE CAVITY lLLING MICRITE THROUGH
DISPLACEMENT OR REPLACEMENT
00, "3% (! MM
Mid. Ordovician Chazy-Black River
Fms., Mifin Co., Pennsylvania
2ECRYSTALLIZATION OR AGGRADING NEOMORPHISM
A TRANSITION FROM MICRITE TO MICROSPAR AND
PSEUDOSPAR A CASE OF PROBABLY UNSTRAINED
MICRITE CRYSTALS UNDERGOING A PROCESS OF
GROWTH OR COALESCENCE TO FORM LARGER CRYSTALS
.OTE THE CHARACTERISTIC BLADED SHAPES OF THE
PSEUDOSPAR CRYSTALS AND THE REMNANTS OF UNAL
TERED MATRIX BETWEEN THOSE CRYSTALS ALSO SEE
h-ATRIXv CHAPTER )F THE PRECURSOR MICRITE WAS
CALCITIC THEN hRECRYSTALLIZATIONv IS THE PROPER
TERM FOR THIS DIAGENETIC ALTERATION )F ONE DOES
NOT KNOW THE PRECURSOR MINERAL COMPOSITION
THEN hAGGRADING NEOMORPHISMv WOULD BE THE
BETTER TERM TO USE
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 22: DIAGENETIC PROCESSES AND TERMINOLOGY
Up. Cambrian Riley Fm., Lion
Mountain Ss. Mbr., Burnet Co.,
Texas
2EPLACEMENT EUHEDRAL FERROAN DOLOMITE
REPLACEMENT CRYSTALS IN A LIMESTONE 4HE
CRITICAL PART OF THE DElNITION OF REPLACEMENT
IS THAT THE HOST MINERAL AND ITS SUCCESSOR HAVE
DIFFERENT COMPOSITIONS THAT IS THAT THEY ARE
NOT POLYMORPHS OF EACH OTHER )N THIS CASE
ALTHOUGH BOTH MINERALS ARE CARBONATES THEY
ARE COMPOSITIONALLY QUITE DISTINCT AND CLEARLY
QUALIFY AS DIFFERENT MINERALS
00, !&E3 (! MM
Up. Cambrian Beekmantown
Gp., Mines Dolomite, Centre Co.,
Pennsylvania
2EPLACEMENT A SILICIlED OOLITIC LIMESTONE
#HERT AND MEGAQUARTZ ARE THE MAIN FORMS OF
REPLACEMENT SILICA IN THIS SAMPLE AND BOTH
SHOW CHARACTERISTIC LOW BIREFRINGENCE 4HE
ORIGINAL CARBONATE FABRIC IS WELL PRESERVED DUE
TO THE INCORPORATION OF SMALL MINERAL AND mUID
INCLUSIONS IN THE SILICA
80, (! MM
Lo. Cretaceous Paw Paw Fm.,
Quarry Ls., Grayson Co., Texas
-ECHANICAL COMPACTION FRACTURING OF BIVALVE
SHELLS FOLLOWED BY LATE
STAGE FERROAN CALCITE CE
MENTATION 4HE SHATTERING OF RELATIVELY STRONG
SHELLS OCCURS MAINLY IN GRAINSTONES THAT UNDER
WENT LITTLE OR NO CEMENTATION PRIOR TO BURIAL AND
OVERBURDEN LOADING -ECHANICAL COMPACTION
INCLUDES DEWATERING GRAIN REORIENTATION AND
BRITTLE OR PLASTIC GRAIN DEFORMATION AND IT AC
COUNTS FOR SUBSTANTIAL POROSITY LOSS IN MANY
CARBONATE DEPOSITS ESPECIALLY lNE GRAINED
ONES
00, !&E3 (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Silurian Tonoloway-Keyser Ls.,
Mifin Co., Pennsylvania
#HEMICAL COMPACTION A CRINOIDAL LIMESTONE
ENCRINITE WITH SUTURED CONTACTS AND SOLUTION
SEAMS IRREGULAR BROWN ZONES BETWEEN MOST
ADJACENT GRAINS 4HESE FEATURES INDICATE EXTEN
SIVE CHEMICAL COMPACTION PRESSURE SOLUTION
DURING BURIAL OF THE LIMESTONE 4HE COMPAC
TION HERE POSTDATES SYNTAXIAL OVERGROWTHS ON
SOME OF THE CRINOIDS
00, (! MM
#ITED 2EFERENCES AND !DDITIONAL )NFORMATION 3OURCES
"ANNER & 4 AND ' 6 7OOD 2ECRYSTALLIZATION IN MICROFOSSILIFEROUS -ACHEL ( ' 2ECRYSTALLIZATION VERSUS NEOMORPHISM AND THE
LIMESTONE 'EOLOGICAL *OURNAL V P
CONCEPT OF hSIGNIlCANT RECRYSTALLIZATIONv IN DOLOMITE RESEARCH
"ATHURST 2 ' # $IAGENETIC FABRICS IN SOME "RITISH $INANTIAN 3EDIMENTARY 'EOLOGY V P
LIMESTONES ,IVERPOOL AND -ANCHESTER 'EOLOGICAL *OURNAL V P
-ALIVA 2 ' AND * ! $ $ICKSON 4HE MECHANISM OF SKELETAL
"ATHURST 2 ' # #ARBONATE 3EDIMENTS AND THEIR $IAGENESIS .EW ARAGONITE NEOMORPHISM EVIDENCE FROM NEOMORPHOSED MOLLUSKS FROM
9ORK %LSEVIER 3CIENCE 0UBL #O P THE 0URBECK &ORMATION ,ATE *URASSIC
%ARLY #RETACEOUS SOUTHERN
"ATHURST 2 ' # $IAGENESIS IN CARBONATE SEDIMENTS A REVIEW %NGLAND 3EDIMENTARY 'EOLOGY V P
'EOLOGISCHE 2UNDSCHAU V P
-ARTIN ' $ " ( 7ILKINSON AND + # ,OHMANN 4HE ROLE
"ATHURST 2 ' # -ICROFABRICS IN CARBONATE DIAGENESIS A CRITICAL OF SKELETAL POROSITY IN ARAGONITE NEOMORPHISM 3TROMBUS AND
LOOK AT FORTY YEARS IN RESEARCH IN 2 2EZAK AND $ , ,AVOIE EDS -ONTASTREA FROM THE 0LEISTOCENE +EY ,ARGO ,IMESTONE &LORIDA
#ARBONATE -ICROFABRICS .EW 9ORK 3PRINGER
6ERLAG P
*OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
#HANDA 3 + 3ELECTIVE RECRYSTALLIZATION IN LIMESTONES -ISIK - ED 3OME ASPECTS OF DIAGENETIC RECRYSTALLIZATION IN
3EDIMENTOLOGY V P
LIMESTONES 0RAGUE )NTERNATIONAL 'EOLOGICAL #ONGRESS 2EPORT OF RD
#HILINGAR ' 6 $ ( :ENGER ( * "ISSELL AND + ( 7OLF 3ESSION 0RAGUE 0ROCEEDINGS OF 3ECTION
'ENESIS AND #LASSIlCATION
$IAGENESIS OF CARBONATE SEDIMENTS AND EPIGENESIS OR CATAGENESIS OF 3EDIMENTARY 2OCKS
P
OF LIMESTONES IN ' ,ARSEN AND ' 6 #HILINGAR EDS $IAGENESIS IN -OORE # ( #ARBONATE $IAGENESIS AND 0OROSITY ;$EVELOPMENTS IN
3EDIMENTS AND 3EDIMENTARY 2OCKS $EVELOPMENTS IN 3EDIMENTOLOGY 3EDIMENTOLOGY = .EW 9ORK %LSEVIER P
! .EW 9ORK %LSEVIER 3CIENTIlC 0UBLISHING #O P
-OORE # ( 0OROSITY %VOLUTION AND $IAGENESIS IN A 3EQUENCE
$ICKSON * ! $ #RYSTAL GROWTH DIAGRAMS AS AN AID TO INTERPRETING 3TRATIGRAPHIC &RAMEWORK ;$EVELOPMENTS IN 3EDIMENTOLOGY = .EW
THE FABRICS OF CALCITE AGGREGATES *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V 9ORK %LSEVIER P
P
2EID 2 0 AND ) ' -ACINTYRE #ARBONATE RECRYSTALLIZATION
&OLK 2 , 3OME ASPECTS OF RECRYSTALLIZATION IN ANCIENT LIMESTONES IN SHALLOW MARINE ENVIRONMENTS A WIDESPREAD DIAGENETIC PROCESS
IN , # 0RAY AND 2 3 -URRAY EDS $OLOMITIZATION AND ,IMESTONE FORMING MICRITIZED GRAINS *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 2ESEARCH V P
$IAGENESIS 4ULSA /+ 3%0- 3PECIAL 0UBLICATION .O P
&OLK 2 , 5NUSUAL NEOMORPHISM OF MICRITE IN / 0 "RICKER 2EID 2 0 AND ) ' -ACINTYRE -ICROBORING VERSUS RECRYSTALLIZATION
ED #ARBONATE #EMENTS "ALTIMORE -$ 4HE *OHNS (OPKINS 0RESS FURTHER INSIGHT INTO THE MICRITIZATION PROCESS *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY
P
2ESEARCH V P
'RIGGS $ 4 - 3 0ATTERSON ( # (EARD AND & * 4URNER 3ALLER ! ( #ALCITIZATION OF ARAGONITE IN 0LEISTOCENE LIMESTONES OF
!NNEALING RECRYSTALLIZATION IN CALCITE CRYSTALS AND AGGREGATES IN $ 4 %NEWETAK !TOLL "AHAMAS AND 9UCATAN AN ALTERNATIVE TO THIN
lLM
'RIGGS AND * (ANDIN EDS 2OCK $EFORMATION ! 3YMPOSIUM .EW NEOMORPHISM #ARBONATES AND %VAPORITES V P
9ORK 'EOLOGICAL 3OCIETY OF !MERICA -EMOIR P
4UCKER - % #ARBONATE 0ETROLOGY !N )NTRODUCTION ;ND EDITION=
(UGMAN 2 ( ( AND - &RIEDMAN !NNEALING RECRYSTALLIZATION /XFORD "LACKWELL 3CIENTIlC 0UBLICATIONS P
IN CALCITE CRYSTALS AND AGGREGATES !MERICAN !SSOCIATION OF 0ETROLEUM
'EOLOGISTS "ULLETIN V P
*AMES . 0 AND 0 7 #HOQUETTE $IAGENESIS ,IMESTONES
)NTRODUCTION 'EOSCIENCE #ANADA V P
+ENNEDY , ! AND * # 7HITE ,OW
TEMPERATURE RECRYSTALLIZATION IN
CALCITE -ECHANISMS AND CONSEQUENCES 'EOLOGY V P
& ACING 0AGE 4OP
3UBMARINE
CEMENTED HARDGROUND EXPOSED
BY TIDAL OR STORM SCOUR /PEN SHELF JUST SOUTH OF 4ONGUE OF
THE /CEAN 'REAT "AHAMA "ANK "AHAMAS 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY
,ARSEN ' AND ' 6 #HILINGAR EDS $IAGENESIS IN 3EDIMENTS AND OF % ! 3HINN
3EDIMENTARY 2OCKS V .EW 9ORK %LSEVIER P "OTTOM
-ACROPHOTOGRAPH OF BOTRYOIDAL ARAGONITE CEMENT IN A
,ARSEN ' AND ' 6 #HILINGAR EDS $IAGENESIS IN 3EDIMENTS AND VUG IN REEF WALL LIMESTONE (OLOCENE "ELIZE (! CM
3EDIMENTARY 2OCKS V .EW 9ORK %LSEVIER P 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF .OEL 0 *AMES
#!2"/.!4% $)!'%.%3)3
SYNGENETIC/EOGENETIC MARINE DIAGENESIS
C
H
A
P
T
E
R
23
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
-!2).% $)!'%.%3)3
)NTRODUCTION
3YNSEDIMENTARY DIAGENESIS IN THE MARINE REALM IS RELATIVELY UNCOMPLICATED BY COMPARISON WITH METEORIC AND
BURIAL DIAGENESIS BECAUSE IT GENERALLY OPERATES OVER SHORT TIME SPANS ONLY YEARS TO THOUSANDS OF YEARS IN
MOST CASES AND INVOLVES A RESTRICTED RANGE OF PORE m UID CHEMISTRIES .EVERTHELESS THROUGH A COMBINATION
OF PHYSICAL CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES COUPLED WITH ACCESS TO A NEARLY UNLIMITED SUPPLY OF DISSOLVED
MATERIALS IN SEAWATER MARINE DIAGENESIS CAN OFTEN BRING ABOUT REMARKABLE CHANGE IN CARBONATE SEDIMENTS AND
PRODUCE SOME VERY COMPLEX FABRICS &URTHERMORE THE SUBSEQUENT OVERLAY OF METEORIC OR BURIAL DIAGENETIC
ALTERATIONS CAN GREATLY COMPLICATE THE RECOGNITION OF MARINE DIAGENETIC FABRICS IN ANCIENT CARBONATE ROCKS
4HAT IS ESPECIALLY TRUE BECAUSE THE ARAGONITIC OR -G
CALCITIC CEMENTS THAT RESULT FROM MARINE DIAGENESIS ARE
ESSENTIALLY JUST AS UNSTABLE IN METEORIC OR BURIAL
STAGE PORE m UIDS AS PRIMARY GRAINS OF THOSE COMPOSITIONS
4HE INTENSITY OR EXTENT OF MARINE CEMENTATION IS A FUNCTION OF THE SUPPLY OF SOLUTES FROM SEAWATER 3OLUTE SUPPLY
IN TURN DEPENDS ON SEDIMENTATION RATES AND THE EFFECTIVENESS OF WATER TRANSPORT FROM THE SURFACE INTO THE
INTERIOR OF A SEDIMENT PILE -ECHANISMS OF WATER MOVEMENT INCLUDE AMONG OTHERS WAVE FORCING TIDAL
PUMPING THERMAL CONVECTION AND DIFFUSIVE TRANSPORT !REAS OF VERY SLOW SEDIMENTATION EG HIATUS SURFACES
LOW
SEDIMENTATION
RATE PLATFORM INTERIORS OR LOW
PRODUCTIVITY DEEP SEA SETTINGS CAN HAVE SUBSTANTIAL MARINE
CEMENTATION INCLUDING HARDGROUNDS BECAUSE THEY ALL HAVE LONG TIMES OF CONTACT BETWEEN SEAWATER AND A THIN
PACKAGE OF SEDIMENT EVEN WITH NO SPECIAL MECHANISM FOR WATER PUMPING )N HIGH
SEDIMENTATION RATE AREAS
ON THE OTHER HAND SUBSTANTIAL MARINE CEMENTATION OCCURS MAINLY IN REEF FRONT OR COASTAL SETTINGS WHERE WAVE
OR TIDAL ACTION CAN FORCE SEAWATER THROUGH THE SEDIMENTS TO A CONSIDERABLE DEPTH ,IKEWISE ATOLL MARGINS AND
STEEP CARBONATE PLATFORM m ANKS ARE SITES OF EXTENSIVE MARINE CEMENTATION BECAUSE OF CONVECTIVE WATER INPUT
COUPLED IN SOME CASES WITH LOW SEDIMENT ACCUMULATION RATES (OT OR COLD SEEPS ON THE SEA m OOR ALSO REPRESENT
SITES OF EXCEPTIONAL WATER THROUGHPUT AND EXTENSIVE CEMENTATION
'RAIN AND MATRIX DISSOLUTION ARE WIDESPREAD IN CERTAIN MARINE ENVIRONMENTS PARTICULARLY IN COLD
AND DEEP
WATER AREAS -ODERN OCEANIC WATERS HAVE AN ARAGONITE COMPENSATION DEPTH OR !#$ AT ROUGHLY M THE
!#$ IS THE DEPTH BELOW WHICH ARAGONITE DOES NOT ACCUMULATE BECAUSE THE RATE OF DISSOLUTION EXCEEDS THE RATE
OF ARAGONITE SUPPLY !RAGONITE ALSO IS EXTENSIVELY DISSOLVED IN COOL AND COLD
WATER SHELF AREAS 4HE MODERN
CALCITE COMPENSATION DEPTH ##$ LIES AT ROUGHLY M BUT THAT DEPTH AS WELL AS THAT OF THE !#$ VARIES
WITH LATITUDE PRODUCTIVITY AND OTHER FACTORS AND UNDOUBTEDLY HAS VARIED SIGNIl CANTLY WITH GEOLOGIC TIME
-AJOR DIAGENETIC FABRICS
"ORED BIODEGRADED GRAINS WITH CEMENT INl LL OF BORINGS AND GENERATION OF MICRITE ENVELOPES ALSO DISCUSSED IN
THE SECTIONS ON PELLETSPELOIDS AND SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES
BORINGS
)SOPACHOUS CRUSTS OF l BROUS TO BLADED PELOIDAL OR APHANOCRYSTALLINE HIGH
-G CALCITE CEMENT 4HE APHANO
CRYSTALLINE CRUSTS CONSIST OF EQUANT LESS THAN M
SIZED RHOMBS THAT LOOK MUCH LIKE MICRITE
)SOPACHOUS CRUSTS OF l BROUS ARAGONITE CEMENT WITHIN GRAIN CAVITIES AND AS INTERGRANULAR CEMENTS PREDOMINANTLY
FOUND IN WARM
WATER SLIGHTLY HYPERSALINE SETTINGS AND TROPICAL BEACHROCK DEPOSITS
-ARINE
CEMENTED HARDGROUND FORMATION IN SELECTED AREAS SEE ABOVE ASSOCIATED IN MANY CASES WITH PHOSPHATE
AND GLAUCONITE CEMENTATION BORING AND FAUNAL ENCRUSTATION AND INTRACLAST FORMATION
,ARGE BOTRYOIDS OF CAVITY
l LLING ARAGONITE AND HIGH
-G CALCITE CEMENT
)NTERNAL SEDIMENT l LLS OF PRIMARY CAVITIES OR NEPTUNIAN DIKES IN FRAMEWORK
SUPPORTED SEDIMENTS
#OASTAL BEACHROCK AND SPRAY
ZONE CEMENTS
-ICROBECEMENT ASSOCIATIONS IN MARINE METHANE AND THERMAL SEEPS
-INERALOGY
-ODERN MARINE CEMENTS IN WARM
WATER SETTINGS CONSIST MAINLY OF HIGH
-G CALCITE ^
MOL -G BUT WITH
EXTENSIVE ARAGONITE AS WELL )N COLDER
WATER AREAS TEMPERATE POLAR AND DEEP MARINE HIGH
-G CALCITE CEMENTS
PREDOMINATE BUT BECOME SCARCER AND LESS -G
RICH AT HIGHER LATITUDES -ANY ANCIENT CARBONATE DEPOSITS
CERTAINLY HAD ARAGONITE AND HIGH
-G CALCITE CEMENTS PERHAPS WITH SECULAR VARIATIONS IN THEIR ABUNDANCE EG
7ILKINSON AND 'IVEN BUT LOW
-G CALCITE MARINE CEMENTS MAY ALSO HAVE FORMED AT SOME TIMES )N
OLDER LIMESTONES ORIGINAL ARAGONITE AND HIGH
-G CALCITE CEMENTS GENERALLY HAVE BEEN CONVERTED DIAGENETICALLY
TO LOW
-G CALCITE AND MUST BE RECOGNIZED BY MICRO
INCLUSIONS GEOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS ESPECIALLY -G AND 3R
CONTENTS RELICT MORPHOLOGIES OR CRYSTAL OUTLINES OR AS A LAST RESORT CHARACTERISTIC PATTERNS OF PRESERVATION OR
ALTERATION FORMER ARAGONITIC CEMENTS FOR EXAMPLE TYPICALLY HAVE POOR PRIMARY FABRIC PRESERVATION
CHAPTER 23: SYNGENETIC/EOGENETIC MARINE DIAGENESIS
Characteristic morphologies of
marine cements
! DIAGRAMMATIC DEPICTION OF SOME COMMON
TYPES OF MODERN MARINE HIGH -G CALCITE AND
ARAGONITE CEMENTS -OST OF THESE MORPHOLO
GIES WILL BE ILLUSTRATED IN THIS SECTION !DAPTED
FROM *AMES AND #HOQUETTE
"
"
!
Recent sediment, Grand Cayman,
Cayman Islands, B.W.I.
"IODEGRADATION OF GRAINS WAS DISCUSSED IN
SEVERAL PREVIOUS CHAPTERS AND THEREFORE
WILL BE MENTIONED ONLY BRIEm Y HERE 4HESE
ARAGONITIC GASTROPOD SHELLS SHOW EARLY STAGES
OF MICROBORING AND APHANOCRYSTALLINE HIGH -G
CALCITE CEMENTATION OF THE OUTER GRAIN SURFACES
4HIS PROCESS LEADS TO THE CREATION OF GRAIN RIMS
TERMED hMICRITE ENVELOPESv THAT MAY BE
MORE RESISTANT TO DISSOLUTION THAN THE GRAINS
THEMSELVES
00, "3% (! MM
Holocene sediment, Abu Dhabi,
United Arab Emirates
! MARINE CEMENTED LIMESTONE WITH THICK
HIGH -G CALCITE MICRITE ENVELOPES SURROUND
ING MOST GRAINS 4HESE IRREGULAR ENVELOPES
LIKE THE THINNER VERSIONS IN THE PREVIOUS IL
LUSTRATION CONSIST OF l LLED BORINGS ALONG THE
GRAIN MARGINS COUPLED WITH APHANOCRYSTALLINE
HIGH -G CALCITE CEMENT COATINGS SURROUND
ING THE GRAINS 4HE REST OF THE PORE SPACE IN
THIS SEDIMENT IS l LLED WITH ACICULAR l BROUS
MARINE ARAGONITE THAT WAS PRECIPITATED FROM
HYPERSALINE LAGOONAL WATERS
80, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Lo. Permian (Wolfcampian) Hueco
Ls., Hudspeth Co., Texas
4HIS ANCIENT LIMESTONE ORIGINALLY CONSISTED
LARGELY OF ARAGONITIC GRAINS BIVALVES AND POS
SIBLE PHYLLOID ALGAE )T UNDERWENT MARINE
DIAGENESIS FOLLOWED BY EXTENSIVE METEORIC
AND BURIAL ALTERATION 4HE ARAGONITIC GRAINS
WERE COMPLETELY LEACHED AND BOTH INTRAPARTICLE
AND INTERPARTICLE POROSITY WAS LATER l LLED WITH
SPARRY CALCITE 4HE ONLY TRACES OF THE ORIGINAL
NATURE OF THIS SEDIMENT RESULT FROM THE PRES
ERVATION OF THE STABLE MICRITE ENVELOPES AND
ENCRUSTATIONS FORMED DURING SYNSEDIMENTARY
MARINE ALTERATION 3AMPLE FROM 2OBERT ,AURY
00, (! MM
Recent sediment, St. Peters
Parish, Barbados
!LTHOUGH INl LLED BORINGS ALONG GRAIN MARGINS
CAN IMPROVE THE LONG
TERM RECOGNIZABILITY OF
ARAGONITIC GRAINS MORE EXTENSIVE BORINGS CAN
ULTIMATELY LEAD TO CONVERSION OF A SKELETAL
FRAGMENT TO AN UNCLASSIl ABLE PELOID 4HIS
EXAMPLE SHOWS AN INTERMEDIATE STAGE OF GRAIN
DESTRUCTION IN WHICH NUMEROUS LARGE AND SMALL
BORINGS HAVE RIDDLED A MOLLUSCAN SHELL FRAG
MENT 4HE hPELOIDIZATIONv OF GRAINS IS A COM
MON PROCESS IN MARINE DIAGENESIS ESPECIALLY
IN SETTINGS IN WHICH GRAINS ARE ONLY RARELY
MOVED GRASS m ATS DEEPER PLATFORM SETTINGS
AND THE LIKE
00, "3% (! MM
Holocene reef wall limestone,
Belize
!NOTHER EXAMPLE OF EXTENSIVE MARINE
DIAGENETIC GRAIN DESTRUCTION THROUGH BORING
IN THIS CASE A CORAL BORED BY SPONGES 4HE
SPONGE GALLERIES HOWEVER ARE l LLED WITH l NE
GRAINED HIGH -G CALCITE SEDIMENT AND CEMENT
4HIS DEMONSTRATES THE CONTINUING hBATTLEv BE
TWEEN DESTRUCTIVE AND CONSTRUCTIVE PROCESSES
DURING MARINE DIAGENESIS 0HOTOGRAPH COUR
TESY OF .OEL 0 *AMES
80, #93 (! MM
CHAPTER 23: SYNGENETIC/EOGENETIC MARINE DIAGENESIS
Recent sediment, Schooner Cays,
Bahamas
4HE LINE BETWEEN DEPOSITION AND DIAGENESIS
COMMONLY IS HARD TO DEl NE IN MARINE SEDI
MENTS (ERE A HARDGROUND WITH ARAGONITE
OOIDS HAS BEEN LITHIl ED BY CALCIl ED ALGAL l LA
MENTS SURROUNDED BY HIGH -G CALCITE MICRITE
CEMENT SELECTIVELY STAINED RED 4HE OOIDS ARE
PRIMARY SEDIMENT THE CALCIl ED l LAMENTS THAT
LITHIFY THE SEDIMENT CAN BE VIEWED AS MARINE
DIAGENETIC PRODUCTS 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF
.OEL 0 *AMES
00, #93 (! MM
Holocene reef wall limestone,
Belize
-ARINE CEMENTATION IS WIDESPREAD IN MOD
ERN CARBONATE DEPOSITS ESPECIALLY IN TROPICAL
REGIONS 4HIS (ALIMEDA GRAINSTONE FOR EX
AMPLE WAS CEMENTED WITH ISOPACHOUS RINDS OF
l BROUS TO BLADED HIGH -G CALCITE (IGH -G
CALCITE IS THE PREDOMINANT MARINE CEMENT IN
MOST SETTINGS OTHER THAN VERY WARM SLIGHTLY
HYPERSALINE PLATFORM AND COASTAL AREAS 3TAIN
ING OR GEOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS IS ESSENTIAL FOR
PROPER IDENTIl CATION OF MODERN MARINE HIGH
-G CALCITE CEMENTS 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF
.OEL 0 *AMES
00, #93 (! MM
Up. Jurassic (Oxfordian) Buckner
Fm., subsurface Arkansas
&IBROUS TO BLADED MARINE HIGH
-G CALCITE CE
MENTS ARE COMMONLY FOUND IN ANCIENT ROCKS
AS WELL AS MODERN SEDIMENTS 4HIS ULTRA
THIN
SECTION SHOWS WELL DEl NED BLADED MARINE
CEMENTS THAT HAVE GROWN IN OPTICAL CONTINUITY
WITH OOIDS EXHIBITING PRIMARY RADIAL ARCHITEC
TURE 3UCH WELL PRESERVED FABRIC IN SUCH OLD
ROCKS VIRTUALLY REQUIRES A PRIMARY CALCITIC MIN
ERALOGY FOR BOTH OOIDS AND CEMENTS 3%- OR
MICROPROBE ANALYSIS CAN BE USED TO DETECT MI
CRO
DOLOMITE INCLUSIONS OR ELEVATED -G TRACE
ELEMENT CONCENTRATIONS IN ORDER TO CONl RM AN
ORIGINAL HIGH
-G CALCITE COMPOSITION 0HOTO
GRAPH COURTESY OF #LYDE ( -OORE
80, (! ^ MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Holocene limestone, Tobacco Cay,
Belize
-ICROPELOIDAL HIGH
-G CALCITE CEMENT SELEC
TIVELY STAINED RED IN REEF m AT LIMESTONE 4HE
PRECIPITATION OF MICROPELOIDAL CEMENTS MOST
LIKELY IS MICROBIALLY MEDIATED AND IT OFTEN IS
VERY DIFl CULT TO DISTINGUISH MICROPELOIDAL CE
MENTS FROM TRANSPORTED MICROPELOIDAL INTERNAL
SEDIMENT 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF .OEL 0
*AMES
00, #93 (! ^ MM
Holocene reef sediment, St. Johns,
Virgin Islands
!N 3%- IMAGE OF A HIGH -G CALCITE CEMENT
RIND ON A SKELETAL GRAIN THE SUBSTRATE GRAIN IS
NOT VISIBLE IN THIS PHOTOGRAPH )N THIN SECTION
THESE SMALL EQUANT CRYSTALS APPEAR VERY SIMI
LAR TO A MICRITIC MICROCRYSTALLINE OR PELOIDAL
GRAIN COATING /NLY THROUGH SCANNING ELECTRON
MICROSCOPY CAN ONE OBSERVE THE DETAILS OF
CRYSTAL SHAPES 4HIS CEMENT IS FROM A SHALLOW
MARINE SETTING
3%- (! M
Holocene sediment, Tobacco Cay,
Belize
#EMENT AND PELOIDAL INTERNAL SEDIMENT SOME
OF IT WITH GEOPETAL FABRIC WITHIN VOIDS IN A
CORAL SKELETON FROM SEDIMENT THAT IS LESS THAN
YEARS OLD 4HE DISTINCTION BETWEEN SEDI
MENT AND CEMENT IS DIFl CULT TO IMPOSSIBLE TO
DRAW IN THE CASE OF SUCH PELOIDS 4HE HIGH -G
CALCITE IN THIS SAMPLE IS STAINED RED WITH #LAY
TON 9ELLOW 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF 2OBERT .
'INSBURG
00, #93 (! MM
CHAPTER 23: SYNGENETIC/EOGENETIC MARINE DIAGENESIS
Recent sediment, Grand Cayman,
Cayman Islands, B.W.I.
4HE MOST EASILY RECOGNIZABLE MARINE CE
MENTS IN MODERN SEDIMENTS ARE COMPOSED OF
ACICULAR l BROUS OR NEEDLE LIKE ARAGONITE
)N THIS CASE SUCH CEMENTS PARTIALLY l LL THE
INTRAPARTICLE POROSITY WITHIN A GASTROPOD 4HE
EXTERIOR OF THE GRAIN IN CONTRAST IS CEMENTED
BY MICROCRYSTALLINE HIGH -G CALCITE CEMENT
(OLOCENE l BROUS ARAGONITE CEMENTS ARE MOST
COMMONLY FORMED IN WARM SHALLOW SLIGHTLY
HYPERSALINE WATERS IN TROPICAL SHALLOW SHELF
AND COASTAL AREAS 4HE ARAGONITE NEEDLES TYPI
CALLY ARE LONGER AND THINNER THAN THE CRYSTALS
FOUND IN TYPICAL HIGH -G CALCITE CEMENTS
00, "3% !&E3 (! MM
Quaternary sediment, Isla Mujeres,
Quintana Roo, Mexico
! VIEW OF (OLOCENE l BROUS ARAGONITE CEMENTS
LINING THE PORES OF A WEAKLY LITHIl ED 0LEISTO
CENE EOLIANITE THAT CURRENTLY IS SUBMERGED IN
THE INTERTIDAL ZONE .OTE THE UNIFORM THICKNESS
OF THE ARAGONITE CRUST COMMONLY TERMED AN
hISOPACHOUSv COATING AND THE PREDOMINANT
ORIENTATION OF ARAGONITE CRYSTALS PERPENDICULAR
TO THE SURFACE OF THE SUBSTRATE GRAINS 0HOTO
GRAPH COURTESY OF 7ILLIAM # 7ARD
80, (! MM
Recent sediment (beachrock), Salt
Cay, Bahamas
!CICULAR ARAGONITE CEMENT FORMING ISOPACHOUS
GRAIN COATINGS IN A BEACHROCK "EACHROCK IS A
FRIABLE TO WELL
CEMENTED ROCK CONSISTING OF CAL
CAREOUS SAND CEMENTED BY ARAGONITE OR HIGH
-G
CALCITE CRUSTS PRECIPITATED IN THE INTERTIDAL ZONE
)T GENERALLY OCCURS AS THIN BEDS DIPPING SEAWARD
AT LESS THAN DEGREES AND AS IN THIS EXAMPLE
CAN FORM IN AS LITTLE AS A FEW YEARS !LTHOUGH
MOST COMMONLY FOUND IN TROPICAL AREAS
BEACHROCKS ALSO FORM ALBEIT LESS COMMONLY IN
COOL
WATER SETTINGS 4HE INTERTIDAL ENVIRONMENT
ALLOWS WAVE PUMPING OF OCEAN WATER THROUGH
THE SEDIMENT AND ALSO ALLOWS MIXING OF MARINE
AND METEORIC m UIDS IN AT LEAST SOME CASES
80, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Recent sediment, Schooner Cays,
Bahamas
! HIGH
MAGNIl CATION PHOTOMICROGRAPH SHOW
ING ANOTHER EXAMPLE OF AN ACICULAR ARAGONITIC
MARINE CEMENT )N THIS SUBTIDAL EXAMPLE HOW
EVER THERE IS MUCH LESS CONSISTENT ORIENTATION
OF ARAGONITE CRYSTALS IN PART BECAUSE SOME OF
THE NEEDLE
LIKE CRYSTALS RADIATE OUTWARD FROM
ISOLATED GROWTH CENTERS 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY
OF .OEL 0 *AMES
80, (! MM
Recent sediment, Belize
!N 3%- IMAGE OF SUBMARINE ARAGONITE
NEEDLE CEMENT FORMING ISOPACHOUS LININGS OF
INTRAPARTICLE VOIDS IN A CORAL SKELETON .OTE
THE IRREGULAR BUT BASICALLY SUBSTRATE NORMAL
ARRANGEMENT OF THE l BROUS CRYSTALS )NDIVIDUAL
CRYSTALS REACH M LENGTH IN THIS SAMPLE
3%- (! M
Holocene sediment, Schooner
Cays, Bahamas
3YNSEDIMENTARY ARAGONITE CEMENTATION OF
HARDGROUNDS AND BEACHROCKS CAN BE BOTH
EXTENSIVE AND RAPID IN MANY CASES FORMING
LITHIl ED ROCK WITHIN JUST A FEW YEARS 4HIS
MODERN OPEN SHELF HARDGROUND SHOWS ARAGO
NITE OOIDS FULLY ENCASED WITHIN ARAGONITE CE
MENT 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF .OEL 0 *AMES
80, (! MM
CHAPTER 23: SYNGENETIC/EOGENETIC MARINE DIAGENESIS
Holocene hardground, Great
Bahama Bank, Bahamas
! COMPLETELY MARINE CEMENTED SAMPLE FROM
A MODERN OOLITIC HARDGROUND 4HE OOIDS ARE
COMPLETELY SURROUNDED BY l BROUS ISOPACHOUS
ARAGONITE CRUSTS 5NIFORM GROWTH OF ARAGONITE
NEEDLES FROM SPHERICAL SUBSTRATES HAS LED TO
HEXAGONAL COMPROMISE BOUNDARIES MARKED
BY LINES OF INCLUSIONS WHERE CEMENTS FROM OP
POSITE SIDES OF A PORE HAVE MET 4HESE INCLU
SION RICH BOUNDARIES CAN BE PRESERVED EVEN IN
ANCIENT LIMESTONES 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF %
! 3HINN
00, (! ^ MM
Up. Pennsylvanian (Missourian)
Westerville Ls., Jackson Co.,
Missouri
! PRESERVED FABRIC OF ACICULAR MARINE CEMENT
IN AN ANCIENT OOLITIC GRAINSTONE 4HE ORIGINAL
CEMENT WAS PROBABLY l BROUS ARAGONITE NOW
NEOMORPHOSED TO BLADED CALCITE 4O CONl RM
THE HYPOTHESIS OF ORIGINAL CALCITE MINERALOGY
ONE WOULD NEED TO LOOK FOR PRIMARY OR SEC
ONDARY MINERAL INCLUSIONS RELICT ARAGONITE
OR MICRO
DOLOMITE AFTER HIGH
-G CALCITE OR
EXAMINE THE TRACE ELEMENT GEOCHEMISTRY OF
THE CEMENTS NEOMORPHIC PRODUCTS OF FORMER
ARAGONITE CAN HAVE HIGH 3R CONTENTS REPLACE
MENTS OF HIGH
-G CALCITE MAY CONTAIN ELEVATED
LEVELS OF -G
00, !&E3 (! MM
Up. Permian (up. Guadalupian),
Tansill Fm., Eddy Co., New Mexico
! GREEN ALGAL GRAINSTONE CONSISTING MAINLY
OF -IZZIA SP WITH GRAINS ENCASED IN TYPICALLY
CLOUDY INCLUSION RICH PENECONTEMPORANEOUS
ISOPACHOUS MARINE CEMENTS 4HESE CEMENTS
WERE PROBABLY PRECIPITATED AS ARAGONITE BUT
THEN WERE SUBSEQUENTLY NEOMORPHOSED TO CAL
CITE 2EMNANTS OF THEIR PRIMARY RADIAL l BROUS
FABRIC ARE STILL VISIBLE -OST MARINE CEMENTS
FORM RAPIDLY AND CONSEQUENTLY ARE RICH IN
INCLUSIONS 4HE INCLUSIONS WHICH ARE MAINLY
WATER l LLED YIELD A CHARACTERISTIC BROWNISH
COLOR IN THIN SECTION
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Lo. Carboniferous (Tournaisian-lo.
Visean) Waulsortian limestone, Co.
Dublin, Ireland
!N EXAMPLE OF A FENESTRATE BRYOZOAN
GRAINSTONE IN WHICH ALL POROSITY WAS OCCLUDED
BY SYNDEPOSITIONAL l BROUS MARINE CEMENTS
%ACH FENESTRATE BRYOZOAN IS SURROUNDED BY
CLOUDY BROWNISH AGAIN DUE TO INCLUSIONS
RADIAL l BROUS TO BLADED CEMENT CRUSTS 4HE
COMPLETE LACK OF COMPACTION IN THIS PILE OF OTH
ERWISE UNSUPPORTED VERY DELICATE GRAINS WITH
NEARLY INITIAL POROSITY IS A STRONG INDICA
TION THAT THIS CEMENT WAS OF SYNDEPOSITIONAL
ORIGIN
00,80, (! MM EACH
Lo. Cambrian Forteau Fm.,
southern Labrador, Canada
#LOUDY MARINE CEMENTS EXTEND FAR BACK IN THE
GEOLOGIC RECORD WELL INTO THE 0RECAMBRIAN
4HIS VIEW SHOWS A GROWTH CAVITY WITHIN A
#AMBRIAN ARCHAEOCYATH
2ENALCIS REEF LIME
STONE THAT IS l LLED WITH INCLUSION
RICH l BROUS
CALCITE CEMENT 4HE REMNANT VOID WAS OC
CLUDED BY CLEAR NON
FERROAN AND FERROAN BLOCKY
CALCITE CEMENT 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF .OEL
0 *AMES
00, !&E3 (! ^ MM
Up. Cretaceous (Turonian) Chalk
Rock, Bedfordshire, England, U.K.
-ARINE LITHIl CATION IS WIDESPREAD EVEN IN l NE
GRAINED DEEP SHELF TO OCEANIC SEDIMENTS PRI
MARILY AT HIATUS SURFACES 4HIS ROCK SLAB SHOWS
ONE OF SEVERAL STACKED HARDGROUNDS IN A SHELF
CHALK 4HE HARDGROUNDS CONSIST OF IRREGULAR
-G
CALCITE
CEMENTED INTERVALS ROUGHLY
CM THICK WITH ASSOCIATED PHOSPHATIZED YEL
LOWISH AND GLAUCONITIZED GREENISH AREAS
.OTE THE LARGE PRE
LITHIl CATION BURROWS SMALL
ER POST
LITHIl CATION BORINGS AND THE REWORKED
PEBBLE OF HARDGROUND MATERIAL !S PELAGIC
OOZE IS A VERY SOFT EVEN SOUPY MATERIAL EN
CRUSTATION REWORKING AND BORING DEMONSTRATE
SYNSEDIMENTARY LITHIl CATION
-AC (! CM
CHAPTER 23: SYNGENETIC/EOGENETIC MARINE DIAGENESIS
Lo. Jurassic (up. Pliensbachian)
limestone, Central High Atlas
region, Morocco
(ARDGROUNDS CAN FORM MUCH MORE RAPIDLY IN
SHALLOW WATER MARINE SETTINGS WITH WARM CAR
BONATE SUPERSATURATED WATERS THAN IN DEEPER
COLDER WATER SETTINGS 4HE SAME KINDS OF
CRITERIA ARE USED FOR THEIR RECOGNITION HOW
EVER (ERE A LITHIOTID BIVALVE WAS TRUNCATED
AT A MARINE HARDGROUND SURFACE OVERLAIN BY OO
LITIC SEDIMENT 4HE SEDIMENT MUST HAVE BEEN
LITHIl ED AT THE SEA m OOR FOR SUCH TRUNCATION TO
OCCUR "ORINGS ATTACHED FAUNA AND REWORKED
HARDENED PEBBLES ARE OTHER INDICATIONS OF
HARDGROUND LITHIl CATION
00, (! MM
Recent sediment, 122 meter (400
ft) depth, Tongue of the Ocean,
Bahamas
! SAMPLE FROM THE SURFACE OF A MODERN CEMENT
ED PLATFORM
MARGIN SLOPE SHOWING EVIDENCE
OF POST
LITHIl CATION BORING IN A HARDGROUND
SURFACE #EMENTATION IN THIS FACIES IS PRIMAR
ILY BY HIGH
-G CALCITE .OTE HOW THE BORING
CENTER HAS CUT ACROSS TWO OOIDS AND A LARGE
PELOID REWORKED DOWNSLOPE FROM THE PLATFORM
TOP AND HOW RENEWED CEMENTATION HAS BEGUN
WITHIN THE BORING 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF '
-ICHAEL 'RAMMER
00, "3% (! MM
Mid-Cretaceous El Abra Ls.,
Quertaro, Mexico
3YNSEDIMENTARY MARINE CEMENTS THAT FORM
WITHIN CAVITIES IN COARSE GRAINSTONE OR
BOUNDSTONE DEPOSITS ARE COMMONLY ASSOCIATED
WITH GEOPETAL INTERNAL SEDIMENT 4HIS EXAMPLE
SHOWS CAPRINID RUDISTID BIVALVES CEMENTED
BY ISOPACHOUS RADIAXIAL l BROUS MARINE CE
MENT INTERLAYERED WITH SUBSTANTIAL MICRITIC
INTERNAL SEDIMENT !DDITIONAL MARINE CEMENT
POST DATES THE SEDIMENT CONl RMING THE ESSEN
TIAL SYNCHRONICITY OF CEMENTATION AND SEDIMEN
TATION 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF 0AUL %NOS
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Devonian (Frasnian) Sadler
Fm.(?), Canning Basin, Western
Australia
3EDIMENTS WITH EXTENSIVE MARINE CEMENTA
TION ARE BRITTLE AND SUBJECT TO EARLY FRACTURING
AND FAULTING ESPECIALLY WHERE THEY OCCUR NEAR
STEEP PLATFORM MARGINS 4HIS SAMPLE SHOWS A
LIMESTONE COMPOSED OF ALTERNATING SEA m OOR
CEMENT CRUSTS AND CARBONATE SEDIMENT INCLUD
ING SHEET LIKE STROMATOPOROIDS THE LAYERS WITH
REGULARLY ARRANGED BUT IRREGULARLY SHAPED WHITE
SPAR BLEBS 4HE MARINE LITHIl ED SEDIMENT WAS
CUT BY FRACTURES LINED WITH ADDITIONAL MARINE
CEMENT FOLLOWED BY INl LTRATED LAYERED SEDI
MENT 4HIS DOWNWARD MOVEMENT OF INTERNAL
SEDIMENT CONSTITUTES A NEPTUNIAN DIKE
00, (! MM
Holocene reef wall limestone,
Belize
)NTERNAL SEDIMENT COMMONLY IS INTERSPERSED
WITH MARINE CEMENTS WITHIN A VARIETY OF SEDI
MENT CAVITIES )N THIS EXAMPLE A BIVALVE BOR
ING IN A CORAL SKELETON 0ORITES SP IS l LLED
WITH GEOPETAL SEDIMENT CEMENTED BY -G CAL
CITE AND ARAGONITE AND ROOFED BY BOTRYOIDAL
ARAGONITE CEMENT 4HE TINY REMAINING CAVITY
WAS LINED WITH A l NAL STAGE OF HIGH -G CAL
CITE l BROUS CEMENT STAINED RED 0HOTOGRAPH
COURTESY OF .OEL 0 *AMES
00, #93 (! MM
Holocene reef wall limestone,
Belize
-ARINE CEMENTATION OF LARGE VOIDS ESPECIALLY
IN REEFS MODERN AND ANCIENT COMMONLY TAKES
THE FORM OF LARGE DENSE BOTRYOIDS COMPOSED
OF ARAGONITE WITH AT LEAST IN MODERN EXAMPLES
VERY SUBORDINATE HIGH
-G CALCITE STAINED RED
.OTE THE UNl LLED CIRCULAR TO ELLIPTICAL BORINGS
THAT CUT THE CEMENT EXCELLENT EVIDENCE OF ITS
FORMATION IN CAVITIES WITH SUFl CIENT CONTACT
WITH THE SURFACE TO ALLOW COLONIZATION BY BOR
ING ORGANISMS 4HIS ROCK IS LESS THAN
YEARS OLD AND THE CEMENTS ARE THOUGHT TO BE
MID
(OLOCENE 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF 2OBERT
. 'INSBURG
80, #93 (! MM
CHAPTER 23: SYNGENETIC/EOGENETIC MARINE DIAGENESIS
Holocene reef wall limestone,
Belize
!NOTHER EXAMPLE OF ARAGONITIC BOTRYOIDAL
CEMENTS IN A VUG IN FOREREEF SEDIMENTS 4HE
DENSELY PACKED RADIATING SPLAY OF l BROUS
CRYSTALS IS CLEARLY SHOWN IN THIS EXAMPLE
3AMPLE FROM .OEL 0 *AMES
80, #93 (! MM
Up. Pennsylvanian (Virgilian)
Holder Fm., Otero Co., New Mexico
4HIS ANCIENT EXAMPLE OF A MARINE CE
MENT BOTRYOID GREW IN INTERSTICES WITHIN
A FORAMINIFERAL MICROBIAL BIOHERM 4HE
NEOMORPHOSED CEMENT RETAINS ABUNDANT BUT
VERY SMALL INCLUSIONS OF ORIGINAL l BROUS ARA
GONITE 4HOSE AND OTHER INCLUSIONS HELP TO
GIVE THE CEMENT ITS BROWNISH COLOR
00, (! MM
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Capitan
Fm., Eddy Co., New Mexico
! LARGE MARINE CEMENT BOTRYOID IN A REEFAL
LIMESTONE THAT CONSISTS OF UP TO CEMENT
4HE NEOMORPHOSED CEMENT RETAINS ITS ORIGINAL
l BROUS CHARACTER AND ABUNDANT INCLUSIONS )N
THIS EXAMPLE MARINE CEMENT IS VOLUMETRICALLY
MORE ABUNDANT THAN ANY SINGLE FRAMEWORK
ORGANISMS AND THE ROCK COULD REALISTICALLY BE
CONSIDERED A hCEMENTSTONEv AS USED IN THE
7RIGHT CLASSIl CATION
00,80, (! MM EACH
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Permian reef limestone, Djebel
Tebaga, southern Tunisia
%ARLY MARINE CEMENT IN A REEFAL LIMESTONE
4HESE COARSELY BLADED MARINE CEMENT BOTRYOIDS
ARE INTERGROWN WITH !RCHAEOLITHOPORELLA A
PROBLEMATIC ALGALCYANOBACTERIAL ORGANISM
4HE INTERGROWTH OF MULTIPLE GENERATIONS OF CE
MENT WITH MARINE ORGANISMS HELPS TO ESTABLISH
A SYNSEDIMENTARY MARINE ORIGIN FOR THESE PRE
CIPITATES DESPITE THE POOR FABRIC PRESERVATION
80, (! MM
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
"OTRYOIDAL MARINE CEMENTS CAN ALSO FORM WITH
A REGULARLY
ARRANGED PELOIDAL FABRIC IN THIS
CASE AS MASSIVE CEMENTS WITHIN A BRYOZOAN
BIOHERM 3UCH ORIGINALLY HIGH
-G CALCITE
PELOIDAL CEMENTS MAY BE INORGANIC OR MAY
REPRESENT AT LEAST IN PART BACTERIALLY
INDUCED
PRECIPITATES
00, "3% (! MM
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Seven
Rivers-Yates Fm., Eddy Co., New
Mexico
3OME RADIATING CEMENT SPLAYS OR BOTRYOIDAL
CEMENTS GREW DIRECTLY ON THE SEA m OOR 4HESE
FORMERLY ARAGONITIC BLADED CEMENTS NOW
COMPLETELY DOLOMITIZED GREW IN CONJUNCTION
WITH AND SOMETIMES DIRECTLY ATOP PISOIDS
4HE INTERPRETATION OF THESE DEPOSITS IS UNCER
TAIN BUT IT CLEARLY INVOLVED MARINE m UIDS OR
EVAPORATIVELY CONCENTRATED MARINE m UIDS PER
HAPS ON A SHALLOW SHOAL OR AS SEEPAGE SPRING
DEPOSITS
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 23: SYNGENETIC/EOGENETIC MARINE DIAGENESIS
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Seven
Rivers-Yates Fm., Eddy Co., New
Mexico
! MAGNIl ED VIEW OF PISOLITE
ASSOCIATED MARINE
CEMENTS SIMILAR TO THE ONES SHOWN IN THE PRE
VIOUS PHOTOGRAPH 4HESE SPECTACULAR BLADED
CEMENT CRYSTALS NOW EXTENSIVELY REPLACED BY
DOLOMITE HAVE hSQUARE
TIPPED RAYSv 3UCH
CRYSTAL TERMINATIONS HAVE BEEN USED TO INFER AN
ORIGINAL ARAGONITE COMPOSITION FOR THE CEMENTS
,OUCKS AND &OLK 4HE MICROCRYSTALLINE
COATINGS THAT OUTLINE THE RAYS HOWEVER MOST
LIKELY WERE ORIGINALLY APHANOCRYSTALLINE HIGH
-G CALCITE CEMENTS AND PERHAPS ALSO DRAPED
SEDIMENT THAT PARTIALLY COVERED THE CRYSTALS
00, (! MM
Different types of brous calcite
cements
! DIAGRAMMATIC DEPICTION OF THE MORPHOLO
GIES AND CRYSTAL ORIENTATIONS OF THE THREE MAJOR
TYPES OF l BROUS CALCITE CEMENT !RROWS REPRE
SENT FAST VIBRATION DIRECTIONS DISTALLY DIVERGENT
IN FASCICULAR OPTIC CALCITE DISTALLY CONVERGENT
IN RADIAXIAL l BROUS CALCITE AND UNIFORM IN
RADIAL l BROUS CALCITE $ASHED LINES REPRESENT
SUB CRYSTAL BOUNDARIES AND SOLID CROSSING LINES
REPRESENT TWIN PLANES !LL THREE TYPES OF CE
MENT HAVE BEEN INTERPRETED EITHER AS PRIMARY
MARINE CEMENTS OR AS REPLACEMENTS OF MARINE
CEMENTS +ENDALL AND 4UCKER +ENDALL
7ILSON AND $ICKSON
Up. Permian limestone, Guangxi
Province, Peoples Republic of
China
!N EXAMPLE OF RADIAXIAL l BROUS CALCITE CE
MENTS GROWING ATOP !RCHAEOLITHOPORELLA
ENCRUSTATIONS IN A REEFAL BOUNDSTONE .OTE
THE CLOUDY FABRIC STRONGLY CURVED CLEAVAGE
PLANES WITH DISTAL CONVERGENCE OF OPTIC AXES
AND UNDULOSE EXTINCTION OF RADIAXIAL l BROUS
CEMENTS )N THIS EXAMPLE THE CEMENTS WERE
INTERPRETED TO HAVE FORMED FROM MARINE WATERS
OVER A LONG PERIOD OF BURIAL ALONG A STEEP ATOLL
MARGIN THAT REMAINED IN CONTACT WITH MARINE
WATERS FOR TENS OF MILLIONS OF YEARS (ALLEY AND
3CHOLLE
00,80, (! MM EACH
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Devonian (Frasnian) limestone,
Kielce, Holy Cross Mountains,
Poland
! SO CALLED ZEBRA LIMESTONE WITH BANDS OF
SYNSEDIMENTARY SLIGHTLY CLOUDY MARINE CEMENT
WITH VERY THIN INTERNAL SEDIMENT ALTERNATING
WITH SEAm OOR MICRITIC SEDIMENT 4HE ORIGIN
OF ZEBRA LIMESTONES REMAINS CONTROVERSIAL AND
PERHAPS HAS A VARIETY OF ORIGINS SIMILAR TO THOSE
DESCRIBED FOR STROMATACTIS CAVITIES IN THE SECTION
ON SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES DECAY OF VARIOUS
SOFT BODIED ORGANISMS TO GAS FORMATION IN IM
PERMEABLE SEDIMENTS TO SHEAR ACCOMPANYING
GRAVITY SLIDING AND OTHERS ,IKE STROMATACTIS
CAVITIES THESE MORE ELONGATE CAVITIES HAVE RELA
TIVELY m AT m OORS AND MORE IRREGULAR TOPS
00, !&E3 (! MM
Holocene sediment, Abu Dhabi,
United Arab Emirates
-ARINE DIAGENESIS OR AT LEAST THE INm UENCE OF
MARINE m UIDS CAN EXTEND INTO THE UPPER INTER
TIDAL ZONE AND BEYOND 4HIS PHOTOGRAPH SHOWS
AN EXAMPLE OF COASTAL SUBAERIAL SPRAY ZONE
DIAGENESIS 4HE PENDANT OR MICROSTALACTITIC
CEMENT MORPHOLOGY REm ECTS VADOSE CONDI
TIONS THE CEMENT HOWEVER IS COMPOSED OF l
BROUS ARAGONITE AND MICROCRYSTALLINE HIGH
-G
CALCITE TYPICALLY MARINE MINERALOGIES 4HE
COMBINATION REm ECTS THE BLEND OF MARINE WA
TERS AND VADOSE CONDITIONS IN THIS TRANSITIONAL
ENVIRONMENT
80, (! ^ MM
Permian (Guadalupian?) Park City
Fm., Ervay equivalent, Big Horn
Co., Wyoming
&ABRICS REm ECTIVE OF THE MARINE INm UENCED
COASTAL ZONE CAN BE FOUND IN ANCIENT LIMESTONES
AS WELL 4HIS SAMPLE DEPICTS SYNSEDIMENTARY
l BROUS PROBABLY ORIGINALLY ARAGONITE AND
MICROCRYSTALLINE PROBABLY ORIGINALLY HIGH -G
CALCITE CEMENTS HANGING AS PENDANTS FROM
THE ROOF OF A LARGE FENESTRAL PORE IN A PISOLITIC
PERITIDAL UNIT !LL OF THESE MARINE CEMENTS
WERE LATER NEOMORPHOSED TO LOW -G CALCITE
00, "3% (! MM
CHAPTER 23: SYNGENETIC/EOGENETIC MARINE DIAGENESIS
Permian (Guadalupian?) Park City
Fm., Ervay equivalent, Washakie
Co., Wyoming
!NOTHER EXAMPLE OF COASTAL DIAGENESIS HERE
SHOWING CRYSTAL SILT AS INTERNAL SEDIMENT
IN BIRDS EYE OR FENESTRAL VUGS IN PERITIDAL
CARBONATES 3UCH CRYSTAL SILT HAS BEEN INTER
PRETED AS AN INDICATOR OF SUBAERIAL EXPOSURE
BY $UNHAM BUT IN THIS DEPOSIT IT IS
ASSOCIATED WITH CEMENTS WITH TYPICALLY hMA
RINEv MINERALOGIES SEE PREVIOUS PHOTOGRAPH
REm ECTIVE OF HYPERSALINE COASTAL PORE WATERS
2EMNANT PORE SPACES WITHIN THE FENESTRAE
WERE l LLED WITH SPARRY CALCITE 3EE SUBSEQUENT
CHAPTER ON h-ETEORIC $IAGENESISv FOR ADDI
TIONAL EXPLANATION OF THESE FABRICS
00, (! MM
Up. Cretaceous (Campanian-
Maastrichtian) Pierre Shale, Pueblo
Co., Colorado
4HESE COMPLEX LAYERED SYNSEDIMENTARY
l BROUS CRUSTS OF MARINE CALCITE CEMENT WERE
PRECIPITATED IN AN INFERRED SUBMARINE METHANE
VENT ZONE -ETHANE SEEPS SUPPORT RICH MICRO
BIAL COMMUNITIES AND CEMENTS ASSOCIATED WITH
SUCH VENTS ARE ESPECIALLY RICH IN INCLUSIONS OF
ORGANIC BACTERIAL MATERIAL
00, !3 (! ^ MM
Up. Cretaceous (Campanian-
Maastrichtian) Pierre Shale, Pueblo
Co., Colorado
!NOTHER EXAMPLE OF SYNSEDIMENTARY CRUSTS OF
MARINE l BROUS CALCITE CEMENT AND FERRUGINOUS
MATERIAL FROM AN INFERRED SUBMARINE METHANE
VENT ZONE 4HE COMPLEX EMBAYED MORPHOLO
GIES OF THESE CEMENT CRUSTS AND FANS ARE COM
MON IN VENT CEMENTS
00, (! ^ MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
#ITED 2EFERENCES AND !DDITIONAL )NFORMATION 3OURCES
!LEXANDERSSON 4 )NTRAGRANULAR GROWTH OF MARINE ARAGONITE AND 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
-G
CALCITE EVIDENCE OF PRECIPITATION FROM SUPERSATURATED SEAWATER -AZZULLO 3 * AND * - #YS !RCHAEOLITHOPORELLA
BOUNDSTONES
*OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
AND MARINE ARAGONITE CEMENTS 0ERMIAN #APITAN REEF .EW -EXICO
"ATHURST 2 ' # "ORING ALGAE MICRITE ENVELOPES AND LITHIl CATION AND 4EXAS 53! .EUES *AHRBUCH FR 'EOLOGIE UND 0ALONTOLOGIE
OF MOLLUSCAN BIOSPARITES 'EOLOGICAL *OURNAL V P
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& ACING 0AGE 4OP
(OLOCENE CA Y"0 EOLIANITE 3AN
3ALVADOR )SLAND "AHAMAS .OTE SELECTIVE LITHIl CATION OF THE
UPPER SURFACE OF THE DUNE AS A RESULT OF METEORIC CEMENTATION
3CHNEIDERMANN AND 0 - (ARRIS EDS #ARBONATE #EMENTS 4ULSA /+ "OTTOM
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CHAPTER 24: EOGENETIC METEORIC DIAGENESIS
#!2"/.!4% $)!'%.%3)3
EOGENETIC METEORIC DIAGENESIS
C
H
A
P
T
E
R
24
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
-%4%/2)# $)!'%.%3)3
)NTRODUCTION
-ETEORIC DIAGENESIS REPRESENTS ALTERATION THAT OCCURS AT OR NEAR THE EARTHS SURFACE IN STRATA INmUENCED OR
PERVADED BY WATERS OF RECENT ATMOSPHERIC ORIGIN 4HE METEORIC ENVIRONMENT IS TYPICALLY DIVIDED INTO
UNSATURATED VADOSE AND SATURATED PHREATIC ZONES DIVIDED BY A WATER TABLE SEE TOP DIAGRAM FACING PAGE
4HE INTERFACES BETWEEN SURlCIAL METEORIC mUIDS AND STRATA lLLED WITH OTHER PORE mUIDS SEAWATER OR BASINAL
WATERS ARE hMIXING ZONESv THAT CAN HAVE SPECIAL DIAGENETIC CHARACTERISTICS
-ANY PERHAPS MOST SHALLOW MARINE CARBONATE DEPOSITS UNDERGO METEORIC DIAGENESIS EITHER AS A CONSEQUENCE
OF BUILDUP OF SEDIMENTS ABOVE SEA LEVEL OR THROUGH DROPS IN SEA LEVEL THAT EXPOSE PLATFORM CARBONATES )N
ADDITION METEORIC WATER CAN CIRCULATE WELL BELOW THE LAND SURFACE TO ALTER CARBONATE DEPOSITS FAR OLDER THAN
THE EXPOSURE INTERVAL -ETEORIC PROCESSES COMMONLY ACT OVER TIME PERIODS OF HUNDREDS TO MILLIONS OF YEARS
-ETEORIC DIAGENETIC PATTERNS TYPICALLY ARE COMPLEX AND VARIABLE FOR THE FOLLOWING REASONS REGIONAL AND
TEMPORAL VARIATIONS IN STARTING MATERIAL VARIATIONS IN RAINFALL AND WATER THROUGHPUT RATES IN PART RELATED
TO PERMEABILITY VARIATIONS VARIATIONS IN WATER CHEMISTRY FROM LOCALITY TO LOCALITY OR VERTICALLY THROUGH
THE WATER COLUMN AT ANY ONE SITE ESPECIALLY AT MIXING INTERFACES VARIATIONS IN THE DURATION OF EXPOSURE OR
ALTERATION DURING MULTIPLE EPISODES OF EXPOSURE AND THE EFFECTS OF PLANTS AND PLANT
DERIVED ACIDS THAT VARY
REGIONALLY AND ALSO CHANGED THROUGH GEOLOGIC TIME AS A CONSEQUENCE OF EVOLUTION OF DIFFERENT PLANT GROUPS
-AJOR DIAGENETIC FABRICS
4HE VADOSE ZONE IS CHARACTERIZED BY EXTENSIVE DISSOLUTION OF UNSTABLE CARBONATE MINERALS ARAGONITE AND HIGH
-G CALCITE OFTEN WITH REPRECIPITATION OF MORE STABLE CARBONATE LOW
-G CALCITE !S A CONSEQUENCE PRIMARY
POROSITY COMMONLY IS lLLED DURING METEORIC DIAGENESIS AND SECONDARY POROSITY IS CREATED
5NLESS THERE IS A THINNING OR COLLAPSE OF THE ROCK SECTION METEORIC DIAGENESIS IS RELATIVELY POROSITY NEUTRAL AT LEAST
AT THE SCALE OF GRAINS WITH DISSOLUTION AT ONE SITE SUPPLYING SOLUTES FOR REPRECIPITATION ELSEWHERE -ETEORIC
DIAGENESIS DOES HOWEVER HAVE A STRONG EFFECT ON PERMEABILITY EG PERMEABILITY REDUCTIONS THROUGH CEMENTATION
OF INTERCONNECTED PRIMARY PORES OR PERMEABILITY INCREASES THROUGH SOLUTION ENLARGEMENT OF FRACTURES
-ANY VADOSE CEMENTS HAVE FABRICS REmECTING THE SELECTIVE DISTRIBUTION OF WATER IN THAT ENVIRONMENT PENDANT
MICROSTALACTITIC OR GRAVITATIONAL CEMENTS HANGING FROM UNDERSIDES OF GRAINS AND MENISCUS CEMENTS
CONCENTRATED AT GRAIN CONTACTS 7HISKER CRYSTALS ALSO TERMED NEEDLE
lBER CEMENTS CALCIlED lLAMENTS
BLACKENED PEBBLES ROOT STRUCTURES RHIZOLITHS MICROSPAR AND -ICROCODIUM ALSO ARE COMMON FEATURES
0HREATIC ZONE CEMENTS ARE TYPICALLY ISOPACHOUS RIMS OR COMPLETE PORE lLLINGS OF EQUANT CALCITE
&RESHWATER METEORIC CALCITES ARE DEPLETED IN 3R -G D/ AND D# RELATIVE TO THEIR MARINE PRECURSORS
-OST BUT NOT ALL METEORIC SETTINGS ARE OXIDIZING RESULTING IN TYPICALLY LOW &E AND -N CONTENTS IN METEORIC
CEMENTS REmECTED IN NON
FERROAN STAINING AND NO CATHODOLUMINESCENCE RESPONSE
&RESHWATER METEORIC AREAS COMMONLY HAVE EXTENSIVE DISSOLUTION FEATURES EG SOLUTION
ENLARGED FRACTURES
SINKHOLES CAVES OR COLLAPSE BRECCIAS KARSTIC FEATURES 3UCH DISSOLUTION IS ESPECIALLY COMMON IN THE VADOSE
ZONE AT THE VADOSE
PHREATIC MIXING ZONE THE WATER TABLE AND PERHAPS IN MARINE
TO FRESHWATER MIXING ZONES
3ELECTIVE DISSOLUTION AFFECTING PRIMARILY ARAGONITIC CONSTITUENTS IS WIDESPREAD AND THUS GEOLOGIC TIME PERIODS
WITH HIGHLY ARAGONITIC SEDIMENTS HAVE ENHANCED METEORIC DIAGENETIC POTENTIAL !LTERATION RATES VARY WIDELY
AND ARE A FUNCTION OF RAINFALL SEDIMENT PERMEABILITY AND OTHER FACTORS AFFECTING WATER THROUGHPUT RATES
6ARIOUS TYPES OF SURlCIAL DEPOSITS OCCUR IN AREAS OF METEORIC EXPOSURE INCLUDING RESIDUAL SOILS WITH CARBONATE
RHIZOCRETIONS OR NODULES SOIL CRUSTS CALCRETES AND CALICHES OR SPRING
FED TRAVERTINES
6ADOSE ALTERATION LEADS TO DIAGENETIC STABILIZATION OF UNSTABLE MARINE LIMESTONES IN THE ABSENCE OF METEORIC
ALTERATION HOWEVER SIMILAR PROCESSES OF ARAGONITE AND -G
CALCITE DISSOLUTION AND LOW
-G CALCITE PRECIPITATION
EVENTUALLY TAKE PLACE DURING BURIAL 2ECENT STUDIES HAVE SHOWN THAT VERY SIMILAR PRODUCTS ARE PRODUCED
DURING METEORIC PHREATIC AND BURIAL
STAGE TRANSFORMATIONS EG -ELIM ET AL AND GEOCHEMICAL STUDIES
MAY BE REQUIRED TO HELP DETERMINE THE DIAGENETIC SETTING IN WHICH SUCH TRANSFORMATIONS TOOK PLACE
-INERALOGY
&RESHWATER METEORIC CEMENTS VADOSE AND PHREATIC CONSIST MAINLY OF LOW
-G CALCITE )N ARID REGIONS WITH SALINE
GROUNDWATER ARAGONITE HIGH
-G CALCITE LOW
-G CALCITE CALCIAN DOLOMITE GYPSUM ANHYDRITE AND OTHER
EVAPORITE MINERALS ARE COMMON PRECIPITATES $OLOMITE ALSO IS FORMED IN FRESH
TO MARINE
WATER MIXING ZONES
)N SURlCIAL WEATHERING CRUSTS CALCITE DOLOMITE SILICA PHOSPHATE IRON AND ALUMINUM OXIDES CLAYS AND OTHER
MINERALS CAN ACCUMULATE ANDOR PRECIPITATE
CHAPTER 24: EOGENETIC METEORIC DIAGENESIS
The major subdivisions of a
coastal meteoric diagenetic zone
! !
4HERE ARE TWO PRIMARY SUBDIVISIONS OF THE EN
VIRONMENT OF METEORIC ALTERATION 4HE VADOSE
ZONE ALSO TERMED THE UNDERSATURATED ZONE
LIES CLOSEST TO THE SURFACE AND IS DIVIDED INTO ! !
AN UPPER ZONE OF INlLTRATION AND A LOWER AREA #
#!& !
OF GRAVITY PERCOLATION 4HE VADOSE ZONE OVER
!
LIES THE SHALLOW PHREATIC ZONE ALSO TERMED THE
SATURATED ZONE 4HE DIVIDING LINE BETWEEN THE
VADOSE AND PHREATIC ENVIRONMENTS IS TERMED $ ! !"
THE WATER TABLE ! BRACKISH WATER TRANSITION !
ZONE OCCURS BETWEEN METEORIC AND MARINE WA
TERS AND IS TERMED THE MIXING ZONE 2EDRAWN % !
FROM *AMES AND #HOQUETTE
Morphologies of major types of
meteoric cements
! DIAGRAMMATIC DEPICTION OF THE MORPHOLO
GIES OF SOME MAJOR TYPES OF CEMENTS COM
MONLY PRECIPITATED DURING METEORIC DIAGENESIS
VADOSE ZONE FABRICS ARE SHOWN ON THE LEFT
SIDE PHREATIC ZONE FABRICS ARE SHOWN ON THE
RIGHT SIDE 3YNTAXIAL ALSO TERMED EPITAXIAL
OVERGROWTHS CAN FORM IN BOTH ENVIRONMENTS
BUT WILL BE COVERED UNDER BURIAL DIAGENESIS IN
THIS BOOK 6ADOSE FABRICS ARE INmUENCED BY THE
LOCALIZED DISTRIBUTION OF WATER AT GRAIN CONTACTS
AND AS DROPLETS HANGING FROM THE UNDERSIDES OF
GRAINS 0HREATIC CEMENTS ARE MORE UNIFORMLY
DISTRIBUTED REmECTING THE COMPLETE SATURA
TION OF PORES WITH WATER IN THAT ENVIRONMENT
!DAPTED FROM *AMES AND #HOQUETTE
Stages of meteoric diagenesis
-ETEORIC DIAGENESIS GENERALLY IS A CANNIBALISTIC
PROCESS WITH DISSOLUTION OF UNSTABLE MATERIALS
AT ONE SITE SUPPLYING MATERIAL FOR PRECIPITATION
AT ANOTHER )N THIS DIAGRAM EARLY STAGES OF
PHREATIC CEMENTATION ARE MATCHED BY INITIAL
DISSOLUTION OF UNSTABLE MATERIALS ALTHOUGH
SOME OR MOST OF THAT DISSOLUTION MAY OCCUR IN
VADOSE SETTINGS AND MUCH OF THE CEMENTATION
MAY OCCUR IN THE PHREATIC ZONE 7ITH EXTENDED
METEORIC DIAGENESIS THIS PROCESS CAN LEAD TO
COMPLETE FABRIC INVERSION FORMER GRAINS
BECOME SECONDARY PORES FORMER PRIMARY
PORES BECOME CEMENT lLLED )F THE PROCESS IS
CONTINUED WITH AN EXTERNAL SUPPLY OF SOLUTES
EVEN THE SECONDARY POROSITY CAN BE lLLED WITH
CEMENTS A STAGE NOT SHOWN HERE
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Holocene (<2700 yBP) eolianite,
Isla Cancun, Quintana Roo, Mexico
!N OOLITIC EOLIANITE AT AN EARLY STAGE OF
FRESHWATER VADOSE DIAGENESIS 4HE ALTERATION
CONSISTS OF SELECTIVE hCHALKYv DISSOLUTION
OF ORIGINAL ARAGONITIC OOIDS COMBINED WITH
PARTIAL lLLING OF PRIMARY POROSITY BY MENISCUS
CALCITE CEMENT 4HE MENISCUS FABRIC IS CHARAC
TERIZED BY A MARKED CONCENTRATION OF CRYSTALS
AT OR NEAR GRAIN CONTACTS SITES WHERE CAPILLARY
WATER lLMS WITH CURVED MENISCUS BOUNDARIES
WOULD BE CONCENTRATED 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY
OF 2OBERT ' ,OUCKS
00, "3% (! ^ MM
Holocene eolianite, Isla Cancun,
Quintana Roo, Mexico
!N EXAMPLE OF SOMEWHAT MORE EXTENSIVE
VADOSE DIAGENESIS IN A (OLOCENE EOLIANITE
4HE THIN SUPERlCIAL ARAGONITIC OOID CORTICES
ARE EXTENSIVELY DISSOLVED AND THE SEDIMENT
HAS BEEN SUBSTANTIALLY CEMENTED WITH COARSE
MENISCUS CALCITE .OTE THE BLOCKY EQUANT
NATURE OF THE LOW -G CALCITE CEMENT AND THE
PRODUCTION OF HIGHLY ROUNDED PORES CONFORM
ING TO THE MENISCUS SURFACES OF WATER HELD AT
GRAIN CONTACTS 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF 2OBERT
' ,OUCKS
00, "3% (! MM
Holocene sediment, Joulters Cay,
Great Bahama Banks, Bahamas
!N 3%- IMAGE OF A YEAR OLD OOID THAT
HAS UNDERGONE DISSOLUTION OF ITS ARAGONITIC
OUTER CORTICAL LAYER EXPOSING THE HIGH -G
CALCITE lLLED ENDOLITHIC MICROBIAL BORINGS THAT
WERE ONCE ENCLOSED IN THE ARAGONITE 4HIS DIS
SOLUTION HAS TAKEN PLACE IN THE VADOSE ZONE
ASSOCIATED WITH THE SMALL FRESHWATER LENS
THAT UNDERLIES THIS ISLAND !LTHOUGH RATES OF
ARAGONITE DISSOLUTION ARE HIGHLY VARIABLE PO
ROUS GRAINSTONES IN HIGH RAINFALL AREAS CAN BE
EXTENSIVELY ALTERED ON TIME SCALES OF THOUSANDS
TO TENS OF THOUSANDS OF YEARS 0HOTOGRAPH
COURTESY OF 2OBERT " (ALLEY
3%- (! M
CHAPTER 24: EOGENETIC METEORIC DIAGENESIS
Holocene eolianite, Isla Cancun,
Quintana Roo, Mexico
!LTHOUGH ARAGONITE DISSOLUTION IS THE NORM IN
FRESHWATER VADOSE SETTINGS CALCITE CEMENTA
TION CAN OCCUR AT LEAST LOCALLY WITHOUT EX
TENSIVE ARAGONITE REMOVAL 4HESE SUPERlCIAL
OOIDS WERE CEMENTED BY LOW
-G CALCITE WITH
A MENISCUS FABRIC THAT HAS FORMED ROUNDED
PORES 4HIS hSPOT WELDINGv PRODUCES A STRUC
TURALLY STRONG FABRIC THAT CAN PRESERVE POROSITY
THROUGH EXTENSIVE BURIAL #ONTINUED CEMENTA
TION WILL BOTH OBSCURE THE MENISCUS FABRICS
AND SET UP THE POTENTIAL FOR PRODUCING MOLDIC
POROSITY THROUGH THE REMOVAL OF THE UNSTABLE
ARAGONITIC GRAINS FROM A FRAMEWORK OF STABLE
CALCITE CEMENT
80, (! MM
Holocene sediment, Joulters Cay,
Great Bahama Banks, Bahamas
!N 3%- IMAGE OF MENISCUS
CEMENTED OOIDS
4HE MENISCUS FABRIC IS CHARACTERIZED BY
THICKENED CEMENTS NEAR GRAIN CONTACTS AND
RESULTANT SMOOTHLY OVOID TO CIRCULAR REMNANT
PORES A MENISCUS SHAPE 4HIS VIEW SHOWS
THE SMOOTHLY CURVED SURFACE OF THE CALCITE CE
MENT BETWEEN TWO ARAGONITIC OOIDS )N SOME
VADOSE SETTINGS HOWEVER GRAIN CONTACTS ARE
THE SITES OF PREFERENTIAL DISSOLUTION WHICH CAN
YIELD FABRICS THAT APPEAR hOVERCOMPACTEDv
+NOX 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF 2OBERT
" (ALLEY
3%- (! M
Lo. Holocene (ca. 6000 yBP)
eolianite, San Salvador Island,
Bahamas
-ETEORIC CEMENTS ARE SELECTIVELY PRECIPITATED
IN PLACES WHERE CAPILLARY WATER IS HELD AND CAN
GRADUALLY EVAPORATE )N THIS EXAMPLE BLOCKY
CALCITE CEMENTS ARE CONCENTRATED ONLY IN THE
lNER GRAINED AVALANCHE LAYERS OF CARBONATE
DUNE SANDS THE COARSER LAYERS ARE VIRTUALLY
UNCEMENTED 4HE SELECTIVE CEMENTATION OF
THE lNER GRAINED LAYERS DEMONSTRATES HOW
SMALL SCALE PRIMARY POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY
VARIATIONS CAN BE ACCENTUATED BY DIAGENETIC
PROCESSES
080, "3% (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Holocene eolianite, Isla Blanca,
Quintana Roo, Mexico
!NOTHER VADOSE METEORIC CEMENT MORPHOLOGY
THAT REmECTS PARTIAL WATER SATURATION IN THAT SET
TING IS PENDANT OR MICROSTALACTITIC CEMENT ALSO
TERMED GRAVITATIONAL CEMENT !S THE NAMES
IMPLY THESE CEMENTS FORM PENDANTS THAT
HANG FROM THE BOTTOMS OF GRAINS IN EXACTLY
THE SAME POSITIONS THAT WATER DROPLETS WOULD
OCCUPY !LTHOUGH NOT SEEN IN THIS EXAMPLE
THE TOPS OF GRAINS IN PENDANT
CEMENTED STRATA
ARE COMMONLY CORRODED 0ENDANT CEMENTS
ARE COMPOSED OF LOW
-G CALCITE IN FRESHWATER
AREAS BUT ARE ARAGONITE AND HIGH
-G CALCITE IN
COASTAL SPRAY ZONE DEPOSITS 0HOTOGRAPH COUR
TESY OF 7ILLIAM # 7ARD
00, (! MM
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
#ONTINUED CEMENTATION DURING METEORIC AND
BURIAL DIAGENESIS COMMONLY OBSCURES EARLY
VADOSE CEMENT FABRICS )N THIS EXAMPLE HOW
EVER A PARTIALLY CEMENTED SKELETAL GRAINSTONE
FROM JUST BELOW A MAJOR SEQUENCE BOUNDARY
PRESERVES DISTINCTIVE CALCITIC VADOSE CEMENTS
.OTE THE PENDANTS OF CEMENT HANGING FROM THE
BOTTOMS OF MANY GRAINS AND lLLING PRIMARY PO
ROSITY )N ADDITION PENDANT CEMENTS ALSO HANG
DOWNWARD WITHIN MOLDIC PORES SURROUNDED BY
MICRITE ENVELOPES MOLDS PRESUMABLY ALSO PRO
DUCED DURING VADOSE EXPOSURE
00, !&E3 "3% (! MM
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Tansill
Fm., Eddy Co., New Mexico
!NOTHER EXAMPLE OF PRESERVED VADOSE CEMENTS
IN AN ANCIENT LIMESTONE 4HESE MICROSTALACTITIC
OR PENDANT FABRICS WERE PRECIPITATED FROM WATER
DROPLETS HANGING FROM INTRA
AND INTERGRANULAR
SURFACES IN THE SEDIMENT .OTE ALSO THE DIS
SOLUTION OF THE TOPS OF MANY OF THESE -IZZIA
GREEN
ALGAL GRAINS BY UNDERSATURATED METEORIC
WATERS PERCOLATING DOWNWARD THROUGH THE SED
IMENT 0ENDANT CEMENTS IN THIS AREA ARE VERY
LOCALIZED AND ARE APPARENTLY ASSOCIATED WITH
SMALL ISLANDS THAT BUILT UP ABOVE SEA LEVEL DUR
ING SEDIMENTATION
00, "3% (! MM
CHAPTER 24: EOGENETIC METEORIC DIAGENESIS
Pleistocene Key Largo Ls., Florida
Keys, Monroe Co., Florida
! PARTIALLY LEACHED VOID lLLED WITH LOW -G
CALCITE hNEEDLE lBERv OR hWHISKER CRYSTALv
CEMENT 4HESE ARE THIN RANDOMLY ORIENTED
CRYSTALS THAT ARE COMMONLY FOUND IN METE
ORICALLY ALTERED LIMESTONES 4HEY PROBABLY ARE
PRECIPITATED MAINLY IN THE VADOSE ZONE AND CAN
BE DIFlCULT TO RECOGNIZE IN OLDER ROCKS WHEN
OBSCURED BY LATER SPARRY CALCITE CEMENTS
80, (! MM
Pleistocene eolianite, Isla Mujeres,
Quintana Roo, Mexico
!NOTHER EXAMPLE OF NEEDLE lBER OR WHISKER
CRYSTAL CALCITE CEMENT FROM THE VADOSE ZONE
(ERE MUCH MORE OF THE POROSITY WAS OCCLUDED
BY A COARSE MESHWORK OF CRYSTAL LATHS 0HOTO
GRAPH COURTESY OF 7ILLIAM # 7ARD
80, (! MM
Up. Pennsylvanian (Virgilian)
Holder Fm., Otero Co., New Mexico
2ECOGNITION OF NEEDLE lBER OR WHISKER CRYSTAL
CEMENTS IN ANCIENT LIMESTONES IS RELATIVELY
UNCOMMON BUT IS POSSIBLE WITH CAREFUL OBSER
VATION )N THIS EXAMPLE RANDOM NEEDLE lBERS
OF CALCITE ARE READILY VISIBLE BECAUSE THEY
ARE HIGHLIGHTED AS INCLUSIONS WITHIN A SINGLE
CRYSTAL OF LATER CALCITE CEMENT THAT IS AT OPTICAL
EXTINCTION IN THIS IMAGE 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY
OF 2OBERT ( 'OLDSTEIN
80, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Pleistocene eolianite, Isla Cancun,
Quintana Roo, Mexico
#ALCIlED PLANT REMAINS OR PLANT ROOT STRUCTURES
ARE CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES FOR THE RECOGNITION
OF PALEOSOLS AND CALCRETE HORIZONS 4HIS VIEW
SHOWS CALCIlED ROOT
HAIR SHEATHS NONSEPTATE
TUBULES EXTENDING FROM A CALCIlED ROOTLET THE
LARGER MULTICELLULAR TUBE 0HOTOGRAPH COUR
TESY OF 7ILLIAM # 7ARD
00, (! MM
Pleistocene Key Largo Ls., Florida
Keys, Monroe Co., Florida
4HE EARLY CALCIlCATION OF ROOTLETS AND ROOT
HAIR
SHEATHS IS VISIBLE IN THIS CROSS
POLARIZED LIGHT
VIEW 4HESE METEORIC PRECIPITATES HAVE FORMED
IN A REEFAL LIMESTONE THAT HAS BEEN EXPOSED TO
APPROXIMATELY YEARS OF METEORIC AL
TERATION 4HE WATER UPTAKE AND #/ EXCHANGE
BETWEEN WATER AND PLANTS MAKE ROOTLETS ES
PECIALLY PRONE TO CALCIlCATION AND A COMMON
FEATURE IN $EVONIAN AND YOUNGER PALEOSOLS
80, (! MM
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
!NOTHER FEATURE COMMONLY FOUND IN CARBON
ATE DEPOSITS EXPOSED TO METEORIC ALTERATION IS
hVADOSE SILTv (ERE BOTRYOIDS OF MARINE CE
MENT WERE PARTIALLY LEACHED NOTE THE IRREGULAR
TRUNCATION SURFACE ON SOME OF THE BOTRYOIDS
4HE DISSOLUTION SURFACE IS OVERLAIN BY A DARK
BROWN MICROCRYSTALLINE CRUST THAT PREDATES
INlLL OF THE REMAINING CAVITY BY LIGHTER COLORED
CRYSTAL SILT 3UCH SILT MAY IN PART BE PRECIPI
TATED BUT IT LIKELY ALSO INCLUDES SUBSTANTIAL DIS
SOLUTION RESIDUE INCLUDING PERHAPS RESIDUES OF
COLLAPSED EARLY METEORIC CEMENTS
00, !&E3 (! MM
CHAPTER 24: EOGENETIC METEORIC DIAGENESIS
Up. Cretaceous limestone,
Cephalonia, Ionian Islands, Greece
'EOPETAL CRYSTAL SILT IS VISIBLE HERE AS PARTIAL
lLLINGS OF LEACHED CORAL SKELETONS 3UCH CRYS
TAL SILT HAS BEEN INTERPRETED AS AN INDICATOR OF
SUBAERIAL EXPOSURE AND VADOSE DIAGENESIS BY
$UNHAM AND OTHER AUTHORS AND THAT
INTERPRETATION IS ESPECIALLY LIKELY IN CASES SUCH
AS THIS WHERE THE VOIDS THEMSELVES ARE FORMED
BY LEACHING 4HE CRYSTAL SILT IN THE CORAL MOLDS
IS LIGHTER COLORED AND COARSER GRAINED THAN THE
MICRITE FRACTION OF THE SURROUNDING DARKER COL
ORED SEDIMENT
00, "3% (! MM
Holocene sediment, Joulters Cay,
Great Bahama Bank, Bahamas
0HREATIC CEMENTS BY DElNITION PRECIPITATED IN
A FULLY WATER
SATURATED SEDIMENT DO NOT SHOW
DIFFERENTIAL CEMENT CRYSTAL DISTRIBUTIONS AND
HAVE INSTEAD RELATIVELY ISOPACHOUS UNIFORM
THICKNESS FABRICS 4HIS 3%- IMAGE SHOWS
INCIPIENT PHREATIC CEMENTATION OF OOIDS .OTE
THE ISOLATED EQUANT RHOMBS OF LOW
-G CALCITE
CEMENT SCATTERED ON THE SMOOTH SURFACE OF THE
OOIDS 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF 2OBERT " (AL
LEY
3%- (! MM
Holocene sediment, Joulters Cay,
Great Bahama Bank, Bahamas
!N 3%- IMAGE OF EXTENSIVE PHREATIC CEMENTA
TION OF OOIDS .OTE THE CONTINUOUS RELATIVELY
UNIFORM
THICKNESS COATING OF EQUANT RHOMBIC
LOW
-G CALCITE CEMENT CRYSTALS THAT COVER THE
ONCE
SMOOTH SURFACE OF THE OOIDS 0HOTOGRAPH
COURTESY OF 2OBERT " (ALLEY
3%- (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Holocene sediment, Joulters Cay,
Great Bahama Bank, Bahamas
!N OOID GRAINSTONE FROM AN EOLIANITE CARBON
ATE DUNE RIDGE WITH CEMENTS FORMED BELOW
THE WATER TABLE IN THE FRESHWATER PHREATIC
ZONE 4HESE LOW
-G CALCITE CEMENTS OCCUR AS
SLIGHTLY UNEVEN BUT STILL GENERALLY ISOPACHOUS
COATINGS OF EQUANT TO BLADED CRYSTALS AROUND
THE OOIDS 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF 0AUL -
(ARRIS
80, (! ^ MM
Up. Jurassic (Oxfordian) Up.
Smackover Fm., 7,762 ft (2,366 m)
depth, southern Arkansas
!N ANCIENT EXAMPLE OF PROBABLE METE
ORIC PHREATIC CALCITE CEMENT DEVELOPED IN A
3MACKOVER OOID GRAINSTONE RESERVOIR 3OME
LEACHING HAS OCCURRED IN THE GRAINS IN ADDITION
TO THE FORMATION OF ISOPACHOUS CRUSTS OF BLAD
ED CALCITE 'EOCHEMICAL STUDIES ESPECIALLY OF
STABLE CARBON AND OXYGEN ISOTOPIC COMPOSI
TIONS SHOULD BE COUPLED WITH PETROGRAPHY TO
PROVE THAT THESE CRUSTS ARE OF METEORIC RATHER
THAN MARINE ORIGIN 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF
#LYDE ( -OORE
80, (! ^ MM
Lo. Holocene (ca. 6000 yBP)
eolianite, San Salvador Island,
Bahamas
$ISSOLUTION OF UNSTABLE GRAINS AS NOTED EARLIER
IS A MAJOR COMPONENT OF METEORIC DIAGENESIS
AND THE MAIN SOURCE OF MATERIALS FOR MOST
METEORIC CEMENTS 4HE TWO PROCESSES ARE
HOWEVER NOT ALWAYS LOCALLY BALANCED (ERE
ARAGONITIC OOIDS ARE LARGELY PRESERVED IN A SEDI
MENT FULLY CEMENTED BY BLOCKY METEORIC CAL
CITE SPAR .OTE INCIPIENT DISSOLUTIONCORROSION
OF SOME OF THE OOIDS WITH THE FORMATION OF
MINOR SECONDARY POROSITY lLLED WITH BLUE
GREEN
STAINED EPOXY
00, "3% (! MM
CHAPTER 24: EOGENETIC METEORIC DIAGENESIS
Holocene (<2700 yBP) eolianite,
Isla Cancun, Quintana Roo, Mexico
! PHREATIC CALCITE CEMENTED EOLIANITE WITH
COMPLETE lLLING OF PRIMARY POROSITY AND MUCH
MORE SUBSTANTIAL SELECTIVE DISSOLUTION OF ORIGI
NAL OOIDS THAN IN THE PREVIOUS EXAMPLE 4HE
PRESENCE OF ORGANIC LAYERS COUPLED WITH A RE
MAINING MESHWORK OF INCOMPLETELY DISSOLVED
CONSTITUENT NEEDLES KEEPS THESE OOIDS FROM
COLLAPSING #OMPARE WITH VIEWS OF VADOSE
ALTERATION OF THIS SAME UNIT PAGE 0HOTO
GRAPH COURTESY OF 2OBERT ' ,OUCKS
00, "3% (! MM
Up. Jurassic (Oxfordian) Up.
Smackover Fm., Gulf Coast, U.S.A.
!N EXAMPLE OF AN OOLITIC GRAINSTONE IN WHICH
DISSOLUTION LED TO COLLAPSE OF REMNANT OOID
COMPONENTS 4HE TIMING OF DISSOLUTION
COL
LAPSE STRUCTURES SUCH THESE IS COMMONLY DIFl
CULT TO DETERMINE WITH PETROGRAPHY ALONE 4HE
ASSOCIATION IN THIS CASE WITH EQUANT TO BLADED
CALCITE SPAR CRUSTS OUTSIDE THE OOIDS FOLLOWED
BY LATER BLOCKY CALCITE CEMENT HOWEVER
MAKES METEORIC EXPOSURE A POSSIBLE CAUSE OF
THE DISSOLUTION 4HE SMALL IRREGULARLY CIRCU
LAR FEATURES MAINLY ALONG THE TOP EDGE ARE
AIR BUBBLES IN THE SLIDE AND THE LIGHT
COLORED
RHOMBIC CRYSTALS ARE DOLOMITE 0HOTOGRAPH
COURTESY OF #LYDE ( -OORE
00, !3 (! ^ MM
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
!N EXAMPLE OF AN OOLITIC GRAINSTONE THAT HAS
UNDERGONE ESSENTIALLY COMPLETE POROSITY INVER
SION DURING METEORIC DIAGENESIS 4HE NEARLY
COMPLETE CEMENTATION OF PRIMARY POROSITY BY
NON FERROAN BLOCKY CALCITE CEMENT IS MATCHED
BY NEARLY COMPLETE LEACHING OF ORIGINAL OOIDS
IDENTIlABLE ONLY VAGUELY BY SHAPE AND THE
PRESERVATION OF A FEW POSSIBLE CORTICAL COAT
INGS 4HE SAMPLE COMES FROM JUST BELOW A
MAJOR 0ERMIAN SEQUENCE BOUNDARY
00, !&E3 "3% (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Permian Zechstein Ca1 unit,
2,429 m depth, W of Gdansk,
Poland
4HE MICRITE ENVELOPES THAT FORM AROUND
SKELETAL AND OTHER GRAINS IN THE MARINE ENVI
RONMENT DISCUSSED IN THE SECTION ON MARINE
DIAGENESIS PLAY A SUBSTANTIAL ROLE IN FABRIC
PRESERVATION DURING METEORIC OR EARLY BURIAL
ALTERATION (ERE MICRITE ENVELOPES PROBABLY
ORIGINALLY HIGH -G CALCITE MARK THE LOCATIONS
OF LEACHED ARAGONITIC GRAINS -OST ENVELOPES
HAVE A THIN COATING OF PROBABLE PHREATIC CALCITE
CEMENT ON THEIR EXTERIOR PRIMARY INTERPARTICLE
PORE SURFACES AND ON THEIR INTERIOR SECONDARY
POROSITY SURFACES
00, "3% (! MM
Up. Cretaceous limestone,
Zakinthos, Ionian Islands, Greece
! MAGNIlED VIEW OF A MICRITE ENVELOPE SUR
ROUNDING A LEACHED ARAGONITIC BIOCLAST #OM
PLETE BLADED CALCITE CEMENT CRUSTS SURROUND THE
ENVELOPES ON THEIR EXTERIOR SURFACE AND FEWER
AND MORE ISOLATED CRYSTALS ARE PRESENT ON THE
INSIDE SURFACES !LTHOUGH THIS MAY WELL REmECT
METEORIC DIAGENETIC PROCESSES IT COULD ALSO BE
THE PRODUCT OF SHALLOW BURIAL DIAGENESIS EG
-ELIM ET AL
00, "3% (! MM
Up. Jurassic (Portlandian?) Arab D
Carbonate, Dukhan eld, Qatar
3OME OF THE WORLDS GREATEST CARBONATE HY
DROCARBON RESERVOIRS WERE STABILIZED AND
ENHANCED THROUGH METEORIC DIAGENESIS 4HIS
OOLITIC BIOCLASTIC GRAINSTONE WAS EXPOSED SOON
AFTER DEPOSITION RESULTING IN DEVELOPMENT OF
OOMOLDIC AND BIOMOLDIC POROSITY ,EACHING
WAS FOLLOWED BY THE GROWTH OF A THIN RIM OF
PHREATIC CALCITE CEMENT THAT LINES BOTH THE
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY PORES &INALLY THE
GRAINSTONE UNDERWENT MECHANICAL COMPAC
TION DURING DEEPER BURIAL CAUSING SOME OF THE
LEACHED GRAINS TO COLLAPSE 4HE ROCK HOWEVER
STILL RETAINS REMARKABLE POROSITY 0HOTOGRAPH
COURTESY OF $AVID . #LARK
00, !3 "3% (! MM
CHAPTER 24: EOGENETIC METEORIC DIAGENESIS
Up. Jurassic (Portlandian?) Arab D
Carbonate, Dukhan eld, Qatar
!NOTHER EXAMPLE OF A METEORICALLY LEACHED
BUT MORE EXTENSIVELY CEMENTED BIOCLASTIC
PELOIDAL GRAINSTONE FROM A CLASSIC HYDROCARBON
RESERVOIR 4HE BIOCLASTS CONSIST MOSTLY OF
ROUNDED MICRITIZED AND SUBSEQUENTLY LEACHED
PELOIDS AND BIVALVE FRAGMENTS %ARLY METEORIC
LEACHING RESULTED IN THE WIDESPREAD DEVELOP
MENT OF INTRAGRANULAR MOLDIC PORES AND WAS
FOLLOWED BY THE PHREATIC OR EARLY BURIAL STAGE
GROWTH OF CALCITE CEMENT STAINED RED 4HIS
STABILIZED ROCK FRAMEWORK SURVIVED KM OF
OVERBURDEN LOADING DURING SUBSEQUENT BURIAL
0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF $AVID . #LARK
00, !3 "3% (! MM
Mid-Late Ordovician Simpson
Gp., Oil Creek Fm., Johnston Co.,
Oklahoma
#ALCITIC SYNTAXIAL OVERGROWTH CEMENT ON
CRINOID FRAGMENTS 4HE POROSITY IN THIS
ENCRINITE WAS OBLITERATED BY SUCH CEMENTATION
EXCEPT FOR BLUE STAINED AREAS WHICH REPRESENT
LATER FERROAN CALCITE CEMENTS 4HE TIMING OF
SUCH CEMENTATION IS VERY DIFlCULT TO DETERMINE
AND MAY IN FACT EXTEND THROUGH A LONG PERIOD
OF TIME )NCIPIENT SYNTAXIAL OVERGROWTHS ARE
INFERRED FROM MARINE ENVIRONMENTS BUT SUCH
OVERGROWTHS FORM PRIMARILY IN METEORIC AND
BURIAL DIAGENETIC SETTINGS &LUID INCLUSION AND
ISOTOPIC GEOCHEMICAL STUDIES MAY HELP IN DE
TERMINING ENVIRONMENTS OF FORMATION
00, !&E3 (! MM
Pliocene-Pleistocene calcrete,
Boca Grandi, Aruba
! DENSE IRREGULARLY LAMINATED MICROCRYSTALLINE
SOIL CRUST PEDOGENIC CARBONATE DEVELOPED
AS A WEATHERING RIND ON A CORAL LIMESTONE
3URlCIAL LAMINATED CRUSTS AND HARDPANS ARE
VERY COMMON FEATURES THAT FORM AT OR NEAR
THE TOP OF THE ZONE OF INlLTRATION ESPECIALLY IN
SUB HUMID TO ARID SETTINGS 2HIZOLITHS MANGA
NESE BLACKENED PEBBLES GLAEBULES AND PISOIDS
PISOLITHS COMMONLY ACCOMPANY SUCH CRUSTS
2ECOGNITION OF THESE RATHER SUBTLE FEATURES IS
IMPORTANT BECAUSE THEY COMMONLY MARK SUB
STANTIAL HIATAL SURFACES !N ANCIENT EXAMPLE OF
SUCH A CRUST IS SHOWN ON THE LOWER PICTURE ON
THE TITLE PAGE OF THIS SECTION
00, "3% (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Pennsylvanian (Virgilian)
Holder Fm., Otero Co., New Mexico
! MICROSCOPIC VIEW OF AN ANCIENT LITHIlED
PALEOSOL OR CALCRETE DEPOSIT .OTE THE SHARPLY
BOUNDED IRREGULAR SURFACE UNDERLAIN BY A
LAMINAR SOMEWHAT CONTORTED MICROCRYSTALLINE
CRUST 4HE ABUNDANT CIRCULAR TO ELLIPTICAL TUBES
WITH DARK RINDS ARE CALCIlED ROOT STRUCTURES
RHIZOLITHS 4HIS 0ENNSYLVANIAN EXAMPLE IS
RELATED TO A MAJOR GLACIOEUSTATIC DROP IN SEA
LEVEL WITH RESULTING EXPOSURE OF SHELF LIME
STONES 'OLDSTEIN A AND B #ALCRETES
WITH EXTENSIVE EVIDENCE OF BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY
SUCH AS THIS ONE ARE TERMED hBETA CALCRETESv BY
7RIGHT
00, (! MM
Quaternary calcrete, Marfa Point,
Malta
!N EXAMPLE OF A NEAR 2ECENT LAMINATED
MICROCRYSTALLINE SOIL CRUST CALCRETE IN WHICH
MICRITE SIZED PEDOGENIC CARBONATE HAS EN
GULFED CARBONATE AND TERRIGENOUS CLASTIC DE
TRITUS .OTE THE VAGUE LAMINATIONS AND WELL
DEVELOPED CARBONATE LINED ROOT TUBULES OF
DIFFERENT SIZES RHIZOLITHS 4HE DARK BROWN
PATCHY AREAS ARE SOMEWHAT MORE HEAVILY CALCI
lED INCIPIENT NODULES GLAEBULES .OTE ALSO
THE REMARKABLE SIMILARITY OF SIZE AND SHAPE
OF STRUCTURES AND EVEN THE DEGREE OF FABRIC
PRESERVATION BETWEEN THIS AND THE PREVIOUS
ROUGHLY MY OLD EXAMPLE
00, (! MM
Pleistocene, (>700,000 yBP) Owls
Hole Fm., San Salvador Island,
Bahamas
! SOIL CRUST ASSOCIATED WITH ONE OF MANY
0LEISTOCENE SEA LEVEL LOWSTANDS EACH OF
WHICH RESULTED IN TENS OF THOUSANDS OF YEARS
OF METEORIC ALTERATION OF REEF AND BACK REEF
LIMESTONES .OTE THE FORMATION OF GLAEBULES
NODULAR FEATURES AND A COMPLEX NETWORK OF
SMALL RHIZOLITHS
00, !&E3 "3% (! MM
CHAPTER 24: EOGENETIC METEORIC DIAGENESIS
Up. Pennsylvanian (Virgilian)
Holder Fm., Otero Co., New Mexico
!N ANCIENT EXAMPLE OF A CALICHIlED CRUST
CALCRETE 4HERE ARE MANY CHARACTERISTIC
FEATURES THE BEST DEVELOPED ONES IN THIS
EXAMPLE ARE INCIPIENT NODULES GLAEBULES WITH
SPAR lLLED CIRCUMGRANULAR SHRINKAGE CRACKS
4HE VERY COMPLEX FRACTURES OF DIFFERENT SIZES
AND ORIENTATIONS IN MANY CASES OUTLINING THE
CIRCUMFERENCES OF NODULES ARE QUITE DIAGNOS
TIC OF SUBAERIAL EXPOSURE HORIZONS 2EPEATED
FRACTURING ALLOWS ROTATION OF GRAINS AND FORMA
TION OF PRECIPITATED PISOLITIC COATINGS A PROCESS
JUST IN THE EARLY STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT IN THIS
EXAMPLE
00, (! MM
Pleistocene, West Taneld,
Yorkshire, United Kingdom
&UNGAL STRUCTURES ESPECIALLY ONES RELATED TO
PLANT ROOT ACTIVITIES ARE COMMON IN CALCRETES
BETA CALCRETES OF 7RIGHT AND CAN BE
USED TO HELP IDENTIFY EXPOSURE HORIZONS 4HIS
3%- IMAGE SHOWS AN ALVEOLAR SEPTAL STRUCTURE
WITH NEEDLE lBER CALCITE THAT IS BRIDGING A
PORE 4HIS STRUCTURE CONSISTS OF NARROW CURVED
SEPTA COMPOSED OF BUNDLES OF PARALLEL ORIENTED
CALCITE NEEDLES AND REPRESENTS THE SITE OF FUNGAL
MYCELIAL BUNDLES )NTERESTINGLY THIS CALCRETE
WAS DEVELOPED IN A LATE 0LEISTOCENE ESKER
GRAVEL COMPOSED OF LIMESTONE CLASTS AND HAS
FORMED UNDER A TEMPERATE CLIMATE 0HOTOGRAPH
COURTESY OF 6 0AUL 7RIGHT
3%- (! M
Jurassic-Paleogene calcrete, Ordal,
Barcelona, NE Spain
4HE TUBULAR FABRIC OF -ICROCODIUM IN A 0A
LEOGENE SHALLOW VADOSE KARST ZONE IN *URASSIC
DOLOMITE -ICROCODIUM FABRICS APPARENTLY ARE
RELATED TO CALCIlED ROOT COMMUNITIES CALCIlED
ROOT CELLS AND MAY PENETRATE SEVERAL TENS OF
METERS BENEATH THE SOIL SURFACE -ICROCODIUM
HAS BEEN DESCRIBED FROM 5PPER *URASSIC TO
2ECENT STRATA 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF -ATEU
%STEBAN FROM %STEBAN AND +LAPPA
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Tertiary-Quaternary caliche,
Jim Wells Co., west Texas
! MATURE h(IGH 0LAINSv CALICHE .OTE THE
IRREGULARLY SHAPED COATED GRAINS TERMED SOIL
PISOIDS OR PISOLITHS AND ABUNDANT INCLUSIONS
OF DETRITAL TERRIGENOUS SILT AND SAND THAT ARE
ENGULFED BY PEDOGENIC CARBONATE 4HE INSOL
UBLE TERRIGENOUS COMPONENTS ARE CONCENTRATED
DURING THE DISSOLUTION PROCESS THAT CHARAC
TERIZES SUCH LONG TERM EXPOSURE SURFACES
#IRCUMGRANULAR CRACKING ALSO IS VISIBLE IN THIS
EXAMPLE #ALCRETE WITH LITTLE OR NO EVIDENCE OF
BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY SUCH AS THIS ONE IS TERMED
AN hALPHA CALCRETEv BY 7RIGHT
00, (! MM
Up. Tertiary-Quaternary caliche,
Midland Co., west Texas
!NOTHER VIEW OF THE SAME MATURE h(IGH
0LAINSv CALICHE .OTE THE IRREGULAR HIGHLY
ASYMMETRICAL COATED GRAINS PISOIDSPISOLITHS
AND ABUNDANT INCLUSIONS OF DETRITAL TERRIGENOUS
SILT AND SAND #ALICHE PISOIDS GROW WITH
PREFERENTIAL DOWNWARD ELONGATION BUT TYPI
CALLY ARE ROTATED INTO A VARIETY OF POSITIONS
DURING THE LONG PERIODS COMMONLY HUNDREDS
OF THOUSANDS TO MILLIONS OF YEARS OF EXPOSURE
AND DISPLACIVE CRYSTAL GROWTH REPRESENTED BY
SUCH DEPOSITS
00, (! MM
Pliocene-Pleistocene silcrete,
Colorado Point, Aruba
.OT ALL EXPOSURE SURFACES ARE MARKED BY
CALCAREOUS CRUSTS CALCRETES PETROCALCIC HO
RIZONS OR CALICHES 3ILICEOUS PHOSPHATIC
FERRUGINOUS AND BAUXITIC CRUSTS OR DEPOSITS
ARE ALSO QUITE COMMON 4HIS EXAMPLE SHOWS A
SILICEOUS CRUST A SILCRETE DEVELOPED ON A CORAL
LIMESTONE .OTE THE FRAGMENTS OF SILICIlED AND
IRON STAINED LIMESTONE THAT ARE SURROUNDED BY
VARIOUS FORMS OF SILICA CEMENT
00,80, "3% (! MM EACH
CHAPTER 24: EOGENETIC METEORIC DIAGENESIS
Tertiary Arkansas Bauxite, near
Little Rock, Arkansas
4HIS FERRUGINOUS PISOLITIC BAUXITE IS AN EX
AMPLE OF LONG TERM WEATHERING AND hSOILv
FORMATION IN A HIGH RAINFALL SETTING .OTE THE
ABUNDANT IRREGULAR PISOIDS AND CIRCUMGRANULAR
CRACKING OF lNER GRAINED MATRIX )NTENSE
CHEMICAL WEATHERING HAS LEFT BEHIND ONLY THE
MOST INSOLUBLE CHEMICAL COMPONENTS
00, (! MM
Mesozoic-Miocene, offshore well,
NE Spain
! NUMBER OF OTHER FEATURES CAN BE USED TO
RECOGNIZE EXPOSURE ZONES 4HIS TERRA ROSSA IS
ASSOCIATED WITH A MAJOR PALEOKARST ZONE ,IKE
MANY SUCH DEPOSITS IT IS A FULLY LITHIlED MOD
ERATELY lNE GRAINED EXTENSIVELY RECRYSTALLIZED
CARBONATE A UNIFORM MICROSPAR !LTHOUGH
THIS MAY NOT BE THE ONLY WAY MICROSPAR IS
FORMED THERE IS A COMMON ASSOCIATION OF
MICROSPARS WITH METEORICALLY ALTERED MICRITES
0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF -ATEU %STEBAN
00, (! MM
Oligocene Bluff Fm., Grand
Cayman Island, Cayman Islands,
B.W.I.
4HIS CAVE
lLL BRECCIA IS ASSOCIATED WITH A NEAR
BY SUBAERIAL EXPOSURE SURFACE A PALEOKARST
ZONE 3UCH FEATURES GENERALLY ARE VERY
COARSE
GRAINED AND THUS ARE BEST RECOGNIZED
IN OUTCROP 4HEY CAN OCCASIONALLY BE IDENTI
lED IN THIN SECTION AS WELL HOWEVER .OTE THE
ANGULAR FRAGMENTS PRODUCED BY ROCK COLLAPSE
4HEY ARE SET IN REDDISH TERRA ROSSA MICRITIC
MATRIX THAT HAS INlLTRATED THOUGH A SOLUTION
ENLARGED FRACTURE NETWORK AND lLLS VUGS AND
CAVES WITH BANDED INTERNAL SEDIMENT THAT IS
LOCALLY TERMED hCAYMANITEv
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Cave ll in Up. Permian limestone,
Djebel Tebaga, southern Tunisia
0ALEOKARST ZONES SOMETIMES CAN BE RECOG
NIZED BY DEPOSITIONAL AS WELL AS DISSOLUTIONAL
FEATURES 4HESE CAVE LINING CEMENTS ARE AS
SOCIATED WITH A CAVE THAT EXTENDS WELL BELOW A
REGIONAL SUBAERIAL EXPOSURE SURFACE 4HE REGU
LAR BANDING OF LIGHT AND DARK CEMENT LAYERS IS
VERY TYPICAL AND REmECTS REPEATED VARIATIONS IN
AQUEOUS GEOCHEMICAL CONDITIONS WITHIN THE
CAVE SYSTEM
00, !&E3 (! MM
Tertiary-Quaternary cave ll, Mifin
Co., Pennsylvania
! STALACTITE FROM A #ENOZOIC CAVE CUT INTO
MID /RDOVICIAN LIMESTONE .OTE THE COARSELY
CRYSTALLINE RADIALLY ORIENTED LOW -G CALCITE
CRYSTALS THAT TRANSECT NUMEROUS DARK GROWTH
BANDS 4HIS FABRIC IS REMINISCENT OF THE STRUC
TURE OF BELEMNITE ROSTRA BUT THE TWO SHOULD BE
EASILY DISTINGUISHABLE BY DIFFERENCES IN SIZE
AND CONTEXT
80, (! MM
Holocene travertine, Culberson
Co., Texas
! VARIETY OF OTHER KINDS OF FABRICS CAN BE FOUND
IN LOCALIZED SOMETIMES QUITE ISOLATED AND UN
USUAL SUBAERIAL SETTINGS 4HIS EXAMPLE SHOWS
A STREAM
BED TUFA OR TRAVERTINE 4HIS COLD
AND
FRESHWATER DEPOSIT CONSISTS OF PRECIPITATED
MICROCRYSTALLINE CARBONATE LOW
-G CALCITE
COVERING PLANT FRAGMENTS MAINLY REEDS AND
GRASSES $ECOMPOSITION OF THE ORGANIC PLANT
FRAGMENTS LEAVES A VERY POROUS STRUCTURE HERE
BLUE EPOXY HIGHLIGHTS THE POROSITY 4RAVERTINE
OR TUFA DEPOSITS MANY TENS OF METERS THICK AND
COMPOSED EITHER OF CALCITE OR SILICA CAN FORM
IN SUBAERIAL SETTINGS ASSOCIATED WITH SPRINGS
00, "3% (! MM
CHAPTER 24: EOGENETIC METEORIC DIAGENESIS
Quaternary travertine, Bonneville
Co., Idaho
0ROBABLE BACTERIAL SHRUBS IN A HOT SPRING
TRAVERTINE DEPOSIT 4HE TRAVERTINE DEPOSITS
ARE STRONGLY LAMINATED CONSIST OF BRANCHING
CLUSTERS OF PELOIDAL MICRITE COMMONLY CONTAIN
ABUNDANT PLANT FRAGMENTS AND GENERALLY HAVE
HIGH POROSITY ASSOCIATED WITH THE DECOMPOSI
TION OF INCORPORATED ORGANIC MATTER
00, "3% (! MM
Recent spring deposit, Yorke
Peninsula, South Australia
!N EXAMPLE OF hmOE ARAGONITEv FROM A MA
RINE SEEPAGE SPRING IN A COASTAL HYPERSALINE
LAKE THAT LIES BELOW SEA LEVEL !S MARINE
WATER PERCOLATES THROUGH A PERMEABLE BARRIER
EMERGES INTO THE LAKE VIA UNDERWATER SPRINGS
AND THEN CIRCULATES TO THE SURFACE ARAGONITE
PRECIPITATES 4HE ARAGONITE CRYSTALS FORM RAFTS
HELD AT THE AIR WATER CONTACT BY SURFACE TENSION
#ONTINUED GROWTH EVENTUALLY MAKES THE RAFTS
SO HEAVY THAT THEY SINK TO THE LAKE mOOR WHERE
THEY ARE CEMENTED INTO A BRECCIA LIKE DEPOSIT
4HIS IS AN EXAMPLE OF TERRESTRIAL SPRING DEPO
SITION WHERE MIXING WITH MARINE WATERS PRO
DUCES A TYPICALLY MARINE MINERALOGY
80, (! MM
Recent spring deposit, Lake
MacLeod, Carnarvon area, Western
Australia
! PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF A BOTRYOIDAL ARAGONITE
CRUST FORMED BENEATH A COASTAL hTEPEE STRUC
TUREv 4HIS IS ANOTHER EXAMPLE OF MARINE SEEP
AGE SPRINGS IN WHICH MARINE WATER PERCOLATED
THROUGH COASTAL DUNE BARRIERS INTO A PLAYA BASIN
THAT LIES BELOW SEA LEVEL #EMENT CRUSTS AND
PISOIDS WITH hMARINEv MINERALOGIES AND FAB
RICS THUS PRECIPITATE FROM HYPERSALINE MARINE
mUIDS IN THIS SUBAERIALLY EXPOSED NON MARINE
SETTING 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF # 2OBERTSON
(ANDFORD SEE (ANDFORD ET AL
00, "3% (! ^ MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
#ITED 2EFERENCES AND !DDITIONAL )NFORMATION 3OURCES
!RISTARAIN , & #HARACTERISTICS AND GENESIS OF CALICHE DEPOSITS *AMES . 0 AND 0 7 #HOQUETTE $IAGENESIS ,IMESTONES THE
"OLETIN DE LA 3OCIEDAD 'EOLGICA -EXICANA V P
METEORIC DIAGENETIC ENVIRONMENT 'EOSCIENCE #ANADA V P
"AIN 2 * AND ! - &OOS #ARBONATE MICROFABRICS RELATED TO *AMES . 0 AND 0 7 #HOQUETTE EDS 0ALEOKARST .EW 9ORK
SUBAERIAL EXPOSURE AND PALEOSOL FORMATION IN 2 2EZAK AND $ , ,AVOIE 3PRINGER
6ERLAG P
EDS #ARBONATE -ICROFABRICS .EW 9ORK 3PRINGER
6ERLAG P
*ONES " % " ,OCKART AND # 3QUAIR 0HREATIC AND VADOSE CEMENTS
"ATHURST 2 ' # %ARLY DIAGENESIS OF CARBONATE SEDIMENTS IN ! IN THE 4ERTIARY "LUFF &ORMATION OF 'RAND #AYMAN )SLAND "RITISH 7EST
0ARKER AND " 7 3ELLWOOD EDS 3EDIMENT $IAGENESIS 0ROCEEDINGS )NDIES "ULLETIN OF #ANADIAN 0ETROLEUM 'EOLOGY V P
.!4/ !DVANCED 3TUDY )NSTITUTE 3ERIES # V $ORDRECHT +AHLE # & /RIGIN OF SUBAERIAL (OLOCENE CALCAREOUS CRUSTS ROLE OF
.ETHERLANDS $ 2EIDEL 0UBLISHING #O P
ALGAE FUNGI AND SPARMICRITIZATION 3EDIMENTOLOGY V P
"ERNOULLI $ AND # 7 7AGNER 3UBAERIAL DIAGENESIS AND +LAPPA # & #ALCIlED lLAMENTS IN 1UATERNARY CALCRETES ORGANO
FOSSIL CALICHE DEPOSITS IN THE #ALCARE -ASSICCIO &ORMATION ,OWER MINERAL INTERACTIONS IN THE SUBAERIAL VADOSE ENVIRONMENT *OURNAL OF
*URASSIC CENTRAL !PENNINES )TALY .EUES *AHRBUCH FR 'EOLOGIE UND 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
0ALONTOLOGIE !BHANDLUNGEN V P
+NOX ' * #ALICHE PROlLE FORMATION 3ALDANHA "AY 3OUTH
"GLI ! +ARST (YDROLOGY AND 0HYSICAL 3PELEOLOGY "ERLIN !FRICA 3EDIMENTOLOGY V P
3PRINGER
6ERLAG P ,AND , 3 0HREATIC VERSUS VADOSE METEORIC DIAGENESIS OF LIMESTONES
"RICKER / 0 ED #ARBONATE #EMENTS "ALTIMORE -$ *OHNS EVIDENCE FROM A FOSSIL WATER TABLE 3EDIMENTOLOGY V P
(OPKINS 5NIVERSITY 3TUDIES IN 'EOLOGY .O P -AZZULLO 3 * AND 7 $ "ISCHOFF -ETEORIC CALCITIZATION AND
#HAFETZ ( 3 ! ' -C)NTOSH AND 0 & 2USH &RESHWATER PHREATIC INCIPIENT LITHIlCATION OF RECENT HIGH
MAGNESIUM CALCITE MUDS "ELIZE
DIAGENESIS IN THE MARINE REALM OF 2ECENT !RABIAN 'ULF CARBONATES *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
*OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
-ELIM , ! ( 7ESTPHAL 0 + 3WART ' 0 %BERLI AND ! -UNNECKE
$UNHAM 2 * %ARLY VADOSE SILT IN 4OWNSEND MOUND REEF .EW 1UESTIONING CARBONATE DIAGENETIC PARADIGMS EVIDENCE FROM THE
-EXICO IN ' - &RIEDMAN ED $EPOSITIONAL %NVIRONMENTS IN #ARBONATE .EOGENE OF THE "AHAMAS -ARINE 'EOLOGY V P
2OCKS 4ULSA /+ 3%0- 3PECIAL 0UBLICATION P
-ULTER ( ' AND * % (OFFMEISTER 3UBAERIAL LAMINATED CRUSTS
%STEBAN #ERD - #ALICHE TEXTURES AND h-ICROCODIUMv "OLLETINO OF THE &LORIDA +EYS 'EOLOGICAL 3OCIETY OF !MERICA "ULLETIN V P
DELLA 3OCIET 'EOLOGICA )TALIANA V P
%STEBAN - 6ADOSE PISOLITE AND CALICHE !!0' "ULLETIN V P -LLER ' 'RAVITATIONAL CEMENT AN INDICATOR FOR THE VADOSE ZONE
OF THE SUBAERIAL DIAGENETIC ENVIRONMENT IN / 0 "RICKER ED #ARBONATE
%STEBAN - AND # & +LAPPA 3UBAERIAL EXPOSURE ENVIRONMENT #EMENTS "ALTIMORE -$ *OHNS (OPKINS 0RESS P
IN 0 ! 3CHOLLE $ ' "EBOUT AND # ( -OORE EDS #ARBONATE 0INGITORE . % *R 6ADOSE AND PHREATIC DIAGENESIS PROCESSES
$EPOSITIONAL %NVIRONMENTS 4ULSA /+ !MERICAN !SSOCIATION OF PRODUCTS AND THEIR RECOGNITION IN CORALS *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY
0ETROLEUM 'EOLOGISTS -EMOIR P
0ETROLOGY V P
&RANK 4 $ AND + # ,OHMANN %ARLY CEMENTATION DURING MARINE
2EEVES # # *R #ALICHE /RIGIN #LASSIlCATION -ORPHOLOGY AND
METEORIC mUID MIXING -ISSISSIPPIAN ,AKE 6ALLEY &ORMATION .EW 5SES ,UBBOCK 48 %STACADO "OOKS P
-EXICO *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 2ESEARCH V ! P
3ALLER ! ( AND # ( -OORE *R -ETEORIC DIAGENESIS MARINE
'OLDSTEIN 2 ( A #EMENT STRATIGRAPHY OF 0ENNSYLVANIAN (OLDER DIAGENESIS AND MICROPOROSITY IN 0LEISTOCENE AND /LIGOCENE LIMESTONES
&ORMATION 3ACRAMENTO -OUNTAINS .EW -EXICO !!0' "ULLETIN V %NEWETAK !TOLL -ARSHALL )SLANDS 3EDIMENTARY 'EOLOGY V P
P
3TEINEN 2 0 0HREATIC AND VADOSE DIAGENETIC MODIlCATION OF
'OLDSTEIN 2 ( B 0ALEOSOLS OF ,ATE 0ENNSYLVANIAN CYCLIC STRATA 0LEISTOCENE LIMESTONE PETROGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS FROM SUBSURFACE OF
.EW -EXICO 3EDIMENTOLOGY V P
"ARBADOS 7EST )NDIES !!0' "ULLETIN V P
(ANDFORD # 2 ! # +ENDALL $ 2 0REZBINDOWSKI * " $UNHAM 4HORSTENSON $ # & 4 -AC+ENZIE AND " , 2ISTVET
AND " 7 ,OGAN 3ALINA
MARGIN TEPEES PISOLITHS AND ARAGONITE %XPERIMENTAL VADOSE AND PHREATIC CEMENTATION OF SKELETAL CARBONATE
CEMENTS ,AKE -AC,EOD 7ESTERN !USTRALIA THEIR SIGNIlCANCE IN SAND *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
INTERPRETING ANCIENT ANALOGS 'EOLOGY V P
4HRAILKILL * #HEMICAL AND HYDROLOGIC FACTORS IN THE EXCAVATION OF
(ARRIS 7 ( AND 2 + -ATTHEWS 3UBAERIAL DIAGENESIS OF LIMESTONE CAVES 'EOLOGICAL 3OCIETY OF !MERICA "ULLETIN V P
CARBONATE SEDIMENTS EFlCIENCY OF THE SOLUTION
REPRECIPITATION PROCESS 6ACHER ( , 4 / "ENGTSSON AND , . 0LUMMER (YDROLOGY OF
3CIENCE V P
METEORIC DIAGENESIS RESIDENCE TIME OF METEORIC GROUND WATER IN ISLAND
(ARRISON 2 3 AND 2 0 3TEINEN 3UBAERIAL CRUSTS CALICHE PROlLES FRESH
WATER LENSES WITH APPLICATION TO ARAGONITE
CALCITE STABILIZATION
AND BRECCIA HORIZONS #OMPARISON OF SOME (OLOCENE AND -ISSISSIPPIAN RATE IN "ERMUDA 'EOLOGICAL 3OCIETY OF !MERICA "ULLETIN V P
EXPOSURE SURFACES "ARBADOS AND +ENTUCKY 'EOLOGICAL 3OCIETY OF
!MERICA "ULLETIN V P
7RIGHT 6 0 0ALEOKARST TYPES RECOGNITION CONTROLS AND
(ORBURY ! $ AND ! % !DAMS -ETEORIC PHREATIC DIAGENESIS ASSOCIATIONS IN 6 0 7RIGHT - %STEBAN AND 0 , 3MART EDS
IN CYCLIC LATE $INANTIAN CARBONATES NORTHWEST %NGLAND 3EDIMENTARY 0ALEOKARSTS AND 0ALEOKARSTIC 2ESERVOIRS 02)3 /CCASIONAL
'EOLOGY V P
0UBLICATION 3ERIES .O 2EADING 5NIVERSITY OF 2EADING P
(UMPHREY * $ + , 2ANSOM AND 2 + -ATTHEWS %ARLY 7RIGHT 6 0 AND - % 4UCKER EDS #ALCRETES /XFORD )NTERNATIONAL
METEORIC DIAGENETIC CONTROL OF 5PPER 3MACKOVER PRODUCTION /AKS !SSOCIATION OF 3EDIMENTOLOGISTS 2EPRINT 3ERIES P
&IELD ,OUISIANA !!0' "ULLETIN V P
*AMES . 0 (OLOCENE AND 0LEISTOCENE CALCAREOUS CRUST CALICHE
&
PROlLES CRITERIA FOR SUBAERIAL EXPOSURE *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY ACING 0AGE 4OP )NTERNAL SEDIMENT AND TWO GENERATIONS OF
0ETROLOGY V P
CEMENT INSIDE A BRACHIOPOD SHELL 4HE HIGHLY FERROAN BURIAL
*AMES . 0 $IAGENESIS OF SCLERACTINIAN CORALS IN THE SUBAERIAL
CEMENTS ARE STAINED DEEP BLUE 5P 0ERMIAN 7EGENER (ALV &M
VADOSE ENVIRONMENT *OURNAL OF 0ALEONTOLOGY V P
*AMES . 0 AND 9 "ONE 0ETROGENESIS OF #ENOZOIC TEMPERATE *AMESON ,AND %AST 'REENLAND 00, !&E3 (! MM
WATER CALCARENITES 3OUTH !USTRALIA A MODEL FOR METEORICSHALLOW "OTTOM 3TYLOLITES FOLLOWING BEDDING OF THE FORE
REEF DEPOSITS
BURIAL DIAGENESIS OF SHALLOW WATER CALCITE SEDIMENTS *OURNAL OF (! ^ CM 5P $EVONIAN .APIER &M #ANNING "ASIN 7ESTERN
3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
!USTRALIA 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF 0HILLIP 0LAYFORD
CHAPTER 25: MESOGENETIC/TELOGENETIC BURIAL DIAGENESIS
#!2"/.!4% $)!'%.%3)3
MESO- AND TELOGENETIC BURIAL DIAGENESIS
C
H
A
P
T
E
R
25
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
"52)!, $)!'%.%3)3
)NTRODUCTION
4HIS CHAPTER DEALS ONLY WITH THE DIAGENESIS OF CALCITIC COMPONENTS OF LIMESTONES THE FORMATION OF DOLOMITE
SILICA AND OTHER MINERALS IS COVERED IN SUBSEQUENT CHAPTERS
"URIAL DIAGENESIS REPRESENTS ALTERATION THAT OCCURS BELOW THE ZONE OF NEAR
SURFACE WATER CIRCULATION IE BELOW
THE METEORIC PHREATIC MIXING ZONE OR BELOW THE ZONE OF ACTIVE SEAWATER CIRCULATION "URIAL DIAGENESIS PLAYS A
MAJOR OFTEN 4(% MAJOR ROLE IN THE DIAGENESIS OF SEDIMENTS FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF LENGTH OF TIME SPENT IN
THAT ENVIRONMENT COMMONLY MILLIONS TO HUNDREDS OF MILLIONS OF YEARS AND IN TERMS OF POROSITY CHANGES
"URIAL DIAGENETIC FEATURES ARE AMONG THE MOST DIFlCULT TO IDENTIFY WITH ASSURANCE FOR A VARIETY OF REASONS THE
TRANSITION BETWEEN SURlCIAL METEORIC OR MARINE PORE mUIDS AND BURIAL REALM mUIDS IS ILL
DElNED VARIABLE
INDISTINCT AND RARELY WELL UNDERSTOOD SO OFTEN IT IS NOT CLEAR WHERE SURlCIAL DIAGENESIS ENDS AND BURIAL
DIAGENESIS BEGINS THE BURIAL REALM IS hOUT OF SIGHT AND OUT OF MINDv WHICH MEANS THAT THE PROCESSES
AND PRODUCTS FORMED THERE CAN ONLY BE REMOTELY AND INCOMPLETELY OBSERVED DEPOSITS FOUND IN THE BURIAL
DIAGENETIC ZONE MUST HAVE PASSED THROUGH MARINE OR METEORIC DIAGENESIS ZONES OR BOTH MAKING IT DIFlCULT TO
DETERMINE PRECISELY WHETHER A PARTICULAR FABRIC IS EXCLUSIVELY A PRODUCT OF BURIAL DIAGENESIS
3EVERAL FACTORS MITIGATE FOR AND AGAINST EXTENSIVE BURIAL DIAGENESIS "URIAL DIAGENESIS IS HINDERED BY WATER
CIRCULATION RATES THAT TYPICALLY ARE LOWER IN SUBSURFACE SETTINGS THAN IN NEAR
SURFACE ENVIRONMENTS BECAUSE OF
SLOWER CIRCULATION MECHANISMS AS WELL AS REDUCED PERMEABILITES (IGHER TEMPERATURES AND INCREASED PRESSURES
AT DEPTH HOWEVER TEND TO ACCELERATE MANY DIAGENETIC PROCESSES %LEVATED PORE
mUID PRESSURES REDUCING
GRAIN
TO
GRAIN STRESS AND EARLY HYDROCARBON INPUT RETARD MECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL BURIAL DIAGENESIS
3TATISTICAL EVIDENCE TOP DIAGRAM FACING PAGE INDICATES THAT BURIAL DIAGENESIS IS VERY IMPORTANT IN POROSITY
REDUCTION -OST ROCKS ESPECIALLY LIMESTONES SHOW A CONSISTENT LOSS OF POROSITY WITH PROGRESSIVE BURIAL
-AJOR DIAGENETIC FABRICS
4HE BURIAL
DIAGENETIC ZONE IS CHARACTERIZED BY A MIX OF PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL DIAGENETIC PROCESSES MOST LEADING
TO POROSITY DESTRUCTION BUT IN SOME CASES YIELDING NET POROSITY INCREASES
"URIAL
RELATED MECHANICAL COMPACTION FEATURES INCLUDE DEWATERING STRUCTURES COMPACTIONAL DRAPE AROUND SHELLS
AND NODULES PLASTIC OR BRITTLE GRAIN DEFORMATION AND FRACTURES
%MBAYED GRAIN CONTACTS lTTED FABRICS SOLUTION SEAMS AND STYLOLITES ARE COMMON CHEMICAL COMPACTION FEATURES
THAT FORM MAINLY IN BURIAL SETTINGS
"URIAL
STAGE CALCITE CEMENTS ARE LOW
-G CALCITE -OST CRYSTALS GREW SLOWLY AND THUS ARE RELATIVELY IMPERFECTION
FREE CLEAR LIMPID CRYSTALS AS COMPARED WITH MARINE AND EVEN METEORIC PRECIPITATES -ORPHOLOGIES INCLUDE
BLADED PRISMATIC OVERGROWTHS OF EARLIER CEMENT CRUSTS EQUANT CALCITE MOSAICS DRUSY CALCITE MOSAICS WITH
CRYSTAL SIZES INCREASING TOWARD PORE CENTERS VERY COARSE TO POIKILOTOPIC BLOCKY CALCITE SPAR AND OUTER INCLUSION
POOR STAGES OF SYNTAXIAL OVERGROWTHS !LTHOUGH THESE FABRICS ARE COMMON IN MESOGENETIC PRECIPITATES NONE IS
UNEQUIVOCALLY OR EXCLUSIVELY FORMED DURING BURIAL DIAGENESIS "ATHURST AND AND $ICKSON
PROVIDE MORE DETAILED DISCUSSION OF GEOMETRIC CRITERIA FOR RECOGNITION OF BURIAL CEMENTS
-ANY BURIAL
STAGE CEMENTS ARE FORMED FROM RELATIVELY REDUCING PORE mUIDS AND THUS MAY HAVE ELEVATED -N AND
&E CONTENTS 4HE IRON IS EASILY DETECTED WITH STAINING TECHNIQUES THE MANGANESEIRON RATIO IS QUALITATIVELY
IDENTIlABLE WITH CATHODOLUMINESCENCE #, 4HE TYPICAL #, PATTERN FOUND IN BURIAL STAGE CALCITE CEMENTS IS
A TRANSITION FROM NONLUMINESCENT TO BRIGHTLY LUMINESCENT TO DULLY LUMINESCENT RESPONSE 4HIS IS GENERALLY
INTERPRETED AS A TRANSITION FROM OXIDIZING PRE
BURIAL OR EARLY BURIAL CONDITIONS WITH LITTLE OR NO -N OR &E
INCORPORATION INTO THE CALCITE LATTICE TO REDUCING CONDITIONS WITH -N AND &E INCORPORATION AND lNALLY TO
REDUCING CONDITIONS IN WHICH &E AVAILABILITY AND INCORPORATION EXCEED -N AVAILABILITY AND INCORPORATION
-ORE COMPLEX #, STRATIGRAPHIES HOWEVER ARE COMMON
4HE MOST RELIABLE METHOD FOR RECOGNITION OF BURIAL CEMENTS IS THE DETERMINATION OF PARAGENETIC RELATIONS THE
RELATIVE TIMING OF FEATURES 4HUS CEMENTS THAT POSTDATE EARLIER CEMENTS OR ARE COEVAL WITH OR POSTDATE STYLOLITES
COMPACTION FEATURES TECTONIC FRACTURES OIL EMPLACEMENT HYDROTHERMAL MINERALIZATION SADDLE DOLOMITE SILICA
CEMENTS OR SIMILAR FEATURES ARE PROBABLE BURIAL
STAGE MESOGENETIC OR UPLIFT
STAGE TELOGENETIC CEMENTS
4HE INTEGRATION OF PETROGRAPHY WITH ADVANCED ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES mUID
INCLUSION GEOTHERMOMETRY EPI
mUORESCENCE MICROSCOPY CARBON AND OXYGEN ISOTOPE ANDOR STRONTIUM ISOTOPE ANALYSIS AND TRACE
ELEMENT
GEOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS IS A VIRTUAL NECESSITY FOR THE STUDY OF BURIAL
STAGE CEMENTATION SEE 4ECHNIQUES CHAPTER
3ECONDARY POROSITY IS KNOWN TO FORM IN AT LEAST SOME CASES IN THE BURIAL SETTING MAINLY IN ASSOCIATION WITH
ACIDIC WATERS DEVELOPED THROUGH SULFATE REDUCTION ORGANIC MATURATION AND OTHER DIAGENETIC PROCESSES
CHAPTER 25: MESOGENETIC/TELOGENETIC BURIAL DIAGENESIS
Porosity-depth data for south
Florida carbonate rocks
4HESE DIAGRAMS SHOW POROSITY DEPTH DATA
DERIVED FROM ELECTRIC LOGS AND BORE HOLE
% "&$!$"%
$%"!
GRAVITY MEASUREMENTS FOR #RETACEOUS TO #E
" %#$
NOZOIC CARBONATE ROCKS IN WELLS FROM SOUTH
&LORIDA 4HE LEAST SQUARES EXPONENTIAL CURVE
lTTED TO THE DATA EMPHASIZES THE CONSISTENT
POROSITY LOSS WITH INCREASING DEPTH OF BURIAL
.EAR SURFACE STRATA IN THIS SECTION UNDERWENT
" " %
BOTH MARINE AND METEORIC DIAGENESIS AND YET
RETAINED
POROSITY -OST POROSITY LOSS
)&% $)
DOWN TO THE TYPICAL AVERAGE OF FOR ANCIENT )&% $)(
CARBONATE ROCKS OCCURRED DURING BURIAL 4HE )&% $)(
CURVES ON THE RIGHT SHOW THAT DOLOMITES HAVE
LOWER POROSITY THAN LIMESTONES AT THE SURFACE
BUT LOSE POROSITY MORE GRADUALLY DURING BURIAL
&ROM 3CHMOKER AND (ALLEY
Mechanical and chemical
compaction features
-UCH OF BURIAL DIAGENESIS AND THUS MUCH OF
THE POROSITY LOSS SEEN IN THE DIAGRAM ABOVE RE
SULTS FROM PHYSICAL MECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL
COMPACTION OF CARBONATE SEDIMENTS AND ROCKS
3OME OF THE MANY FEATURES USED TO IDENTIFY
COMPACTION ARE SHOWN IN THIS DIAGRAM 4HE
CHEMICAL COMPACTION FEATURES ARE PARTICU
LARLY SIGNIlCANT BECAUSE THEY LEAD TO LOCAL
ROCK COMPACTION AND IN ADDITION PUT CALCIUM
CARBONATE INTO SOLUTION FOR PRECIPITATION AS CE
MENTS AT OTHER SITES
Common burial-stage cement
fabrics
&OUR COMMON MORPHOLOGIES FOUND IN BURIAL
STAGE CEMENTS 5NFORTUNATELY NONE ARE
COMPLETELY DIAGNOSTIC OF BURIAL CEMENTATION
PRISMATIC SPAR FOR EXAMPLE COULD BE A
PRODUCT OF MARINE CEMENTATION OR OF THE AL
TERATION OF MARINE CEMENTS DRUSY MOSAICS CAN
ALSO BE FORMED IN METEORIC ENVIRONMENTS AND
SYNTAXIAL OVERGROWTHS HAVE BEEN REPORTED FROM
MARINE METEORIC AND BURIAL DIAGENETIC SET
TINGS AND INDEED SINGLE OVERGROWTHS MAY
GROW THROUGH ALL THREE STAGES OF DIAGENESIS
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Mid.-Up. Cambrian Riley Fm., Lion
Mountain Ss. Mbr., Burnet Co.,
Texas
0HYSICAL MECHANICAL COMPACTION FEATURES
ESPECIALLY DEWATERING STRUCTURES OR GRAIN REORI
ENTATION CAN FORM EVEN AT MINOR BURIAL DEPTHS
-ORE PERVASIVE DEFORMATION HOWEVER RE
QUIRES SUBSTANTIAL BURIAL 4HESE SOFT GLAUCONITE
GRAINS FROM A GREENSAND UNIT WERE PLASTICALLY
DEFORMED TO PRODUCE A lTTED FABRIC WITH LINEAR
AS OPPOSED TO POINT CONTACTS BETWEEN GRAINS
0LASTIC GRAIN DEFORMATION BEGINS AT SHALLOW
DEPTHS IN GLAUCONITES BUT IS FAR LESS COMMON
IN LIMESTONES BECAUSE MOST CARBONATE GRAINS
ARE AT LEAST PARTIALLY LITHIlED AND THUS RESIST
SUCH DEFORMATION
00, "3% (! MM
Up. Jurassic (Oxfordian) Up.
Smackover Fm., 7,878 ft (2,401 m)
depth, Arkansas
4HESE OOIDS HAVE BEEN DEFORMED BY EARLY
BURIAL PHYSICAL COMPACTION DESPITE THE DENSE
STRUCTURE OF OOIDS -OST LIKELY METEORIC
LEACHING OF PARTS OF THE OOIDS AS SHOWN IN
THE METEORIC DIAGENESIS SECTION WEAKENED THE
OOIDS AND ALLOWED COLLAPSE OF SUCH GRAINS DUR
ING OVERBURDEN LOADING 7HILE SOME COLLAPSE
OF THIS TYPE CAN OCCUR IN NEAR SURFACE AREAS
THIS DEFORMATION AND SUBSEQUENT CEMENTATION
PROBABLY OCCURRED SOMEWHERE IN THE DEEP
PHREATIC TO SHALLOW BURIAL ZONE 0HOTOGRAPH
COURTESY OF #LYDE ( -OORE
00, !3 (! ^ MM
Up. Cambrian Beekmantown Gp.,
Washington Co., Maryland
!N EXAMPLE OF PERVASIVE GRAIN DEFORMATION
OF RIGID CARBONATE GRAINS DESPITE THE PRESENCE
OF MICRITIC MATRIX WHICH NORMALLY CUSHIONS
GRAINS AND ABSORBS MOST DEFORMATION THROUGH
mOWAGE )N THIS CASE OOID DEFORMATION
RESULTED FROM PERVASIVE TECTONIC SHEAR AFTER
LITHIlCATION OF THE ENTIRE ROCK "ECAUSE OOIDS
TYPICALLY HAVE NEAR CIRCULAR ORIGINAL OUTLINES
THESE mATTENED GRAINS HAVE BEEN USED BY STRUC
TURAL GEOLOGISTS AS NATURAL STRAIN ELLIPSOIDS FOR
DETERMINING THE MAJOR TECTONIC STRESS DIREC
TIONS EG #LOOS CITED IN THE #ARBONATE
2OCK3EDIMENT #LASSIlCATION CHAPTER
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 25: MESOGENETIC/TELOGENETIC BURIAL DIAGENESIS
Up. Cambrian Gatesburg Fm.,
central Pennsylvania
!N EXAMPLE OF A BRITTLE DEFORMATION OF AN OOID
SHOWING OUTER CONCENTRIC LAMINATIONS THAT ARE
SHEARED AWAY FROM THE REST OF THE OOID $IS
SOLUTION OF THIN INTERLAYERS WITHIN THE OOID MAY
HAVE AIDED THIS DEFORMATION BUT SUBSTANTIAL
OVERBURDEN STRESS WAS ALSO REQUIRED 3UCH TEX
TURES INDICATE THAT MUCH OF THE CEMENTATION IN
THIS ROCK POSTDATES COMPACTIONAL DEFORMATION
80, (! MM
Up. Cretaceous limestone,
Zakinthos, Ionian Islands, Greece
-OST CARBONATE GRAINS THAT SURVIVE SEDIMEN
TATION PROCESSES IN SHELF SETTINGS ARE FAIRLY
ROBUST 4HUS PHYSICAL COMPACTION EFFECTS
ARE FOUND MOST COMMONLY IN GRAINS THAT WERE
AFFECTED BY BORING LEACHING OR OTHER GRAIN
WEAKENING PROCESSES DURING MARINE OR METE
ORIC DIAGENESIS )N THIS EXAMPLE AN ARAGONITIC
GRAIN WAS LEACHED LEAVING ONLY A MICRITE ENVE
LOPE STRENGTHENED SLIGHTLY BY THIN INTERNAL AND
EXTERNAL CRUSTS OF PROBABLE PHREATIC METEORIC
CEMENT 4HE NEAR ABSENCE OF LATER STAGE CE
MENT ALLOWED COMPACTIONAL CRUSHING OF THE
THIN AND STRUCTURALLY WEAK ENVELOPE DURING
SHALLOW BURIAL
00, !&E3 "3% (! MM
Lo. Cretaceous Sunniland Fm.,
Sunniland eld, south Florida
-ORE EXTENSIVE CRUSHING OF MULTIPLE MICRITE
ENVELOPES AROUND LEACHED ARAGONITIC GRAINS
)N METEORICALLY LEACHED SECTIONS WITH ONLY
INCIPIENT CEMENTATION EVEN RELATIVELY MINOR
OVERBURDEN LOADING CAN LEAD TO EXTENSIVE DE
FORMATION AND POROSITY LOSS 4HIS REMARKABLY
POROUS SAMPLE HOWEVER IS FROM GREATER THAN
KM FT DEPTH AND MAY REmECT ELEVATED
PORE mUID PRESSURES OVERPRESSURING PARTIALLY
REDUCING THE EFFECTS OF LITHOSTATIC LOADING
0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF 2OBERT " (ALLEY
00, !3 "3% (! ^ MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Lo. Cretaceous Paw Paw Fm.,
Grayson Co., Texas
#OMPACTIONAL FRACTURING OF ROBUST OYSTER LIKE
BIVALVE SHELLS FOLLOWED BY LATE STAGE FERROAN
CALCITE AND MINOR SIDERITE CEMENTATION "REAK
AGE OF STRONG RIGID GRAINS OCCURS MAINLY IN
STRATA WITH LITTLE OR NO MATRIX IN WHICH LARGE
GRAINS ARE IN DIRECT CONTACT WITH EACH OTHER
%ACH POINT CONTACT THEN ACTS AS A FULCRUM FOR
PHYSICAL GRAIN BREAKAGE OR A HIGH STRESS SITE FOR
CHEMICAL DISSOLUTION
00, !&E3 "3% (! MM
Eocene Green River Fm., Laney
Mbr., Sweetwater Co., Wyoming
#OMPACTIONAL SHATTERING OF THIN WALLED GAS
TROPOD SHELLS IN A LACUSTRINE LIMESTONE "RITTLE
AND THIN SHELLS AND TESTS THAT ARE NOT CUSHIONED
BY MICRITIC MATRIX ARE VERY SUSCEPTIBLE TO DE
FORMATION UNDER EVEN MODERATE OVERBURDEN
LOADS EG 3HINN AND 2OBBIN
00, (! MM
Up. Pennsylvanian (Missourian)
Stanton cyclothem, Buffalo,
Kansas
4HIS TRANSGRESSIVE CALCARENITE HAS OVERPACKED
PRESSURE EMBAYED OOIDS AND BRITTLY FRACTURED
BIVALVE SHELLS 4HIS INDICATES SUBSTANTIAL
COMPACTION IN THE ABSENCE OF EARLY MARINE OR
METEORIC CEMENTS FOLLOWED BY CEMENTATION
IN A LATER BURIAL ENVIRONMENT 4HIS DIAGENETIC
PATTERN IS COMMON IN THE LOWER PARTS OF CY
CLOTHEMS WHERE STRATA ARE UNLIKELY TO HAVE
BEEN SUBSTANTIALLY CEMENTED PRIOR TO BURIAL
0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF 0HILLIP ( (ECKEL
00, (! ^ MM
CHAPTER 25: MESOGENETIC/TELOGENETIC BURIAL DIAGENESIS
Lo. Jurassic (Liassic) limestone,
Central High Atlas region, Morocco
-ECHANICAL COMPACTION IS USUALLY BUT NOT
ALWAYS INHIBITED BY EARLY CEMENTATION )N
THIS OOLITIC LIMESTONE COMPACTION POSTDATED
EARLY DIAGENETIC FORMATION OF THIN ISOPACHOUS
MARINE CEMENT CRUSTS 4HIS IS DEMONSTRATED BY
THE PERVASIVE DEFORMATION OF ADJACENT ORIGI
NALLY SPHERICAL GRAINS DESPITE THE CONSISTENT
PRESENCE OF INTERVENING CEMENTS
00, (! MM
Eocene Green River Fm., Lincoln
Co., Wyoming
0HYSICAL COMPACTION FEATURES IN LIMESTONES
ARE ESPECIALLY COMMON IN lNE GRAINED SEDI
MENTS THAT ESCAPED CEMENTATION IN MARINE OR
METEORIC SETTINGS 3EAmOOR POROSITIES OF
OR MORE ARE COMMON IN CARBONATE MUDS AND
MECHANICAL DEWATERING AND GRAIN REORIENTATION
ARE INEVITABLE IN SUCH SEDIMENTS 4HIS EXAMPLE
SHOWS COMPACTIONAL DRAPE OF LAMINATED lNE
GRAINED LACUSTRINE CARBONATE MUDS AROUND AN
EARLY FORMED PHOSPHATIC NODULE "ECAUSE THE
NODULE ITSELF IS A DIAGENETIC FEATURE AND BE
CAUSE THE COMPACTION REQUIRES AT LEAST MODER
ATE OVERBURDEN THIS EXTENSIVE COMPACTION CAN
BE ATTRIBUTED TO THE EFFECTS OF BURIAL
00, (! MM
Up. Cretaceous (Coniacian-
Santonian) Niobrara Fm., Ft. Hays
Ls. Mbr., Fort Collins, Colorado
4HIS FORAMINIFERAL CHALK SHOWS EXTENSIVE ME
CHANICAL COMPACTION IN WHICH FORAMINIFERAL
TESTS AND OTHER GRAINS WERE COMPLETELY mAT
TENED FORMING AN INTENSIlED BEDDING
PARALLEL
LAMINATION 3UCH DRAMATIC PHYSICAL CRUSHING
OF GRAINS IS RELATIVELY RARE IN CHALKS AND GENER
ALLY REmECTS UNUSUALLY HIGH RATES OF LOADING OR
RAPID LOSS OF OVERPRESSURING ANOTHER WAY OF
ACHIEVING VERY RAPID RATES OF EFFECTIVE LOAD
ING
00, "3% (! ^ MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Capitan
Fm. slope facies, 3,479 ft (1,060 m)
depth, Eddy Co., New Mexico
#HEMICAL DISSOLUTION TAKES MANY FORMS IN
CARBONATE ROCKS AND STYLOLITES ARE PROBABLY
THE MOST READILY IDENTIlABLE OF THEM 4HIS
STYLOLITE FROM A LAMINATED SHALY LIMESTONE
IS MARKED BY CONCENTRATION OF INSOLUBLE MA
TERIALS ALONG ITS IRREGULAR SURFACE 4HE SURFACE
REPRESENTS A PRESSURE INDUCED ZONE OF DISSOLU
TION WITH DIFFERENTIAL GRAIN INTERPENETRATION
DEPENDING ON THE RELATIVE SOLUBILITIES OF GRAINS
PRESENT ON EACH SIDE OF THE SURFACE 3TYLOLITE
FORMATION IS ASSOCIATED WITH THIN WATER lLMS
THAT ALLOW SOLUTES TO MOVE AWAY FROM SITES OF
DISSOLUTION SEE 7EYL "ATHURST
00, "3% !3 (! MM
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Capitan
Fm. slope facies, 3,484 ft (1,062 m)
depth, Eddy Co., New Mexico
-ULTIPLE GENERATIONS OF STYLOLITES CUTTING
A SLOPE LIMESTONE 4HE MAJOR LATE STAGE
STYLOLITE WAS FORMED BY SELECTIVE DISSOLUTION AT
A SURFACE OF FABRIC AND COMPOSITIONAL CHANGE
A BOUNDARY BETWEEN A TURBIDITE GRAINSTONE
AND AN UNDERLYING PELAGIC LIMESTONE .UMER
OUS FRACTURES RADIATE FROM ONE OF THE STYLOLITE
hTEETHv A COMMON OCCURRENCE IN STYLOLITIC
LIMESTONES -OST STYLOLITES PARALLEL BEDDING
BUT OTHERS FORM AT HIGH ANGLES TO PRIMARY BED
DING ESPECIALLY WHERE INmUENCED BY FOLDING OR
COMPRESSIONAL TECTONIC STRESSES
00, "3% (! MM
Eocene limestone, Paxos, Ionian
Islands, Greece
!N EXAMPLE OF THE REMARKABLE DISSOLUTION
THAT CAN OCCUR ALONG STYLOLITES IN THIS CASE A
NUMMULITIC SLOPE LIMESTONE 4HE MINIMUM
DEPTH OF BURIAL NEEDED FOR THE FORMATION OF
STYLOLITES IS RATHER POORLY UNDERSTOOD BUT SUB
STANTIAL STYLOLITES SUCH AS THIS ONE PROBABLY
REQUIRE A MINIMUM OF AT LEAST ME
TERS OF BURIAL OR EQUIVALENT TECTONIC STRESSES
FOR THEIR FORMATION 4HUS STYLOLITES POSTDATE
SUBSTANTIAL CEMENTATION AND LITHIlCATION IN
MANY LIMESTONES 4HEY ALSO SUPPLY SOLUTES
FOR FURTHER CEMENTATION EITHER IN THE VICINITY
OF THE STYLOLITES OR AT SOME DISTANCE REMOVED
FROM THEM
00, "3% (! MM
CHAPTER 25: MESOGENETIC/TELOGENETIC BURIAL DIAGENESIS
Paleozoic, Canada
! DRAMATIC EXAMPLE OF DEEPLY STYLOLITIZED
OOIDS !N ESTIMATE OF THE MINIMUM AMOUNT
OF MATERIAL DISSOLVED CAN BE OBTAINED BY LOOK
ING AT THE AMPLITUDE OF THE STYLOLITE TEETH AND
THE LOSS OF LARGE PARTS OF THE AFFECTED OOIDS
3AMPLE FROM .OEL 0 *AMES
00, (! MM
Lo. Cretaceous (Albian) Glen Rose
Ls., Somervell Co., Texas
)SOLATED PRESSURE SOLUTION CHEMICAL COMPAC
TION FEATURES CAN ALSO OCCUR BETWEEN ADJACENT
INDIVIDUAL GRAINS IN A LIMESTONE )N THIS EXAM
PLE A BIVALVE 'RYPHAEA SHELL HAS PRESSURE
DISSOLVED AN ADJACENT BIVALVE FRAGMENT ALONG
AN IRREGULAR CONTACT 4HE STYLOLITIC CONTACT IN
THIS CASE DOES NOT EXTEND BEYOND THE CONTACT
BETWEEN THE GRAINS (OWEVER EVEN SUCH LO
CALIZED BURIAL STAGE DISSOLUTION CAN PROVIDE
SUBSTANTIAL MATERIAL FOR CEMENTATION OF NEARBY
PORES
00, "3% (! MM
Up. Jurassic (Oxfordian) Up.
Smackover Fm., Gulf Coast, U.S.A.
!NOTHER EXAMPLE OF GRAIN TO GRAIN PRESSURE
SOLUTION HERE IN AN OOID GRAINSTONE .OTE THE
IRREGULAR OR SUTURED GRAIN CONTACTS THE SOLUTION
RESIDUE BETWEEN GRAINS AND THE DEVELOPMENT
OF A hlTTEDv GRAIN TO GRAIN FABRIC WITH LITTLE
INTERVENING CEMENT OR POROSITY 0HOTOGRAPH
COURTESY OF #LYDE ( -OORE
00, (! ^ MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Cretaceous (Senonian) Upper
Chalk, Kent, England, U.K.
$ISSOLVED AND SUTURED MARGINS CAN OCCASION
ALLY BE FOUND EVEN ON GRAINS SURROUNDED BY
MICRITIC SEDIMENT (ERE A FORAMINIFERAL TEST
HAS BEEN TRUNCATED ON TWO SIDES PRESUMABLY
ALONG A SUBTLE SOLUTION SEAM THAT IS LARGELY
CONCEALED IN THE DENSE MICRITIC MATRIX 3EA
mOOR CORROSION OF COURSE ALSO COULD LEAD TO
PARTIALLY DISSOLVED GRAINS BUT WOULD MOST
LIKELY AFFECT MORE PARTS OF THE TEST OR IN CASES
WHERE THE GRAINS ARE PARTIALLY SUBMERGED IN
MATRIX SEDIMENT ONLY THE TOPS OF SUCH GRAINS
00, (! ^ MM
Up. Silurian Tonoloway-Keyser Ls.,
Mifin Co., Pennsylvania
! CRINOIDAL LIMESTONE ENCRINITE WITH SUTURED
CONTACTS BETWEEN MOST ADJACENT GRAINS INDICAT
ING EXTENSIVE CHEMICAL COMPACTION PRESSURE
SOLUTION PRODUCED DURING BURIAL OF THE LIME
STONE 4HE COMPACTION POSTDATES SYNTAXIAL
OVERGROWTHS ON SOME OF THE CRINOIDS .OTE
THE DARK RESIDUES ALONG THE NUMEROUS SOLUTION
CONTACTS AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF IRREGULAR SO
LUTION LAMINAE 3TYLOLITES AND SOLUTION SEAMS
COMMONLY PRODUCE PSEUDO
BEDDING ALSO
TERMED STYLO
BEDDING IN LIMESTONES
00, (! MM
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
!N EXAMPLE OF AN OVER COMPACTED FABRIC IN
A SKELETAL LIMESTONE !DJACENT GRAINS SHOW
EMBAYMENT PRESSURE SOLUTION AND THE OVERALL
FABRIC HAS CLOSER GRAIN PACKING THAN IS NORMAL
WITH SUCH IRREGULARLY SHAPED ALLOCHEMS !S
ABOVE INSOLUBLE RESIDUES MARK SOME OF THE
SITES OF MOST EXTENSIVE DISSOLUTION
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 25: MESOGENETIC/TELOGENETIC BURIAL DIAGENESIS
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Capitan
Fm., subsurface, Eddy Co., New
Mexico
4HESE DISSOLUTION STRUCTURES RESULTED FROM
CHEMICAL COMPACTION AROUND AN EARLY FORMED
CARBONATE NODULE PROBABLY CREATED BY PREF
ERENTIAL CEMENTATION OF A CRUSTACEAN BURROW
#OMPACTION HERE INVOLVED FORMATION OF NU
MEROUS SOLUTION SEAMS BROWNISH IRREGULAR
STREAKS IN AREAS NOT STRONGLY CEMENTED DURING
EARLY DIAGENESIS 3OLUTION SEAMS ARE MORE
PLANAR THAN STYLOLITES INVOLVE LESS DISSOLUTION
ALONG ANY SINGLE SURFACE BUT OCCUR IN SUCH
NUMBERS THAT IN AGGREGATE THEY CAN ACCOM
PLISH EXTENSIVE ALTERATION THE SWARMS OF SUR
FACES ARE SOMETIMES CALLED hHORSETAIL SEAMSv
00, (! MM
Up. Silurian Tonoloway-Keyser Ls.,
Mifin Co., Pennsylvania
! CRINOIDAL BIOMICRITE WITH ABUNDANT BUT IRREG
ULAR SOLUTION SEAMS OR MICROSTYLOLITES THIN
BUT NUMEROUS ZONES OF PRESSURE DISSOLUTION
FORM DURING EARLY
TO INTERMEDIATE
STAGE BURIAL
DIAGENESIS ESPECIALLY IN MICRITIC LIMESTONES
00, (! MM
Up. Ordovician Takaka Marble,
Nelson, New Zealand
! STRONGLY SHEARED LIMESTONE FORMED ALONG
.EW :EALANDS FAMOUS !LPINE FAULT ZONE
.OTE THE LENTICULAR BODIES OF RECRYSTALLIZED
LIMESTONE BOUNDED BY lNER GRAINED SEAMS
lLLED WITH SOLUTION RESIDUES 4HESE MICRITIC
CLAYEY SEAMS ALSO ACT AS SHEAR PLANES IN THIS
SETTING 4HE LENTICULAR SPARRY AREAS SHOW EX
TENSIVE DEVELOPMENT OF TWIN LAMELLAE ANOTHER
MANIFESTATION OF SHEARING IN THIS ROCK
80, "3% (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
! CRYSTAL WITH STRONG DEVELOPMENT OF TWINNING
TWIN LAMELLAE IN CALCITE )NTENSE TWINNING
COMMONLY INVOLVES DISSOLUTION AS WELL AS
CRYSTAL DISLOCATION AND IS TYPICALLY A RESULT OF
BURIAL LOADING OR TECTONIC DEFORMATION 4WIN
LAMELLAE ARE DEVELOPED FAR MORE EASILY IN
CALCITE THAN IN DOLOMITE AND INDEED CAN BE A
WAY OF DIFFERENTIATING THE TWO MINERALS IN THE
ABSENCE OF STAINING OR ANALYTICAL INFORMATION
80, (! MM
Jurassic Pennine Bndnerschiefer,
Switzerland
%XTREME DEFORMATION AND ALTERATION OF AN
IMPURE LIMESTONE #RENULATE FOLDING DE
VELOPMENT OF A AUTHIGENIC MICAS AND STRAIN
RECRYSTALLIZATION OF CALCITE ARE ALL PRESENT 4HIS
EXCEEDS THE LIMITS OF WHAT IS DElNED AS BURIAL
DIAGENESIS AND REPRESENTS A TRANSITION TO META
MORPHISM WITH THE FORMATION OF MARBLE
80, (! MM
Up. Cretaceous Chalk, Yorkshire,
England, U.K.
#ALCITE lLLED FRACTURES CUTTING A CALCISPHERE
AND FORAMINIFER RICH CHALK 4HE PRESENCE OF
FRACTURES WHEN UNHEALED BY CALCITE OR OTHER
MINERALS CAN AND IN MANY CASES DOES GREATLY
INCREASE THE EFFECTIVE PERMEABILITY OF CHALKS
AND OTHER CARBONATE ROCKS SUBSTANTIALLY IM
PROVING HYDROCARBON PRODUCTION 3OME FRAC
TURING CAN OCCUR IN EARLY CEMENTED LIMESTONES
IN BOTH MARINE AND METEORIC SETTINGS %XTEN
SIVE FRACTURING HOWEVER IS MOST COMMONLY
A BURIAL DIAGENETIC PHENOMENON AND IS ONE OF
THE FEW BURIAL RELATED PROCESSES THAT CAN LEAD
TO SUBSURFACE POROSITY INCREASES
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 25: MESOGENETIC/TELOGENETIC BURIAL DIAGENESIS
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
! FRACTURE CROSS CUTTING BOTH A BRACHIOPOD
SHELL AND ITS SURROUNDING LIMESTONE MATRIX )N
THIS EXAMPLE THE FRACTURE IS lLLED WITH LATE
STAGE HIGHLY FERROAN CALCITE SPAR STAINED DARK
BLUE 4HE COMBINATION OF THE CROSS CUTTING
NATURE OF THE FRACTURE AND THE FERROAN CALCITE lLL
MAKES IT VERY LIKELY THAT THIS FRACTURE FORMED
AND WAS CEMENTED IN A BURIAL SETTING
00, !&E3 "3% (! MM
Paleocene-Oligocene Amuri Ls.,
Marlborough, New Zealand
! LIMESTONE WITH MULTIPLE FRACTURE GENERA
TIONS 4HE LARGEST OF THESE FRACTURES WAS LINED
WITH MICRO BOTRYOIDAL SILICA CEMENT 4HE RE
MAINING PORE SPACE IN THE MAIN FRACTURE AND
IN THE SMALLER PRESUMABLY YOUNGER FRACTURES
WAS lLLED WITH COARSELY CRYSTALLINE CALCITE
STAINED VERY PALE PINK "OTH SETS OF FRACTURES
AND THEIR lLLINGS ARE BURIAL STAGE DIAGENETIC
FEATURES IN THIS OUTER SHELF LIMESTONE
80, (! MM
Lo. Cretaceous (Aptian) Shuaiba
Fm., offshore Qatar
4HIS EXAMPLE SHOWS A SINUOUS RUBBLE lLLED
FRACTURE DISSIPATING INTO THE MICRITIC MATRIX
OF A DEEP SHELF LIMESTONE &RACTURES LIKE THIS
MAY REPRESENT THE EARLY STAGES OF BURIAL IN lNE
GRAINED SEDIMENTS 4HE DEWATERING OF VERY PO
ROUS STILL SEMI mUID CARBONATE MUDS AND SILTS
CAN CARRY mUIDIZED SEDIMENT INTO THE FRACTURES
EVENTUALLY PLUGGING THEM 3OMETIMES CALLED
hHAIRLINE FRACTURESv THESE STRUCTURES EVEN
WHEN RUBBLE lLLED MAY ENHANCE THE OTHERWISE
EXTREMELY LOW PERMEABILITY OF CHALKS AND
OTHER MICRITIC LIMESTONES
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Mid. Ordovician Simpson Gp., Oil
Creek Fm., Murray Co., Oklahoma
! TRILOBITE FRAGMENT ENCASED IN MULTIPLE GEN
ERATIONS OF CEMENT 4HE EARLY BLADED CALCITE
CEMENT IS SLIGHTLY FERROAN LATER
STAGE DOLOMITE
CEMENTS IN THE CENTER OF THE PORE HAVE HIGHER
IRON CONCENTRATIONS 4HE ORIENTED CRYSTALLITE
STRUCTURE IN THE TRILOBITE SHELL WALL MAY HAVE
INmUENCED THE SHELL
PERPENDICULAR ORIENTATION
OF THE BLADED CALCITE CEMENT 4HE BLADED CE
MENTS ARE PROBABLY AN EARLY BURIAL DIAGENETIC
PRODUCT THAT ALTERED OR FORMED OVERGROWTHS
ON MARINE CEMENT PRECURSORS 5SING THE
DIAGRAM NEAR THE BEGINNING OF THIS SECTION
THIS CEMENT WOULD BE TERMED hPRISMATIC SPAR
OVERGROWING MARINE CEMENTv
00, !&E3 (! MM
Up. Jurassic (Oxfordian) Up.
Smackover Fm., 13,613 ft (4,149 m)
depth, Mississippi
!N OOLITIC LIMESTONE WITH THIN FRINGES OF PRE
BURIAL CEMENT SURROUNDING THE OOIDS FOLLOWED
BY POST
COMPACTION BURIAL
STAGE POIKILOTOPIC
CEMENT 4HE VERY COARSE CRYSTAL SIZE IN
SOME CASES ENVELOPING MULTIPLE GRAINS AND
THE CLEAR LARGELY INCLUSION
FREE CHARACTER OF
THE CRYSTALS ARE CHARACTERISTIC OF BURIAL
STAGE
CALCITE CEMENT 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF #LYDE
( -OORE
00, !&E3 (! ^ MM
Permian (Leonardian-Guadalupian)
Park City Fm., basal Franson Mbr.,
Daggett Co., Utah
!NOTHER EXAMPLE OF A LIMESTONE CEMENTED
MAINLY BY POIKILOTOPIC BURIAL STAGE CALCITE
CEMENTS 4HE DIAGENETIC HISTORY OF THIS ROCK
INVOLVED INITIAL ISOPACHOUS RIMS OF CARBONATE
CEMENT FOLLOWED BY LEACHING OF MANY OF THE
GRAINS 3INGLE CRYSTALS OF POIKILOTOPIC CAL
CITE HERE lLLED BOTH PRIMARY INTERGRANULAR
AND SECONDARY INTRAGRANULAR POROSITY )N
THIS CASE THE POIKILOTOPIC CALCITE MAY HAVE
RESULTED FROM DISSOLUTION OR REPLACEMENT OF A
PRECURSOR STAGE OF COARSE GYPSUM CEMENTS IN
THIS EVAPORITIC UNIT
80, (! MM
CHAPTER 25: MESOGENETIC/TELOGENETIC BURIAL DIAGENESIS
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Capitan
Fm., Culberson Co., Texas
! FUSULINID RICH SLOPE LIMESTONE SHOWING A
SEQUENCE OF THREE CEMENTS !LTERED CRUSTS OF
CLOUDY lBROUS MARINE CEMENT DIRECTLY COAT THE
FUSULINID FORAMINIFERS AND ARE FOLLOWED BY AN
EXTREMELY THIN RIND OF DOLOMITE THE UNSTAINED
MARGIN OF THE CLOUDY CEMENTS 4HESE EARLY
CEMENTS ARE FOLLOWED BY LATE BURIAL OR EARLY
UPLIFT STAGE COARSELY CRYSTALLINE CALCITE SPAR
4HE SPAR FORMED AS A SOLUTION lLL REPLACEMENT
OF ANHYDRITE AND GYPSUM CEMENTS THAT ARE NO
LONGER PRESERVED IN THIS SECTION BUT ARE PRE
SERVED IN SUBSURFACE EQUIVALENTS !GAIN THE
SLOWLY CRYSTALLIZED BURIAL CEMENTS ARE COARSE
AND RELATIVELY CLEAR AND IMPERFECTION FREE
00, !3 (! MM
Oligocene Nile Gp., Waitakere Ls.,
Westland, New Zealand
3TAINING ESPECIALLY STAINING USING POTASSIUM
FERRICYANIDE TO DISTINGUISH FERROAN CONSTITU
ENTS IS VERY IMPORTANT FOR RECOGNITION OF CE
MENT GENERATIONS )N THIS CASE NON FERROAN
CALCITE PREDATES HIGHLY FERROAN CALCITE "E
CAUSE ONLY &E READILY SUBSTITUTES IN THE CAL
CITE LATTICE REDUCING CONDITION ARE REQUIRED
TO PRECIPITATE FERROAN CALCITE -OST BUT BY
NO MEANS ALL NEAR SURFACE ENVIRONMENTS ARE
OXIDIZING AND MOST BURIAL SETTINGS TEND TO BE
REDUCING 4HUS STRONGLY FERROAN CALCITES LIKE
THESE ARE NORMALLY CONSIDERED TO BE BURIAL
DIAGENETIC PRECIPITATES ESPECIALLY WHERE THEY
ARE COARSE CLEAR AND FORM THE lNAL PORE lLLING
PRECIPITATES
00, !&E3 (! MM
Mid.-Up. Ordovician Simpson
Gp., Oil Creek Fm., Johnston Co.,
Oklahoma
!N EXAMPLE OF EXTENSIVE CALCITIC SYNTAXIAL
OVERGROWTH CEMENTS ON CRINOID FRAGMENTS
4HE POROSITY IN THIS ENCRINITE HAS BEEN LARGELY
OBLITERATED BY SUCH CEMENTATION .OTE THE
CLOUDY INTERIORS OF CRYSTALS THAT MARK THE ORIGI
NAL CRINOID OUTLINES 3UCH CEMENTS MAY BEGIN
IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT THEY CAN CERTAINLY
PRECIPITATE IN METEORIC SETTINGS BUT IN MANY
CASES THEY CONTINUE TO GROW IN THE BURIAL ENVI
RONMENT AS WELL -ANY SUCH OVERGROWTHS HAVE
VERY CLEAR SOMEWHAT FERROAN OUTER MARGINS
THAT REPRESENT THE BURIAL STAGE ADDITIONS
80, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
!N ECHINODERM FRAGMENT WITH AN EXTENSIVE
SYNTAXIAL OVERGROWTH 3TAINING INDICATES THAT
OVERGROWTH CEMENTATION PERSISTED THROUGH
A SIGNIlCANT TIME PERIOD DURING WHICH PORE
mUIDS BECAME PROGRESSIVELY MORE REDUCING
THEREBY INCORPORATING MORE IRON INTO THE CAL
CITE LATTICE ,ATER EVEN MORE FERROAN CALCITE
CEMENTS POSTDATE THE OVERGROWTH 4HE TRANSI
TION FROM SURlCIAL TO BURIAL CEMENTATION LIES
SOMEWHERE IN THE OVERGROWTH BUT ISOTOPIC
mUID INCLUSION OR OTHER GEOCHEMICAL DATA IS
REQUIRED TO CLARIFY THESE RELATIONSHIPS
00, !&E3 (! MM
Early Cambrian Forteau Fm.
Southern Labrador, Canada
! REEF LIMESTONE WITH A GROWTH CAVITY LINED
WITH CLOUDY lBROUS CALCITE OF PROBABLE MARINE
ORIGIN 4HE REST OF THE CAVITY IS lLLED WITH NON
FERROAN BLADED AND SLIGHTLY FERROAN BLOCKY CAL
CITE MUCH OF WHICH IS LIKELY OF BURIAL ORIGIN
.OTE THE INCREASE IN CRYSTAL SIZE OF THE BLOCKY
CALCITES FROM MARGIN TO CAVITY CENTER A COM
MON FEATURE OF PORE lLLING CEMENTS 0HOTO
GRAPH COURTESY OF .OEL 0 *AMES
00, !&E3 (! MM
Mississippian Coral Ls., England,
U.K.
4HIS INTRAPARTICLE PORE WAS PLUGGED WITH
COARSE CAVITY lLLING SPARRY CALCITE 4HE FRINGE
OF lNELY CRYSTALLINE METEORIC PHREATIC OR EARLY
BURIAL CEMENT INSIDE THE SHELL IS FOLLOWED BY
VERY COARSE SPAR THAT IS ALMOST CERTAINLY OF
BURIAL DIAGENETIC ORIGIN #RYSTAL SIZES AGAIN IN
CREASE TOWARD THE CENTER OF THE CAVITY ALTHOUGH
DOMINATED IN THIS CASE BY JUST A FEW VERY LARGE
CENTRAL CRYSTALS AND THE TIPS OF CRYSTALS COMING
IN FROM OUTSIDE THE PLANE OF THIS SECTION
80, (! MM
CHAPTER 25: MESOGENETIC/TELOGENETIC BURIAL DIAGENESIS
Oligocene Nile Gp., Karamea,
Westland, New Zealand
4HE SECONDARY POROSITY IN THIS TEMPERATE
WATER LIMESTONE MAINLY ABRADED AND LEACHED
BIVALVE FRAGMENTS WAS lLLED PRIMARILY WITH
FERROAN CALCITE CEMENT BLUE #AREFUL EXAMI
NATION HOWEVER SHOWS THIN RINDS OR ISOLATED
SMALL CRYSTALS OF NON FERROAN CALCITE ON THE
EDGES OF THE LEACHED PORES !GAIN STAINING IS
CRUCIAL IN DISTINGUISHING THESE THIN EARLY STAGE
CEMENTS FROM THE VOLUMETRICALLY MORE IMPOR
TANT BURIAL STAGE PRECIPITATES
00, !&E3 (! MM
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
0ARAGENETIC RELATIONS THE RELATIVE SEQUENC
ING OF DIAGENETIC EVENTS CAN BE CRUCIAL IN
PROVING A BURIAL STAGE ORIGIN FOR CEMENTS
(ERE THE EARLY BLADED NON FERROAN CEMENTS
STAINED PINK COULD HAVE A VARIETY OF ORIGINS
INCLUDING ALTERED MARINE METEORIC OR SHAL
LOW BURIAL PRECIPITATES 4HEY WERE POSTDATED
HOWEVER BY HIGHLY FERROAN BLOCKY CALCITE SPAR
STAINED DARK BLUE 4HE BURIAL DIAGENETIC ORI
GIN OF THESE CEMENTS IN SUPPORTED BY THE FACT
THAT THEY CONTAIN ABUNDANT HYDROCARBON INCLU
SIONS BLACK ASPHALTIC INCLUSION ZONES
00, !&E3 "3% (! MM
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
!LTHOUGH MOST BURIAL STAGE CEMENTS ARE
UNIFORMLY FERROAN REmECTING THE STABILITY OF
MOST SUBSURFACE SETTINGS THAT STATEMENT HAS
NUMEROUS EXCEPTIONS -ANY BURIAL CEMENTS
ESPECIALLY ONES ASSOCIATED WITH HIGHLY PERME
ABLE FRACTURE OR VUG SYSTEMS SHOW REPEATED
GEOCHEMICAL mUCTUATIONS 4HIS FRACTURE FOR
EXAMPLE IS lLLED WITH SUCCESSIVE BANDS OF
FERROAN BLUE STAIN AND NON FERROAN PINK
STAIN CALCITE INDICATIVE OF MAJOR mUCTUATIONS
IN REDOX CONDITIONS OF PORE mUIDS DURING PRE
CIPITATION 4HE lNAL FERROAN CALCITE CEMENT
CONTAINS HYDROCARBON TRACES
00, !&E3 "3% (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
0ARAGENETIC RELATIONSHIPS CAN HELP TO DECIPHER
VERY COMPLEX DIAGENETIC HISTORIES 4HIS ROCK
WAS EXTENSIVELY CEMENTED BY THICK CRUSTS OF
BANDED MARINE CEMENTS PROBABLE ALTERNAT
ING LAYERS OF ARAGONITE AND HIGH
-G CALCITE
3OME LAYERS WERE SELECTIVELY LEACHED AND THE
VOID SPACE WAS LATER lLLED WITH BURIAL
STAGE
FERROAN CALCITE STAINED BLUE &INALLY BARITE
REPLACEMENT WHITE CRYSTALS OCCURRED DURING
HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION 3UCH PETROGRAPHIC
OBSERVATIONS ARE ESSENTIAL IN CHARTING TEMPORAL
SUCCESSIONS OF DIAGENETIC EVENTS INCLUDING THE
CREATION ANDOR DESTRUCTION OF POROSITY
00, !&E3 (! MM
Up. Cretaceous (Turonian) Eagle
Ford Shale, Dallas Co., Texas
#ONCRETIONS ARE LOCALIZED CARBONATE PRE
CIPITATES THAT COMMONLY SPAN THE METEORIC TO
EARLY BURIAL DIAGENETIC REALMS (ERE MULTIPLE
GENERATIONS OF CEMENT ARE VISIBLE IN A SEPTARIAN
NODULE %ARLY STAGE NON FERROAN CALCITE
WHITE UNSTAINED CEMENT FORMED SKELETAL
CRYSTALS OR CRYSTALS THAT WERE LATER CORRODED
4HE lNAL STAGE OF CEMENT FORMED UNDER REDUC
ING CONDITIONS AND INCORPORATED IRON INTO THE
CALCITE LATTICE BLUE STAIN 4HE FERROAN CALCITE
lLLED BOTH THE SKELETAL VOIDS AND OTHER REMAIN
ING PORE SPACE
00, !&E3 (! MM
Up. Jurassic (Oxfordian) Up.
Smackover Fm., subsurface,
Arkansas
"URIAL
STAGE SECONDARY POROSITY IS WELL KNOWN
IN SANDSTONES 4HE EXISTENCE OF LATE
STAGE DIS
SOLUTION AND POROSITY DEVELOPMENT IS MORE
CONTROVERSIAL IN CARBONATE ROCKS BUT MORE AND
MORE EXAMPLES HAVE COME TO LIGHT IN RECENT
YEARS 4HIS EXAMPLE SHOWS VUGS THAT CROSS
CUT COMPACTED OOIDS WITH INTERPENETRATIVE
CONTACTS $ISSOLUTION CLEARLY POSTDATES VERY
SUBSTANTIAL COMPACTION AND THEREFORE IS INTER
PRETED AS BURIAL
STAGE LEACHING PERHAPS DUE TO
INmUX OF HYDROCARBON
ASSOCIATED ACIDIC mUIDS
0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF #LYDE ( -OORE SEE
-OORE AND $RUCKMAN
00, "3% (! ^ MM
CHAPTER 25: MESOGENETIC/TELOGENETIC BURIAL DIAGENESIS
Lo. Cambrian Forteau Fm.,
southern Labrador, Canada
#AVITY lLLING CALCITE CEMENTS IN A REEF LIME
STONE WITH CATHODOLUMINESCENT ZONING SHOW
ING A TYPICAL TEMPORAL SUCCESSION OF NON LU
MINESCENCE BRIGHT LUMINESCENCE AND DULL
LUMINESCENCE 4HAT SUCCESSION REmECTS TEMPO
RAL GEOCHEMICAL CHANGES ALLOWING VARIATIONS
IN INCORPORATION OF -N A #, EXCITING ION
AND &E A #, QUENCHING ION ,ATE STAGE
BURIAL mUIDS GENERALLY ARE DEPLETED IN -N AND
ENRICHED IN &E PRODUCING DULL LUMINESCENCE
#, ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY AND mUID INCLUSION
GEOTHERMOMETRY ARE ESSENTIAL ADJUNCTS TO PE
TROGRAPHY IN UNDERSTANDING BURIAL DIAGENESIS
0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF .OEL 0 *AMES
#, (! MM
Up. Cretaceous chalk, 1,420 ft
(433 m) depth, British North Sea
"URIAL DIAGENESIS IS OF GREAT IMPORTANCE IN
lNE GRAINED CARBONATE ROCKS BUT IS MUCH MORE
DIFlCULT TO DOCUMENT PETROGRAPHICALLY BECAUSE
OF THE SMALL CRYSTAL SIZES 4HIS 3%- IMAGE
SHOWS A TYPICAL SHALLOWLY BURIED CHALK CA
M BURIAL DEPTH .OTE THE ROUNDED GRAINS
EASILY RECOGNIZABLE COCCOLITH REMAINS AND LACK
OF OBVIOUS CEMENTS POROSITY IS IN EXCESS OF
#OMPARE WITH THE NEXT IMAGE
3%- (! ^ M
Up. Cretaceous chalk, 11,026 ft
(3,361 m) depth, British North Sea
!N 3%- IMAGE SHOWING A TYPICAL VIEW OF A
DEEPLY BURIED CHALK CA M .OTE THE
EXTENSIVE DEVELOPMENT OF ANGULAR LARGELY
INTERLOCKING CRYSTALLINE OVERGROWTHS ON MOST
MATRIX GRAINS ALTHOUGH SOME REMNANTS OF
COCCOLITHS CAN STILL BE SEEN 0OROSITY IN THIS
SAMPLE HAS BEEN REDUCED TO APPROXIMATELY
/VERBURDEN PRESSURE RESULTED IN LO
CAL DISSOLUTION COMPACTION AND BURIAL STAGE
PRECIPITATION RESULTING IN THE FABRIC CHANGES
BETWEEN THE PREVIOUS SAMPLE AND THIS ONE
/VERPRESSURING AND EARLY OIL INPUT CAN MINI
MIZE SUCH BURIAL RELATED POROSITY CHANGES
3CHOLLE
3%- (! ^ M
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
#ITED 2EFERENCES AND !DDITIONAL )NFORMATION 3OURCES
"ATHURST 2 ' # 4HE ENFACIAL JUNCTION IN / 0 "RICKER ED *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
#ARBONATE #EMENTS 3TUDIES IN 'EOLOGY .O "ALTIMORE -$ 4HE -EYERS 7 * AND " % (ILL 1UANTITATIVE STUDIES OF COMPACTION
*OHNS (OPKINS 0RESS P IN -ISSISSIPPIAN SKELETAL LIMESTONES .EW -EXICO *OURNAL OF
"ATHURST 2 ' # #ARBONATE 3EDIMENTS AND THEIR $IAGENESIS .EW 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
9ORK %LSEVIER 3CIENCE 0UBL #O P -OORE # ( AND 9 $RUCKMAN "URIAL DIAGENESIS AND POROSITY
"ATHURST 2 ' # $EEP CRUSTAL DIAGENESIS IN LIMESTONES 2EVISTA EVOLUTION 5PPER *URASSIC 3MACKOVER !RKANSAS AND ,OUISIANA !!0'
DEL )NSTITUTO DE )NVESTIGACIONES 'EOLOGICAS DE LA $IPUTACIN DE "ULLETIN V P
"ARCELONA 5NIVERSIDAD DE "ARCELONA V P
.ELSON # 3 ' * (ARRIS AND ( 2 9OUNG "URIAL
DOMINATED
"ATHURST 2 ' # "URIAL DIAGENESIS OF LIMESTONES UNDER SIMPLE CEMENTATION IN NON
TROPICAL CARBONATES OF THE /LIGOCENE 4E +UITI
OVERBURDEN 3TYLOLITES CEMENTATION AND FEEDBACK "ULLETIN DE LA 'ROUP .EW :EALAND 3EDIMENTARY 'EOLOGY V P
3OCIT GOLOGIQUE DE &RANCE V P
/LDERSHAW ! % AND 4 0 3COFlN 4HE SOURCE OF FERROAN AND
"UXTON 4 - AND $ & 3IBLEY 0RESSURE SOLUTION FEATURES IN A SHALLOW NON
FERROAN CALCITE CEMENTS IN THE (ALKIN AND 7ENLOCK ,IMESTONES
BURIED LIMESTONE *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
'EOLOGICAL *OURNAL V P
#ERCONE + 2 AND + # ,OHMANN ,ATE BURIAL DIAGENESIS OF 0ARK 7
# AND % ( 3CHOT 3TYLOLITIZATION IN CARBONATE ROCKS
.IAGARAN -IDDLE 3ILURIAN PINNACLE REEFS IN -ICHIGAN BASIN !!0' IN ' -LLER AND ' - &RIEDMAN EDS 2ECENT $EVELOPMENTS IN
"ULLETIN V P
#ARBONATE 3EDIMENTOLOGY IN #ENTRAL %UROPE .EW 9ORK 3PRINGER
#HOQUETTE 0 7 AND . 0 *AMES $IAGENESIS $IAGENESIS IN 6ERLAG P
LIMESTONES
4HE DEEP BURIAL ENVIRONMENT 'EOSCIENCE #ANADA V 2AILSBACK , " ,ITHOLOGIC CONTROLS ON MORPHOLOGY OF PRESSURE
P
DISSOLUTION SURFACES STYLOLITES AND DISSOLUTION SEAMS IN 0ALEOZOIC
$ICKSON * ! $ 'RAPHICAL MODELING OF CRYSTAL AGGREGATES AND ITS CARBONATE ROCKS FROM THE MIDEASTERN 5NITED 3TATES *OURNAL OF
RELEVANCE TO CEMENT DIAGNOSIS 0HILOSOPHICAL 4RANSACTIONS OF THE 2OYAL 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
3OCIETY OF ,ONDON 3ERIES ! V P
3CHMOKER * 7 AND 2 " (ALLEY #ARBONATE POROSITY VERSUS DEPTH
$ICKSON * ! $ AND - , #OLEMAN #HANGES IN CARBON AND OXY
A PREDICTABLE RELATION FOR SOUTH &LORIDA !!0' "ULLETIN V P
GEN ISOTOPE COMPOSITION DURING LIMESTONE DIAGENESIS 3EDIMENTOLOGY
V P
3CHOLLE 0 ! #HALK DIAGENESIS AND ITS RELATION TO PETROLEUM
$OROBEK 3 , 0ETROGRAPHY GEOCHEMISTRY AND ORIGIN OF BURIAL EXPLORATION OIL FROM CHALKS A MODERN MIRACLE !!0' "ULLETIN V
DIAGENETIC FABRICS 3ILURO
$EVONIAN (ELDERBERG 'ROUP CARBONATE P
ROCKS CENTRAL !PPALACHIANS !MERICAN !SSOCIATION OF 0ETROLEUM 3CHOLLE 0 ! AND 2 " (ALLEY "URIAL DIAGENESIS OUT OF SIGHT
'EOLOGISTS "ULLETIN V P
OUT OF MIND IN . 3CHNEIDERMANN AND 0 - (ARRIS EDS #ARBONATE
$RUCKMAN 9 AND # ( -OORE *R ,ATE SUBSURFACE SECONDARY #EMENTS 4ULSA /+ 3%0- 3PECIAL 0UBLICATION .O P
POROSITY IN A *URASSIC GRAINSTONE RESERVOIR 3MACKOVER &ORMATION -T 3HINN % ! AND $ - 2OBBIN -ECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL
6ERNON lELD SOUTHERN !RKANSAS IN 0 / 2OEHL AND 0 7 #HOQUETTE EDS COMPACTION IN lNE
GRAINED SHALLOW
WATER LIMESTONES *OURNAL OF
#ARBONATE PETROLEUM RESERVOIRS .EW 9ORK 3PRINGER
6ERLAG P
3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
$UNNINGTON ( 6 !SPECTS OF DIAGENESIS AND SHAPE CHANGE IN 3IMONSEN * - AND ' - &RIEDMAN #LOSELY SPACED TWIN LAMELLAE
STYLOLITIC LIMESTONE RESERVOIRS IN 0ROCEEDINGS OF THE 3EVENTH 7ORLD IN LIMESTONES AS AN INDICATOR OF DEEP
BURIAL DIAGENESIS #ARBONATES AND
0ETROLEUM #ONGRESS -EXICO #ITY -EXICO V .EW 9ORK %LSEVIER %VAPORITES V P
P
7ALKDEN ' - AND * 2 "ERRY 3YNTAXIAL OVERGROWTHS IN MUDDY
$URNEY $ 7 0RESSURE
SOLUTION AND CRYSTALLIZATION DEFORMATION CRINOIDAL LIMESTONES CATHODOLUMINESCENCE SHEDS NEW LIGHT ON AN OLD
0HILOSOPHICAL 4RANSACTIONS OF THE 2OYAL 3OCIETY OF ,ONDON 3ERIES ! PROBLEM 3EDIMENTOLOGY V P
V P
7ALLS 2 ! % 7 -OUNTJOY AND 0 &RITZ )SOTOPIC COMPOSITION
%MERY $ AND * $ -ARSHALL :ONED CALCITE CEMENTS HAS ANALYSIS AND DIAGENETIC HISTORY OF CARBONATE CEMENTS IN $EVONIAN 'OLDEN 3PIKE
OUTPACED INTERPRETATION 3EDIMENTARY 'EOLOGY V P
REEF !LBERTA #ANADA 'EOLOGICAL 3OCIETY OF !MERICA "ULLETIN V
&RANK * 2 ! " #ARPENTER AND 4 7 /GLESBY #ATHODOLUMIN
P
ESCENCE AND COMPOSITION OF CALCITE CEMENT IN 4AUM 3AUK ,IMESTONE 7ANLESS ( 2 "URIAL DIAGENESIS IN LIMESTONES IN ! 0ARKER AND " 7
5PPER #AMBRIAN SOUTHEAST -ISSOURI *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 3ELLWOOD EDS 3EDIMENT $IAGENESIS .!4/ !DVANCED 3TUDIES )NSTITUTE
0ETROLOGY V P
3ERIES # V $ORDRECHT .ETHERLANDS * 2EIDEL AND #O P
'ROVER ' *R AND * & 2EAD 0ALEOAQUIFER AND DEEP BURIAL RELATED 7EYL 0 + 0RESSURE SOLUTION AND THE FORCE OF CRYSTALLIZATION A
CEMENTS DElNED BY REGIONAL CATHODOLUMINESCENT PATTERNS -IDDLE PHENOMENOLOGICAL THEORY *OURNAL OF 'EOPHYSICAL 2ESEARCH V P
/RDOVICIAN CARBONATES 6IRGINIA !!0' "ULLETIN V P
(ALLEY 2 " "URIAL DIAGENESIS OF CARBONATE ROCKS #OLORADO 7ONG 0 + AND ! /LDERSHAW "URIAL CEMENTATION IN THE $EVONIAN
3CHOOL OF -INES 1UARTERLY V P
+AYBOB REEF COMPLEX !LBERTA #ANADA *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY
+AUFMAN * 7 * -EYERS AND ' . (ANSON "URIAL CEMENTATION 0ETROLOGY V P
IN THE 3WAN (ILLS &ORMATION $EVONIAN 2OSEVEAR lELD !LBERTA 7ORONICK 2 % AND , 3 ,AND ,ATE BURIAL DIAGENESIS ,OWER
#ANADA *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
#RETACEOUS 0EARSALL AND LOWER 'LEN 2OSE &ORMATIONS SOUTH 4EXAS IN
+LOSTERMAN - * !PPLICATIONS OF mUID INCLUSION TECHNIQUES TO . 3CHNEIDERMANN AND 0 - (ARRIS EDS #ARBONATE #EMENTS 4ULSA
BURIAL DIAGENESIS IN CARBONATE ROCK SEQUENCES "ATON 2OUGE ,! /+ 3%0- 3PECIAL 0UBLICATION .O P
,OUISIANA 3TATE 5NIVERSITY !PPLIED #ARBONATE 2ESEARCH 0ROGRAM
4ECHNICAL 3ERIES #ONTRIBUTION .O P
-ACHEL ( ' "URIAL DIAGENESIS POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY DEVELOPMENT
OF CARBONATES IN ' 2 "LOY AND - ' (ADLEY EDS 4HE $EVELOPMENT OF
& ACING 0AGE 4OP $OLOMITIC SUPRATIDAL CRUSTS ERODED AND
REDEPOSITED IN IMBRICATE FASHION ALONG THE EDGE OF A NEARLY
ABANDONED TIDAL CHANNEL ON !NDROS )SLAND "AHAMAS 0HOTOGRAPH
0OROSITY IN #ARBONATE 2ESERVOIRS #ALGARY #ANADIAN 3OCIETY OF 0ETROLEUM COURTESY OF % ! 3HINN
'EOLOGISTS #ONTINUING %DUCATION 3HORT #OURSE .OTES P
"OTTOM $OLOMITE CRYSTALS BLUE REPLACING MATRIX IN A TRILOBITE
-EYERS 7 * #ARBONATE CEMENT STRATIGRAPHY OF THE ,AKE 6ALLEY RICH LIMESTONE 3IMPSON 'P -URRAY #O /KLAHOMA 00,
&ORMATION -ISSISSIPPIAN 3ACRAMENTO -OUNTAINS .EW -EXICO !&E3 (! MM
#!2"/.!4% $)!'%.%3)3
DOLOMITE AND SIDERITE
C
H
A
P
T
E
R
26
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
$/,/-)4% !.$ 3)$%2)4%
)NTRODUCTION
$OLOMITE IS A RHOMBOHEDRAL MINERAL #A-G#/ DOLOSTONE IS THE APPROPRIATE TERM FOR A ROCK COMPOSED OF THAT
MINERAL $OLOMITE IS BEST IDENTIl ED THROUGH STAINING AND BY ITS RHOMBIC OFTEN ZONED UNTWINNED HABIT
$OLOMITE IS A COMPLEX AND RELATIVELY POORLY UNDERSTOOD MINERAL 4HERMODYNAMICALLY DOLOMITE SHOULD BE A STABLE
WIDESPREAD PRECIPITATE FROM SEAWATER BUT KINETIC FACTORS HYDRATION OF -G IONS IN SEAWATER THE HIGH IONIC
STRENGTH OF SEAWATER THE RELATIVE EFl CIENCY OF ARAGONITE AND HIGH
-G CALCITE PRECIPITATION INHIBITION EFFECTS OF
3/
IONS MITIGATE AGAINST ITS FORMATION -ODERN DOLOMITE THEREFORE IS RELATIVELY SCARCE )N ADDITION ORDERED
DOLOMITE IS SLOW
GROWING AND THUS IS DIFl CULT TO SYNTHESIZE IN THE LABORATORY UNDER EARTH
SURFACE CONDITIONS
4RUE DOLOMITE STOICHIOMETRIC ORDERED DOLOMITE TOP DIAGRAM FACING PAGE IS WELL ORDERED WITH ONE CATION LAYER
ENTIRELY COMPOSED OF -G AND THE NEXT ENTIRELY COMPOSED OF #A )F PERFECTLY FORMED THAT ALSO ENSURES A
STOICHIOMETRIC BALANCE BETWEEN #A AND -G IN THE DOLOMITE STRUCTURE -OST MODERN DOLOMITES
HOWEVER ARE POORLY ORDERED AND #A
RICH TERMED hPROTODOLOMITEv BY SOME WORKERS 4HOSE CRYSTALS ARE
RELATIVELY UNSTABLE AND hRIPENv OR EVENTUALLY NEOMORPHOSE TO MORE STABLE ORDERED DOLOMITE CRYSTALS
-ANY MODELS HAVE BEEN PROPOSED FOR DOLOMITIZATION SEE EXCELLENT SUMMARIES IN -ORROW B ,AND
4UCKER AND 0URSER ET AL !LL CENTER AROUND THREE BASIC FACTORS A SOURCE OF -G GENERALLY SEAWATER
A WAY TO MOVE LARGE VOLUMES OF THAT WATER THROUGH THE SEDIMENT PACKAGE AND A WAY TO REDUCE THE KINETIC
INHIBITIONS TO DOLOMITE PRECIPITATION 3ABKHA AND BRINE REm UX MODELS CALL UPON EVAPORATIVE CONCENTRATION
OF SEAWATER WITH REMOVAL OF SULFATE THROUGH BACTERIAL REDUCTION OR INORGANIC SULFATE PRECIPITATION MARINE
FRESH WATER MIXING ZONE AND #OORONG MODELS RELY ON DILUTION OF SEAWATER THE BURIAL MODEL USES ELEVATED
TEMPERATURES MODIl ED PORE WATER COMPOSITIONS AND IN SOME CASES THERMOCHEMICAL SULFATE REDUCTION TO
REDUCE INHIBITIONS ON DOLOMITE PRECIPITATION /RGANOGENIC DOLOMITIZATION RELIES ON INTENSE BACTERIAL SULFATE
REDUCTION AND METHANOGENESIS IN ORGANIC
RICH SEDIMENTS IN A WIDE RANGE OF SETTINGS -AZZULLO
-ODERN DOLOMITE HAS BEEN FOUND IN SMALL VOLUMES IN MANY SETTINGS RANGING FROM HYPERSALINE SABKHAS TO NORMAL
SALINITY TIDAL m ATS AND SUBSALINE LAGOONAL ENVIRONMENTS -ODERN DOLOMITE IS PREDOMINANTLY A REPLACEMENT
PRODUCT SUBSURFACE DOLOMITES ARE FOUND AS EITHER REPLACEMENTS OR AS PRIMARY PORE
l LLING PRECIPITATES 3OME
AUTHORS HAVE SPECULATED THAT DOLOMITES OF OTHER AGES ESPECIALLY THE 0RECAMBRIAN WERE PRIMARY PRECIPITATES
BUT THAT HYPOTHESIS HAS NOT BEEN CONl RMED
'IVEN ONE MECHANISM OR ANOTHER DOLOMITE CAN FORM AT VIRTUALLY ANY STAGE OF DIAGENESIS 3YNSEDIMENTARY
DOLOMITE FORMS AS REPLACEMENT OF HIGH
-G CALCITE OR ARAGONITE IN HYPERSALINE SABKHA SEDIMENTS AND ALSO IN
OTHER TIDAL m AT DEPOSITS MIXING ZONE DOLOMITE CEMENTATION AND REPLACEMENT AFFECT SOMEWHAT OLDER SEDIMENTS
IN MARINE
METEORIC PHREATIC MIXING ZONES AND BURIAL DOLOMITIZATION AFFECTS CARBONATE DEPOSITS OF ANY AGE IN
THE INTERMEDIATE TO DEEP SUBSURFACE $OLOMITE LIKE OTHER CARBONATE MINERALS MAY EXHIBIT SECULAR VARIATIONS
IN ABUNDANCE WITH ENHANCED DOLOMITE FORMATION hDURING TIMES OF GLOBAL TRANSGRESSION ELEVATED ATMOSPHERIC
P#/ AND LOWER CALCITE SATURATION STATE IN SHALLOW MARINE SETTINGSv 'IVEN AND 7ILKINSON P
$ISSOLUTION ANDOR CALCITIZATION OF DOLOMITE SOMETIMES TERMED hDEDOLOMITIZATIONv IS A COMMON PHENOMENON
ESPECIALLY WHERE GYPSUM OR ANHYDRITE ARE UNDERGOING DISSOLUTION THEREBY GREATLY INCREASING THE #A-G RATIOS
AND SULFATE CONCENTRATIONS IN PORE m UIDS
3IDERITE WAS ONCE THOUGHT TO FORM MAINLY FROM BRACKISH TO NON
MARINE PORE m UIDS -ORE RECENT WORK HAS
SHOWN THAT SIDERITE CAN FORM IN FULLY MARINE STRATA DURING EARLY BURIAL DIAGENESIS FROM MARINE PORE m UIDS IN
ASSOCIATION WITH IN
SITU DECOMPOSITION OF ORGANIC MATTER #ARPENTER ET AL -OZLEY AND "URNS
-AJOR DIAGENETIC FABRICS
$OLOMITE FABRICS WERE CLASSIl ED BY 3IBLEY AND 'REGG AS PLANAR IDIOTOPIC AND NON
PLANAR XENOTOPIC
BASED ON THE NATURE OF CRYSTAL BOUNDARIES MIDDLE DIAGRAM FACING PAGE 3IBLEY AND 'REGG ALSO DIVIDE
REPLACEMENT FABRICS BY CRYSTAL SIZE DISTRIBUTIONS INTO UNIMODAL AND POLYMODAL AND BY DEGREE OF PRESERVATION
OF PRECURSOR FABRICS INTO MIMIC FABRIC
PRESERVING AND NONMIMIC FABRIC DESTROYING VARIETIES
!S A GENERAL RULE CRYSTAL SIZES IN DOLOMITES ARE A FUNCTION OF THE NUMBER OF NUCLEATION SITES AND THE RATES OF CRYSTAL
GROWTH 'ENERALLY l NE
GRAINED PRECURSOR SEDIMENTS OFFER MANY POTENTIAL NUCLEATION SITES AND THUS TEND TO
BE REPLACED BY MORE l NELY CRYSTALLINE DOLOMITE AND SHOW BETTER FABRIC PRESERVATION THAN COARSE
GRAINED
SEDIMENTS /N THE BASIS OF CRYSTAL GROWTH RATES EARLY
FORMED DOLOMITES TEND TO BE MORE l NELY CRYSTALLINE
THAN BURIAL
STAGE DOLOMITES $OLOMITES WITH UNIMODAL SIZE DISTRIBUTIONS GENERALLY REPRESENT A SINGLE PHASE
OF FORMATION WITH UNIFORMLY AVAILABLE NUCLEATION SITES 0LANAR FABRICS ARE FAVORED AT LOWER PRECIPITATION
TEMPERATURES NON
PLANAR XENOTOPIC FABRICS ARE FAVORED ABOVE A hCRITICAL ROUGHENING TEMPERATUREv
CHAPTER 26: DOLOMITE AND SIDERITE
SUGGESTED TO BE ABOVE # 'REGG AND 3IBLEY
!RAGONITE AND HIGH -G CALCITE ARE FAR MORE SUSCEPTIBLE TO DOLOMITIZATION THAN LOW -G CALCITE 4HIS CAN LEAD
TO PARTIAL DOLOMITIZATION FOLLOWED BY LEACHING OF UNDOLOMITIZED REMNANTS FORMING DOLOMOLDIC POROSITY
$OLOMITIZED HIGH -G CALCITE SHELLSTESTS TYPICALLY ARE WELL PRESERVED ARAGONITIC ONES ARE LESS WELL PRESERVED
-ANY REPLACEMENT DOLOMITES HAVE CLOUDY CORES INITIAL GROWTH PHASES RICH IN UNDIGESTED HOST ROCK MINERAL
INCLUSIONS OR EARLY METASTABLE PRECIPITATES AND CLEAR EXTERIORS COMPARE 3IBLEY +YSER ET AL
-IXING ZONE DOLOMITES RANGE FROM MICROCRYSTALLINE REPLACEMENTS TO LIMPID ZONED REPLACEMENTS AND CEMENTS
4RUE DOLOMITE CEMENTS OFTEN ARE HARD TO DISTINGUISH FROM DOLOMITIZED PRECURSOR CALCITE CEMENTS EXCEPT
THROUGH EXAMINATION USING #,
"AROQUE OR SADDLE DOLOMITES ARE READILY RECOGNIZABLE BECAUSE THEY HAVE CURVED CRYSTAL FACES A CLOUDY APPEARANCE
DUE TO ABUNDANT m UID AND MINERAL INCLUSIONS AND UNDULOSE EXTINCTION 4HEY COMMONLY ARE #A AND &E
RICH AND MOST REm ECT FORMATION AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES ^ # FROM HYDROTHERMAL OR HYDROCARBON
ASSOCIATED BURIAL m UIDS OF HIGH IONIC STRENGTH 0ARAGENETIC RELATIONS COUPLED WITH ISOTOPIC GEOCHEMISTRY AND
m UID INCLUSION GEOTHERMOMETRY ARE THE BEST METHODS FOR RECOGNIZING NON BAROQUE BURIAL STAGE DOLOMITES
#ALCITIZED DOLOMITES ARE BEST RECOGNIZED THROUGH STAINING )N THE ABSENCE OF STAINING THE PRESENCE OF RHOMBIC
CRYSTAL OUTLINES l LLED WITH MULTIPLE ANHEDRAL CRYSTALS CAN BE A CLUE TO RECOGNITION
4HE PRIMARY CHARACTERISTICS FOR THE RECOGNITION OF SIDERITE CRYSTALS ARE m ATTENED RHOMBS LOZENGE OR !MERICAN
FOOTBALL SHAPED CRYSTALS THAT MAY HAVE A REDDISH FERRUGINOUS ALTERATION STAIN
carbonate minerals
! COMPARISON OF THE CRYSTAL STRUCTURES OF HIGH
-G CALCITE CALCIAN DOLOMITE AND STOICHIOMETRIC
DOLOMITE .ATURALLY OCCURRING CALCITES HAVE
FROM TO ABOUT MOL -G SUBSTITUTION FOR
#A ON A RANDOM BASIS WITHIN THE CALCITE LATTICE
!T THE OTHER END OF THE SPECTRUM WELL
ORDERED
STOICHIOMETRIC DOLOMITE HAS A #A TO -G
RATIO WITH NEAR PERFECT ORDERING OF THE -G AND
#A IN ALTERNATE CATION LAYERS #ALCIAN POORLY
ORDERED DOLOMITE HAS ROUGHLY
MOL
#A IN THE LATTICE WITH INCOMPLETE SEGREGATION
OF #A AND -G INTO SEPARATE LAYERS $ISOR
DERED CALCIAN DOLOMITES ARE NEOMORPHOSED
DURING DIAGENESIS TO THE MORE STABLE NEAR
STOICHIOMETRIC ORDERED DOLOMITES
Classication of dolomite crystal
fabrics
#"$ "% #& ,
)LLUSTRATIONS OF THE THREE MAIN TEXTURAL FABRICS $ " % %,&' & "%( %
OF DOLOMITES AS DEl NED BY 3IBLEY AND 'REGG !#&' ,(%) #' !#&'# #! '%,&' &
&%%'#% %%( % "'% %( % % #!&
&ABRICS WITH IRREGULAR NONLINEAR CRYS %,&' "#("% & %,&' &($$#%' "'%
TAL BOUNDARIES BETWEEN ANHEDRAL CRYSTALS ARE %&%)%,&' %,&' "%&
("' #"&%% %,&' & ,"#' %! "% #%
TERMED hNONPLANARv &ABRICS SHOWING PLANAR #'"& #*("( '#%, $#%#(&
CRYSTAL BOUNDARIES WITH SUBHEDRAL OR EUHEDRAL +' "' #" "%#&&
$# % - '
CRYSTAL OUTLINES ARE TERMED hPLANAR Sv AND
"%&&( %
hPLANAR Ev RESPECTIVELY 4HOSE TERMS CAN BE !#&'# #! '%,&' &
SUPPLEMENTED WITH DESCRIPTORS FOR DEGREE OF &( % '#" %
* ' &'% '#!$%#
PRIMARY FABRIC RETENTION MIMIC OR NONMIMIC ! &#("% &"
ALTERNATIVELY MIMETIC OR NONMIMETIC CRYSTAL !",%,&'
("' #"&#*$#%#& ',
SIZE SEE &OLKS AUTHIGENIC CONSTITUENT TERMI "#% #* "'%%,&
NOLOGY IN THE SECTION ON LIMESTONE CLASSIl CA ' "!'% +#"'"'
TION AND CRYSTAL SIZE VARIABILITY UNIMODAL OR
POLYMODAL
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Holocene sediment, Abu Dhabi
sabkha, United Arab Emirates
3%- IMAGES OF PARTIALLY DOLOMITIZED ARAGONITIC
CARBONATE MUD FROM A PIT DUG BENEATH THE
SABKHA ONE KILOMETER INLAND FROM THE LAGOONAL
SHORELINE 4HE DOLOMITE CRYSTALS GROW AROUND
AND PERHAPS PARTIALLY REPLACE ARAGONITE NEE
DLES IN PORE SPACE WITHIN A CRUST BURIED BENEATH
THE SABKHA $OLOMITE FORMATION HERE OCCURRED
IN WARM
# HIGHLY SALINE PORE m UIDS
WITH ELEVATED -G#A RATIOS AS A RESULT OF PRIOR
CALCIUM SULFATE PRECIPITATION "ACTERIAL SUL
FATE REDUCTION IN ORGANIC
RICH LAYERS MAY ALSO
AID DOLOMITIZATION 0HOTOGRAPHS COURTESY OF
*UDITH ! -C+ENZIE -C+ENZIE
3%- , (! ^ M 2 (! ^ M
Lo. Ordovician St. George Gp.,
western Newfoundland, Canada
!N ANCIENT EXAMPLE OF VERY l NELY CRYSTALLINE
DOLOMITE FROM AN INTERPRETED PERITIDAL DEPOSIT
4HIS MAY REPRESENT PENECONTEMPORANEOUS
SABKHA
TYPE DOLOMITE FORMATION SIMILAR TO
THAT SHOWN IN THE MODERN EXAMPLE ABOVE
0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF .OEL 0 *AMES
00, (! MM
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Tansill
Fm., Eddy Co., New Mexico
4HESE PISOIDS HAVE BEEN INTERPRETED BY VARIOUS
AUTHORS AS THE PRODUCT OF ALGAL GROWTH COASTAL
CALICHE FORMATION SEEPAGE SPRING DEPOSITS
WAVE AGITATION IN A COASTAL SETTING AND OTHER
CAUSES 7HATEVER THEIR SPECIl C ORIGIN THEY
WERE FORMED ADJACENT TO A BROAD HYPERSALINE
LAGOON AND WERE PENECONTEMPORANEOUSLY
DOLOMITIZED 4HE APHANOCRYSTALLINE DOLOMITE
HAS PRESERVED REMARKABLE DETAIL IN THE PISOIDS
AS WELL AS IN THEIR EARLY MARINE CEMENTS AND IN
TERNAL SEDIMENT FABRICS )NDEED IN THE ABSENCE
OF STAINING OR GEOCHEMICAL DATA IT WOULD BE
VERY DIFl CULT TO RECOGNIZE THE COMPLETE DOLO
MITE REPLACEMENT
00, (! MM
CHAPTER 26: DOLOMITE AND SIDERITE
Miocene dolomite, Abu Shaar, Red
Sea area, Egypt
!NOTHER EXAMPLE OF REMARKABLE MIMETIC
FABRIC PRESERVING REPLACEMENT BY EARLY DOLO
MITE 4HESE PERIPLATFORM SLOPE DEPOSITS WERE
EXTENSIVELY CEMENTED BY l BROUS PRECIPITATES
PROBABLY OF SUBMARINE ORIGIN (OWEVER
BOTH SEDIMENT AND CEMENT WERE SUBSEQUENTLY
TOTALLY DOLOMITIZED 4HE KEY TO MIMETIC OR
MIMIC REPLACEMENT IS GROWTH OF CRYSTALS FROM
NUMEROUS NUCLEATION SITES 'ROWTH THEN CAN
OCCUR IN OPTICAL ALIGNMENT WITH FORMER FAB
RICS )NCORPORATION OF INCLUSIONS OF PRECURSOR
MATERIAL ALSO HELPS TO ENHANCE FABRIC RETENTION
0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF "RUCE ( 0URSER
00, (! ^ MM
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Capitan
Fm., Culberson Co., Texas
4HIS BLOCK OF REEF DERIVED MATERIAL IN UPPER
FORE REEF TALUS SHOWS SELECTIVE REPLACEMENT OF
ORIGINALLY MICRITIC CLASTS BY MEDIUM CRYSTAL
LINE DOLOMITE 4HE ABUNDANT MARINE CEMENTS
GENERALLY STAINED PINK WERE NOT DOLOMITIZED
$OLOMITIZING m UIDS WERE DERIVED FROM
SHELFWARD AND OVERLYING EVAPORITIC SETTINGS
'UADALUPIAN OR /CHOAN IN AGE -ESOSALINE
AND LOCALLY PERHAPS HYPERSALINE REm UXING m U
IDS m OWED THROUGH SYNDEPOSITIONAL FRACTURES IN
THE REEF AND DISPERSED THROUGH THE MORE PER
MEABLE UNITS IN THE FORE REEF SLOPE SELECTIVELY
DOLOMITIZING ISOLATED CONSTITUENTS IN THEIR PATH
-ELIM AND 3CHOLLE
00, !3 (! MM
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Capitan
Fm., Culberson Co., Texas
4HREE GENERATIONS OF CEMENT ARE VISIBLE IN
THIS REEFAL BIOLITHITE BOUNDSTONE #LOUDY
ISOPACHOUS CRUSTS OF PENECONTEMPORANEOUS
MARINE CEMENT DARK PINK ARE POSTDATED BY
A THIN RIND OF DOLOMITE FORMED BY THE SAME
REm UXING BRINES NOTED IN THE PREVIOUS EX
AMPLE 4HE DOLOMITE CLEAR TO PALE BLUE MAY
LOCALLY REPLACE EARLIER CEMENTS BUT CLEARLY ALSO
FORMS NEW CEMENT CRYSTALS 4HE DOLOMITE IS
POSTDATED BY COARSE BLOCKY NON FERROAN CAL
CITE SPAR BRIGHT PINK WHICH ITSELF MAY BE A
REPLACEMENT OF PORE l LLING ANHYDRITE AND GYP
SUM CEMENTS FURTHER EVIDENCE OF SALINE PORE
m UID INm UX
00, !&E3 "3% (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Pleistocene Coral Rock Fm.,
corehole, Bottom Bay, Barbados
!N EXAMPLE OF INFERRED MARINE METEORIC
MIXING ZONE REPLACEMENT DOLOMITIZATION
ORIGINALLY TERMED h$ORAGv DOLOMITIZATION
IN 0LEISTOCENE FORE REEF WACKESTONES #ALCITE
HERE IS STAINED RED AND DOLOMITE IS UNSTAINED
(IGH -G CALCITE ALLOCHEMS SUCH AS THESE
RED ALGAE TEND TO BE THE l RST COMPONENTS
DOLOMITIZED AND ARE THE ONES THAT MOST COM
MONLY RETAIN PRIMARY FABRICS .OTE ALSO THE
PARTIAL DOLOMITIZATION OF MICRITIC MATRIX 0HO
TOGRAPH COURTESY OF *OHN $ (UMPHREY
00, !3 "3% (! MM
Holocene sediment, Ambergris
Cay, Belize
!N 3%- IMAGE OF EARLY STAGE DOLOMITE THAT
HAS MIMETICALLY REPLACED HIGH -G CALCITE IN A
FORAMINIFERAL WALL 4HE VERY l NELY CRYSTALLINE
NATURE OF THE REPLACEMENT WITH A MULTITUDE OF
NUCLEATION SITES AND COMPETING SMALL CRYSTALS
ALLOWS PRESERVATION OF PRIMARY HIGH -G CAL
CITE FABRICS WITH GREAT l DELITY 0HOTOGRAPH
COURTESY OF *AY - 'REGG
3%- (! M
Pleistocene Coral Rock Fm. Golden
Grove, Barbados
!N EXAMPLE OF MIXING ZONE DOLOMITE CEMENTS
IN A 0LEISTOCENE WACKESTONE #ALCITE IS STAINED
RED AND DOLOMITE REMAINS UNSTAINED .OTE THE
LIMPID VERY CLEAR NEARLY INCLUSION
FREE CHAR
ACTER OF THE CEMENTS AND THE THIN INTERLAYERED
BANDS OF LOW
-G CALCITE CEMENTS GROWING IN
CONTINUITY WITH THE DOLOMITE #LEAR PORE SPACE
REMAINS AT THE CENTER OF THE PORE 0HOTOGRAPH
COURTESY OF *OHN $ (UMPHREY
00, !3 (! MM
CHAPTER 26: DOLOMITE AND SIDERITE
Permian (Leonardian-Guadalupian)
Park City Fm., Up. Ervay Mbr.,
Daggett Co., Utah
4HIS EXAMPLE SHOWS DOLOMITE CEMENT RIMS
ON DETRITAL GRAINS 4HE DOLOMITE IS POSTDATED
BY COARSE SPARRY CALCITE CEMENT MARKED BY
A SLIGHT PINK STAIN !LTHOUGH THE DOLOMITE
CLEARLY OCCUPIES THE POSITION OF A CEMENT PRI
MARY DOLOMITE CEMENT CAN BE VERY DIFl CULT TO
DISTINGUISH FROM DOLOMITE FORMED BY REPLACE
MENT OF A PRECURSOR CALCIUM CARBONATE CEMENT
4HE BLADED CHARACTER OF THESE DOLOMITE hCE
MENTSv SHOULD RAISE CONCERNS FOR THE PETROGRA
PHER THAT THIS MAY WELL REPRESENT REPLACEMENT
OF PRECURSOR MARINE OR VADOSE PHREATIC CALCITE
CEMENTS
00, !&E3 "3% (! MM
Mid. Silurian (Wenlockian)
Springeld Fm., Green Co., Ohio
!T THE OPPOSITE END OF THE SPECTRUM FROM THE
HIGH
l DELITY REPLACEMENT SHOWN TO THIS POINT
ARE ROCKS WITH NONMIMIC NONMIMETIC REPLACE
MENT FABRICS (ERE ANHEDRAL LARGELY NONPLANAR
DOLOMITE HAS REPLACED A PROBABLE SKELETAL LIME
STONE 'HOSTS OF ORIGINAL GRAINS AND MATRIX
CAN STILL BE SEEN BUT ARE ALMOST IMPOSSIBLE TO
IDENTIFY 3EVERAL TECHNIQUES INCLUDING hWHITE
CARDv MICROSCOPY AND CATHODOLUMINESCENCE
CAN BE USED TO ACCENTUATE WHAT LITTLE FABRIC IS
PRESERVED SEE TECHNIQUES SECTION
00, !&E3 "3% (! MM
Lo. Ordovician Stonehenge Ls.,
Centre Co., Pennsylvania
#OARSE REPLACEMENT DOLOMITE IN AN INTRA
MICRITE ,ARGE AREAS OF MATRIX AND SOME GRAINS
WERE PREFERENTIALLY REPLACED WITH LITTLE OR NO
FABRIC PRESERVATION /THER CLASTS SUCH AS THE
INTRACLAST ON THE RIGHT SIDE HOWEVER WERE
APPARENTLY LESS SUSCEPTIBLE TO DOLOMITIZATION
4HE DOLOMITE CRYSTALS ARE SUBHEDRAL TO
EUHEDRAL WITH PLANAR BOUNDARIES THEREFORE
THE ROCK WOULD BE CLASSED AS NONMIMIC PLANAR
S TO PLANAR E IN THE 3IBLEY AND 'REGG
CLASSIl CATION
80, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Cambrian Riley Fm., Lion
Mountain Ss. Mbr., Burnet Co.,
Texas
!N EXAMPLE OF EUHEDRAL FERROAN DOLOMITE
REPLACEMENT OF A LIMESTONE .OTE THE CONSIS
TENTLY MORE FERROAN CORES DARKER STAIN AND
LESS FERROAN RIMS 4HERE IS EXTENSIVE SOLID
SOLUTION ALONG THE LINE FROM PURE DOLOMITE
TO FERRODOLOMITE SEE TERNARY DIAGRAM IN THE
INTRODUCTION SECTION OF THIS BOOK &ERROAN DO
LOMITES AND ANKERITE THUS ARE COMMON PRECIPI
TATES )N THIS EXAMPLE THE CRYSTALS ARE PLANAR
AND EUHEDRAL 4HEY EITHER GREW DISPLACIVELY IN
CARBONATE MUD OR GREW IN A NONMIMIC FASHION
BECAUSE NO PRECURSOR STRUCTURE IS VISIBLE WITHIN
THE CRYSTALS
00, !&E3 (! MM
Oligocene Gambier Fm., coastal
South Australia
!N EXAMPLE OF LARGELY EUHEDRAL DOLOMITE
WHERE THE CRYSTALS HAVE DARK CORES AND LIMPID
RIMS 4HIS IS AN EXTREMELY COMMON FABRIC
IN DOLOMITES 4HE CLOUDY CORES HAVE BEEN
INTERPRETED TO REm ECT MIXING ZONE CONDITIONS
IN WHICH METASTABLE INCLUSION RICH DOLOMITE
FORMED ! SHIFT TO MORE MARINE CONDITIONS
LED TO PRECIPITATION OF THE MORE INCLUSION FREE
LIMPID DOLOMITE OUTER ZONES THAT MAY IN PART
BE CEMENTS +YSER ET AL 4HE RHOMBIC
OUTLINES ZONING AND LACK OF TWINNING SEEN
HERE ARE CHARACTERISTICS THAT ALLOW RECOGNITION
OF MOST DOLOMITES EVEN WITHOUT STAINING
0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF .OEL 0 *AMES
00, (! MM
Lo. Cretaceous dolostone,
Cephalonia, Ionian Islands, Greece
!NOTHER EXAMPLE OF COARSELY CRYSTALLINE
SUBHEDRAL ZONED NONFERROAN REPLACEMENT
DOLOMITE .OTE THE CLOUDY CORES CLEAR RIMS
OR CEMENT OVERGROWTHS A COMMON FEATURE IN
REPLACEMENT DOLOMITES AND COMPLETE OBLIT
ERATION OF PRIMARY FABRICS 4HE CROSS POLAR
IZED ILLUMINATION SHOWS HOW THE l NAL STAGES OF
DOLOMITE CRYSTAL GROWTH HAVE IRREGULAR SHAPES
AS THEY GROW INTO THE AVAILABLE INTERCRYSTALLINE
PORE SPACE
00,80, !&E3 "3% (! MM EACH
CHAPTER 26: DOLOMITE AND SIDERITE
Lo. Ordovician St. George Gp.,
western Newfoundland, Canada
#OMPOSITIONAL ANDOR INCLUSION ZONING IS PRES
ENT IN MOST DOLOMITES 3OMETIMES AS IN THE
PREVIOUS EXAMPLE IT IS READILY VISIBLE BECAUSE
OF VARIATIONS IN INCLUSION CONTENT )N OTHER EX
AMPLES SUCH AS THIS EUHEDRAL TO SUBHEDRAL DO
LOMITE ZONING IS NOT READILY VISIBLE BECAUSE IT
CONSISTS MAINLY OF SLIGHT ELEMENTAL VARIATIONS
)N SUCH CASES STAINING CATHODOLUMINESCENCE
BACKSCATTERED ELECTRON IMAGING OR OTHER TECH
NIQUES CAN BE USED TO ACCENTUATE ZONATION
4HIS PAIR OF PHOTOGRAPHS DEMONSTRATES THE
CONTRAST BETWEEN NORMAL ILLUMINATION AND
CATHODOLUMINESCENCE 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF
.OEL 0 *AMES TAKEN BY $ (AYWICK
00,#, (! MM EACH
Lo. Cretaceous (Aptian) Shuaiba
Fm., 3,131 ft (954 m) depth,
offshore Qatar
2EPLACEMENT DOLOMITE CRYSTALS WITH CLOUDY
FERROAN CORES AND CLEAR LESS FERROAN RIMS IN A
WACKESTONE SEDIMENT !LTHOUGH MOST OF THE
DOLOMITE CRYSTALS ARE EUHEDRAL THEY HAVE CON
SIDERABLE VARIATION IN CRYSTAL SIZES POLYMODAL
-ANY OF THESE CRYSTALS FORMED BY OVERGROWTH
AND REPLACEMENT OF FOSSIL FRAGMENTS THE LARG
EST IS A REPLACEMENT OF AN ECHINOID FRAGMENT
00, !&E3 (! MM
Up. Devonian (Famennian)
Wabamun Fm., Alberta, Canada
! DOLOMITIZATION FRONT IN A MICRITIC LIMESTONE
DOLOMITIZATION IS COMPLETE ON THE RIGHT SIDE
AND SPARSE ON THE LEFT )N THIS CASE THE PRESENCE
OF PERMEABLE BURROWS LED TO HIGHLY HETEROGE
NEOUS REPLACEMENT PATTERNS AS DOLOMITIZING
m UIDS MOVED PREFERENTIALLY THROUGH THE BUR
ROWS AND ALTERED MATERIAL WITHIN AND DIRECTLY
ADJACENT TO THOSE m UID CONDUITS
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Mid.-Up. Ordovician Red River Fm.,
D Zone, 9,132 ft (2,783 m) depth,
Bowman County, North Dakota
! SAMPLE OF A DOLOMITIC HYDROCARBON RESERVOIR
)T SHOWS A DOLOMITIZED BURROW l LL CENTER IN A
POROUS DOLOMITE MATRIX )NTERCRYSTAL POROSITY
IS FAR BETTER DEVELOPED IN THE MATRIX POSSIBLY
DUE TO DISSOLUTION OF UNDIGESTED LIMESTONE
AFTER COMPLETE DOLOMITIZATION OF BURROWS AND
PARTIAL DOLOMITIZATION OF SURROUNDING AREAS
4HE NATURE OF THE POROSITY IS MORE EASILY SEEN
IN THE NEXT SLIDE TAKEN AT HIGHER MAGNIl CATION
0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF -ARK ,ONGMAN
00, !3 "3% (! MM
Mid.-Up. Ordovician Red River Fm.,
D Zone, 9,132 ft (2,783 m) depth,
Bowman County, North Dakota
! HIGHER
MAGNIl CATION VIEW OF THE INTERCRYS
TALLINE POROSITY FROM WHICH THIS HYDROCARBON
RESERVOIR PRODUCES .OTE THE VARIABLE SIZE OF
THE DOLOMITE CRYSTALS SUGGESTING PERHAPS THAT
SEVERAL STAGES OF DOLOMITIZATION OCCURRED AND
OR THAT FEWER DOLOMITE NUCLEATION SITES EXISTED
IN AREAS OUTSIDE THE BURROWS 0HOTOGRAPH COUR
TESY OF -ARK ,ONGMAN
00, !3 "3% (! MM
Lo. Cretaceous (Aptian) Shuaiba
Fm., 3,131 ft (954 m) depth,
offshore Qatar
!NOTHER EXAMPLE OF A HYDROCARBON RESERVOIR
IN A REPLACEMENT DOLOMITE WITH VARIABLE CRYS
TAL SIZES )N THIS CASE THE DOLOMITE CRYSTALS
FORMED IN A SHALLOW SHELF SKELETAL WACKESTONE
AND ARE STRONGLY ZONED WITH CLOUDY CORES AND
CLEAR RIMS 0ATCHY POROSITY RESULTING FROM
MATRIX LEACHING IS DISTRIBUTED THROUGHOUT
THIS SLIDE AND IS CONNECTED BY INTERCRYSTALLINE
MICROPOROSITY
00, !&E3 "3% (! MM
CHAPTER 26: DOLOMITE AND SIDERITE
Mid. Eocene Avon Park Fm., Levy
Co., Florida
$OLOMOLDIC POROSITY IS COMMON IN PAR
TIALLY DOLOMITIZED STRATA ESPECIALLY WHERE
DOLOMITIZATION WAS FABRIC SELECTIVE (ERE
MEDIUM CRYSTALLINE DOLOMITE HAS REPLACED THE
MICRITIC MATRIX OF A FORMER BIOMICRITE &OSSIL
FRAGMENTS WERE NOT DOLOMITIZED AND HAVE BEEN
SUBSEQUENTLY DISSOLVED LEAVING MOLDIC POROS
ITY 3UCH RESERVOIR ROCKS HAVE HIGH POROSITY
BUT ONLY MODERATE PERMEABILITY BECAUSE THE
LARGE MOLDIC PORES ARE CONNECTED TO EACH OTHER
ONLY THROUGH SMALL INTERCRYSTALLINE CONDUITS
80, (! MM
Lo. Cambrian Forteau Fm.,
southern Labrador, Canada
!N EXAMPLE OF HIGHLY SELECTIVE DOLOMITE
REPLACEMENT IN OOID PELOID GRAINSTONE WITH
CRINOID FRAGMENTS 3ELECTED OOID CORTICAL
LAYERS AND NUCLEI WERE REPLACED BY FERROAN
DOLOMITE STAINED BLUE OTHERS WERE LEFT COM
PLETELY UNALTERED AND STILL SHOW CONCENTRIC
AND RADIAL FABRICS )N MODERN SETTINGS AS WELL
DOLOMITIZATION IS HIGHLY SELECTIVE WITH ARAGO
NITE AND VERY HIGH -G CALCITE BEING MOST SUS
CEPTIBLE TO REPLACEMENT ,OW -G CALCITE AND
HIGH -G CALCITE WITH ONLY A FEW MOL -G ARE
MORE RESISTANT TO DOLOMITIZATION 0HOTOGRAPH
COURTESY OF .OEL 0 *AMES
00, !&E3 (! MM
Up. Jurassic (Oxfordian)
Smackover Fm., subsurface, Van
Zandt Co., Texas
4HE NEXT SERIES OF SLIDES SHOWS PROGRESSIVE
DOLOMITIZATION AND FABRIC OBLITERATION IN OO
LITIC GRAINSTONES 3ELECTIVE DOLOMITIZATION
OF THE OOIDS IN THIS LIMESTONE IS COARSE AND
NOT VERY FABRIC RETENTIVE BUT IT ALSO HAS NOT
PROCEEDED VERY FAR AND SO THE OOIDS ARE EASILY
IDENTIl ABLE .OTE THE PREFERENTIAL REPLACEMENT
OF INDIVIDUAL COATINGS WITHIN SOME OOIDS AND
NEARLY COMPLETE REPLACEMENT IN OTHERS )T IS
RARELY POSSIBLE TO DETERMINE EXACTLY WHY SOME
ZONES ARE REPLACED AND OTHERS NOT BUT PRIMARY
MINERALOGIC DIFFERENCES AND VARIATIONS IN OR
GANIC CONTENT ARE LIKELY FACTORS
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Mid. Cambrian limestone, Utah
)N THIS OOID GRAINSTONE SOME OOIDS WERE RE
PLACED BY MEDIUM CRYSTALLINE CALCITE AND OTHER
OOIDS WERE PARTIALLY REPLACED BY MEDIUM CRYS
TALLINE EUHEDRAL TO SUBHEDRAL DOLOMITE &ABRIC
PRESERVATION IS EQUALLY POOR IN CALCITIZED AND
DOLOMITIZED AREAS 4HIS LIKELY REPRESENTS
LATE STAGE DOLOMITIZATION THAT TOOK PLACE AFTER
NEOMORPHISM CALCITIZATION AND FABRIC DE
STRUCTION IN UNSTABLE OOIDS 0HOTOGRAPH COUR
TESY OF .OEL 0 *AMES
00, !3 (! MM
Up. Cambrian Bestogai Fm., Malyi
Karatau, southern Kazakhstan
4HIS IS AN OOLITIC GRAINSTONE CLAST FROM A
MEGABRECCIA DEBRIS m OW DEPOSIT !LTHOUGH
THE OOIDS ARE WELL PRESERVED THIS EXAMPLE
SHOWS HOW DOLOMITIZATION CAN OCCUR IN A VERY
NON SELECTIVE MANNER )NDIVIDUAL DOLOMITE
CRYSTALS UNSTAINED CUT ACROSS VARIOUS GRAINS
AS WELL AS THE ADJACENT CALCITE CEMENT 7HERE
SUCH DOLOMITIZATION IS MORE EXTENSIVE PRIMARY
FABRICS CAN BE COMPLETELY OBLITERATED 0HOTO
GRAPH COURTESY OF (ARRY % #OOK
00, !3 (! MM
Lo. Ordovician, Lo. El Paso Gp., El
Paso Co., Texas
4HIS OOLITIC GRAINSTONE WAS COMPLETELY RE
PLACED BY MEDIUM TO COARSELY CRYSTALLINE DO
LOMITE .OTE HOW INDIVIDUAL DOLOMITE CRYSTALS
HERE AS IN THE PREVIOUS CASE CROSS BOTH THE
INTERNAL FABRICS WITHIN THE GRAINS AND THE GRAIN
CEMENT BOUNDARIES 2ECOGNITION OF ORIGINAL
FABRICS HERE IS ENTIRELY A RESULT OF THE ABUN
DANCE OF INCLUSIONS OF PRIMARY MATERIAL WITHIN
THE REPLACEMENT DOLOMITE CRYSTALS -OST OOIDS
ARE LADEN WITH ORGANIC MATTER MUCH OF WHICH
MAY BE RETAINED DURING REPLACEMENT SEE SEC
TION ON OOIDS AND OTHER COATED GRAINS
00,80, (! MM EACH
CHAPTER 26: DOLOMITE AND SIDERITE
Up. Cambrian Kittatiny Fm.,
northern New Jersey
4HIS OOLITIC GRAINSTONE WAS COMPLETELY RE
PLACED BY MEDIUM CRYSTALLINE DOLOMITE .OTE
THE FACT THAT RECOGNITION OF THE OUTLINES OF THE
ORIGINAL OOIDS RESULTS MAINLY FROM THE PRESER
VATION OF ORGANIC MATERIAL AND ASSOCIATED IRON
OXIDES PROBABLY AFTER PYRITE (ERE HOWEVER
THE ORGANIC MATTER AND ASSOCIATE IRON MINERALS
WERE SUBSTANTIALLY DISRUPTED AND APPARENTLY RE
SIDE LARGELY IN THE INTERCRYSTAL SPACES BETWEEN
ADJACENT DOLOMITE RHOMBS SEE ALSO THE PHOTO
GRAPH OF THIS SAMPLE IN WHITE CARD REm ECTED
LIGHT IN THE SECTION ON TECHNIQUES 3AMPLE
FROM & " 6AN (OUTEN
00, (! MM
Mid. Eocene Naranjo Fm., Coamo
Springs Mbr., Ponce-Coamo area,
Puerto Rico
$ETERMINING THE TIMING OF DOLOMITIZATION IS
DIFl CULT AND AS WITH OTHER CEMENTS AND RE
PLACEMENTS IS BASED MAINLY ON COMPOSITION
AND PARAGENETIC RELATIONS 4HE NEXT SERIES OF
PICTURES SHOWS DOLOMITES THAT HAVE A CLEAR
PARAGENETIC CONTEXT (ERE SELECTIVE DEVELOP
MENT OF REPLACEMENT DOLOMITE OCCURRED ALONG A
FRACTURE IN A RED ALGAL GRAIN 4HE RUSTY APPEAR
ANCE OF THE GRAINS IN THIS WEATHERED SAMPLE IN
DICATES AN ORIGINAL FERROAN COMPOSITION 4HUS
DOLOMITIZATION OCCURRED AFTER FRACTURING AND
UNDER SOMEWHAT REDUCING CONDITIONS PROB
ABLY DURING MESOGENETIC DIAGENESIS
00, (! MM
Mid. Ordovician Laval Ls., Quebec,
Canada
4HIS PELMATOZOAN GRAINSTONE WITH SYNTAXIAL
CEMENTS IS CUT BY A STYLOLITE THAT HAS ASSO
CIATED EUHEDRAL SLIGHTLY FERROAN DOLOMITE
4HE DOLOMITE APPARENTLY FORMED ALONG THE
STYLOLITE AS THE REST OF THE ROCK CONTAINS LITTLE
DOLOMITE 4HUS THE DOLOMITE FORMATION POST
DATES STYLOLITIZATION )N THIS ERA OF ANALYTICAL
GEOCHEMISTRY SUCH PARAGENETIC DETERMINATIONS
TAKE ON A GREAT IMPORTANCE IN MAKING SENSE OF
ISOTOPIC OR ELEMENTAL DATA #ONVERSELY GEO
CHEMICAL DATA CAN GREATLY AID THE PETROGRAPHER
IN LIMITING THE RANGE OF POSSIBLE EXPLANATIONS
OF TEXTURAL OR PARAGENETIC OBSERVATIONS 0HOTO
GRAPH COURTESY OF .OEL 0 *AMES
00, !&E3 (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Cambrian Bonneterre Fm.,
Shannon Co., Missouri
4HESE GANGUE DOLOMITE CRYSTALS ARE ASSOCIATED
WITH A MAJOR -64 ORE DEPOSIT AND CONTAIN
METALLIC SULl DE INCLUSIONS 4HUS THEY WERE
PRECIPITATED IN ASSOCIATION WITH HYDROTHERMAL
MINERALIZING SOLUTIONS THAT MOVED THROUGH
THESE ROCKS "ECAUSE THE RELATIVE TIMING OF
MINERALIZATION CAN BE TIED TO WELL
DATED TEC
TONIC EVENTS THIS CONSTRAINS THE TIME OF DOLO
MITE FORMATION 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF *AY
- 'REGG 'REGG
080, (! MM
Up. Devonian (Frasnian) Perdrix-
Mount Hawk Fms., Alberta, Canada
)N THIS CASE DOLOMITIZATION PREDATES A MAJOR
DEFORMATION EVENT .OTE THE BRITTLE FRACTURING
OF THE DOLOMITE RELATIVE TO THE MORE DISTRIBUTED
DEFORMATION OF THE ADJACENT CALCITE STAINED
PINK ALONG TWIN LAMELLAE 3UCH INTENSE TWIN
NING TYPICALLY RESULTS FROM TECTONIC DEFORMA
TION AND IS DEVELOPED FAR MORE EASILY IN CALCITE
THAN IN DOLOMITE INDEED THAT DIFFERENCE CAN
SOMETIMES BE USED TO DIFFERENTIATE THE TWO
MINERALS IN THE ABSENCE OF STAINING OR ANALYTI
CAL INFORMATION
00, !&E3 (! MM
Up. Jurassic (Portlandian?) Arab
D Carbonate, ~6,500 ft (~1,980 m)
depth, Dukhan eld, Qatar
$OLOMITE CEMENTS ONCE CONSIDERED RARE ARE
NOW RECOGNIZED AS WIDESPREAD PRECIPITATES
)N THIS WORLD CLASS OIL RESERVOIR AN ARTICULATED
BIVALVE SHELL AND ADJACENT OOIDS WERE LEACHED
TO FORM BIOMOLDIC AND OOMOLDIC PORES ,EACH
ING WAS FOLLOWED BY THE GROWTH OF CALCITE AND
DOLOMITE CEMENTS IN BOTH PRIMARY INTRA AND
INTERPARTICLE AND SECONDARY MOLDIC PORES
4HESE CEMENTS ARE ESPECIALLY WELL DEVELOPED IN
THE INTERNAL CAVITY OF THE BIVALVE WHICH IS LINED
WITH l BROUS CALCITE STAINED RED FOLLOWED BY
RHOMBIC DOLOMITE CEMENT WHITE 0HOTOGRAPH
COURTESY OF $AVID . #LARK
00, !3 "3% (! MM
CHAPTER 26: DOLOMITE AND SIDERITE
Mid. Cretaceous Edwards Fm., Bell
Co., Texas
#ATHODOLUMINESCENCE #, STUDIES PROVIDE
AN ADDITIONAL TOOL TO AID IN THE RECOGNITION OF
DOLOMITE CEMENTS AND THE PARAGENETIC RELATIONS
WITH THEIR HOST ROCKS 4HIS STANDARD LIGHT MI
CROSCOPE VIEW THAT SHOULD BE COMPARED WITH
THE SUBSEQUENT #, IMAGE SHOWS A l NELY CRYS
TALLINE DOLOSTONE IN WHICH SYNTAXIAL DOLOMITE
CEMENT IS PROMINENT FORMING OF THE ROCK
AND LINING MOLDS IN SOMEWHAT PATCHY FASHION
4HE TOTAL POROSITY IN THIS ROCK IS AND THE
BROWN PORE l LLINGS ARE EPOXY IMPREGNATION
MEDIUM THAT HAS BEEN hBURNEDv BY THE ELEC
TRON BEAM 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF 0HILIP 7
#HOQUETTE
00, (! MM
Mid. Cretaceous Edwards Fm., Bell
Co., Texas
! #, VIEW OF THE PREVIOUS SAMPLE .OTE THE
CLEAR DISTINCTION OF DOLOMITE
OVERGROWTH CE
MENTS AND THEIR PATCHY DISTRIBUTION AS LININGS
OF MOLDS /NE CEMENT ZONE HAS BEEN DISSOLVED
DURING SUBAERIAL WEATHERING PERHAPS BECAUSE
IT CONTAINED MORE -G THAN OTHER ZONES 4HE
%DWARDS &M IS AN IMPORTANT FRESH
WATER AQUI
FER IN CENTRAL AND SOUTH 4EXAS AND THESE EXTEN
SIVE DOLOMITE CEMENTS MAY HAVE FORMED EARLY
IN THE GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF THE AQUIFER 0HOTO
GRAPH COURTESY OF 0HILIP 7 #HOQUETTE
#, (! MM
Mid. Eocene Avon Park Fm., south
Florida
4HIS COARSELY CRYSTALLINE DOLOMITE SHOWS EX
TENSIVE INTERLOCKING OF ADJACENT CRYSTALS BUT
THE DETAILED RELATIONSHIPS ARE DIFl CULT TO DE
TERMINE UNDER STANDARD MICROSCOPY 4HE NEXT
IMAGE SHOWS A #, VIEW THAT BETTER REVEALS THE
REPLACEMENT AND CEMENTATION RELATIONSHIPS IN
THIS DOLOSTONE $OLOMITIZATION HAS SUBSTAN
TIALLY INDURATED THIS ROCK LEAVING ONLY
TOTAL POROSITY 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF 0HILIP
7 #HOQUETTE
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Mid. Eocene Avon Park Fm., south
Florida
4HIS #, IMAGE OF THE AREA SHOWN IN THE PREVIOUS
PHOTOGRAPH REVEALS ONE PHASE OF REPLACEMENT
AND TWO PHASES OF OVERGROWTH CEMENTATION 4HE
DARK NUCLEI HAVE BEEN INTERPRETED AS REPLACE
MENT DOLOMITES PRODUCED IN MARINE PORE WA
TERS AND THE LIGHTER
LUMINESCING OVERGROWTHS
AS PRODUCTS OF CEMENT PRECIPITATION FROM MIXED
MARINE
METEORIC GROUNDWATERS #ANDER
4HE l NAL STAGE OF DARKER
LUMINESCING DOLOMITE
FURTHER CEMENTS AND INTERLOCKS THE CRYSTALS
4HIS LINKING OR WELDING TOGETHER OF CLUSTERS OF
EARLIER CRYSTALS IS A DIAGNOSTIC FEATURE OF PORE
l LLING DOLOMITE CEMENTS 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY
OF 0HILIP 7 #HOQUETTE
#, (! MM
Up. Permian limestone, Djebel
Tebaga area, southern Tunisia
4HIS DISTINCTIVE FABRIC TERMED hSADDLEv OR
hBAROQUEv DOLOMITE CHARACTERIZES SOME
BURIAL STAGE DOLOMITES "AROQUE DOLOMITE HAS
CURVED CRYSTAL FACES AND UNDULOSE EXTINCTION
-OST IS PRECIPITATED FROM HYDROTHERMAL BRINES
AT TEMPERATURES ABOVE ABOUT # AND COM
MONLY UP TO # OR HIGHER COMMONLY IN
ASSOCIATION WITH METALLIC SULl DE ORES BARITE
m UORITE ANDOR HYDROCARBONS $EFORMATION
OF THE CRYSTAL LATTICE RESULTS FROM SUBSTITUTION
OF UP TO MOL &E AND OTHER CATIONS 4HIS
BAROQUE DOLOMITE IS PARTIALLY CALCITIZED NOTE
THE PINK STAINED AREAS YET STILL SHOWS EXCEL
LENT CRYSTAL SURFACE CURVATURE
00, !&E3 (! MM
Mississippian (Osagean) Lake
Valley Fm., Otero Co., New Mexico
4HIS EXAMPLE OF BAROQUE SADDLE DOLOMITE HAS
CURVED CRYSTAL SURFACES SIMILAR TO THOSE SHOWN
IN THE PREVIOUS SAMPLE )N THIS CROSS
POLARIZED
VIEW HOWEVER IT ALSO DEPICTS THE STRONGLY
UNDULOSE OR SWEEPING EXTINCTION THAT IS CHARAC
TERISTIC OF THESE HIGH TEMPERATURE PRECIPITATES
80, !&E3 (! MM
CHAPTER 26: DOLOMITE AND SIDERITE
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Park
City Fm., Ervay Mbr., Big Horn Co.,
Wyoming
"AROQUE DOLOMITE THE UNSTAINED CRYSTALS WITH
CURVED FACES CAN FORM EITHER AS CEMENT OR
AS REPLACEMENT OF EARLIER GRAINS AND CEMENTS
4HESE BAROQUE DOLOMITES ARE MAINLY CEMENTS
OR REPLACEMENTS OF EARLIER CALCITE CEMENTS
4HEY PROBABLY RESULTED FROM THERMOCHEMICAL
SULFATE REDUCTION WHERE SULFATES AND HYDRO
CARBONS REACT AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES TO CAUSE
DISSOLUTION OF EVAPORITES AND SOMETIMES THE
PRECIPITATION OF ASSOCIATED BAROQUE DOLOMITE
00, !3 "3% (! MM
Up. Jurassic (Oxfordian) Up.
Smackover Fm., Gulf Coast, U.S.A.
4HE LATE STAGE SADDLE DOLOMITE UNSTAINED
CRYSTAL WITH UNDULOSE EXTINCTION IN THIS OOLITIC
GRAINSTONE CLEARLY OCCUPIES THE POSITION OF A
CEMENT AND AVOIDS REPLACEMENT OF ADJACENT
GRAINS !LTHOUGH A CEMENT ORIGIN IS VERY
LIKELY IT IS DIFl CULT TO PROVE ABSOLUTELY THAT
THIS BAROQUE DOLOMITE WAS NOT A SELECTIVE RE
PLACEMENT OF A PRECURSOR CEMENT 0HOTOGRAPH
COURTESY OF #LYDE ( -OORE
80, !3 (! ^ MM
Lo. Ordovician St. George Gp.,
western Newfoundland, Canada
4HIS SADDLE DOLOMITE WITH SWEEPING EXTINCTION
HAS FORMED AS A REPLACEMENT OF CARBONATE ROCK
4HE EVIDENCE FOR A REPLACEMENT ORIGIN COMES
FROM THE PATTERN OF INCLUSIONS INCORPORATED IN
THE DOLOMITE CRYSTALS THAT SHOW THE LOCATIONS OF
PRECURSOR GRAINS 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF .OEL
0 *AMES
80, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Jurassic Ronda unit (Subbetic),
near Ronda, Spain
!N EXAMPLE OF SELECTIVE LEACHING OF SOME
DOLOMITE CRYSTALS IN A PARTIALLY DOLOMITIZED
LIMESTONE $OLOMITE DISSOLUTION ANDOR RE
PLACEMENT BY CALCITE IS ESPECIALLY COMMON
IN ASSOCIATION WITH SURFACE OR SUBSURFACE
DISSOLUTION OF SULFATE EVAPORITES 4HE TERM
hDEDOLOMITIZATIONv IS OFTEN USED TO DESCRIBE
THIS PROCESS BUT IT IS NOT A VERY PRECISE TERM
$OLOMITE LEACHING OR DISSOLUTION IS SEEN HERE
BUT DOLOMITE CALCITIZATION IS EQUALLY COMMON
AND IS ALSO REFERRED TO AS DEDOLOMITIZATION
80, (! MM
Mid. Silurian (Wenlockian) Lilley
Fm., Adams Co., Ohio
$ISSOLUTION OF DOLOMITES OFTEN IS HIGHLY SE
LECTIVE (ERE FOR EXAMPLE LATE DIAGENETIC
POSSIBLY TELOGENETIC UPLIFT STAGE ALTERATION
PRODUCED HOLLOW CRYSTALS DUE TO SELECTIVE
LEACHING OF THE CORES OF THESE DOLOMITE CRYS
TALS #OMPOSITIONAL VARIATIONS IN DOLOMITE
CRYSTALS COMMONLY ARE GREAT ENOUGH THAT SUCH
SELECTIVE DISSOLUTION IS ALMOST THE NORM IN
ALTERED DOLOMITES )NCLUSION RICH CLOUDY DO
LOMITE CORES ARE GENERALLY MORE SUSCEPTIBLE TO
LEACHING THAN THE CLEAR RIMS
00, "3% (! MM
Up. Permian limestone, Djebel
Tebaga area, southern Tunisia
3ELECTIVE LEACHING OF ZONES WITHIN DOLOMITE
CRYSTALS CAN LEAVE REMARKABLY DELICATE AND
COMPLEX STRUCTURES AS IN THIS EXAMPLE OF LATE
STAGE DISSOLUTION 3UCH SKELETAL CRYSTALS CAN
COLLAPSE TO FORM GEOPETAL STRUCTURES OR THEY
CAN BE l LLED WITH OTHER CEMENTS MOST COM
MONLY CALCITE 3AMPLE FROM ,ARS 3TEMMERIK
00, "3% (! MM
CHAPTER 26: DOLOMITE AND SIDERITE
Mississippian (Visean) Arroyo
Peasco Gp., Terrero Fm., Taos
Co., New Mexico
$EDOLOMITIZATION CALCITIZATION OF DOLOMITE IS
DEMONSTRATED IN THIS EXAMPLE BY A COMBINA
TION OF STAINING AND OBSERVATION OF INTERNAL COL
LAPSE FABRICS 4HE CORES ANDOR CERTAIN ZONES
OF THE CRYSTALS ARE INFERRED TO HAVE BEEN POORLY
ORDERED DOLOMITE THAT WAS SUSCEPTIBLE TO DISSO
LUTION 4HE RESIDUAL ZONES OF LESS SOLUBLE DO
LOMITE COLLAPSED AND FORMED GEOPETAL MOUNDS
AT THE BOTTOM OF RHOMBIC VOIDS STILL RIMMED BY
THIN DOLOMITE RINDS 4HE VOID SPACES FROM DO
LOMITE DISSOLUTION AND COLLAPSE WERE CEMENTED
BY CALCITE AT A LATER STAGE
00, !3 (! ^ MM
Mississippian (Visean) Arroyo
Peasco Gp., Terrero Fm., Taos
Co., New Mexico
!N EXAMPLE OF A CALCITIZED DOLOMITE
DEDOLOMITE IN AN EVAPORITE ASSOCIATED DOLO
MITIC LIMESTONE )N THE ABSENCE OF STAINING
CAREFUL EXAMINATION REVEALS THAT THE RHOMBIC
CRYSTAL OUTLINES OF THE PRECURSOR DOLOMITES ARE
NOW l LLED WITH MULTIPLE PORE l LLING CALCITE
CRYSTALS 4HIS IMPLIES COMPLETE LEACHING OF THE
DOLOMITE CRYSTALS FOLLOWED BY CALCITE l LLING OF
OPEN DOLOMITE MOLDS
00, (! ^ MM
Oligocene Gambier Fm., coastal
South Australia
! STAINED EXAMPLE SHOWING EUHEDRAL DOLOMITE
CRYSTALS IN WHICH THE CLOUDY INCLUSION
RICH
CORES WERE DISSOLVED AND THE RESULTANT PORE
SPACES WERE l LLED BY CALCITE CEMENT RED
.OTE THE MULTICRYSTALLINE NATURE OF THE CALCITE
l LLS WITHIN MANY OF THE RHOMBIC DOLOMOLDS
0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF .OEL 0 *AMES
00, !3 (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Mississippian (Tournaisian) Arroyo
Peasco Gp., Espiritu Santo Fm.,
San Miguel Co., New Mexico
!N EXAMPLE OF CALCITIZED DOLOMITES THAT SHOW
A COMPLETELY DIFFERENT MODE OF ALTERATION
3UBHEDRAL RHOMBIC ZONED DOLOMITE CRYSTAL
OUTLINES ARE CLEARLY VISIBLE IN BOTH THE NORMAL
AND CATHODOLUMINESCENT VIEWS 4HE ENTIRE
ROCK IS NOW CALCITE HOWEVER AS CAN BE SEEN
FROM THE STRONG TWINNING THAT RUNS THROUGH
SOME OF THE CRYSTALS 4HE PRESERVATION OF
LARGE CLOUDY CORES AND CLEAR RIMS WITH NO COL
LAPSE FEATURES IMPLIES ALTERATION BY A THIN
l LM
SOLUTION FRONT THAT ALLOWED DOLOMITE DISSOLU
TION AND CALCITE PRECIPITATION TO OCCUR WITH NO
SUBSTANTIAL VOID PHASE
00,#, (! MM EACH
Up. Ordovician Ellenburger Ls.,
Llano area, Texas
7EATHERING AND DOLOMITE ALTERATION CAN AC
CENTUATE ZONAL VARIATIONS IN THE IRON CONTENTS
OF DOLOMITES THROUGH THE FORMATION OF HEMA
TITE OR LIMONITE ALTERATION ZONES 4HIS MEDIUM
CRYSTALLINE REPLACEMENT DOLOMITE HAS BEEN
EXTENSIVELY CALCITIZED YET SHOWS PRESERVATION
OF IRON ZONING AS FERRUGINOUS OXIDE BANDS
.OTE THE CONSISTENCY OF ZONATION FROM CRYSTAL
TO CRYSTAL INDICATING THAT ORIGINAL DOLOMITE
CRYSTALS FORMED MORE OR LESS SIMULTANEOUSLY
DURING A PERIOD OF m UCTUATING GEOCHEMICAL
CONDITIONS )T ALSO INDICATES THAT IN THIS CASE
AS WELL CALCITIZATION DID NOT INVOLVE A VOID
PHASE SOLUTION l LL
00, (! MM
Mississippian (Osagean) Lake
Valley Fm., Otero Co., New Mexico
4HE RUSTY APPEARING MATERIAL WITH CURVED
CRYSTAL SURFACES HAS THE MORPHOLOGY OF A TYPI
CAL BAROQUE DOLOMITE AND IS FOUND CEMENTING
LATE STAGE FRACTURES IN A BIOHERMAL LIMESTONE
)N THIS CASE HOWEVER STAINING SHOWS THAT THE
BAROQUE DOLOMITE ITSELF HAS BEEN REPLACED BY
CALCITE l LLED WITH IRON OXIDE INCLUSIONS PROB
ABLY DURING LATE STAGE TELOGENETIC UPLIFT AND
INm UX OF METEORIC WATERS "AROQUE SADDLE
DOLOMITES ARE QUITE SUSCEPTIBLE TO TELOGENETIC
METEORIC ALTERATION EVEN IN THE ABSENCE OF AS
SOCIATED SULFATE EVAPORITES
00, !&E3 (! MM
CHAPTER 26: DOLOMITE AND SIDERITE
Lo. Cretaceous Paw Paw Fm.,
Grayson Co., Texas
!N EXAMPLE OF SIDERITE CEMENTS IN A SHAL
LOW MARINE LIMESTONE 3IDERITE FORMS IN
l NE GRAINED BRACKISH WATER DEPOSITS BUT IT
IS ALSO PRECIPITATED IN FULLY MARINE ORGANIC
RICH STRATA )T IS PRECIPITATED PRIMARILY DUR
ING EARLY BURIAL IN ASSOCIATION WITH MICROBIAL
DECOMPOSITION OF ORGANIC MATTER ESPECIALLY
IN CARBONATE CONCRETIONS 3IDERITE IS READILY
RECOGNIZED BECAUSE IT FORMS SMALL STRONGLY
m ATTENED RHOMBS DISCOID OR FOOTBALL SHAPED
CRYSTALS 4HE CRYSTALS HAVE HIGH RELIEF AND ARE
CLEAR TO YELLOWISH BROWN THESE COLORS MAY
BE ASSOCIATED WITH WEATHERING AND FORMATION
OF SURl CIAL HEMATITE OR LIMONITE STAINING
00, (! MM
Lo. Cretaceous (Albian) Nahr
Umr Fm., 3,119 ft (951 m) depth,
offshore Qatar
!NOTHER EXAMPLE OF SIDERITE CEMENTS HERE IN A
SHALLOW
MARINE SANDY LIMESTONE WITH ASSOCIAT
ED GLAUCONITE AND CHAMOSITE )N THIS CASE THE
SIDERITE CRYSTALS ARE SLIGHTLY ZONED AND FORM
SOMEWHAT MORE EQUANT BUT STILL DISTINCTIVELY
m ATTENED OR LENTICULAR COLORLESS TO BROWNISH
RHOMBS
00, "3% (! MM
Unknown unit; unknown locality
4HIS EXAMPLE SHOWS SIDERITE CRYSTALS WITH
SMALL CORES AND LARGE ROUNDED NEARLY ANHEDRAL
EXTERIORS 4HE HIGH RELIEF AND BROWNISH YELLOW
COLOR ARE ONCE AGAIN DISTINGUISHING CHARACTER
ISTICS BUT THE m ATTENED RHOMB CRYSTAL OUTLINES
SEEN IN THE PREVIOUS EXAMPLES ARE NOT PRESENT
HERE 8 RAY ANALYSIS MICROPROBE EXAMINATION
OR OTHER ANALYTICAL WORK GENERALLY IS REQUIRED
IN ORDER TO UNEQUIVOCALLY DISTINGUISH SIDERITE
FROM FERROAN DOLOMITE 3AMPLE FROM #ANTER
BURY 5NIVERSITY .: COLLECTION
00,80, (! MM EACH
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
#ITED 2EFERENCES AND !DDITIONAL )NFORMATION 3OURCES
!LLAN * 2 AND 7 $ 7IGGINS $OLOMITE RESERVOIRS GEOCHEMICAL SEDIMENTS FROM THE COASTAL SABKHAS OF !BU $HABI 5!% A STABLE
TECHNIQUES FOR EVALUATING ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION 4ULSA /+ !!0' ISOTOPE STUDY *OURNAL OF 'EOLOGY V P
3HORT #OURSE .OTE 3ERIES .O P -ELIM , ! AND 0 ! 3CHOLLE $OLOMITIZATION OF THE #APITAN
!RVIDSON 2 3 AND & 4 -ACKENZIE 4HE DOLOMITE PROBLEM &ORMATION FOREREEF FACIES 0ERMIAN WEST 4EXAS AND .EW -EXICO
CONTROL OF PRECIPITATION KINETICS BY TEMPERATURE AND SATURATION STATE SEEPAGE REm UX REVISITED 3EDIMENTOLOGY V P
!MERICAN *OURNAL OF 3CIENCE V P
-OORE 3 % 2 % &ERRELL *R AND 0 !HARON $IAGENETIC SIDERITE
"ADIOZAMANI + 4HE $ORAG DOLOMITIZATION MODEL APPLICATION AND OTHER FERROAN CARBONATES IN A MODERN SUBSIDING MARSH SEQUENCE
TO THE -IDDLE /RDOVICIAN OF 7ISCONSIN *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
0ETROLOGY V P
-ORROW $ 7 A $IAGENESIS $OLOMITE
0ART 4HE CHEMISTRY
#ANDER ( 3 !N EXAMPLE OF MIXING
ZONE DOLOMITE MIDDLE %OCENE OF DOLOMITIZATION AND DOLOMITE PRECIPITATION 'EOSCIENCE #ANADA V
!VON 0ARK &ORMATION &LORIDAN AQUIFER SYSTEM *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY P
2ESEARCH V ! P
-ORROW $ 7 B $IAGENESIS $OLOMITE
0ART $OLOMITIZATION
#ARPENTER 3 * * - %RICKSON + # ,OHMANN AND - 2 /WEN MODELS AND ANCIENT DOLOSTONES 'EOSCIENCE #ANADA V P
$IAGENESIS OF FOSSILIFEROUS CONCRETIONS FROM THE 5PPER #RETACEOUS &OX -OZLEY 0 3 AND 3 * "URNS /XYGEN AND CARBON ISOTOPIC
(ILLS &ORMATION .ORTH $AKOTA *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V COMPOSITION OF MARINE CARBONATE CONCRETIONS AN OVERVIEW *OURNAL OF
P
3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
#HILINGAR ' 6 $ ( :ENGER ( * "ISSELL AND + ( 7OLF $OLOMITES -OZLEY 0 3 AND 0 7ERSIN )SOTOPIC COMPOSITION OF SIDERITE AS AN
AND DOLOMITIZATION IN ' ,ARSEN AND ' 6 #HILINGAR EDS $IAGENESIS INDICATOR OF DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT 'EOLOGY V P
IN 3EDIMENTS AND 3EDIMENTARY 2OCKS $EVELOPMENTS IN 3EDIMENTOLOGY -URRAY 2 # AND & * ,UCIA #AUSE AND CONTROL OF DOLOMITE
! .EW 9ORK %LSEVIER 3CIENTIl C 0UBLISHING #O P
DISTRIBUTION BY ROCK SELECTIVITY 'EOLOGICAL 3OCIETY OF !MERICA
#HOQUETTE 0 7 AND 2 0 3TEINEN -ISSISSIPPIAN NON
SUPRATIDAL "ULLETIN V P
DOLOMITE 3TE 'ENEVIEVE ,IMESTONE )LLINOIS "ASIN EVIDENCE FOR 0URSER " ( - % 4UCKER AND $ ( :ENGER EDS $OLOMITES
MIXED WATER DOLOMITIZATION IN $ ( :ENGER * " $UNHAM AND 2 ,
! 6OLUME IN (ONOR OF $OLOMIEU ;)!3 3PECIAL 0UBLICATION .O =
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3%0- 3PECIAL 0UBLICATION .O P
2ADKE " - AND 2 , -ATHIS /N THE FORMATION AND OCCURRENCE OF
#URTIS # $ AND - , #OLEMAN #ONTROLS ON THE PRECIPITATION OF SADDLE DOLOMITE *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
EARLY DIAGENETIC CALCITE DOLOMITE AND SIDERITE CONCRETIONS IN COMPLEX 3HINN % ! 2 . 'INSBURG AND 2 - ,LOYD 2ECENT SUPRATIDAL
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IN 3EDIMENT $IAGENESIS 4ULSA /+ 3%0- 3PECIAL 0UBLICATION .O -URRAY EDS $OLOMITIZATION AND ,IMESTONE $IAGENESIS 4ULSA /+
P
3%0- 3PECIAL 0UBLICATION .O P
%VAMY " $ $EDOLOMITIZATION AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF 3IBLEY $ & 4HE ORIGIN OF COMMON DOLOMITE FABRICS CLUES FROM
RHOMBOHEDRAL PORES IN LIMESTONE *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY THE 0LIOCENE *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
V P
3IBLEY $ & 3ECULAR CHANGES IN THE AMOUNT AND TEXTURE OF DOLOMITE
&AIRCHILD ) * 3TAGES IN A 0RECAMBRIAN DOLOMITIZATION 3COTLAND 'EOLOGY V P
CEMENTING VERSUS REPLACEMENT TEXTURES 3EDIMENTOLOGY V P
3IBLEY $ & 2 % $EDOES AND 4 2 "ARTLETT +INETICS OF
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TEXTURES *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
&RIEDMAN ' - 4ERMINOLOGY OF CRYSTALLIZATION TEXTURES AND FABRICS IN 3IBLEY $ & * - 'REGG 2 ' "ROWN AND 0 2 ,AUDON $OLOMITE
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
CRYSTAL SIZE DISTRIBUTION IN 2 2EZAK AND $ , ,AVOIE EDS #ARBONATE
'AWTHORPE 2 , "URIAL DOLOMITIZATION AND POROSITY DEVELOPMENT -ICROFABRICS .EW 9ORK 3PRINGER
6ERLAG P
IN A MIXED CARBONATE
CLASTIC SEQUENCE AN EXAMPLE FROM THE "OWLAND 3ONNENFELD 0 $OLOMITES AND DOLOMITIZATION A REVIEW "ULLETIN OF
"ASIN NORTHERN %NGLAND 3EDIMENTOLOGY V P
#ANADIAN 0ETROLEUM 'EOLOGY V P
'IVEN 2 + AND " ( 7ILKINSON $OLOMITE ABUNDANCE AND STRATI
3UN 3 1 $OLOMITE RESERVOIRS POROSITY EVOLUTION AND RESERVOIR
GRAPHIC AGE CONSTRAINTS ON RATES AND MECHANISMS OF 0HANEROZOIC DOLOSTONE CHARACTERISTICS !!0' "ULLETIN V P
FORMATION *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
4UCKER - % $OLOMITES AND DOLOMITIZATION MODELS IN - %
'REGG * - 2EGIONAL EPIGENETIC DOLOMITIZATION IN THE "ONNETERRE 4UCKER AND 6 0 7RIGHT #ARBONATE 3EDIMENTOLOGY /XFORD "LACKWELL
$OLOMITE #AMBRIAN SOUTHEASTERN -ISSOURI 'EOLOGY V P
3CIENTIl C 0UBLICATIONS P
'REGG * - AND $ & 3IBLEY %PIGENETIC DOLOMITIZATION AND THE 7ARD 7 # AND 2 " (ALLEY $OLOMITIZATION IN A MIXING ZONE
ORIGIN OF XENOTOPIC DOLOMITE TEXTURE *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY OF NEAR
SEAWATER COMPOSITION ,ATE 0LEISTOCENE NORTHEASTERN 9UCATAN
V P
0ENINSULA *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
(UMPHREY * $ ,ATE 0LEISTOCENE MIXING ZONE DOLOMITIZATION 7RIGHT $ 4 !N ORGANOGENIC ORIGIN FOR WIDESPREAD DOLOMITE IN THE
SOUTHEASTERN "ARBADOS 7EST )NDIES 3EDIMENTOLOGY V P
#AMBRIAN %ILEAN $UBH &ORMATION NORTHWESTERN 3COTLAND *OURNAL OF
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AND DEDOLOMITIZATION OF #ENOZOIC COOL
WATER LIMESTONES SOUTHERN :ENGER $ ( * " $UNHAM AND 2 , %THINGTON EDS #ONCEPTS
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.O P
,AND , 3 $OLOMITIZATION 4ULSA /+ !!0' 3HORT #OURSE .OTE
3ERIES .O P
&
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%DUCATION V P
DISPLACIVE hENTEROLITHICv ANHYDRITE IN SUPRATIDAL (OLOCENE
-ACHEL ( ' AND % 7 -OUNTJOY #HEMISTRY AND ENVIRONMENTS OF
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SABKHA SANDS OF !BU $HABI 5NITED !RAB %MIRATES (! ^ M
-AZZULLO 3 * /RGANOGENIC DOLOMITIZATION IN PERITIDAL TO DEEP
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SEDIMENTS *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 2ESEARCH V P
"ONAIRE .ETHERLANDS !NTILLES 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF # 2OBERT
-C+ENZIE * ! (OLOCENE DOLOMITIZATION OF CALCIUM CARBONATE SON (ANDFORD
CHAPTER 27: SULFATE AND CHLORIDE MINERALS
#!2"/.!4% $)!'%.%3)3
SULFATE AND CHLORIDE MINERALS
C
H
A
P
T
E
R
27
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
35,&!4% !.$ #(,/2)$% -).%2!,3
)NTRODUCTION
3ULFATE AND CHLORIDE MINERALS OCCUR AS CEMENTS DISPLACIVE AND REPLACIVE NODULES AND INTERBEDDED STRATA IN
CARBONATE ROCKS 4HEY PRECIPITATE FROM EVAPORATIVELY CONCENTRATED WATERS IN ARID
REGION LAKES PONDS AND
LAGOONS ALONG MARINE SHORELINES AND MORE RARELY IN DEEPER SHELF AND BASINAL SETTINGS WITH RESTRICTED MARINE
INmOW %VAPORITE DEPOSITS ARE PRODUCTS OF ARID ENVIRONMENTS HOWEVER EVAPORITIC SOLUTIONS ARE HIGHLY MOBILE
DUE TO THEIR HIGH DENSITY %VAPORATIVE BRINES THUS MAY MIGRATE INTO ADJACENT OR UNDERLYING STRATA AND
PRECIPITATE DIAGENETIC SULFATE OR CHLORIDE MINERALS GENERALLY AS DISPLACIVE CRYSTALS AND NODULES OR AS CARBONATE
REPLACEMENTS IN UNITS THAT MAY OTHERWISE BE UNRELATED TO ARID SETTINGS %VEN AFTER DEPOSITION AND SUBSTANTIAL
BURIAL EVAPORITE MINERALS CAN BE REMOBILIZED AND REPRECIPITATED IN DISTANT STRATIGRAPHICALLY UNRELATED UNITS
4HEREFORE CAREFUL PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS IS NEEDED TO DETERMINE BOTH THE CONDITIONS OF PRIMARY DEPOSITION AND
THE TIMING OF DIAGENETIC EVENTS IN EVAPORITE
BEARING LIMESTONES AND DOLOMITES
"ARITE CELESTITE AND ANHYDRITE ALSO CAN OCCUR AS HYDROTHERMAL PRECIPITATES IN CARBONATE ROCKS
#ALCITE SOLUTION
lLL REPLACEMENT CALCITIZATION OF GYPSUM AND ANHYDRITE RESULTS FROM THE DISSOLUTION OF EVAPORITES
BY SULFATE
POOR PORE mUIDS 4HESE PORE mUIDS BECOME SATURATED TO SUPERSATURATED WITH RESPECT TO #A IF THERE
IS ENOUGH BICARBONATE IN THE PORE mUIDS CALCITE MAY PRECIPITATE
-AJOR $IAGENETIC &ABRICS
!NHYDRITE CRYSTALS HAVE HIGH BIREFRINGENCE UP TO THIRD ORDER IN THIN SECTION THE OTHER COMMON SULFATE AND
HALIDE MINERALS HAVE MUCH LOWER BIREFRINGENCE !NHYDRITES BIREFRINGENCE ALSO CAN APPEAR TO hTWINKLEv
LIKE THAT OF CALCITE BUT THE EFFECT IS LESS STRONGLY DEVELOPED THAN IN CALCITE !NHYDRITE CRYSTALS NORMALLY ARE
COLORLESS BUT MAY CONTAIN INCLUSIONS OF PRECURSOR PHASES !NHYDRITE MAY FORM LARGE TABULAR CRYSTALS OR FELTED
lBROUS CRYSTAL MASSES GENERALLY AS NODULES 4HE LARGER CRYSTALS MAY EXHIBIT PSEUDO
CUBIC CLEAVAGES
'YPSUM CELESTITE AND BARITE CAN BE EXTREMELY DIFlCULT TO DIFFERENTIATE FROM EACH OTHER IN THIN SECTION 4HEY
ALL HAVE LOW RELIEF AND BIREFRINGENCE GRAY TO WHITE 'YPSUM TENDS TO FORM COLORLESS ELONGATE TABULAR TO
LENTICULAR CRYSTALS OR lBROUS MASSES OR AGGREGATES OF CRYSTALS 'YPSUM ALSO TENDS TO FORM POIKILOTOPIC CEMENTS
THAT ENCASE NUMEROUS GRAINS n SILICICLASTIC OR CARBONATE 'YPSUMS CLEAVAGE IS LOZENGE
SHAPED THEREFORE IF
CLEAVAGE PLANES ARE VISIBLE THEY ARE DIAGNOSTIC FOR GYPSUM 'YPSUM CRYSTALS MAY FORM ROSETTES AND TWINS THAT
ARE CALLED SWALLOW
OR lSH
TAILED SELENITE 4HESE LARGER CRYSTALS FORM DISPLACIVELY BELOW THE SEDIMENTWATER
INTERFACE IN UNCONSOLIDATED SEDIMENTS SUCH CRYSTALS CONTAIN ABUNDANT INCLUSIONS OF THE SEDIMENT 3ELENITE
CRYSTALS ALSO CAN GROW UPWARD FROM THE SEDIMENT
WATER INTERFACE INTO STANDING SALINE WATER BODIES
#ELESTITE RANGES FROM COLORLESS TO BLUE IN THIN SECTION "LUE CRYSTALS OF CELESTITE CAN BE PLEOCHROIC WHICH HELPS TO
DIFFERENTIATE IT FROM GYPSUM AND BARITE #ELESTITE FORMS lBROUS TO ROUNDED AGGREGATES OF CRYSTALS 7HEN IT IS
FOUND IN lBROUS MASSES THE CRYSTALS ARE NORMALLY MORE ELONGATE THAN SIMILAR CRYSTALS OF GYPSUM #LEAVAGE
WHEN VISIBLE IS PSEUDO
CUBIC
"ARITE NORMALLY IS COLORLESS AND FORMS GLOBULAR CONCRETIONS GRANULAR TO EARTHY MASSES lBROUS OR BLADED CRYSTALS
#LEAVAGE WHEN VISIBLE IS PSEUDO
CUBIC "ECAUSE BARITE AND CELESTITE FORM A SOLID SOLUTION SERIES THEY ARE
EXTREMELY DIFlCULT TO TELL APART IN THIN SECTION 'ENERALLY OTHER CHEMICAL TECHNIQUES MUST BE USED TO BE
CONlRM IDENTIlCATIONS ,IKE GYPSUM BARITE ALSO FORMS CRYSTAL ROSETTES
(ALITE IS DIFlCULT TO SEE IN THIN SECTION BECAUSE IT IS ISOTROPIC AND HIGHLY SOLUBLE "ECAUSE HALITE IS ISOTROPIC IT
CAN EASILY BE OVERLOOKED IF THE CLEAVAGES ARE NOT PROMINENT OR IF IT DOESNT CONTAIN INCLUSIONS IE IT MAY BE
INDISTINGUISHABLE FROM THE GLASS ON WHICH THE SECTION IS MOUNTED )MPREGNATING THE SAMPLE WITH BLUE EPOXY
MAKES THE HALITE STAND OUT FROM THE POROSITY )F THE THIN SECTION IS NOT PROPERLY PREPARED CUT AND GROUND IN
OIL NOT WATER HOWEVER HALITE IS UNLIKELY TO BE PRESERVED (ALITE CRYSTALS ARE NORMALLY COLORLESS AND EXHIBIT
LOW RELIEF BUT THEY MAY APPEAR DUSTY DUE TO THE GREAT ABUNDANCE OF SOLID AND LIQUID INCLUSIONS (ALITE CAN
OCCUR AS A POIKILOTOPIC CEMENT IN EITHER CARBONATE OR SILICICLASTIC STRATA
-INERALOGIES
!NHYDRITE n #A3/ ORTHORHOMBIC
'YPSUM n #A3/ s (/ MONOCLINIC
#ELESTITE n 3R3/ ORTHORHOMBIC COMPLETE SOLID SOLUTION SERIES EXISTS WITH BARITE
"ARITE n "A3/ ORTHORHOMBIC COMMONLY CONTAINS UP TO LEAD
(ALITE n .A#L ISOMETRIC CUBIC
CHAPTER 27: SULFATE AND CHLORIDE MINERALS
Mississippian Up. Debolt Fm.,
subsurface, Alberta, Canada
!N EXAMPLE OF GYPSUM CRYSTALS REPLACING OR
DISPLACING MICRITIC CARBONATE SEDIMENT !
VARIETY OF CHARACTERISTIC CRYSTAL OUTLINES ARE
VISIBLE AS A RESULT OF NON UNIFORM CRYSTAL
ORIENTATIONS 'YPSUM HAS LOW BIREFRINGENCE
WITH lRST ORDER GRAY TO WHITE COLORS )T CAN
THEREFORE EASILY BE CONFUSED WITH EUHEDRAL
AUTHIGENIC QUARTZ 4HE PRESENCE OF CLEAVAGE IN
GYPSUM CRYSTALS HOWEVER CAN HELP TO DISTIN
GUISH IT FROM QUARTZ
80, (! MM
Mid. Pennsylvanian Paradox Fm.,
San Juan Co., Utah
4HESE GYPSUM CRYSTALS ARE TYPICAL OF REPLACE
MENT EVAPORITES THEY CONTAIN ABUNDANT CAR
BONATE INCLUSIONS OF THE ORIGINAL MATRIX 4HE
LENTICULAR
SHAPED CRYSTAL IS A CROSS
SECTION
THROUGH A DISCOIDAL GYPSUM SELENITE CRYSTAL
THE OTHER IS A OBLIQUE LONGITUDINAL CUT $URING
THIN SECTION PREPARATION CARE MUST BE TAKEN NOT
TO LOSE THE GYPSUM THROUGH PROLONGED WATER
BASED CUTTING AND GRINDING
80, (! MM
Recent sediment, Shark Bay,
Australia
4HESE MODERN GYPSUM CRYSTALS ARE FROM
SEDIMENTS IN THE 7OORAMEL DELTAIC HYPERSALINE
TIDAL COMPLEX 4HE CRYSTALS FORM NEAR THE
SEDIMENT WATER INTERFACE AND POIKILOTOPICALLY
ENCASE OOIDS AND SKELETAL GRAINS .OTE THAT
MOST OF THE GRAINS APPEAR TO BE mOATING IN
THE GYPSUM CRYSTALS PERHAPS DUE TO SLIGHT
DISPLACEMENT OF GRAINS DURING CRYSTAL GROWTH
0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF 'RAHAM 2 $AVIES
080, "3% (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Permian (Ochoan) Castile Fm.,
Eddy Co., New Mexico
,AMINATED OR VARVED GYPSUM DEPOSITS SUCH
AS THIS EXAMPLE FROM THE FAMOUS #ASTILE &M
MAY REPRESENT DEPOSITION IN RELATIVELY DEEP
WATER WITHIN A BASIN WITH RESTRICTED SEAWA
TER INmOW 4HE THICK LIGHT COLORED LAYERS
IN PLANE POLARIZED LIGHT CONSIST OF GYPSUM
INTERPRETED TO HAVE PRECIPITATED DURING SUM
MER SEASONS FROM HIGHLY EVAPORATIVE WATERS
THE THIN DARK BROWN LAYERS ARE COMPOSED OF
CALCITE AND ORGANIC MATTER INFERRED TO HAVE PRE
CIPITATED DURING COOLER WINTER CONDITIONS 4HE
ENTIRE #ASTILE DEPOSIT CONTAINS APPROXIMATELY
OF THESE VARVE COUPLETS !NDERSON
00,80, (! MM EACH
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Capitan
Fm., subsurface, Eddy Co., New
Mexico
4HIS PARTIALLY DOLOMITIZED LIMESTONE BLOCK
PART OF THE UPPER FORE REEF TALUS SLOPE DEBRIS
OF THE #APITAN REEF WAS CEMENTED BY EARLY
MARINE lBROUS TO BLADED CALCITE STAINED RED
4HE GYPSUM CEMENTS GRAYISH WHITE lLLING
THE REMNANT PORE SPACE WERE PRECIPITATED FROM
BRINES PERCOLATING DOWNWARD FROM OVERLYING
SHELFAL EVAPORITES 4HE POROSITY ORIGINALLY
MAY HAVE BEEN lLLED BY ANHYDRITE BUT DURING
LATE STAGE UPLIFT THE ANHYDRITE REHYDRATED TO
FORM GYPSUM
80, !3 "3% (! MM
Holocene sediment, Abu Dhabi,
United Arab Emirates
#ALCAREOUS SANDSTONES ON THE SUPRATIDAL
SABKHA IN !BU $HABI ARE WIDELY CEMENTED
BY POIKILITIC GYPSUM )N THIS VIEW THE YELLOW
BIREFRINGENT CEMENT IS A SINGLE CRYSTAL OF GYP
SUM THE BIREFRINGENCE IS SLIGHTLY HIGH DUE TO
THE GREATER THAN NORMAL THICKNESS OF THIS THIN
SECTION 4HE GYPSUM CEMENT IS DERIVED FROM
GROUNDWATER DISSOLUTION OF SYNSEDIMENTARY
DIAGENETIC GYPSUM AND ANHYDRITE NODULES
AND REPRECIPITATION AS COARSE CEMENTS 4HE
ORIGINAL EVAPORITES FORMED AS A RESULT OF STORM
WASHOVER AND EVAPORATION ON THE LOW RELIEF
SABKHA mATS
80, (! MM
CHAPTER 27: SULFATE AND CHLORIDE MINERALS
Lo. Cretaceous Ferry Lake
Anhydrite (?), subsurface,
Henderson Co., Texas
&INE GRAINED hCHICKEN WIREv ANHYDRITE HERE
HAS REPLACED AND DISPLACED MICRITIC SEDIMENT
!S ANHYDRITE NODULES GROW AND COALESCE
REMNANTS OF THE ORIGINAL CARBONATE MATERIAL IS
COMPRESSED INTO THIN ZONES THAT SEPARATE THE
NODULES 4HE ENTIRE FABRIC LOOKS VERY SIMILAR
TO CHICKEN WIRE HENCE THE NAME 4HE ORIGI
NAL CARBONATE MATERIAL IN THIS SLIDE IS EXTEN
SIVELY DISRUPTED BECAUSE OF THE GROWTH OF THE
ANHYDRITE NODULES ,IKE HALITE ANHYDRITE CAN
EASILY BE LOST FROM THIN SECTIONS UNLESS THEY ARE
PROPERLY PREPARED
80, (! MM
Up. Permian (Guadalupian)
Grayburg-Up. San Andres Fms.,
3,061 ft (933 m) depth, Crane Co.,
Texas
4HESE DOLOMITIZED SHALLOW
WATER DEPOSITS HAD
MOST OF THEIR POROSITY OCCLUDED BY ANHYDRITE
!NHYDRITE IS EASY TO DISTINGUISH FROM GYPSUM
BECAUSE ITS BIREFRINGENCE IS HIGH lRST ORDER
WHEREAS GYPSUMS BIREFRINGENCE IS LOW lRST
ORDER MAXIMUM GRAY
WHITE "ASED ON THE
UNIFORMITY OF SHAPES AND THE FAINT TRACES OF
CONCENTRIC LAMINATIONS MOST OF THE GRAINS IN
THIS DEPOSIT ARE INFERRED TO HAVE BEEN OOIDS
ORIGINALLY BUT THEY NOW ARE BEST TERMED
PELOIDS 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF 3USAN ,ONG
ACRE
80, (! MM
Lo. Cretaceous Ferry Lake Fm.,
subsurface, Henderson Co., Texas
)N ADDITION TO CEMENTING CARBONATE ROCKS
ANHYDRITE ALSO REPLACES GRAINS AND BIOCLASTS )N
THIS VIEW LARGE BLOCKY CRYSTALS OF ANHYDRITE ARE
REPLACEMENTS OF SERPULID WORM TUBES WHEREAS
BLADED CRYSTALS lLL THE REMNANT POROSITY WITHIN
THE INTERIOR OF THE WORM TUBES
00,80, (! MM EACH
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Yates-
Tansill Fms., subsurface, Eddy Co.,
New Mexico
4HIS ALGALLY LAMINATED TIDAL mAT DOLOMICRITE
HAD EXTENSIVE FENESTRAL POROSITY THAT HAS BEEN
COMPLETELY lLLED WITH ANHYDRITE !NHYDRITE
CEMENTS ARE COMMONLY FOUND AS EARLY PO
ROSITY lLLING AGENTS IN ARID REGION COASTAL
EVAPORITIC CARBONATES SO MUCH SO THAT EFFEC
TIVE EXPLORATION COMMONLY IS FOCUSSED ON
lNDING AREAS WHERE SUCH CEMENTS EITHER DID
NOT FORM OR WERE LATER LEACHED
80, (! MM
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Zechstein
Ca2, subsurface, Poland
)N THIS EXAMPLE ANHYDRITE HAS PARTIALLY RE
PLACED A CARBONATE INTRACLAST 4HE CALCIUM SUL
FATE RICH mUIDS MIGRATED ALONG A SMALL FRACTURE
AND REPLACED THE SURROUNDING SEDIMENT .OTE
THE WELL FORMED TABULAR TO BLADED CRYSTALS
$ESPITE BEING REPLACEMENTS THE CRYSTALS DO
NOT CONTAIN OBVIOUS INCLUSIONS OF THE PRECURSOR
SEDIMENT
00,80, (! MM EACH
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Zechstein
Ca2, subsurface, Poland
4HIS VIEW FROM THE SAME SAMPLE AS THE PREVI
OUS PHOTOMICROGRAPH SHOWS ANHYDRITE CRYS
TALS THAT lLL A FRACTURE AND REPLACE THE ADJACENT
MICRITIC CARBONATE 0RIOR TO THE FORMATION OF
ANHYDRITE mUIDS MIGRATING THROUGH THE OPEN
FRACTURE PRECIPITATED A LINING OF DOLOMITE ALONG
THE FRACTURE WALL 4HIS DOLOMITE WAS MORE
RESISTANT TO REPLACEMENT THAN THE SURROUNDING
CALCITIC MICRITE
80, (! MM
CHAPTER 27: SULFATE AND CHLORIDE MINERALS
Up. Jurassic (Oxfordian) Up.
Smackover Fm., subsurface, Gulf
Coast, USA
!N EXAMPLE OF LATE STAGE ANHYDRITE REPLACE
MENT OF A WELL COMPACTED OOID GRAINSTONE
STAINED RED )T SHOWS THE PRESERVATION OF
SOME OF THE ORIGINAL CARBONATE ROCK FABRIC
WITHIN THE LARGE ANHYDRITE CRYSTAL YELLOW
4HE PRESERVED FABRIC REMAINS VISIBLE MAINLY
THROUGH THE PRESENCE OF UNDIGESTED REMNANTS
OF CARBONATE AS INCLUSIONS WITHIN THE ANHYDRITE
0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF #LYDE ( -OORE
80, !3 (! ^ MM
Up. Permian (Guadalupian)
Grayburg-Up. San Andres Fms,
3,017 ft (920 m) depth, Crane Co.,
Texas
4HIS COMPLEX FABRIC WAS PRODUCED BY EARLY
DOLOMITIZATION OF CARBONATE ALLOCHEMS FOL
LOWED BY LEACHING OF THE LESS STABLE CAL
CITIC MATERIAL 4HIS SECONDARY POROSITY
LATER WAS lLLED BY LARGE POIKILOTOPIC CRYSTALS
OF ANHYDRITE PROBABLY WHILE STILL IN A NEAR SUR
FACE DIAGENETIC SETTING 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY
OF 3USAN ,ONGACRE
80, (! MM
Devonian Keg River-Muskeg Fm.,
subsurface, Alberta, Canada
$OLOMITIZATION AND ANHYDRITE REPLACEMENT
OFTEN ARE TEMPORALLY ASSOCIATED "OTH MINER
ALS CAN BE PRECIPITATED AT RELATIVELY LOW TEM
PERATURES FROM REmUXING HYPERSALINE mUIDS THAT
FORMED IN EVAPORATIVE COASTAL MARINE SETTINGS
OR AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES FROM DEEP SEATED
BRINES (ERE DOLOMITE CRYSTALS hmOATv IN
ANHYDRITE WITHIN AN EARLY DIAGENETIC REPLACE
MENT NODULE )N CASES LIKE THIS IT CAN BE VERY
DIFlCULT TO DETERMINE UNEQUIVOCALLY WHICH
MINERAL PRECIPITATED lRST
00,80, (! MM EACH
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Lo. Permian (Kungurian) Irenskaya/
Nevolinskaya Suite, Perm Region,
Russia
$URING DIAGENESIS ANHYDRITE AND GYPSUM
CAN TRANSFORM FROM ONE TO THE OTHER BY THE
GAIN OR LOSS OF BOUND WATER 4HIS CAN OC
CUR MULTIPLE TIMES DURING A ROCKS DIAGENETIC
HISTORY THROUGH CLIMATE CYCLES AND VARIOUS
STAGES OF BURIAL AND UPLIFT 2EPEATED GYPSUM
ANHYDRITE TRANSITIONS CAN EVEN BE SEEN IN MOD
ERN SURlCIAL SABKHA SEDIMENTS IN THE 0ERSIAN
'ULF REGION 4HE NODULES MAKING UP THE
hCHICKEN WIREv FABRIC IN THIS VIEW ARE COM
POSED MAINLY OF GYPSUM BUT ORIGINALLY THEY
WERE PROBABLY ANHYDRITE BASED ON RETAINED
ANHYDRITE INCLUSIONS
00,80, (! MM EACH
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Capitan
Fm., subsurface Eddy Co., New
Mexico
,ARGE BLADED ANHYDRITE lLLS PORES IN
THIS DOLOMITIZED FORE REEF TALUS FROM THE
#APITAN REEF COMPLEX (YPERSALINE BRINES
FROM PENECONTEMPORANEOUS OR SLIGHTLY
YOUNGER EVAPORITIC SHELF SETTINGS GRAVITATION
ALLY REmUXED THROUGH THE SEDIMENTS lRST
DOLOMITIZING AND THEN CEMENTING THEM WITH
ANHYDRITE $URING TELOGENETIC UPLIFT RELATED
DIAGENESIS ANHYDRITE HIGH BIREFRINGENCE
CRYSTALS WERE PARTIALLY CONVERTED TO GYPSUM
LOW BIREFRINGENCE
80, "3% (! MM
Permian (Umian) Up.
Solikamskaya Suite, Perm Region,
Russia
)N THIS PERITIDAL CARBONATE DEPOSIT THE EVAPO
RITE MINERALS HAVE BEEN COMPLETELY LEACHED
TO FORM DISTINCTIVE MOLDIC POROSITY 4HE WELL
FORMED LENTICULAR CRYSTAL MOLDS INDICATE THAT
THE PRECURSOR EVAPORITE MINERAL WAS PROBABLY
GYPSUM
00, "3% (! MM
CHAPTER 27: SULFATE AND CHLORIDE MINERALS
Up. Permian (Umian) Up.
Solikamskaya Suite, Perm Region,
Russia
4HIS EXAMPLE OF EVAPOMOLDIC POROSITY SHOWS
PARTIALLY LEACHED EVAPORITE NODULES IN A DOLO
MITIC CARBONATE ROCK 4HE ORIGINAL DISPLACIVE
EVAPORITE NODULES PROBABLY ANHYDRITE WERE
GROWN SYNDEPOSITIONALLY IN SOFT CARBONATE
MUDS ,ATE
STAGE UPLIFT AND METEORIC EXPOSURE
LED TO DISSOLUTION OF ANHYDRITE AND DEVELOP
MENT OF MOLDIC POROSITY 4HE RESULTANT hCELLU
LARv DOLOMITE OR RAUHWACKE IS CHARACTERISTIC
OF EVAPORITE DISSOLUTION
00, "3% (! MM
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Park
City Fm., Ervay Mbr., Hot Springs
Co., Wyoming
!NOTHER COMMON DIAGENETIC FABRIC IN CARBON
ATE
EVAPORITE SEQUENCES IS THE CALCITIZATION OF
EVAPORITE MINERALS #ALCITIZATION OCCURS WHEN
DIAGENETIC mUIDS THAT ARE UNDERSATURATED IN
SULFATE DISSOLVE THE EVAPORITES CAUSING PORE
mUIDS TO BECOME SATURATED WITH CALCIUM AND
EVENTUALLY PRECIPITATE CALCITE (ERE SUPRATIDAL
DOLOMITIC MUDSTONES WERE PARTIALLY REPLACED
ANDOR DISPLACED BY ENTEROLITHIC GYPSUM
THE WHITE INTESTINAL
LOOKING MATERIAL 4HE
GYPSUM WAS LATER REPLACED BY CALCITE )N THIS
EXAMPLE BOTH THE INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL MOR
PHOLOGIES ARE WELL PRESERVED
00, (! MM
Mississippian (Tournaisian) Arroyo
Peasco Gp., Espiritu Santo Fm.,
Taos Co., New Mexico
4HIS CLUSTER OF FORMER GYPSUM CRYSTALS IN
DOLOMITIZED SABKHA SEDIMENTS WAS REPLACED BY
CALCITE 4HE CALCITE CRYSTALS CONTAIN ABUNDANT
INCLUSIONS OF THE CARBONATE MATRIX INDICAT
ING THAT REPLACEMENT PROCEEDED AS THIN lLM
DISSOLUTIONREPRECIPITATION NOT AS A DISSOLUTION
VOID lLL )N THE LATTER CASE THE INCLUSIONS
WOULD HAVE FORMED GEOPETAL lLLS
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Tansill
Fm. or Up. Yates Fm., Eddy Co.,
New Mexico
%ARLY DIAGENETIC ANHYDRITE REPLACED AN EAR
LIER FORMED PISOID BY THE SEAWARD MOVEMENT
OF SALINE BRINES THROUGH THIS NEAR BACK REEF
LIMESTONE $URING TELOGENETIC UPLIFT RELATED
DIAGENESIS THE INmUX OF METEORIC WATERS
RESULTED IN THE ANHYDRITE BEING REPLACED BY
CALCITE 4HE ANHYDRITE INTERMEDIARY IS REC
OGNIZABLE BY THE CRYSTAL OUTLINES AND THE RARE
PRESENCE OF ANHYDRITE INCLUSIONS IN REPLACE
MENT PHASES
00, (! MM
Up. Permian (Umian) Up.
Solikamskaya Suite, Perm Region,
Russia
4HE WHITE CRYSTALS PRESENT IN THE COARSELY CRYS
TALLINE CLOUDY CALCITE PSEUDOSPAR ARE CALCITIZED
GYPSUM CRYSTALS 4HESE CRYSTALS PRESERVE THE
LENTICULAR CRYSTAL SHAPES AND POSSIBLE TWINS
OF THE ORIGINAL GYPSUM 4HE CLOUDY CALCITE
PSEUDOSPAR WAS ALSO PROBABLY PRODUCED BY
EVAPORITE REPLACEMENT
00, "3% (! MM
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Yates
Fm., Eddy Co., New Mexico
)N THIS EXAMPLE AN EVAPORITE NODULE WAS
hREPLACEDv BY CALCITE 4HE CLOUDY GEOPETAL
FABRIC WITHIN THE LOWER HALF OF THE CALCITE CE
MENT CONSISTS OF LOOSELY PACKED KAOLINITE OR
DICKITE hBOOKSv THAT FELL TO THE BOTTOM OF A
CAVITY FORMED BY THE DISSOLUTION OF GYPSUM
OR ANHYDRITE AND THEN WERE ENGULFED BY CALCITE
CEMENT "ECAUSE OF THE GEOPETAL FABRIC AND
THE LACK OF EVAPORITE INCLUSIONS IN THE CALCITE
THESE EVAPORITE NODULES CLEARLY WENT THROUGH
A PERIOD OF BEING OPEN VOIDS PRIOR TO CALCITE
INlLLING 4HIS THEREFORE IS AN EXAMPLE OF SO
LUTION AND lLL NOT DIRECT REPLACIVE CALCITIZATION
OF EVAPORITES
00, !&E3 (! MM
CHAPTER 27: SULFATE AND CHLORIDE MINERALS
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
#ALCITIZATION PRESERVED THE PRIMARY LAMINAR
FABRIC OF THESE BEDDED EVAPORITES THAT WERE
SIMILAR TO THE #ASTILE EVAPORITES SHOWN EARLIER
IN THIS SECTION 4HE PALE PINK STAINED LAYERS
WERE PROBABLY ORIGINAL CARBONATE INTERLAYERS
THAT WERE STABILIZED AND CEMENTED PRIOR TO
EVAPORITE DISSOLUTION 4HE EVAPORITE LAMI
NAE WERE THEN DISSOLVED AND THE VOIDS WERE
LATER SUBSTANTIALLY lLLED PROBABLY DURING EARLY
BURIAL WITH ZONED MODERATELY FERROAN CALCITE
SPAR
00, !&E3 "3% (! MM
Mississippian (Tournaisian) Arroyo
Peasco Gp., Espiritu Santo Fm.,
Taos Co., New Mexico
#ATHODOLUMINESCENCE PETROGRAPHY CAN BE
AN IMPORTANT TOOL FOR EXAMINING CALCITIZED
EVAPORITES )T IS ESPECIALLY USEFUL IN CLARIFYING
HOW REPLACEMENT PROCEEDED THROUGH THIN
lLM DISSOLUTIONPRECIPITATION OR DISSOLUTION
VOID lLL )N THIS VIEW THE COARSELY CRYSTALLINE
PSEUDOSPAR WHICH HAS NO OBVIOUS PRIMARY
FABRICS UNDER PLANE AND CROSSED POLARIZED
LIGHT SHOWS lNE SCALE LUMINESCENT ZONING THAT
PSEUDOMORPHS GYPSUM CRYSTALS 4HIS WOULD
NOT BE THE CASE IF DIAGENESIS HAD PROCEEDED
THROUGH WHOLESALE GYPSUM DISSOLUTION WITH
LATER VOID lLL
#, (! MM
Modern sediment, Salina
Ometepec, Baja California, Mexico
)T CAN BE DIFlCULT TO OBSERVE HALITE IN THIN SEC
TION BECAUSE HALITE IS SO SOLUBLE THAT IT IS COM
MONLY DESTROYED DURING THIN
SECTION PREPARA
TION )F HALITE IS SUSPECTED TO BE IN THE SAMPLE
THE SECTION SHOULD BE PREPARED IN OIL INSTEAD OF
WATER )N THIS VIEW A POROUS HALITE CHEVRON IS
VISIBLE 4HE CUBIC CRYSTAL FORM AND INCLUSION
ZONING ARE CLEARLY VISIBLE 0HOTOGRAPH COUR
TESY OF 3USAN (OVORKA (AND SAMPLE FROM #
2OBERTSON (ANDFORD
080, "3% (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) San
Andres Fm., Randall Co., Texas
)N THIS VIEW SAND SIZED HALITE CRYSTALS GREW
IN PONDS AND WERE BLOWN OUT ONTO THE SABKHA
SURFACE !S THE HALITE CRYSTALS WERE BURIED THE
HOPPERS CONTINUED TO GROW DISPLACIVELY IN THE
SEDIMENT !LONG THE UPPER SURFACE PROBABLY
RELATED TO STORM EVENTS THE HALITE HOPPERS
WERE SYNDEPOSITIONALLY DISSOLVED 0HOTOGRAPH
COURTESY OF 3USAN (OVORKA
00, (! MM
Devonian Keg River Fm.
equivalent, subsurface, Alberta,
Canada
(ERE HALITE CEMENT lLLS FORMER POROSITY IN A
STROMATOLITIC CARBONATE ROCK 0ETROGRAPHICALLY
HALITE IS ISOTROPIC HAS CUBIC CLEAVAGE AND CRYS
TAL FORM AND IS COLORLESS TO PALE GRAY (ALITE
CAN BE DIFlCULT TO SEE BUT IT IS OFTEN RECOGNIZ
ABLE DESPITE ITS ISOTROPISM BECAUSE OF PROMI
NENT CUBIC CLEAVAGE AND ABUNDANT INCLUSIONS
BOTH VISIBLE HERE
00,80, (! MM EACH
Up. Permian (Kazanian?)
Karstryggen Fm., Jameson Land,
East Greenland
#ELESTITE AND CALCITE HAVE REPLACED AN EVAPO
RITE NODULE IN PERITIDAL CARBONATES IN THIS DE
POSIT #ELESTITE 3R3/ IS BEST IDENTIlED USING
X RAY DIFFRACTION BECAUSE IT IS SO SIMILAR IN
BIREFRINGENCE TO GYPSUM A FAR MORE COMMON
MINERAL 4HE STRONGLY ELONGATE CRYSTAL MOR
PHOLOGY HOWEVER IS MOST COMMON IN CELESTITE
AND BARITE
00,80, (! MM EACH
CHAPTER 27: SULFATE AND CHLORIDE MINERALS
Up. Permian (Kazanian?)
Karstryggen Fm., Jameson Land,
East Greenland
!NOTHER VIEW OF A CELESTITE AND CALCITE RE
PLACED EVAPORITE NODULE .OTE THE ABUNDANT
CALCIUM SULFATE INCLUSIONS WITHIN THE VERY
ELONGATE CELESTITE CRYSTALS
80, (! MM
Lo. Cretaceous (Up. Aptian) Marnes
Bleues Fm., Vocontien Trough,
Haute Provence, France
4HIS EARLY DIAGENETIC NODULE FROM ORGANIC
RICH
BASINAL SHALES IS COMPOSED OF A FELTED MASS OF
BARITE CRYSTALS ,IKE CELESTITE BARITE "A3/
CAN BE EASILY CONFUSED WITH GYPSUM "ARITE IS
COMMON IN ANOXIC MARINE SEDIMENTS AND THE
OCCURRENCE OF BARITE LAYERS MAY MARK CHANGES
IN SALINITY ANDOR INTERRUPTIONS IN SEDIMENTA
TION
00,80, (! MM EACH
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
"ARITE ALSO IS COMMONLY FOUND AS A LATE
DIAGENETIC PRECIPITATE AS IN THE CASE OF THESE
LARGE BLADED CRYSTALS ASSOCIATED WITH FERROAN
CALCITE "OTH THE BARITE CRYSTALS AND THE COEVAL
OR SLIGHTLY YOUNGER CALCITES WERE PROBABLY PRE
CIPITATED FROM HYDROTHERMAL PORE mUIDS .OTE
HOW SIMILAR CELESTITE TOP PICTURE THIS PAGE
AND BARITE CRYSTALS ARE TO EACH OTHER "ECAUSE
OF THE SOLID SOLUTION SERIES THAT EXISTS BETWEEN
THE TWO MINERALS PETROGRAPHIC DETERMINATION
CAN BE DIFlCULT WITHOUT THE AID OF CHEMICAL OR
X RAY ANALYSES
00,80, !&E3 (! MM EACH
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
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#OMPLEX QUARTZ AND DOLOMITE CEMENTA
TION IN A DEEP
WATER HYDROCARBON RESERVOIR -ID
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CHAPTER 28: SILICA CEMENTATION AND REPLACEMENT
#!2"/.!4% $)!'%.%3)3
SILICA CEMENTATION AND REPLACEMENT
C
H
A
P
T
E
R
28
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
3),)#! #%-%.4!4)/. !.$ 2%0,!#%-%.4
)NTRODUCTION
3ILICA A GENERAL TERM USED FOR A VARIETY OF CRYSTAL FORMS OR MORPHOLOGIES OF 3I/ IS A WIDESPREAD DIAGENETIC
MINERAL IN CARBONATE ROCKS 3ILICA MAY OCCUR AS CEMENT OR IT MAY BE FOUND AS A REPLACEMENT OF ORIGINAL OR
DIAGENETICALLY ALTERED SEDIMENT 3ILICA TYPICALLY REPLACES OR INlLLS CARBONATE MINERALS EVAPORITES AND ORGANIC
MATERIAL EG PETRIlED WOOD
4HE MAJOR SOURCE OF SILICA FOR DIAGENESIS IS BIOGENIC OPAL THEREFORE SILICA IS ESPECIALLY PREVALENT IN DEEP
MARINE
SEDIMENTS FROM ACTIVE UPWELLING ZONES AND SHALLOWER
WATER CARBONATES FROM NUTRIENT
RICH CARBONATE SHELVES
3PONGE SPICULES DIATOMS AND RADIOLARIANS ARE THE MOST COMMON BIOGENIC CONTRIBUTORS AND ARE DIAGENETICALLY
UNSTABLE WHEN COMPARED TO SILICICLASTIC GRAINS /THER GENERALLY LESS SIGNIlCANT SOURCES OF SILICA IN CARBONATE
ROCKS INCLUDE VOLCANIC ASH BY
PRODUCTS OF CHEMICAL WEATHERING IN SOIL ZONES SILCRETES AND HYDROTHERMAL
mUIDS 3OME BEDDED CHERTS FROM SALINE LAKES MAY BE RELATED TO HYDROUS SODIUM SILICATE PRECURSORS EG
%UGSTER
%XCEPT FOR SILCRETE FORMATION OR HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION SILICA DIAGENESIS IS RARELY A VERY EARLY
OR A VERY LATE
STAGE DIAGENETIC EVENT IN CARBONATE ROCKS 2ATHER IT IS MOST TYPICALLY A PRODUCT OF BURIAL DIAGENESIS 4HIS
IS DUE TO THE TIMING OF THE CONVERSION OF BIOGENIC OPAL
! lRST TO OPAL
#4 LEPISPHERES AND THEN TO STABLE
MICROQUARTZ OR MEGAQUARTZ 4HESE SILICA REACTIONS ARE DEPENDENT ON TEMPERATURE ANDOR BURIAL DEPTH AND
TIME )N PELAGIC DEPOSITS AWAY FROM HYDROTHERMAL INPUT OPAL
! TO OPAL
#4 CONVERSION BEGINS AT
#
AND MAY TAKE MILLION YEARS TO GO TO COMPLETION OPAL
! IS RARELY FOUND IN SEDIMENTS OLDER THAN -A
(ESSE 4HE CONVERSION OF OPAL
#4 TO QUARTZ MOST LIKELY STARTS AT TEMPERATURES OF ^ # AND DEPTHS
OF M BUT CONTINUES TO HIGHER TEMPERATURES /PAL
#4 IS NOT FOUND IN SEDIMENTS OLDER -A AND CHERT IS
RELATIVELY SCARCE IN YOUNG #ENOZOIC DEPOSITS
-AJOR $IAGENETIC &ABRICS
!MORPHOUS SILICA ALSO KNOWN AS OPAL ISOTROPIC HIGH NEGATIVE RELIEF COLORLESS TO GRAY OR BROWN NORMALLY
CONTAINS IRREGULAR CRACKS OR FRACTURES OCCURS AS CEMENTS NODULES OR REPLACEMENTS ESPECIALLY WOOD
%QUIGRANULAR QUARTZ EQUANT CRYSTALS IN POLARIZED LIGHT THE MAXIMUM BIREFRINGENCE SHOULD BE lRST
ORDER
WHITE TO PALE STRAW
YELLOW UNLESS THE THIN SECTION IS THICKER THAN NORMAL LARGER INDIVIDUAL CRYSTALS ARE
NORMALLY HEXAGONAL AND MAY BE DOUBLY TERMINATED NO CLEAVAGE NORMALLY COLORLESS BUT MAY CONTAIN
INCLUSIONS &ABRIC IS TERMED CRYPTOCRYSTALLINE CHERT WHEN CRYSTALS ARE M MICROCRYSTALLINE FOR CRYSTALS
M AND MEGAQUARTZ FOR CRYSTALS M 1UARTZ MAY OCCUR AS INDIVIDUAL CRYSTALS OR IN LARGE NODULAR
MASSES REPLACING OR DISPLACING SEDIMENT
&IBROUS QUARTZ ELONGATE lBERS OF QUARTZ SAME BIREFRINGENCE AS EQUIGRANULAR QUARTZ BUT BIREFRINGENCE
DECREASES WITH INCREASING WATER CONTENT COLORLESS TO BROWN COMMON BANDING OR ZONING BANDS MAY
CONSIST OF ALTERNATING FORMS OF CHALCEDONY COMMONLY FORMS CEMENTS SMALL TO VERY LARGE NODULES AND MAY
PSEUDOMORPHS OTHER GRAINS NODULES OR MINERALS
s,ENGTH
FAST CHALCEDONY
hNORMALv CHALCEDONY CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC C
AXIS SLOW AXIS PERPENDICULAR TO THE
lBERS COMMON AS CEMENTS AND REPLACEMENTS
s,ENGTH
SLOW CHALCEDONY
ALSO CALLED QUARTZINE CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC C
AXIS LIES PARALLEL TO LONG AXIS OF lBERS
OCCURS IN REPLACEMENTS OF EVAPORITES BIOCLASTS AND CEMENTS MAY BE ASSOCIATED WITH INCREASED -G OR 3/
CONTENTS IN DIAGENETIC mUIDS EXACT CONTROLS ARE STILL UNCERTAIN
s:EBRAIC CHALCEDONY
BANDED CHALCEDONY LENGTH
FAST BUT C
AXIS LIES NORMAL TO lBER LONG AXIS OCCURS AS
CEMENTS AND AS A REPLACEMENT OF EVAPORITES
s,UTECITE
A lBROUS FORM INTERMEDIATE BETWEEN LENGTH
FAST AND LENGTH
SLOW CHALCEDONY C
AXIS IS ORIENTED AT A
^ ANGLE TO THE LONG AXIS OF THE lBERS
s-ICROmAMBOYANT CHALCEDONY
A MORE COARSELY CRYSTALLINE FORM OF CHALCEDONY WITH UNDULOSE EXTINCTION
-INERALOGY
/PAL
! 3I/ s N(/ UP TO
WEIGHT WATER AMORPHOUS HIGH SOLUBILITY
/PAL
#4 FORMS LEPISPHERES OF ALTERNATING CRISTOBALITE AND TRIDYMITE HENCE THE h#4v DESIGNATION
#RISTOBALITE 3I/ TETRAGONAL LOW TEMPERATURE
1UARTZ 3I/ TRIGONAL
CHAPTER 28: SILICA CEMENTATION AND REPLACEMENT
Up. Cretaceous (Campanian) Craie
Grise, Limburg, The Netherlands
!N 3%- IMAGE SHOWING ABUNDANT SILICA
LEPISPHERES PROBABLY OPAL #4 IN A MARLY
CHALK 4HE PRESENCE OF CLAY MINERALS COM
MONLY RETARDS THE TRANSFORMATION OF OPAL #4 TO
THE ALPHA QUARTZ OF CHERT NODULES
3%- (! M
Up. Eocene Ocala Gp., Citrus Co.,
Florida
4HIS CARBONATE GRAINSTONE HAS BEEN PARTIALLY
CEMENTED BY SILICA MICROmAMBOYANT CHAL
CEDONY AND MEGAQUARTZ 4HE QUARTZ CEMENTS
FRINGE ALL THE CARBONATE GRAINS INCLUDING A
LARGE NUMMULITE FORAMINIFER
80, (! MM
Eocene Green River Fm., Laney
Mbr., Sweetwater Co., Wyoming
4HE LARGE GASTROPOD IN THIS LACUSTRINE CARBON
ATE WAS CEMENTED INITIALLY BY CHERT CHALCEDONY
AND MEGAQUARTZ 4HE REMAINING INTRAPARTICLE
POROSITY WAS OCCLUDED BY COARSELY
CRYSTALLINE
BLOCKY CALCITE CEMENT #HALCEDONY WHEN
VIEWED UNDER CROSS
POLARIZED LIGHT EXHIBITS
PSEUDO
UNIAXIAL CROSSES BECAUSE OF ITS lBROUS
CRYSTAL FORM 4HE GEOPETAL lLLS WITHIN THE GAS
TROPOD INCLUDING A SMALLER GASTROPOD WERE
ALSO REPLACED AND CEMENTED BY SILICA
80, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Eocene Green River Fm., Laney
Mbr., Sweetwater Co., Wyoming
4HIS LACUSTRINE OOLITIC GRAINSTONE WAS CEMENT
ED BY SEVERAL GENERATIONS OF RADIATING SPLAYS
OF CHALCEDONY 4HE GRAINS ARE ALSO PARTIALLY
REPLACED CHALCEDONY
80, (! MM
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Cherry
Canyon Fm., Culberson Co., Texas
4HIS EXAMPLE SHOWS A CHAMBERED CALCAREOUS
SPONGE THAT WAS PARTIALLY REPLACED BY SILICA
AND THE CENTRAL CAVITY WAS lLLED WITH MULTIPLE
GENERATIONS OF CHALCEDONIC CEMENT 2ADIAT
ING SPLAYS OR FANS OF lBROUS CRYSTALS LOW
BIREFRINGENCE AND PSEUDO UNIAXIAL CROSSES ALL
ARE CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF CHALCEDONY 4HE
COLOR BANDING VISIBLE EVEN IN CROSS POLARIZED
LIGHT IS DUE TO VARIATIONS IN CONCENTRATION OF
MINUTE AQUEOUS AND POSSIBLY ALSO MINERAL
INCLUSIONS
80, (! MM
Up. Cambrian Copper Ridge Dol.
and Conococheague Ls., Giles Co.,
Virginia
4HE GRAY TO BLACK SPECKLED BACKGROUND IN THIS
PHOTOMICROGRAPH IS CHERT MICROCRYSTALLINE
QUARTZ THAT HAS REPLACED THE ORIGINAL LIME
STONE 4HE EUHEDRAL DOLOMITE CRYSTAL IN THE
CENTER MOST LIKELY IS A LATER PARTIAL REPLACEMENT
OF THE CHERT &INALLY BOTH THE DOLOMITE AND THE
CHERT WERE CUT BY FRACTURES THAT WERE SUBSE
QUENTLY lLLED BY MEGAQUARTZ
80, (! MM
CHAPTER 28: SILICA CEMENTATION AND REPLACEMENT
Up. Cambrian Copper Ridge Dol./
Conococheague Ls., Giles Co.,
Virginia
4HIS DOLOMITIZED LIMESTONE IS CUT BY A FRACTURE
THAT IS lLLED BY QUARTZ AND CALCITE $UE TO THE
EUHEDRAL CRYSTAL TERMINATIONS AND THE LACK OF
ANY INCLUSIONS WITHIN THE QUARTZ CRYSTALS THE
MEGAQUARTZ PROBABLY GREW INTO THE EMPTY FRAC
TURE ,ATER THE FRACTURE WAS lLLED BY COARSELY
CRYSTALLINE CALCITE $ETERMINING IF THE QUARTZ
GREW INTO AN EMPTY PORE OR IS REPLACIVE CAN BE
PROBLEMATIC 4HE RELATIVE LACK OF INCLUSIONS IN
THE QUARTZ CRYSTAL IS PROBABLY THE BEST INDICATOR
OF ITS ORIGIN
80, (! MM
Up. Jurassic Zuloaga Fm.,
Tamaulipas, Mexico
)N THIS EXAMPLE AUTHIGENIC QUARTZ IS CLEARLY
REPLACING THE LIMESTONE !S IN THE PREVIOUS
PHOTOMICROGRAPH THE QUARTZ CRYSTALS HAVE
EUHEDRAL CRYSTAL TERMINATIONS BUT UNLIKE THE
PREVIOUS EXAMPLE MOST OF THE QUARTZ CRYS
TALS HAVE CORES COMPOSED PREDOMINATELY OF
UNREPLACED CARBONATE
00, (! MM
Up. Devonian Cairn Fm., Alberta,
Canada
)F DETRITAL QUARTZ GRAINS ARE PRESENT IN A CARBON
ATE ROCK THOSE GRAINS CAN ACT AS A NUCLEATION
SITES FOR AUTHIGENIC QUARTZ )N THIS EXAMPLE
A SHELF LIMESTONE CONTAINS SCATTERED DETRITAL
QUARTZ GRAINS SOME OF WHICH HAVE EUHEDRAL
QUARTZ OVERGROWTHS 4HE DETRITAL QUARTZ CORES
AND THE SURROUNDING OVERGROWTHS ARE IN OPTI
CAL CONTINUITY WITH EACH OTHER BUT ONLY THE
OVERGROWTHS CONTAIN UNDIGESTED CARBONATE
INCLUSIONS 4HE EUHEDRAL TO SUBHEDRAL QUARTZ
CRYSTAL OUTLINES AND THE CARBONATE INCLUSIONS
ARE THE STRONGEST CRITERIA FOR THE RECOGNITION OF
AUTHIGENIC QUARTZ
80, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Cambrian Beekmantown
Gp., Mines Dolomite, Centre Co.,
Pennsylvania
!N OOLITIC LIMESTONE THAT WAS COMPLETELY RE
PLACED BY CHERT AND MEGAQUARTZ 4HE ORIGINAL
FABRIC OF THE OOLITIC LIMESTONE IS WELL PRESERVED
AND INDIVIDUAL LAMINAE WITHIN THE OOIDS ARE
CLEARLY VISIBLE 4HE EXCELLENT FABRIC PRESERVA
TION IS DUE TO THE INCORPORATION OF MINERAL AND
mUID INCLUSIONS IN THE SILICA 4HE BROWNISH
COLOR IN PLANE POLARIZED LIGHT IS DUE MAINLY TO
AN ABUNDANCE OF AQUEOUS INCLUSIONS
00,80, (! MM EACH
Up. Cambrian Beekmantown
Gp., Mines Dolomite, Centre Co.,
Pennsylvania
!NOTHER VIEW OF THE SAME UNIT ILLUSTRATED
ABOVE SHOWING THE COMPLEXITY OF THE SILICIlCA
TION HISTORY 3OME OF THE OOIDS HAVE DETRITAL
QUARTZ GRAINS AS THEIR CORES THESE GRAINS ACTED
AS NUCLEATION SITES FOR SYNTAXIAL REPLACEMENTS
#HERT AND MEGAQUARTZ REPLACED THE REMAINDER
OF THE OOIDS 3ILICA ALSO APPEARS TO BE CEMENT
ING THE OOIDS AND NOT REPLACING A PRECURSOR
CEMENT 4HE CONSISTENT SILICA CEMENT STRATIG
RAPHY PRESENT FROM CHALCEDONY TO MEGAQUARTZ
AND lNALLY CHERT AND THE LACK OF CARBONATE
INCLUSIONS SUPPORT THIS INTERPRETATION
80, (! MM
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
)NDIVIDUAL BIOCLASTS ALSO ARE COMMONLY RE
PLACED BY QUARTZ )N THIS EXAMPLE A BRACHIOPOD
FROM THE mANK FACIES OF A BIOHERM WAS PARTIALLY
REPLACED BY CHALCEDONY AND MEGAQUARTZ 4HE
REPLACEMENT SILICA WAS PRESUMABLY DERIVED
FROM THE ABUNDANT SPONGE SPICULES ASSOCI
ATED WITH THESE SLIGHTLY DEEPER WATER BIOHERM
mANKING UNITS
80, (! MM
CHAPTER 28: SILICA CEMENTATION AND REPLACEMENT
Up. Silurian Tonoloway-Keyser Ls.,
Mifin Co., Pennsylvania
! CRINOID COLUMNAL THAT WAS PARTIALLY RE
PLACED BY CHERT %CHINODERM BRACHIOPOD
AND BRYOZOAN BIOCLASTS ARE AMONG THE MOST
COMMONLY SILICIlED GRAINS 4HIS MAY REmECT
A STRUCTURAL OR GEOCHEMICAL SUSCEPTIBILITY TO
SILICA REPLACEMENT OR IT MAY SIMPLY REPRESENT
A CLOSER ECOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION WITH THE ORGAN
ISMS THAT PROVIDE SILICA FOR REPLACEMENT ESPE
CIALLY SILICEOUS SPONGES
80, (! MM
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Park
City Fm., Tosi Chert, Hot Springs
Co., Wyoming
)N THIS LIMESTONE THE CYSTOPORID BRYOZOANS
HAVE BEEN SELECTIVELY REPLACED BY MEGAQUARTZ
4HE REPLACEMENT QUARTZ IS A CHARACTERISTIC
BROWNISH GRAY IN PLANE POLARIZED LIGHT BECAUSE
OF THE ABUNDANT CARBONATE INCLUSIONS PRESERV
ING THE DETAILS OF THE BRYOZOAN WALL STRUCTURE
00, !&E3 "3% (! MM
Up. Mississippian (Visean) Arroyo
Peasco Gp., Terrero Fm., San
Miguel Co., New Mexico
3ILICIlCATION OF EVAPORITE MINERALS IS A COM
MON PHENOMENON IN EVAPORITIC CARBONATE
STRATA )N THIS PHOTOMICROGRAPH GYPSUM CRYS
TAL ROSETTES AND SURROUNDING CARBONATE GRAINS
WERE REPLACED BY BOTH LENGTH FAST CHALCEDONY
AND MEGAQUARTZ YELLOWISH BROWN TO WHITE
MATERIAL 4HE EVAPORITE PRECURSORS HERE ARE
RECOGNIZABLE ONLY BY OVERALL CRYSTAL OUTLINES
AS NO EVAPORITE MINERAL INCLUSIONS WERE PRE
SERVED
00, "3% (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Park
City Fm., Tosi Chert, Park Co.,
Wyoming
%VAPORITE MINERALS CAN BE FOUND IN MOST CAR
BONATE ENVIRONMENTS )N THE 4OSI #HERT EVEN
RELATIVELY DEEP
WATER STRATA CONTAIN ABUNDANT
EVAPORITE NODULES WHERE DENSE SULFATE
RICH
BRINES DESCENDED FROM EVAPORITIC SHELFAL AR
EAS 4HE RESULTING EVAPORITE NODULES PROBABLY
ANHYDRITE ORIGINALLY LATER WERE REPLACED BY
QUARTZ 2EMNANT ANHYDRITE CRYSTAL
LATH INCLU
SIONS WERE DISSOLVED AFTER SILICIlCATION AND
THE LEACHED VOIDS WERE THEN lLLED BY CALCITE
STAINED RED .OTE THE COMPACTIONAL DRAPE
AROUND THE NODULES DUE TO COMPACTION OR NOD
ULE GROWTH
00, !&E3 "3% (! MM
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Yates
Fm., Eddy Co., New Mexico
4HIS ANHYDRITE NODULE IN A DOLOMITIC CARBONATE
WAS REPLACED BY MEGAQUARTZ CRYSTALS 3ILICIl
CATION WAS INCOMPLETE HOWEVER AND NUMER
OUS REMNANTS OF ANHYDRITE WERE ENCASED IN THE
SILICA 4HE ANHYDRITE CRYSTALS ARE THE HIGHLY
BIREFRINGENT BLOCKY INCLUSIONS WITHIN THE
QUARTZ 4HE INCLUSIONS WITH LOW BIREFRINGENCE
MAY ALSO BE ANHYDRITE SHOWING LOW BIREFRIN
GENCE COLORS DUE TO THE THINNESS OF THE INCLU
SIONS OR THEIR OPTIC ORIENTATION BUT THEY MAY
ALSO BE GYPSUM 4HE SILICIlCATION OCCURRED AT
DEPTH AND WAS RELATED TO mUIDS ACCOMPANYING
HYDROCARBON EMPLACEMENT 5LMER
3CHOLLE ET
AL
80, (! MM
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Park
City Fm., Tosi Chert, Hot Springs
Co., Wyoming
!N ANHYDRITE NODULE IN A DOLOMITIZED LIME
STONE THAT WAS REPLACED BY COARSELY CRYSTALLINE
MEGAQUARTZ 4HE REPLACEMENT QUARTZ CONTAINS
ANHYDRITE INCLUSIONS AND ELONGATE PORES BLUE
FORMED BY THE DISSOLUTION OF ANHYDRITE .OTE
THE SKELETAL ANHYDRITE CRYSTAL MOLD THAT IS lLLED
WITH BLUE STAINED EPOXY )T IS REMARKABLE THAT
ANHYDRITE CAN BE LEACHED EVEN WHERE ENCASED
IN LOW PERMEABILITY SILICA NODULES
00, "3% (! MM
CHAPTER 28: SILICA CEMENTATION AND REPLACEMENT
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Park
City Fm., Ervay Mbr., Hot Springs
Co., Wyoming
4HIS IS A BIOMOLDIC PORE IN A DOLOMITIZED LIME
STONE THAT WAS lLLED WITH ANHYDRITE ,ATER THE
ANHYDRITE WAS PARTIALLY REPLACED BY EUHEDRAL
MEGAQUARTZ 4HE QUARTZ HAS CHARACTERISTIC
lRST
ORDER BIREFRINGENCE GRAY TO WHITE MOST
OF THE PRESERVED ANHYDRITE SHOWS HIGHER ORDER
PURPLE AND BLUE BIREFRINGENCE COLORS
80, "3% (! MM
Up. Mississippian (Visean) Arroyo
Peasco Gp., Terrero Fm., San
Miguel Co., New Mexico
#HALCEDONY NORMALLY FORMS LENGTH
FAST CRYSTAL
MASSES BUT LENGTH
SLOW CHALCEDONY ALSO IS
COMMON ,ENGTH
SLOW CHALCEDONY MAY BE
THE PREFERRED PHASE WHEN THE mUIDS HAVE HIGH
SULFATE CONCENTRATIONS )NSERTING A GYPSUM
PLATE INTO THE MICROSCOPE ALLOWS DETERMINATION
OF THE FAST
VIBRATION DIRECTION )N THIS THIN
SEC
TION PHOTOMICROGRAPH A LENGTH
FAST GYPSUM
PLATE WAS INSERTED FROM THE 3% QUADRANT 4HE
BIREFRINGENCE COLORS IN THE .% AND 37 QUAD
RANTS INCREASED WHEREAS THE COLORS IN THE .7
AND 3% QUADRANTS DECREASED WHICH MEANS THAT
THIS CHALCEDONY IS LENGTH
SLOW
80, '0 (! MM
Up. Mississippian (Visean) Arroyo
Peasco Gp., Terrero Fm., San
Miguel Co., New Mexico
4HIS CHALCEDONY SHOWS A FABRIC THAT HAS BEEN
TERMED hFORTIlCATION ZONINGv &ORTIlCATION
ZONING IS THE CUBIC
TERMINATED ZONING WITHIN
THE AUTHIGENIC SILICA 4HE CHALCEDONY IS PROB
ABLY REPLACING GYPSUM BUT &OLK AND 0ITTMAN
CONSIDER THIS FABRIC TO BE INDICATIVE OF
SILICA REPLACEMENT OF HALITE
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Jurassic Radiolariti, northern
Italy
!N EXAMPLE OF hZEBRAICv CHALCEDONY FORMING
A lBROUS MICROQUARTZ CAVITY LINING IN A BEDDED
CHERT 4HE lBERS ARE ALTERNATELY LIGHT AND DARK
WHEN VIEWED ALONG THE lBER ELONGATION DIREC
TION UNDER CROSS
POLARIZED LIGHT 3OME WORK
ERS -C"RIDE AND &OLK HAVE DESCRIBED
AN ASSOCIATION OF ZEBRAIC CHALCEDONY WITH
REPLACED EVAPORITE MINERALS BUT IT ALSO OCCURS
AS IN THIS EXAMPLE IN DEEP MARINE STRATA WITH
NO KNOWN ASSOCIATED EVAPORITES
80, (! MM
#ITED 2EFERENCES AND !DDITIONAL )NFORMATION 3OURCES
!RBEY & ,ES FORMES DE LA SILICE ET LIDENTIlCATION DES VAPORITES cation of fossils in limestones: Journal of Geology, v. 96, p. 387-398.
DANS LES FORMATIONS SILICIlES "ULLETIN DES #ENTRES DE 2ECHERCHES -C"RIDE % & AND 2 , &OLK 4HE #ABALLOS .OVACULITE REVISITED
%XPLORATION
0RODUCTION %LF
!QUITAINE V P
0ART )) CHERT AND SHALE MEMBERS AND SYNTHESIS *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY
"ENNETT 0 # - % -ELCER $ ) 3IEGEL AND * 0 (ASSETT 4HE 0ETROLOGY V P
DISSOLUTION OF QUARTZ IN DILUTE AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS OF ORGANIC ACIDS AT Meyers, W. J., 1977, Chertication in the Mississippian Lake Valley Fm.,
# 'EOCHIMICA ET #OSMOCHIMICA !CTA V P
Sacramento Mts., New Mexico: Sedimentology, v. 24, p. 75-105.
Buurman, P., and L. Van Der Plas, 1971, The genesis of Belgian and Milliken, K. L., 1979, The silicied evaporite syndrome two aspects
Dutch int cherts: Geologie en Mijnbouw, v. 50, p. 9-28. of silicication history of former evaporite nodules from southern
Choquette, P. W., 1955, A petrographic study of the State College Kentucky and northern Tennessee: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology,
siliceous oolite: Journal of Geology, v. 63, p. 337-347. v. 49, p. 245-256.
#HOWNS 4 - AND * % %LKINS 4HE ORIGIN OF QUARTZ GEODES AND .OBLE * 0 ! AND $ 2 VAN 3TEMPVOORT %ARLY BURIAL QUARTZ
CAULImOWER CHERTS THROUGH THE SILICIlCATION OF ANHYDRITE NODULES AUTHIGENESIS IN 3ILURIAN PLATFORM CARBONATES .EW "RUNSWICK #ANADA
*OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
*OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
Dapples, E. C., 1979, Silica as an agent in diagenesis, IN G. Larsen, and /EHLER * ( /RIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF SILICA LEPISPHERES IN
G. V. Chilingar, eds., Diagenesis in Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks: PORCELANITE FROM THE -ONTEREY &ORMATION OF #ALIFORNIA *OURNAL OF
Developments in Sedimentology 25A: New York, Elsevier, p. 99-141. 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
%UGSTER ( 0 (YDROUS SODIUM SILICATES FROM ,AKE -AGADI +ENYA Penela, A. J. M., and G. Barragan, 1995, Silicication of carbonate clasts
PRECURSORS OF BEDDED CHERT 3CIENCE V P
in a marine environment: Sedimentary Geology, v. 97, p. 21-32.
Folk, R. L., and J. S. Pittman, 1971, Length-slow chalcedony: a new 2ENAUT 2 7 " *ONES AND *
* 4IERCELIN 2APID IN SITU
testament for vanished evaporites: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, SILICIlCATION OF MICROBES AT ,OBURU HOT SPRINGS ,AKE "OGORIA +ENYA
v. 41, p. 1045-1058. 2IFT 6ALLEY 3EDIMENTOLOGY V P
&OLK 2 , AND # % 7EAVER ! STUDY OF THE TEXTURE AND COMPOSITION Richter, D. K., 1972, Authigenic quartz preserving skeletal material:
OF CHERT !MERICAN *OURNAL OF 3CIENCE V P
Sedimentology, v. 19, p. 211-218.
Greenwood, R., 1973, Cristobalite: its relationship to chert formation Siedlecka, A., 1972, Length-slow chalcedony and relicts of sulphates
in selected samples from the Deep Sea Drilling Project: Journal of evidences of evaporitic environments in the Upper Carboniferous
Sedimentary Petrology, v. 43, p. 700-708. and Permian beds of Bear Island, Svalbard: Journal of Sedimentary
Hesse, R., 1989, Silica diagenesis: origin of inorganic and replacement Petrology, v. 42, p. 812-816.
cherts: Earth-Science Reviews, v. 26, p. 253-284. Summereld, M. A., 1983, Silcrete, IN A. S. Goudie, and K. Pye, eds.,
Ireland, H. A., ed., 1959, Silica in Sediments: Tulsa, OK, SEPM Special Chemical Sediments and Geomorphology: Precipitates and Residua in
Publication No. 7, 185 p. the Near-surface Environment: London, Academic Press, p. 59-92.
+ASTNER - AND * - 'IESKES /PAL
! TO OPAL
#4 TRANSFORMATION Ulmer-Scholle, D. S., P. A. Scholle, and P. V. Brady, 1993, Silicication
A KINETIC STUDY IN ! )IJIMA * 2 (EIN AND 2 3IEVER EDS 3ILICEOUS of evaporites in Permian (Guadalupian) back-reef carbonates of the
$EPOSITS OF THE 0ACIlC 2EGION .EW 9ORK %LSEVIER P
Delaware Basin, west Texas and New Mexico: Journal of Sedimentary
Keene, J. B., 1983, Chalcedonic quartz and occurrence of quartzine Petrology, v. 63, p. 955-965.
(length-slow chalcedony) in pelagic sediments: Sedimentology, v. 30, Zijlstra, H. J. P., 1987, Early diagenetic silica precipitation, in relation to
p. 449-454. redox boundaries and bacterial metabolism, in Late Cretaceous chalk
Knauth, L. P., 1979, A model for the origin of chert in limestone: Geology, of the Maastrichtian type boundary: Geologie en Mijnbouw, v. 66, p.
v. 7, p. 274-277. 343-355.
Maliva, R. G., 1987, Quartz geodes: early diagenetic silicied anhydrite
nodules related to dolomitization: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v.
57, p. 1054-1059.
Maliva, R. G., and R. Siever, 1988, Mechanism and controls of silici-
& ACING 0AGE 0OLISHED ROCK SLAB SHOWING MARINE CEMENTS
WITH BITUMEN DEAD OIL IN RESIDUAL PORE SPACES 5P 0ERMIAN
'UANGXI 0ROVINCE 0EOPLES 2EPUBLIC OF #HINA (! ^ CM
CHAPTER 29: OTHER DIAGENETIC MINERALS
#!2"/.!4% $)!'%.%3)3
OTHER DIAGENETIC MATERIALS
Suldes and
oxides
C Fluorite
H
A
P Phosphate and
T glauconite
E
R Authigenic
29 feldspar
Hydrocarbons
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
/4(%2 $)!'%.%4)# -!4%2)!,3
)RON 3ULlDES /XIDES
0YRITE &E3 IS THE MOST ABUNDANT IRON SULlDE MINERAL FOUND IN CARBONATE SEDIMENTS 0YRITE IS AN ISOMETRIC
MINERAL THAT COMMONLY FORMS CRYSTALS THAT ARE CUBIC PYRITOHEDRAL OR OCTAHEDRAL BUT IT MAY ALSO FORM ANHEDRAL
REPLACEMENT MASSES )N SEDIMENTS PYRITE ALSO OCCURS AS FRAMBOIDS OR SPHERES COMPOSED OF AGGREGATES OF
MINUTE CRYSTALS 0YRITE IS OPAQUE IN THIN SECTION AND IS READILY IDENTIlED BY REmECTED LIGHT MICROSCOPY DUE TO
ITS BRASSY TO GOLDEN YELLOW COLOR SIMPLY HOLDING A STRONG LIGHT SOURCE ABOVE THE THIN SECTION AS IT SITS ON THE
MICROSCOPE STAGE AND BLOCKING TRANSMITTED LIGHT ILLUMINATION WILL GENERALLY SUFlCE FOR IDENTIlCATION
(EMATITE &E/ IS NORMALLY AN OPAQUE MINERAL )N REmECTED LIGHT HEMATITE IS DEEP RED TO RUSTY RED )T RARELY
FORMS CRYSTALS AND OCCURS TYPICALLY AS AMORPHOUS MASSES (EMATITE COMMONLY FORMS THROUGH WEATHERING AND
OXIDATION OF PYRITE OR OTHER IRON SULlDES AND IT IS NOT UNUSUAL TO lND PYRITE AND HEMATITE TOGETHER
'OETHITE &E//( IS AN OPAQUE ORTHORHOMBIC MINERAL WHEREAS LIMONITE &E//( sN(/ IS A CRYPTOCRYSTALLINE OR
AMORPHOUS HYDRATED FORM OF THIS COMPOUND "OTH MINERALS ARE REDDISH BROWN TO YELLOWISH BROWN IN REmECTED
LIGHT AND THEY CAN BE DIFlCULT TO TELL APART FROM HEMATITE 4HEY ARE WEATHERING PRODUCTS OF EITHER IRON SULlDES OR
HEMATITE
3PHALERITE
3PHALERITE :N3 IS AN ISOMETRIC MINERAL THAT IS ISOTROPIC IN CROSS
POLARIZED ILLUMINATION HAS A HIGH POSITIVE
RELIEF AND RANGES FROM COLORLESS TO PALE YELLOW OR LIGHT BROWN ! SLIGHT BIREFRINGENCE MAY BE PRESENT WHEN
THE CRYSTALS HAVE BEEN STRAINED #RYSTALS ARE USUALLY NOT WELL FORMED BUT WHERE PRESENT CRYSTAL FACES MAY BE
CURVED 7ELL
DEVELOPED LAMELLAR TWINNING IS COMMON IN SPHALERITE 3PHALERITE IS FOUND IN -ISSISSIPPI 6ALLEY
TYPE MINERALIZED CARBONATE ROCKS AND OTHER HYDROTHERMAL DEPOSITS
&LUORITE
&LUORITE #A& IS AN ISOMETRIC MINERAL THAT FORMS CUBIC CRYSTALS ALTHOUGH ANHEDRAL MASSES ARE COMMON IN
CARBONATE ROCKS &LUORITE NORMALLY IS COLORLESS IN THIN SECTION BUT STRONGLY COLORED SAMPLES MAY BE PALE PURPLE
TO GREEN (ALITE AND mUORITE ARE EASILY CONFUSED SINCE THEY ARE BOTH ISOTROPIC FORM EUHEDRAL CUBIC CRYSTALS AND
HAVE NEGATIVE RELIEF &LUORITE CAN BE DISTINGUISHED FROM HALITE BASED ON ITS WELL
DEVELOPED OCTAHEDRAL CLEAVAGE
LOWER NEGATIVE RELIEF AND COLOR SPOTS THAT ARE PRODUCED BY INCLUSIONS WITHIN THE CRYSTALS -OST mUORITE WAS
PRECIPITATED FROM HYDROTHERMAL mUIDS AND MAY BE ASSOCIATED WITH -ISSISSIPPI 6ALLEY
TYPE MINERALIZATION
0HOSPHATE
4HE TWO MOST COMMON PHOSPHATIC MINERALS IN CARBONATE ROCKS ARE mUORAPATITE #A0/ & AND HYDROXYLAPATITE
#A0/ #/ /( & /( X 7HEN INTERGROWN THE MINERALS FORMED ARE FRANCOLITE CRYSTALLINE FORM AND
COLLOPHANE CRYPTOCRYSTALLINE FORM #OLLOPHANE IS THE MORE COMMON MINERAL IT IS ISOTROPIC TO VERY WEAKLY
BIREFRINGENT WITH COLORS THAT RANGE FROM YELLOWISH TO BROWNISH -OST EARLY DIAGENETIC PHOSPHATE IS MADE OF
COLLOPHANE &RANCOLITE HAS A HIGHER RELIEF AND LOW BIREFRINGENCE GRAY TO LOW WHITE IT IS COLORLESS TO PALE
BROWN AND MAY BE SLIGHTLY PLEOCHROIC $IAGENETIC PHOSPHATIC MINERALS CAN FORM AMORPHOUS NODULAR MASSES
CEMENTS OR REPLACEMENTS $IAGENETIC PHOSPHATES FORM MAINLY IN AREAS WITH SUBSTANTIAL PRIMARY SEDIMENTARY
PHOSPHATE ACCUMULATION AREAS WITH LOW SEDIMENT ACCUMULATION RATES AND HIGH NUTRIENT INPUTS
'LAUCONITE
'LAUCONITE + #A .A
&E -G &E !L 3I !L //( IS A CLAY MINERAL FOUND ONLY IN MARINE DEPOSITS )T
FORMS PELLETS OR GRANULES IN AREAS OF SLOW SEDIMENTATION )T ALSO PRECIPITATES AS AN EARLY DIAGENETIC MINERAL
REPLACING CLASTS OR lLLING POROSITY IN SHALLOW TO DEEP MARINE SETTINGS THAT HAVE HIGH NUTRIENT LEVELS AND LOW
SEDIMENT ACCUMULATION RATES 'LAUCONITE IS GREEN TO OLIVE GREEN IN COLOR AND HAS A GREENISH BIREFRINGENCE IT
CAN LOOK SIMILAR TO CHLORITE BUT CHLORITE IS USUALLY MORE PLATY AND HAS ANOMALOUSLY LOW BIREFRINGENCE
(YDROCARBONS
(YDROCARBONS CAN BE FOUND AS INTERSTITIAL MATERIAL IN CARBONATE ROCKS OR AS mUID INCLUSIONS WITHIN CARBONATE
CEMENTS )N SOME CASES HYDROCARBONS EFFECTIVELY TERMINATE CEMENTATION BY BLOCKING THE ENTRY OF AQUEOUS
mUIDS RESPONSIBLE FOR DIAGENESIS "ITUMEN ASPHALT AND HYDROCARBON
lLLED INCLUSIONS ALL ARE PRODUCTS OF THIS
COMPLEX INTERPLAY OF HYDROCARBON
BEARING AND AQUEOUS mUIDS %VIDENCE OF HYDROCARBON ENTRY INCLUDES
RESIDUES AND INCLUSIONS AS WELL AS CURVED MENISCUS CEMENTS AND THE PRESERVATION OF UNSTABLE CARBONATE
PHASES SUCH AS ARAGONITE IN VERY OLD ROCKS
CHAPTER 29: OTHER DIAGENETIC MINERALS
Up. Cretaceous, subsurface,
British North Sea
!N 3%- IMAGE OF A PYRITE FRAMBOID
&RAMBOIDS ARE ALMOST PERFECTLY SPHERICAL
BODIES OF SMALL INTERLOCKING PYRITE CRYSTALS
4HESE SPHERICAL AGGREGATES TYPICALLY FORM DIS
CRETE BODIES BUT THEY ARE ALSO FOUND AS CLUSTERS
OR MULTIPLE SPHEROIDS 4HEY ARE AUTHIGENIC IN
ORIGIN AND FORM IN REDUCING ENVIRONMENTS OR IN
REDUCING MICROENVIRONMENTS ASSOCIATED WITH
DECOMPOSING ORGANIC MATTER
3%- (! M
Up. Cretaceous Monte Antola Fm.,
Genova region, Liguria, Italy
"ECAUSE PYRITE IS AN OPAQUE MINERAL IT CAN
EASILY BE CONFUSED WITH OTHER OPAQUE MINER
ALS SUCH AS MAGNETITE MARCASITE OR HEMATITE
THEREFORE REmECTED LIGHT OR A COMBINATION
OF REmECTED AND TRANSMITTED LIGHT SHOULD BE
UTILIZED )N THIS VIEW A COMBINATION OF LIGHT
SOURCES WAS USED TO ACCENTUATE THE BRASSY
GOLDEN REmECTANCE COLOR OF THE FRAMBOIDAL
PYRITE lLLING OF THIS BURROW 0YRITE IS COM
MONLY ASSOCIATED WITH BURROWS BECAUSE OF THE
HIGH ORGANIC CONTENT OF SUCH STRUCTURES 4HE
SURROUNDING CARBONATE MATRIX IS STAINED BY AN
ALTERATION HALO OF LIMONITE
00, 2, (! MM
Precambrian Wynd Fm., British
Columbia, Canada
2EPLACEMENT PYRITE CRYSTALS COMMONLY HAVE
A CUBIC HABIT )N THIS VIEW A LARGE EUHEDRAL
CRYSTAL OF PYRITE HAS REPLACED CARBONATE MATRIX
2EmECTED LIGHT SHOULD BE USED TO CONlRM THIS
IDENTIlCATION WE DID AND IT IS 0HOTOGRAPH
COURTESY OF ,EE 'ERHARD
080, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Capitan
Fm., subsurface, Eddy Co., New
Mexico
0YRITE REPLACEMENT OF BIOCLASTS IS COMMON
BECAUSE OF THE ORGANIC MATERIAL INCORPO
RATED WITHIN MANY SKELETAL STRUCTURES (ERE
A PAIR OF TRANSMITTED AND REmECTED LIGHT VIEWS
SHOW PYRITE REPLACING THE OUTER MARGINS OF A
BRYOZOAN (ERE AGAIN PYRITE HAS A BRASSY GOLD
REmECTANCE
00,2, (! MM EACH
Lo. Cretaceous (Aptian) Shuaiba
Fm., offshore Qatar
)N THIS VIEW AN ORBITOLINID FORAMINIFER HAS
BEEN EXTENSIVELY REPLACED BY EUHEDRAL CRYSTALS
OF PYRITE .OTE SOME OF THE TRIGONAL CRYSTAL ORI
ENTATIONS ACHIEVED BY CUTTING ACROSS THE CUBES
CORNERS AND HOW THE PYRITE REPLACEMENT IS
MOST INTENSE IN A CONSISTENT ZONE JUST INSIDE
THE MARGIN OF THE FORAMINIFERAL TEST %XTENSIVE
MOLDIC TO VUGGY POROSITY IS VISIBLE IN THE SUR
ROUNDING SEDIMENT
00, !&E3 (! MM
Lo. Cretaceous (Aptian) Shuaiba
Fm., subsurface, offshore Qatar
4HE PYRITE REPLACEMENT SHOWN IN THESE TRANS
MITTED AND REmECTED LIGHT PHOTOMICROGRAPHS
TAKES THE FORM OF ROSETTES OF NEEDLE LIKE
CRYSTALS !LTHOUGH THIS PYRITE REPLACEMENT OC
CURRED IN THE SAME SETTING AND SEDIMENT TYPE AS
THAT SHOWN IN THE PREVIOUS PHOTOGRAPH THE FAB
RICS ARE QUITE DISSIMILAR 4HE PREVIOUS EXAMPLE
SHOWED FABRIC SELECTIVE INlLL OR REPLACEMENT
THE PYRITE HERE DOES NOT APPEAR TO HAVE ANY FAB
RIC SELECTIVITY DESPITE THE PRESENCE OF THE SAME
TYPES OF FORAMINIFERS BEST SEEN IN THE REmECTED
LIGHT IMAGE
00,2, "3% (! MM EACH
CHAPTER 29: OTHER DIAGENETIC MINERALS
Up. Mississippian Arroyo Peasco
Gp., Terrero Fm., San Miguel Co.,
New Mexico
)N THIS REmECTED LIGHT VIEW THE PYRITE REPLACE
MENTS HAVE BEEN PARTIALLY ALTERED TO HEMATITE
REDDISH PROBABLY DURING OUTCROP WEATHER
ING 4HE SURROUNDING CARBONATE ROCK IS A
DOLOMITIZED AND SILICIlED LIMESTONE
2, (! MM
Cambrian limestone, Colorado
(EMATITE IS READILY VISIBLE IN THESE TRANSMIT
TED AND REmECTED LIGHT PHOTOMICROGRAPHS )N
TRANSMITTED LIGHT HEMATITE IS OPAQUE LIKE
PYRITE BUT IN REmECTED LIGHT HEMATITE IS RED TO
BROWNISH RED AND THUS DIFFERS FROM THE BRASSY
GOLD REmECTANCE OF PYRITE (EMATITE HERE HAS
REPLACED A lNE GRAINED CARBONATE GRAINSTONE
3AMPLE COURTESY OF 2OBERT , ,AURY
00,2, (! MM EACH
Mid. Silurian Clinton Fm.,
Huntingdon Co., Pennsylvania
(EMATITE CEMENTS ALSO ARE COMMON ESPECIALLY
IN CARBONATE INTERBEDS IN TERRIGENOUS STRATA
AND EVEN CAN FORM ECONOMIC IRON ORE DEPOSITS
)N THIS SAMPLE THE HEMATITE ORE ENCASES SILT
GRAINS AND LARGE TRILOBITE FRAGMENTS
80, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Mid. Ordovician St. George Gp.,
Newfoundland, Canada
3PHALERITE COMMONLY IS FOUND IN ASSOCIA
TION WITH BAROQUE SADDLE DOLOMITE BECAUSE
BOTH FORM IN ASSOCIATION WITH HYDROTHERMAL
mUIDS )N TRANSMITTED LIGHT SPHALERITE CRYSTALS
HAVE HIGH RELIEF AND ARE DARK COLORED NOR
MALLY BROWNISH )N THIS SAMPLE THE DOLOMITE
LIGHTER COLORED AND SPHALERITE CRYSTALS ARE
INTERGROWN )N CROSS POLARIZED LIGHT SPHALERITE
IS ISOTROPIC WHEREAS THE BAROQUE DOLOMITE HAS
HIGH THIRD ORDER COLORS AND UNDULOSE EXTINC
TION 3AMPLE FROM .OEL 0 *AMES
00,80, (! MM EACH
Lo. Ordovician St. George Gp.,
Newfoundland, Canada
!NOTHER EXAMPLE OF SPHALERITE AND BAROQUE
DOLOMITE FORMED FROM HYDROTHERMAL mUIDS
4HE REmECTED LIGHT VIEW SHOWS LARGE ISOTROPIC
CRYSTALS OF SPHALERITE SURROUNDED BY LARGE BA
ROQUE SADDLE DOLOMITE CRYSTALS WITH UNDULOSE
EXTINCTION CLEARLY VISIBLE 0HOTOGRAPH COUR
TESY OF .OEL 0 *AMES
00,80, (! MM EACH
Up. Permian (Leonardian-
Guadalupian) Park City Fm., Tosi
Chert Mbr., Big Horn Co., Wyoming
&LUORITE IS A HIGH RELIEF ISOTROPIC MINERAL THAT
NORMALLY FORMS CUBIC CRYSTALS )N THIS SAMPLE
CHALCEDONY CLEAR AND CALCITE PINK SURROUND
THE mUORITE CRYSTALS &LUORITE FORMS AT ELEVATED
TEMPERATURES HERE THE mUORITE CALCITE AND
CHALCEDONY ARE PROBABLY REPLACEMENTS OF SUL
FATE MINERALS ASSOCIATED WITH THERMO CHEMICAL
SULFATE REDUCTION
00, !&E3 "3% (! MM
CHAPTER 29: OTHER DIAGENETIC MINERALS
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
4HE COMBINED !LIZARIN 2ED 3 POTASSIUM
FERRICYANIDE STAINING OF THE CARBONATE CON
STITUENTS IN THIS SECTION MAKES THE UNSTAINED
mUORITE STAND OUT IN CLEAR CONTRAST 4HE mUORITE
CRYSTALS ARE ROUGHLY COEVAL WITH BLOCKY FERROAN
CALCITE SPAR THAT lLLS THE LATE STAGE POROSITY
.ON FERROAN CALCITE SPAR PREDATES BOTH $UR
ING BURIAL DIAGENESIS THE mUORITE AND CALCITE
WERE PRECIPITATED FROM mUIDS AT ELEVATED TEM
PERATURES AND UNDER REDUCING CONDITIONS
00,80, !&E3 (! MM EACH
Miocene (Aquitanian-Burdigalian)
Globigerina Limestone Fm., Gozo,
Malta
-ARINE HARDGROUNDS CAN BE SITES OF EROSION
BORING AND MINERALIZATION 4HIS MARINE
HARDGROUND HAS A CLEARLY IDENTIlABLE IRREGU
LAR UPPER SURFACE 4HE TOP FEW MILLIMETERS
OF THE HARDGROUND ARE HEAVILY IMPREGNATED
WITH PHOSPHATE AND IRON OXIDES POSSIBLY AFTER
PYRITE
00, (! MM
Oligocene-Miocene above
McDonald Ls., northern Otago,
New Zealand
4HIS SAMPLE SHOWS A DIGITATE MICROBIAL CRUST
THAT HAS FORMED ON THE SURFACE OF A MARINE
HARDGROUND 4HE LUMPY CRUSTS ARE LARGELY
COMPOSED OF PRECIPITATED PHOSPHATE BUT THEY
HAVE ALSO BEEN HEAVILY STAINED BY IRON OXIDES
)NTERSTICES WITHIN THE MICROBIALITE hlNGERSv
ARE lLLED WITH GLAUCONITE GRAINS ANOTHER INDI
CATION OF THE VERY LOW SEDIMENTATION RATES THAT
EXISTED IN THIS AREA AT THE TIME OF FORMATION
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Permian (Leonardian-
Guadalupian) Park City Fm., Tosi
Chert-Ervay Mbr., Hot Springs Co.,
Wyoming
0HOSPHATE AND GLAUCONITE ARE COMMONLY AS
SOCIATED AS EARLY DIAGENETIC MINERALS IN SHELF
AND DEEP WATER SEDIMENTS &OR EXAMPLE THE
ZOOECIA IN THIS BRYOZOAN FRAGMENT WERE lLLED
WITH PRECIPITATED PHOSPHATE PALE YELLOW AND
SUBORDINATE GLAUCONITE GREENISH 4HE PHOS
PHATE ALSO PERVADES MOST OF THE GLAUCONITIC AR
EAS AND THE ENTIRE PRECIPITATE APPEARS ISOTROPIC
IN CROSS POLARIZED LIGHT
00,80, !&E3 (! MM EACH
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
3LOWLY DEPOSITED COOL WATER CARBONATES COM
MONLY HAVE GLAUCONITE OR PHOSPHATE lLLING THE
POROSITY WITHIN BIOCLASTS OR OTHER GRAINS )N
THIS SECTION PALE GREENISH GLAUCONITE CEMENT
lLLS THE ZOOECIA MESOPORES AND BORINGS WITHIN
THESE BRYOZOANS
00, !&E3 "3% (! MM
Oligocene Nile Gp., Karamea,
Westland, New Zealand
4HIS EXAMPLE SHOWS GLAUCONITE lLLING THE
REGULARLY ARRANGED INTRAPARTICLE PORES WITHIN A
SINGLE CRYSTAL ECHINOID PLATE )N HIGHER ENERGY
DEPOSITS THESE PORES ARE NORMALLY lLLED WITH
CARBONATE CEMENT OR MICRITE BUT IN ENVIRON
MENTS WITH MINIMAL SEDIMENTATION GLAUCONITE
CAN PRECIPITATES IN THE PORES
00, !&E3 (! MM
CHAPTER 29: OTHER DIAGENETIC MINERALS
Up. Cretaceous Monte Antola Fm.,
Genova region, Liguria, Italy
!UTHIGENIC FELDSPARS ARE RARELY A SIGNIlCANT
COMPONENT IN CARBONATE ROCKS BUT IN SOME
DIAGENETIC ENVIRONMENTS THEY CAN BE COMMON
!LBITE IS THE MOST FREQUENTLY ENCOUNTERED
REPLACEMENT FELDSPAR IN LIMESTONES ALTHOUGH
OTHER FELDSPARS ARE FOUND AS WELL &ELDSPAR
REPLACEMENTS CAN BE EASILY CONFUSED WITH
MEGAQUARTZ REPLACEMENTS DUE TO THEIR SIMI
LAR BIREFRINGENCE THEY CAN BE DIFFERENTIATED
BASED ON EUHEDRAL CRYSTAL SHAPES THE PRESENCE
OF TWINNING OR BY STAINING 3INCE THEY ARE
REPLACEMENTS THEY ALSO COMMONLY CONTAIN
INCLUSIONS OF THE ORIGINAL CARBONATE MATERIAL
AS IN THIS EXAMPLE
80, (! MM
Pennsylvanian Buckhorn Asphalt,
Murray Co., Oklahoma
!N ASPHALT IMPREGNATED LIMESTONE THE
BROWNISH COLOR AND PERVASIVE DISTRIBUTION OF
MATERIAL BETWEEN AND WITHIN GRAINS AND CRYS
TALS ARE CHARACTERISTIC OF HYDROCARBON RESIDUES
)N THIS CASE THE EARLY INPUT OF OIL ALLOWED THE
PRESERVATION OF ARAGONITE IN A MILLION YEAR
OLD ROCK CONTAINING ALGAE AND MOLLUSKS (ERE
A POSSIBLE 0ALAEOAPLYSINA SP FRAGMENT SEE
SECTION ON 0ROBLEMATICA HAS BEEN SUPERBLY
PRESERVED DUE TO THE EARLY SATURATION OF THE
ROCK BY HYDROCARBONS
00, (! MM
Pennsylvanian Buckhorn Asphalt,
Murray Co., Oklahoma
4HE "UCKHORN !SPHALT IS UNUSUAL BECAUSE OF
ITS EXTENSIVE ARAGONITE PRESERVATION %ARLY
ENTRY OF HYDROCARBONS INTO THE UNIT AND HIGH
HYDROCARBON SATURATION LEVELS EFFECTIVELY TER
MINATED CHEMICAL DIAGENESIS IN THIS LIMESTONE
BECAUSE THE ASPHALTIC RESIDUES PREVENT AQUEOUS
mUIDS FROM ENTERING THE ROCK 4HE ASPHALT
PRECLUDED CHEMICAL DIAGENETIC ALTERATION BUT
NOT COMPACTIONAL CRUSHING THEREFORE THERE
IS MINIMAL CEMENTATION AND THE MILLION
YEAR OLD ARAGONITIC GRAINS MAINLY THIN WALLED
CEPHALOPOD SHELLS ARE EXTENSIVELY FRACTURED
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Silurian (Wenlockian) Lilley Fm.,
Adams Co., Ohio
4HE HYDROCARBON IMPREGNATION OF THIS LIME
STONE PREDATES THE BURIAL STAGE FERROAN CALCITE
VISIBLE IN THE UPPER LEFT CORNER OF PHOTOMI
CROGRAPH 4HE HYDROCARBONS INlLTRATED AND
STAINED MOST POROSITY WITHIN OR BETWEEN THE
GRAINS AND CRYSTALS BUT DID NOT PRECLUDE CE
MENTATION IN LARGE LATE STAGE VUGGY PORES
00, !&E3 (! MM
Up. Jurassic (Oxfordian) Up.
Smackover Fm., subsurface, Gulf
Coast, USA
%VEN AFTER HYDROCARBONS SATURATE A ROCK
IT IS STILL POSSIBLE TO mUSH THE ROCK AND RE
MOVE ENOUGH OF THE HYDROCARBONS TO ALLOW
DIAGENESIS TO CONTINUE )N THIS EXAMPLE THE
HYDROCARBONS BLACK HAVE EITHER CONVERTED
TO BITUMEN DEAD OIL OR HAVE BEEN PARTIALLY
mUSHED FROM THE ROCK PERMITTING LATER CALCITE
CEMENTATION .OTE THE BROWN STAINING IN THE
CALCITE THIS IS PROBABLY DUE TO TRAPPED LIQUID
HYDROCARBON INCLUSIONS 4HE HOST ROCK HERE
CONSISTS OF BAROQUE DOLOMITE 0HOTOGRAPH
COURTESY OF #LYDE ( -OORE
00,80, (! ^ MM EACH
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Yates
Fm., Eddy Co., New Mexico
4HE HYDROCARBONS IN THIS SAMPLE NOW VISIBLE
AS BROWNISH COLORED RESIDUES IN LOWER HALF OF
THE PHOTOGRAPH ONCE lLLED THIS LEACHED EVAPO
RITE NODULE AND LONG PREDATE THE PRECIPITATION
OF BLOCKY NON
FERROAN CALCITE SPAR PINK
5PLIFT
STAGE PARTIAL mUSHING OF THE TRAPPED OIL
ALLOWED PRECIPITATION OF THE CALCITE IN CONTACT
WITH HYDROCARBON RESIDUES 4HE CALCITE SPAR
CRYSTALS THUS HAVE ROUNDED OR CURVED EDGES
FORMED BY CONTACT WITH A MENISCUS SURFACE
BETWEEN RESIDUAL OIL AND WATER
00, !&E3 (! MM
CHAPTER 29: OTHER DIAGENETIC MINERALS
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
)N THIS VIEW DEAD OIL RESIDUES COVER AN EARLY
NON FERROAN CALCITE SPAR CEMENT !FTER PARTIAL
mUSHING OF THE HYDROCARBONS CEMENTATION
CONTINUED WITH FERROAN AND THEN NON FERROAN
CALCITE SPAR 7ITH CLOSE EXAMINATION IT MAY
BE NOTED THAT THE EARLY CALCITE SPARS CONTACT THE
LATER FERROAN AND NON FERROAN SPARS AT ONLY A
FEW POINTS (YDROCARBONS ESSENTIALLY COATED
THE CALCITE PREVENTING DIRECT NUCLEATION ON THE
EARLIER CEMENTS #ONTINUED METEORIC mUSHING
REMOVED SOME OF THE HYDROCARBONS AND RESULT
ED IN AN IRREGULAR LINEAR PORE WITH SOME AS
PHALTIC RESIDUES SEPARATING THE TWO CEMENTS
00, !&E3 "3% (! MM
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
!NOTHER VIEW SHOWING HOW HYDROCARBONS CAN
AFFECT CEMENTATION )N THIS CASE EARLY NON
FERROAN CALCITE AND A THIN ZONE OF FERROAN CALCITE
SPAR WERE FOLLOWED BY HYDROCARBON MIGRATION
INTO THE ROCK !FTER SOME mUSHING CEMENTA
TION CONTINUED WITH FURTHER PRECIPITATION OF
FERROAN CALCITE AND mUORITE 4HE HYDROCARBON
RESIDUES WERE LATER LARGELY REMOVED LEAVING
IRREGULAR PORE SPACES AND SCATTERED ASPHALTIC
RESIDUES BETWEEN CEMENT GENERATIONS
00, !&E3 "3% (! MM
Lo. Cretaceous (Barremian)
Kharaib Fm., subsurface, offshore
Qatar
)N THIS EPI mUORESCENCE PHOTOMICROGRAPH HY
DROCARBON MAINLY OIL INCLUSIONS ARE CLEARLY
VISIBLE AS BRIGHTLY mUORESCENT SPOTS WITHIN DULL
TO NON mUORESCENT CALCITE CEMENTS -ANY OF
THE INCLUSIONS FORMED ALONG GROWTH ZONES IN
THE CALCITE CEMENTS OTHERS APPEAR TO BE MORE
RANDOMLY DISTRIBUTED 4HE COLOR AND INTEN
SITY OF mUORESCENCE CAN BE USED TO IDENTIFY OIL
TYPES %ACH hGRADEv HAS A COLOR RANGE IN WHICH
IT CAN BE PLACED
&, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Yates
Fm., Eddy Co., New Mexico
(YDROCARBON INCLUSIONS NORMALLY ARE BROWN
ISH IN COLOR #OLORLESS HYDROCARBON INCLUSIONS
DO OCCUR HOWEVER AND EPI mUORESCENCE PE
TROGRAPHY MAY BE NECESSARY TO IDENTIFY SUCH
INCLUSIONS )N THIS VIEW AN AUTHIGENIC QUARTZ
CRYSTAL IN A LIMESTONE CONTAINS HYDROCARBON
AQUEOUS AND SOLID INCLUSIONS !LL THE mUID
INCLUSIONS IN THIS VIEW ARE PRIMARY THE HY
DROCARBON INCLUSION IS BROWN WITH A SMALL
VAPOR BUBBLE AND THE BRINE INCLUSION CONTAINS
A LARGE VAPOR BUBBLE AND IS SLIGHTLY DARKER THAN
THE HOST QUARTZ CRYSTAL 4HE SOLID INCLUSIONS
ARE REMNANTS OF ANHYDRITE INDICATING THAT THE
QUARTZ HAS REPLACED AN ANHYDRITE NODULE
00, (! M
#ITED 2EFERENCES AND !DDITIONAL )NFORMATION 3OURCES
!NDERSON ' - AND ' 'ARVEN 3ULFATE
SULlDE CARBONATE "LACK #REEK &IELD -ISSISSIPPI !MERICAN !SSOCIATION OF 0ETROLEUM
ASSOCIATIONS IN -ISSISSIPPI 6ALLEY
TYPE LEAD ZINC DEPOSITS %CONOMIC 'EOLOGISTS "ULLETIN V P
'EOLOGY V P
(ONJO 3 ! ' &ISCHER AND 2 % 'ARRISON 'EOPETAL PYRITE IN lNE
"AKER 0 ! AND 3 ( "LOOMER 4HE ORIGIN OF CELESTITE IN DEEP
SEA GRAINED LIMESTONES *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
CARBONATE SEDIMENTS 'EOCHIMICA ET #OSMOCHIMICA !CTA V P
+ASTNER - !UTHIGENIC FELDSPARS IN CARBONATE ROCKS !MERICAN
"ERNER 2 ! 3EDIMENTARY PYRITE FORMATION !MERICAN *OURNAL OF -INERALOGIST V P
3CIENCE V P
+RAJEWSKI + 0 %ARLY DIAGENETIC PHOSPHATE CEMENTS IN THE !LBIAN
"ERNER 2 ! 3EDIMENTARY PYRITE FORMATION AN UPDATE 'EOCHIMICA CONDENSED GLAUCONITIC LIMESTONE OF THE 4ATRA -OUNTAINS 7ESTERN
ET #OSMOCHIMICA !CTA V P
#ARPATHIANS 3EDIMENTOLOGY V P
"RODTKORB - + DE 6 2AMOS - "ARBIERI AND 3 !METRANO 4HE ,OVE , ' %ARLY DIAGENETIC POLYFRAMBOIDAL PYRITE PRIMARY AND
EVAPORITIC CELESTITE
BARITE DEPOSITS OF .EUQUEN !RGENTINA -INERALIUM REDEPOSITED FROM THE 7ENLOCKIAN $ENBIGH 'RIT 'ROUP #ONWAY .ORTH
$EPOSITA "ERLIN V P
7ALES 5+ *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
"URRUSS 2 # + 2 #ERCONE AND 0 - (ARRIS 4IMING OF HYDROCARBON -C#ONCHIE $ - AND $ 7 ,EWIS !UTHIGENIC PERIGENIC AND ALLOGENIC
MIGRATION EVIDENCED FROM mUID INCLUSIONS IN CALCITE CEMENTS TECTONICS GLAUCONITES FROM THE #ASTLE (ILL "ASIN .ORTH #ANTERBURY .EW :EALAND
AND BURIAL HISTORY IN . 3CHNEIDERMANN AND 0 - (ARRIS EDS #ARBONATE .EW :EALAND *OURNAL OF 'EOLOGY AND 'EOPHYSICS V P
#EMENTS 4ULSA /+ 3%0- 3PECIAL 0UBLICATION .O P
/LAUSSEN 3 &ORMATION OF CELESTITE IN THE 7ENLOCK /SLO REGION
#ARLSON % ( #ELESTITE REPLACEMENTS OF EVAPORITES IN THE 3ALINA .ORWAY EVIDENCE FOR EVAPORITIC DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS *OURNAL
'ROUP 3EDIMENTARY 'EOLOGY V P
OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
#ARSON ' ! AND 3 & #ROWLEY 4HE GLAUCONITE
PHOSPHATE 2AISWELL 2 AND 2 ! "ERNER 0YRITE FORMATION IN EUXINIC AND SEMI
ASSOCIATION IN HARDGROUNDS EXAMPLES FROM THE #ENOMANIAN OF $EVON EUXINIC SEDIMENTS !MERICAN *OURNAL OF 3CIENCE V P
SOUTHWEST %NGLAND #RETACEOUS 2ESEARCH V P
3ASSANO ' 0 AND + 3CHRIJVER &RAMBOIDAL PYRITE EARLY
#HURCH 4 - -ARINE BARITE IN 2 ' "URNS ED -ARINE -INERALS DIAGENETIC LATE DIAGENETIC AND HYDROTHERMAL OCCURRENCES FROM THE
7ASHINGTON $# -INERALOGICAL 3OCIETY OF !MERICA 3HORT #OURSE !CTON 6ALE 1UARRY #AMBRO
/RDOVICIAN 1UEBEC !MERICAN *OURNAL OF
.OTES 6OL P
3CIENCE V P
$!NGELJAN " & 0HOSPHATE DIAGENESIS OF MARINE CARBONATES AS A MODE 3CHOLLE 0 ! , 3TEMMERIK AND / (ARPTH /RIGIN OF MAJOR
OF IN SITU FORMATION OF MARINE PHOSPHORITES /BSERVATIONS IN A CORE FROM THE KARST
ASSOCIATED CELESTITE MINERALIZATION IN +ARSTRYGGEN CENTRAL %AST
EASTERN 0ACIlC #ANADIAN *OURNAL OF %ARTH 3CIENCES V P
'REENLAND *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
%VANS ' AND $ * 3HEARMAN 2ECENT CELESTITE FROM THE SEDIMENTS 3PTL # - +RALIK AND - * +UNK !UTHIGENIC FELDSPAR AS AN
OF THE 4RUCIAL #OAST OF THE 0ERSIAN 'ULF .ATURE V P
INDICATOR OF PALEO
ROCKWATER INTERACTIONS IN 0ERMIAN CARBONATES OF THE
&IELD - % AND / ( 0ILKEY ,ITHIlCATION OF DEEP SEA SEDIMENTS .ORTHERN #ALCAREOUS !LPS !USTRIA *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 2ESEARCH
BY PYRITE .ATURE V P
3ECTION ! 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY AND 0ROCESSES V P
&RAZIER 7 * #ELESTITE IN THE -ISSISSIPPIAN 0ENNINGTON &ORMATION 7ILSON ( ( h&ROZEN
INv HYDROCARBON ACCUMULATIONS OR
CENTRAL 4ENNESSEE 3OUTHEASTERN 'EOLOGY V P
DIAGENETIC TRAPS EXPLORATION TARGETS !MERICAN !SSOCIATION OF
'RABER + + AND ( 3 #HAFETZ 0ETROGRAPHY AND ORIGIN OF BEDDED 0ETROLEUM 'EOLOGISTS "ULLETIN V P
BARITE AND PHOSPHATE IN THE $EVONIAN 3LAVEN #HERT OF CENTRAL .EVADA
*OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V P
(ARWOOD ' - 4HE APPLICATION OF CATHODOLUMINESCENCE IN RELATIVE
DATING OF BARITE MINERALIZATION IN THE ,OWER -AGNESIAN ,IMESTONE 5PPER
0ERMIAN 5NITED +INGDOM %CONOMIC 'EOLOGY V P
& ACING 0AGE ! CATHODOLUMINESCENCE #, PHOTOMICROGRAPH
SHOWING A CALCITE
CEMENTED SKELETAL LIMESTONE #, REVEALS
MULTIPLE GENERATIONS OF CEMENT lLLING PORES 0ERMIAN +AZANIAN
(EYDARI % 4HE ROLE OF BURIAL DIAGENESIS IN HYDROCARBON DESTRUCTION 7EGENER (ALV &M *AMESON ,AND %AST 'REENLAND (! ^
AND (3 ACCUMULATION 5PPER *URASSIC 3MACKOVER &ORMATION MM
CHAPTER 30: TECHNIQUES
!NALYTICAL 4ECHNIQUES
Staining
Reectance
Cathodolumines-
cence
Epi-uorescence
Fluid inclusion
C geothermometry
H
A
P Electron
T microprobe analysis
E
R
X-ray diffraction
30
C, O, and Sr isotopic
geochemistry
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
).42/$5#4)/. 4/ 4%#(.)15%3
!LTHOUGH LIGHT
MICROSCOPE PETROGRAPHY IS AN EXTREMELY VALUABLE TOOL FOR THE IDENTIlCATION OF MINERALS AND THEIR
TEXTURAL INTERRELATIONSHIPS IT IS BEST USED IN MANY CASES IN CONJUNCTION WITH OTHER TECHNIQUES
0RECISE MINERAL DETERMINATIONS ARE GREATLY AIDED BY STAINING OF THIN SECTIONS OR ROCK SLABS BY X
RAY ANALYSIS OR
BY MICROPROBE EXAMINATION 7HERE NONCARBONATE CONSTITUENTS ARE PRESENT IN CARBONATE ROCKS THEY OFTEN
ARE BETTER ANALYZED IN ACID
INSOLUBLE RESIDUES THAN IN THIN SECTION 7HERE DETAILED UNDERSTANDING OF THE
TRACE ELEMENT CHEMISTRY OF THE SEDIMENTS IS ESSENTIAL X
RAY mUORESCENCE INDUCTIVELY COUPLED PLASMA MASS
SPECTROMETRY ION MICROPROBE ELECTRON MICROPROBE ATOMIC ABSORPTION OR CATHODOLUMINESCENCE TECHNIQUES
MAY BE APPLICABLE AND WHERE IT IS DESIRABLE TO KNOW THE TEMPERATURES WATER SOURCES ANDOR PORE mUID
COMPOSITIONS INVOLVED IN CEMENTATION mUID INCLUSION GEOTHERMOMETRY STABLE ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY STRONTIUM
ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY AND A NUMBER OF OTHER ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES MAY PROVIDE USEFUL INFORMATION
)N ADDITION MANY SEDIMENTS MAY BE TOO lNE
GRAINED FOR ADEQUATE EXAMINATION WITH THE LIGHT MICROSCOPE 4HE
PRACTICAL LIMIT OF RESOLUTION OF THE BEST LIGHT MICROSCOPES IS IN THE
M RANGE -ANY CARBONATE AND NON
CARBONATE MATRIX CONSTITUENTS FALL WITHIN OR BELOW THIS SIZE RANGE &URTHERMORE BECAUSE MOST STANDARD THIN
SECTIONS ARE ABOUT M THICK A RESEARCHER TYPICALLY SEES OR SUCH SMALL GRAINS STACKED ON TOP OF ONE
ANOTHER IN A MICRITIC LIMESTONE WITH OBVIOUS LOSS OF RESOLUTION 3MEAR MOUNTS OR STREW MOUNTS SLIDES WITH
INDIVIDUAL DISAGGREGATED GRAINS SMEARED OR SETTLED OUT ONTO THE SLIDE SURFACE ARE AN AID IN EXAMINING SMALL
GRAINS WHERE THE MATERIAL CAN BE DISAGGREGATED INTO INDIVIDUAL COMPONENTS )N MOST CASES HOWEVER SCANNING
AND TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY HAVE PROVED TO BE THE MOST EFFECTIVE TECHNIQUES FOR THE DETAILED
EXAMINATION OF lNE
GRAINED SEDIMENTS
4HE BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR THIS CHAPTER AND THOSE IN MANY PREVIOUS CHAPTERS AS WELL PROVIDES REFERENCES TO
TECHNIQUES USEFUL IN SUPPLEMENTING STANDARD PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS !LTHOUGH MANY OF THE TECHNIQUES REQUIRE
SOPHISTICATED AND EXPENSIVE EQUIPMENT OTHERS SUCH AS THIN
SECTION STAINING PRODUCTION OF ACETATE PEELS OR
CONCENTRATION OF INSOLUBLE RESIDUES CAN BE DONE IN ANY LABORATORY AND AT VERY LITTLE COST
"ECAUSE OF THE POTENTIAL DESIRABILITY OF SUPPLEMENTAL TECHNIQUES IT IS OFTEN USEFUL TO PREPARE EPOXY
CEMENTED
THIN SECTIONS WITHOUT COVERSLIPS 4HESE SECTIONS CAN BE EXAMINED UNDER A LIGHT MICROSCOPE EITHER BY PLACING A
DROP OF WATER AND A COVERSLIP ON THE SAMPLE DURING VIEWING OR BY USING MINERAL OIL OR INDEX OF REFRACTION OILS
WITH OR WITHOUT COVERSLIPS 3UCH EXAMINATION INVOLVES SOME LOSS OF RESOLUTION BUT DOES ALLOW THE CLEANING AND
DRYING OF THE SURFACE OF THE SECTION AND SUBSEQUENT STAINING CATHODOLUMINESCENCE OR MICROPROBE EXAMINATION
/NE CAN EVEN PARTIALLY OR COMPLETELY IMMERSE THE THIN SECTION IN ACETIC OR HYDROCHLORIC ACID AND DECALCIFY THE
SECTION THEREBY SOMETIMES ENHANCING ORGANIC STRUCTURES OR INSOLUBLE
MINERAL FABRICS &INALLY UNCOVERED THIN
SECTIONS CAN BE GROUND THINNER IN CASES WHERE EXAMINATION OF VERY lNE
GRAINED SEDIMENTS IS NEEDED
#LEARLY ONE CAN SPEND YEARS ANALYZING A SINGLE SAMPLE USING ALL POSSIBLE TECHNIQUES %FlCIENT STUDY REQUIRES A
THOROUGH UNDERSTANDING OF ALL AVAILABLE TOOLS AND PROPER APPLICATION OF THE MOST USEFUL AND PRODUCTIVE OF THESE
15!,)4!4)6% 4%#(.)15%3
3TAINING TECHNIQUES ARE AMONG THE FASTEST SIMPLEST AND CHEAPEST METHODS FOR GETTING RELIABLE MINERALOGICAL
AND SOME QUALITATIVE ELEMENTAL DATA ON CARBONATE PHASES 4HE FOLLOWING LIST OF MINERALS AND THEIR DIAGNOSTIC
STAINS IS DERIVED FROM THE WORK OF &RIEDMAN $ICKSON AND -ILLIMAN AND OTHERS
4HE ORIGINAL PAPERS LISTED IN THE BIBLIOGRAPHY WILL PROVIDE DETAILS ABOUT THE EXACT APPLICATION AND METHODS
!RAGONITE
CAN BE DISTINGUISHED FROM CALCITE BY THE USE OF &EIGELS 3OLUTION !RAGONITE TURNS BLACK WHEREAS CALCITE
REMAINS COLORLESS FOR SOME TIME -IXING &EIGELS 3OLUTION REQUIRES G OF -N3/s(/ TO G OF !G3/
CC OF DISTILLED WATER AND A .A/( SOLUTION $IFlCULT TO PREPARE AND STORE
#ALCITE
CAN BE DISTINGUISHED FROM DOLOMITE WITH A SIMPLE STAIN OF !LIZARIN 2ED 3 IN A (#L SOLUTION COLD
#ALCITE AND ARAGONITE TURN RED WHEREAS DOLOMITE REMAINS COLORLESS
$OLOMITE
CAN BE DISTINGUISHED FROM CALCITE BY THE ABOVE METHOD OR ONE CAN STAIN SPECIlCALLY FOR DOLOMITE WITH
A NUMBER OF ORGANIC STAINS INCLUDING 4ITAN YELLOW 4RYPAN "LUE AND 3AFRANINE / !LL THESE STAINS REQUIRE
CAREFUL BOILING OF THE SAMPLE IN A CONCENTRATED .A/( SOLUTION
(IGH
-G CALCITE
CAN BE DISTINGUISHED FROM ARAGONITE AND LOW
-G CALCITE WITH A #LAYTON 9ELLOW STAIN MADE BY
ADDING G OF 4ITAN 9ELLOW G OF .A/( AND G OF %$4! TO ML OF DISTILLED WATER 4HE SECTION IS ETCHED
IN DILUTE ACETIC ACID FOR SECONDS AND IS THEN PUT IN #LAYTON 9ELLOW SOLUTION FOR MINUTES -G
CALCITES
STAIN PALE PINK TO RED WITH INCREASING -G CONTENT -G
CALCITE CAN ALSO BE STAINED WITH !LIZARIN 2ED 3 IN
.A/( CALCITE REMAINS COLORLESS AND -G
CALCITE TURNS PURPLE SEE #HOQUETTE AND 4RUSELL
CHAPTER 30: TECHNIQUES
&ERROAN CALCITE CAN BE DISTINGUISHED ALONG WITH FERROAN DOLOMITE FROM NORMAL CALCITE BY THE USE OF A POTASSIUM
FERRICYANIDE STAIN IN A WEAK (#L SOLUTION DETAILS IN $ICKSON &ERROAN MINERALS TURN PALE TO DEEP
TURQUOISE AND NON FERROAN ONES REMAIN COLORLESS 4HIS IS NORMALLY DONE IN CONJUNCTION WITH !LIZARIN 2ED 3
STAINING OF A THIN SECTION 4HE COMBINED STAINING PROCESS REQUIRES INITIAL ETCHING IN (#L FOLLOWED BY STAINING
IN A COMBINED SOLUTION OF (#L !LIZARIN 2ED 3 AND POTASSIUM FERRICYANIDE AND THEN A lNAL STAINING IN AN (#L
AND !LIZARIN 2ED 3 MIXTURE SEE $ICKSON !LTHOUGH IT SOUNDS COMPLEX AND MUST BE DONE CAREFULLY
IT IS NOT DIFlCULT AND CAN BE ACCOMPLISHED IN ANY LABORATORY WITH A SINK AND A FUME HOOD
-OST STAINS ARE EASILY DAMAGED ON UNCOVERED SECTIONS SO THEY MUST BE HANDLED WITH CARE OR THEY CAN BE MORE
ROBUSTLY PRESERVED WITH A COVERING OF MINERAL OIL OR NORMAL APPLICATION OF A GLASS COVER SLIP
2OCK SLABS CAN ALSO BE STAINED WITH THESE SAME SOLUTIONS TO SEE MACROSCOPIC MINERALOGICAL VARIATIONS
!CETATE PEELS ARE FAST EASY AND CHEAP METHOD TO VIEW DETAILS OF CARBONATE ROCK FABRIC THEY CAN EVEN PROVIDE
MINERALOGICAL INFORMATION IF STAINING IS COMBINED WITH PRE PEEL ETCHING SEE +ATZ AND &RIEDMAN
6ARIATIONS IN ILLUMINATION METHODS SUCH AS THE hWHITE CARDv TECHNIQUE OF &OLK CAN ACCENTUATE DETAILS AND
ENHANCE RECOGNITION OF SUBTLE OR LARGELY OBLITERATED FEATURES DElNED BY ORGANIC OR MINERAL RESIDUES
&INALLY VISUAL ESTIMATION OF PERCENTAGES OF GRAINS MATRIX OR POROSITY IS ENHANCED BY IMPREGNATION WITH DYED OR
mUORESCENT MEDIA AND BY THE USE OF VISUAL COMPARISON CHARTS TWO OF WHICH ARE INCLUDED AS AN APPENDIX TO THIS
CHAPTER #OMPUTERIZED IMAGE ANALYSIS IS NOW WIDELY USED FOR ACCURATE PERCENTAGE DETERMINATIONS
Up. Cambrian Kittatiny Fm.,
northern New Jersey
3OMETIMES EVEN VERY SIMPLE AND INEXPENSIVE
TECHNIQUES CAN ENHANCE PETROGRAPHIC OBSERVA
TION 4HIS IMAGE AND THE ONE BELOW OFFER A
COMPARISON OF TEXTURAL DETAILS VISIBLE WITH
STANDARD TRANSMITTED LIGHT ILLUMINATION AND
WITH hWHITE CARDv INCIDENT LIGHTING &OLK
)N THIS VIEW ONE SEES A DOLOMITIZED
GRAINSTONE WITH PROBABLE ORGANIC
RICH OOIDS
ALONG THE MARGINS OF THE IMAGE AND SMALLER
MORE INDISTINCT POSSIBLE SKELETAL FRAGMENTS
IN THE CENTRAL AREA 3AMPLE FROM & " 6AN
(OUTEN
00, (! MM
Up. Cambrian Kittatiny Fm.,
northern New Jersey
4HIS IMAGE WAS TAKEN WITH A WHITE INDEX CARD
INSERTED ON THE STAGE BELOW THE THIN SECTION
COUPLED WITH OBLIQUE ILLUMINATION FROM A STAN
DARD RELATIVELY HIGH
INTENSITY LIGHT BULB 5N
DER THIS ILLUMINATION THE OOIDS ARE SEEN TO HAVE
HEMATITE PERHAPS AFTER PYRITE PRECIPITATED IN
THE INTERSTICES BETWEEN REPLACEMENT DOLOMITE
CRYSTALS )N THE CENTRAL AREA A NUMBER OF SKEL
ETAL GRAINS AND SMALL ROUNDED PELOIDS ARE VIS
IBLE !LL IN ALL THIS IS A MUCH CLEARER IMAGE OF
RELICT FABRIC THAN THAT SEEN ABOVE AND IT REVEALS
A LESS WELL SORTED SEDIMENT THAN WOULD HAVE
BEEN INFERRED FROM THE TRANSMITTED LIGHT VIEW
3AMPLE FROM & " 6AN (OUTEN
2, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
!N EXAMPLE OF THE UTILITY OF COMBINED !LIZARIN
2ED 3
POTASSIUM FERRICYANIDE STAINING )N THIS
CASE SELECTIVE DISSOLUTION OF SYNSEDIMENTARY
MARINE CEMENTS HAS LED TO COLLAPSE OF SOME
CEMENT LAYERS AND FORMATION OF A COLLAPSE
BRECCIA OF FRAGMENTS OF THOSE CEMENT CRUSTS
4HE BRECCIA FRAGMENTS WERE THEN ENCASED IN
LATE
STAGE FERROAN CALCITE CEMENT )N THE AB
SENCE OF STAINING THIS FABRIC WOULD BE VIRTUALLY
IMPOSSIBLE TO RECOGNIZE OR INTERPRET
00, !&E3 (! MM
Up. Permian (Guadalupian),
Capitan Fm., subsurface, Eddy Co.,
New Mexico
!N EXAMPLE OF !LIZARIN 2ED 3 STAINING OF A PAR
TIALLY DOLOMITIZED AND FRACTURED DOLOPACKSTONE
FROM A FOREREEF SLOPE DEPOSIT 'RAINS INCLUDE
FUSULINIDS AND SMALL LITHOCLASTS 0ORES ARE LINED
BY AN ISOPACHOUS RIND OF CALCITE DARK AND ARE
lLLED WITH MINOR lNELY CRYSTALLINE DOLOMITE
GRAY AND ANHYDRITE WHITE )N THE ABSENCE
OF STAINING IT WOULD BE ALMOST IMPOSSIBLE TO
ACCURATELY DISTINGUISH SUCH APHANOCRYSTALLINE
DOLOMITE
00, !3 "3% (! MM
Holocene reef-wall limestone,
Belize
4HIS SECTION IS STAINED WITH #LAYTON 9ELLOW
)T SHOWS A SKELETAL GRAINSTONE CEMENTED BY
ISOPACHOUS RINDS OF lBROUS -G CALCITE STAINED
PINK WITH PATCHY AREAS OF ARAGONITIC GRAINS AND
CEMENT UNSTAINED )N THE ABSENCE OF STAINING
IT WOULD BE VERY DIFlCULT TO DISTINGUISH WITH
COMPLETE ACCURACY THESE TWO MINERALOGIES
0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF .OEL 0 *AMES
00, #93 (! MM
CHAPTER 30: TECHNIQUES
Up. Permian (Kazanian?) Wegener
Halv Fm., Jameson Land, East
Greenland
3TAINING OF CARBONATE MINERALS CAN BE DONE ON
CUT AND ETCHED ROCK SURFACES EVEN NATURALLY
ETCHED OUTCROP SURFACES (ERE A SLABBED BUT
UNPOLISHED CORE WAS LIGHTLY ETCHED AND STAINED
WITH POTASSIUM FERRICYANIDE ,ATE
STAGE
FERROAN CALCITE CEMENTS STAINED BRIGHT BLUE
ARE CLEARLY VISIBLE AND ARE GRAPHICALLY DISTIN
GUISHED FROM THE PRIMARY UNSTAINED CONSTITU
ENTS WITHOUT THE NEED TO CUT A THIN SECTION
-AC !&E3 (! ^ CM
Mid. Jurassic (Bathonian) Cajarc
Fm., Marcilhac Mbr., Aquitaine
Basin, SW France
!CETATE PEELS REPRESENT ANOTHER SIMPLE METHOD
TO GET DETAILED OBSERVATIONAL DATA WITHOUT CUT
TING THIN SECTIONS 0EELS REQUIRE ONLY A CUT
GROUND AND ETCHED ROCK SURFACE AND THUS ARE
FAST AND EASY TO PREPARE 4HIS EXAMPLE SHOWS
PSEUDOMORPHS AFTER CRYSTALS OF SECONDARY
ANHYDRITE 4HE PSEUDOMORPHS ARE lLLED WITH
GEOPETAL SEDIMENT BUT THE ROOF OF UNREPLACED
RELICTS IS VERY THIN AND THE CALCITE
CEMENTED
VOID IS EVEN THINNER 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF
$AVID . #LARK
00, (! MM
Devonian limestone, Reefton,
Westland, New Zealand
4HIS IS AN EXAMPLE OF AN ACETATE PEEL MADE
FROM A CORAL STROMATOPOROID LIMESTONE 4HE
lDELITY OF REPRODUCTION OF THE LIMESTONE FABRIC
IS EXCELLENT AND ALLOWS CLEAR OBSERVATION OF THE
BOTH GRAINS AND MATRIX !LTHOUGH MINERALOGIC
STUDIES ARE MORE DIFlCULT WITH PEELS ONE CAN
STAIN THE ROCK lRST AND THEN MAKE A PEEL THAT
INCORPORATES PART OF THE STAIN 4HIS AT LEAST
ALLOWS RECOGNITION OF THOSE MINERALOGIES FOR
WHICH STAINS ARE AVAILABLE "ISSELL (
+ATZ AND &RIEDMAN $AVIES AND 2OGER
0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF $OUG 7
,EWIS
00, (! ^ MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Pennsylvanian Francis Creek
Shale, Mazon Creek, Illinois
4HIS IS AN ACETATE PEEL OF PLANT REMAINS IN PAR
TIALLY SILICIlED SEDIMENT 4HE PEEL WAS MADE
USING (& ACID ETCHING A PROCESS REQUIRING EX
TREME CARE AND SPECIALIZED EQUIPMENT TO HANDLE
CAUSTIC FUMES AND HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS .OTE
THE EXCELLENT PRESERVATION OF REPLACED CELLULAR
MATERIAL ALONG WITH RAY STRUCTURE AND CONCEN
TRIC GROWTH BANDING IN THIS MEMBER OF THE
EXTINCT ORDER ,EPIDODENDRALES !CETATE PEELS
LIKE THIS COMMONLY SHOW MORE STRUCTURE THAN
THIN SECTIONS BECAUSE OF THE EFFECTS OF ETCHING
3ERIAL PEELS CAN BE MADE WITH LITTLE MATERIAL
WASTAGE ALLOWING EXAMINATION OF STRUCTURES IN
THREE DIMENSIONS EG (ONJO
00, (! MM
Up. Permian (Guadalupian)
Grayburg-Up. San Andres Fms.,
3,103 ft (946 m) depth, Crane Co.,
Texas
2ECOGNITION OF POROSITY IN CARBONATE ROCKS IS
GREATLY FACILITATED BY IMPREGNATION WITH DYED
EPOXY PRIOR TO CUTTING AND GRINDING THIN SEC
TIONS #OLORED EPOXY ALLOWS DISTINCTION OF REAL
POROSITY FROM POROSITY CREATED BY PLUCKING OR
FRACTURING OF MATERIAL DURING SECTION PREPARA
TION )T ALSO HELPS TO REVEAL MICROPOROSITY
AS IN THIS DOLOMITIZED SHALLOW SHELF DEPOSIT
&LUORESCENT DYES CAN BE USED TO FURTHER AID IN
QUANTIlCATION OF POROSITY DISTRIBUTIONS EG
!LI AND 7EISS 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF
3USAN ,ONGACRE
00, "3% (! ^ MM
Recent sediment, Grand Cayman,
Cayman Islands, B.W.I.
4HIS THIN SECTION OF A MODERN SHELF LIMESTONE
CONTAINING A LARGE GRAIN OF THE GREEN ALGA
(ALIMEDA HAS BEEN IMPREGNATED WITH BLUE
DYED EPOXY 4HE INTERPARTICLE POROSITY WAS
DISTINGUISHED FROM INTRAPARTICLE POROSITY BY
COMPUTER ENHANCEMENT 3UCH COMPUTER MA
NIPULATION OF POROSITY TYPES CAN HELP TO QUAN
TIFY POROSITY INFORMATION IN CARBONATE ROCKS
THROUGH AUTOMATED IMAGE ANALYSIS
00, "3% (! MM
CHAPTER 30: TECHNIQUES
3%-)
15!.4)4!4)6% !.$ 15!.4)4!4)6% 4%#(.)15%3
!LTHOUGH MANY HIGHLY SPECIALIZED TECHNIQUES EXIST ONLY A FEW OF THOSE MOST COMMONLY USED WILL BE COVERED HERE
CATHODOLUMINESCENCE EPI
mUORESCENCE mUID INCLUSION GEOTHERMOMETRY 3%- BACKSCATTERED ELECTRON IMAGING
MICROPROBE ANALYSIS X
RAY DIFFRACTION AND ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY )T IS BEYOND THE SCOPE OF THIS BOOK TO PROVIDE
DETAILS OF ANY OF THESE TECHNIQUES SO ONLY BASIC PRINCIPLES AND EXAMPLES OF MAJOR USES ARE PROVIDED
#!4(/$/,5-).%3#%.#% -)#2/3#/09
#ATHODOLUMINESCENCE #, CAN BE AN INVALUABLE TOOL IN PETROGRAPHIC STUDIES )T PROVIDES INFORMATION ON THE
SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF TRACE ELEMENTS PARTICULARLY &E AND -N IN CALCITE DOLOMITE AND OTHER GRAINS AND
CEMENTS 2EGIONAL MAPPING OF CEMENT ZONES RELATIVE TO UNCONFORMITIES HAS BEEN USED TO DETERMINE THE TIMING
AND ORIGIN OF SOME CEMENTS EG -EYERS
!NALYSIS CAN BE DONE USING POLISHED ROCK CHIPS POLISHED THIN SECTIONS OR EVEN UNPOLISHED AND UNCOVERED THIN
SECTIONS 4HE EQUIPMENT NEEDED COSTS ABOUT THE SAME AS A MODERATELY PRICED POLARIZING MICROSCOPE AND CAN
BE INSTALLED ON VIRTUALLY ANY MICROSCOPE SEE -ARSHALL -ILLER
#, RESPONSES ARE NORMALLY DESCRIBED AS BRIGHTLY LUMINESCENT DULLY LUMINESCENT OR NONLUMINESCENT ALTHOUGH
MODERN EQUIPMENT ALLOWS MORE DETAILED MEASUREMENT OF INTENSITIES AND SPECTRAL INFORMATION ON #, )N
GENERAL INCORPORATION OF -N INTO THE CALCITE LATTICE STIMULATES LUMINESCENCE AND INCORPORATION OF &E
REDUCES OR QUENCHES LUMINESCENCE
!S NOTED EARLIER IN THIS BOOK QUALITATIVE INTERPRETATION OF #, ASSIGNS NONLUMINESCENT RESPONSE TO OXIDIZING
ENVIRONMENTS IN WHICH THE REDUCED FORMS OF BOTH -N AND &E ARE UNAVAILABLE FOR INCORPORATION INTO THE CRYSTAL
LATTICES OF CALCITE OR DOLOMITE PRECIPITATES /XIDIZED FORMS OF THESE ELEMENTS ARE NOT INCORPORATED INTO CALCITE
OR DOLOMITE CRYSTALS AND THUS THERE IS NOTHING IN THE CRYSTALS TO EXCITE LUMINESCENCE "RIGHT LUMINESCENCE IS
ASSOCIATED WITH CRYSTALS WITH RELATIVELY HIGH -N&E TRACE ELEMENT RATIOS TYPICALLY ACHIEVED UNDER REDUCING
CONDITIONS DURING EARLY TO INTERMEDIATE STAGES OF BURIAL DIAGENESIS $ULL LUMINESCENCE OCCURS WHERE LOWER -N
&E TRACE ELEMENT RATIOS ARE PRESENT IN CARBONATE CRYSTALS TYPICAL IN CEMENTS OR REPLACEMENTS FORMED DURING
INTERMEDIATE TO LATE STAGES OF BURIAL DIAGENESIS
4HESE GENERALIZED COMMENTS ARE MAJOR SIMPLIlCATIONS AND THE READER IS URGED TO CONSULT RECENT REFERENCES ON
#,
RELATED ISSUES FOR MORE DETAILS &RANK ET AL -ACHEL -ARSHALL (EMMING ET AL
"ARKER AND +OPP "UDD ET AL )N PARTICULAR THERE HAS BEEN MUCH DISCUSSION OVER THE PAST
TWO DECADES ABOUT WHETHER OR NOT OTHER ELEMENTS CAN SUPPLEMENT OR MODERATE THE EFFECTS OF -N AND &E
ENHANCEMENT OR REDUCTION OF LUMINESCENCE BUT RECENT PAPERS HAVE LARGELY DISCOUNTED THE IMPORTANCE OF SUCH
INmUENCES EG "UDD ET AL
Up. Permian (Kazanian?)
Karstryggen Fm., Jameson Land,
East Greenland
#ATHODOLUMINESCENCE #, ALLOWS THE RECOG
NITION REGIONAL MAPPING AND CORRELATION OF
SUBTLE COMPOSITIONAL VARIATIONS IN CALCITE OR
DOLOMITE CEMENTS WITH LITTLE COST AND EFFORT
)N THIS EXAMPLE FROM A CALCITE lLLED FRACTURE
#, REVEALS NUMEROUS GEOCHEMICAL mUCTUA
TIONS DURING CEMENT PRECIPITATION &IELD PE
TROGRAPHIC AND GEOCHEMICAL EVIDENCE SUGGEST
THAT THESE mUCTUATIONS PROBABLY REmECT CHANGES
IN REDOX CONDITIONS WITHIN AN EXTENSIVELY FRAC
TURED ROCK THAT UNDERWENT ALTERATION BENEATH
MULTIPLE SUBAERIAL EXPOSURE SURFACES
#, (! ^ MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Lo. Mississippian Lake Valley
Fm., Otero Co., New Mexico
4HIS PHOTOGRAPH AND THE ONE BELOW SHOW
THE SAME AREA IN TRANSMITTED LIGHT AND UNDER
CATHODOLUMINESCENCE "OTH IMAGES DEPICT A
CRINOIDAL BIOSPARITE WITH A LARGE SYNTAXIAL OVER
GROWTH SURROUNDING A CRINOID THE SPECKLED
GRAIN IN THE LOWER CENTER OF THE PHOTOGRAPH
&ROM THIS TRANSMITTED LIGHT VIEW ONE CAN ONLY
DISCERN A SINGLE UNDIFFERENTIATED OVERGROWTH
RECOGNIZABLE FROM THE TWIN LAMELLAE THAT CROSS
FROM THE CRINOID THROUGH THE SURROUNDING
SPARRY CALCITE 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF 7IL
LIAM * -EYERS
00, (! ^ MM
Lo. Mississippian Lake Valley
Fm., Otero Co., New Mexico
! #, IMAGE OF APPROXIMATELY THE SAME
AREA AS SHOWN IN THE IMAGE ABOVE 7ITH
CATHODOLUMINESCENCE AT LEAST lVE MAJOR GEN
ERATIONS OF CEMENTATION ARE VISIBLE ALONG WITH
A NUMBER OF MINOR EVENTS MARKED BY THINNER
BANDING 4HE MAJOR CEMENT GENERATIONS HAVE
BEEN CORRELATED FROM SAMPLE TO SAMPLE AND
WERE TIED TO A VARIETY OF TECTONIC AND EROSIONAL
EVENTS SEE -EYERS 0HOTOGRAPH COUR
TESY OF 7ILLIAM * -EYERS
#, (! ^ MM
Cambrian Bonneterre Fm., near
Viburnum, Missouri
! #, IMAGE OF VUG lLLING DOLOMITE CEMENTS
AND AUTHIGENIC QUARTZ BLUE IN A CARBONATE
MUDSTONE .OTE THE CLEAR DElNITION OF MUL
TIPLE COMPOSITIONAL ZONES OF ALTERNATING BRIGHT
AND DULL LUMINESCENCE IN THE DOLOMITE CEMENTS
AND THE CONSISTENCY OF THAT ZONATION FROM CRYS
TAL TO CRYSTAL 4HE ZONES WITH LITTLE OR NO LUMI
NESCENCE TEND TO HAVE ELEVATED &E CONTENTS
0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF *AY - 'REGG
#, (! MM
CHAPTER 30: TECHNIQUES
%0)
&,5/2%3#%.#% -)#2/3#/09
%PI
mUORESCENCE MICROSCOPY ALSO TERMED INCIDENT LIGHT mUORESCENCE MICROSCOPY HAS A NUMBER OF USES IN MEDICAL
BIOLOGICAL AND GEOLOGICAL lELDS USES THAT VARY WITH THE WAVELENGTH SPECTRUM USED TO EXCITE mUORESCENCE !LL
USES DEPEND ON THE EMISSION OF LIGHT BY A SUBSTANCE CAPABLE OF PRODUCING mUORESCENCE THAT CONTINUES ONLY
DURING THE ABSORPTION OF THE EXCITATION
GENERATING LIGHT BEAM 2OST
4HE PRIMARY GEOLOGICAL APPLICATION OF mUORESCENCE IS TO FACILITATE THE RECOGNITION OF ORGANIC MATTER OR hLIVEv
HYDROCARBONS PRESENT AS INCLUSIONS WITHIN CRYSTALS OR AS RESIDUES IN PORE SPACES )NDEED WITH CAREFULLY
CALIBRATED mUORESCENCE WORK ONE CAN EVEN DETERMINE THE SPECIlC OIL TYPES PRESENT SEE $RAVIS AND 9UREWICZ
&LUORESCENCE CAN ALSO HELP TO DETECT ZONATION WITHIN CRYSTALS AGAIN ON THE BASIS OF INCORPORATED ORGANIC
MATERIALS )T IS AN ESPECIALLY VALUABLE TOOL WHEN USED IN CONJUNCTION WITH mUID INCLUSION MICROSCOPY BECAUSE
IT CAN HELP TO DISTINGUISH HYDROCARBON
lLLED INCLUSIONS FROM WATER
lLLED ONES A PARTICULAR PROBLEM WHEN
WORKING WITH LOW
MATURITY NEARLY COLORLESS HYDROCARBONS
4HE EQUIPMENT NEEDED FOR mUORESCENCE MICROSCOPY IS RELATIVELY SIMPLE AND CAN BE MOUNTED ON ANY HIGH
QUALITY
PETROGRAPHIC MICROSCOPE 4HE SPECIALIZED EQUIPMENT REQUIRED INCLUDES A HIGH
INTENSITY MERCURY
OR XENON
ARC LIGHTING SYSTEM lLTER PACKAGES FOR DIFFERENT WAVELENGTH BANDS AND SPECIALIZED WATER
OR OIL
IMMERSION
REmECTED LIGHT OBJECTIVES
Lo. Permian (Leonardian) Bone
Spring Ls., Delaware Basin, Eddy
Co., New Mexico
-INUTE HYDROCARBON INCLUSIONS WITHIN COM
POSITIONAL ZONES OF DOLOMITE CRYSTALS AS IM
AGED USING EPI mUORESCENCE 3OME OF THESE
HYDROCARBONS ARE PRESENT IN mUID INCLUSIONS
AND SOME ARE FOUND AS PORE lLLING RESIDUES
%PI mUORESCENCE IS AN EFFECTIVE METHOD FOR LO
CATING AND TYPING NON ASPHALTIC HYDROCARBONS
IN THIN SECTIONS ESPECIALLY BECAUSE IMMATURE
OIL INCLUSIONS CAN BE COLORLESS AND THUS EASILY
CONFUSED WITH AQUEOUS INCLUSIONS 0HOTOGRAPH
COURTESY OF $AVID 7IGGINS AND -ITCH (ARRIS
&, (! ^ MM
Up. Permian (Guadalupian) Yates
Fm., Eddy Co., New Mexico
! VIEW OF A LIMESTONE UNDER ULTRAVIOLET EPI
mUORESCENCE SHOWING HYDROCARBON AND BRINE
INCLUSIONS IN REPLACEMENT QUARTZ CRYSTALS
.OTE THE STRONG mUORESCENCE OF THE HYDROCAR
BON BEARING INCLUSIONS AND THE LACK OF mUORES
CENCE IN AQUEOUS INCLUSIONS 4HE INCLUSIONS
IN THIS VIEW ARE ALL PRIMARY 4HE STRENGTH AND
COLOR OF THE mUORESCENCE PROVIDE INFORMATION
ON HYDROCARBON MATURITY AND TYPE
&, (! M
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
&,5)$
).#,53)/. -)#2/3#/09
&LUID INCLUSIONS ARE PRESENT IN VIRTUALLY ALL CRYSTALS 4HEY RANGE IN SIZE FROM LESS THAN M TO A FEW CENTIMETERS
ALTHOUGH INCLUSIONS LARGER THAN MM ARE UNCOMMON -OST CONTAIN A mUID THAT REPRESENTS A SAMPLE OF WATERS
TRAPPED DURING INCLUSION FORMATION PLUS A GAS OR SOLID PHASE THAT MAY HAVE SEPARATED DURING LATER COOLING
0ETROGRAPHIC STUDY USING HEATING AND FREEZING STAGES IS USED TO DETERMINE THE COMPOSITION AND ORIGINAL
TEMPERATURE OF THE mUIDS INVOLVED IN CRYSTAL FORMATION )F INTERPRETED IN THE BROADER CONTEXT OF KNOWN BURIAL
RATES AND TEMPERATURE HISTORIES FOR A GIVEN BASIN THIS CAN PROVIDE USEFUL INFORMATION ON THE TIMING AND
CONDITIONS OF CEMENTATION OR MINERALIZATION
&INDING mUID INCLUSIONS REQUIRES CARE AND PATIENCE BECAUSE THEY CAN OCCUR AT ANY LEVEL WITHIN A MINERAL THUS
REQUIRING NOT JUST SCANNING ALONG THE 8 AND 9 AXES OF THE MINERAL BUT ALSO CONTINUALLY FOCUSING UPWARD AND
DOWNWARD ALONG ITS : AXIS AS WELL #ARE ALSO MUST BE TAKEN TO DETERMINE THE EXACT RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE
mUID INCLUSIONS AND THEIR HOST MINERAL PRIMARY AND PSEUDOSECONDARY INCLUSIONS FORMED WHEN THE CRYSTAL
WAS INITIALLY PRECIPITATED SECONDARY INCLUSIONS FORMED AT A LATER DATE PERHAPS WHEN A CRYSTAL WAS FRACTURED
AND HEALED "Y DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN THESE TYPES OF INCLUSIONS IT SOMETIMES IS POSSIBLE TO OBTAIN DATA ON
SEVERAL DIAGENETIC EVENTS FROM A SINGLE SUITE OF INCLUSIONS (EATING STUDIES ARE USED TO DETERMINE TEMPERATURES
AT THE TIME OF CEMENT PRECIPITATION FREEZING POINT DETERMINATIONS ON THE INCLUSIONS CAN ESTABLISH THE SALINITIES
AND APPROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF THE WATERS OR HYDROCARBONS AND HYDROCARBON GASES PRESENT AT THE TIME OF
INCLUSION ENTRAPMENT
6ARIOUS MINERALS HOWEVER GIVE MORE OR LESS RELIABLE RESULTS FROM mUID INCLUSION STUDIES #ALCITE IS AN EASILY
CLEAVED AND DEFORMABLE MINERAL SO CONTINUED HEATING DURING BURIAL TO TEMPERATURES ABOVE THOSE OF
INITIAL MINERAL FORMATION CAN CAUSE INCLUSIONS TO STRETCH OR LEAK GIVING MISLEADING TEMPERATURES OR mUID
COMPOSITIONS 6ARIOUS STUDIES HAVE SHOWN THAT TEMPERATURES ONLY # ABOVE THOSE AT THE TIME OF FORMATION
CAN LEAD TO SUCH RE
EQUILIBRATION IN CALCITE SEE SUMMARY OF STUDIES IN 'OLDSTEIN $OLOMITE AND QUARTZ
ARE LESS EASILY DEFORMED AND SO GIVE MORE RELIABLE RESULTS ON PRIMARY FORMATION TEMPERATURES )T SHOULD BE
REMEMBERED HOWEVER THAT EVEN DATA FROM RE
EQUILIBRATED INCLUSIONS IF PROPERLY INTERPRETED AS SUCH MAY
YIELD USEFUL INFORMATION ON THE MAXIMUM BURIAL PALEOTEMPERATURES
4HE COMPOSITIONS OF mUID INCLUSIONS MAY ALSO BE ANALYZED DIRECTLY ! NUMBER OF ANALYTICAL METHODS HAVE BEEN
USED FOR THIS TYPE OF WORK INCLUDING NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS OF THE DRIED RESIDUUM LEFT AFTER CRUSHING
OF INCLUSIONS ANALYSIS BY ION MICROPROBE OF LIQUID OR FROZEN INCLUSIONS OR ANALYSIS BY MASS SPECTROMETRY OF
MATERIAL EMITTED WHEN INCLUSIONS ARE CRUSHED
&LUID INCLUSION MICROSCOPY IS A COMPLEX SUBJECT THAT IS BOTH AN ART AND A SCIENCE THE INTERESTED USER THEREFORE
IS URGED TO READ ONE OR MORE OF THE BOOKS THAT HAVE BEEN WRITTEN ON THIS TOPIC 3HEPHERD ET AL AND
ESPECIALLY 'OLDSTEIN AND 2EYNOLDS AND THE PAPERS CITED IN THOSE VOLUMES
4OP ! LARGE INCLUSION IN mUORITE BEING HEATED TO
DETERMINE THE HOMOGENIZATION TEMPERATURE 4HE
INCLUSION HOMOGENIZES AT # AND MUST BE
UNDERCOOLED TO # BEFORE THE VAPOR BUBBLE
RENUCLEATES ABRUPTLY 3CALE BAR M
"OTTOM #OOLTHAW RUN FOR SYNTHETIC (/
.A#L INCLUSION OF WT .A#L ! 2OOM
TEMPERATURE " )NCLUSION FREEZES TO CLEAR SOLID
AT ABOUT
# # &IRST INDICATION OF CRYSTALS
RECRYSTALLIZATION IS AT
# $ !T
#
BRIGHTER AND DARKER CRYSTAL OUTLINES ARE OBVIOUS
% !T # BELOW THE EUTECTIC !T EUTECTIC THE
BRIGHTER CRYSTALS HYDROHALITE INSTANTLY BEGIN TO
DISAPPEAR AND CONCOMITANTLY THE ICE CRYSTALS
CHANGE SIZE & "Y JUST # ABOVE EUTECTIC
THERE IS OBVIOUS hCLEARINGv ALL HYDROHALITE HAS
BROKEN DOWN '
) PROGRESSIVE LOSS OF ICE
CRYSTALS 0HOTOGRAPHS COURTESY OF 2OBERT (
'OLDSTEIN IN 'OLDSTEIN AND 2EYNOLDS
CHAPTER 30: TECHNIQUES
Mississippian limestone,
southeastern Kansas
!N ASSEMBLAGE OF PRIMARY mUID INCLUSIONS IN A
CALCITE CEMENT OVERGROWTH CENTER THAT FORMED
ON A CRINOID FRAGMENT BELOW #LOUDY AREA
IN LOWER CENTER IS A GROWTH
ZONE BOUNDED AREA
OF mUID INCLUSIONS MOST ARE TWO
PHASE WITH
RELATIVELY CONSISTENT RATIOS OF LIQUID TO VAPOR
AND SOME ARE ALL LIQUID 0HOTOGRAPH COURTESY
OF 2OBERT ( 'OLDSTEIN FROM 'OLDSTEIN AND
2EYNOLDS &IG
00, (! M
Late Jurassic, Oxfordian Upper
Smackover Fm., Gulf Coast, U.S.A.
! CLOSE UP VIEW OF NUMEROUS TWO PHASE AQUE
OUS mUID INCLUSIONS IN BURIAL STAGE CALCITE
CEMENT 4O ASCERTAIN THAT THE INCLUSIONS HAVE
NOT STRETCHED BY OVERHEATING OR DECREASED IN
SIZE DURING LATER DIAGENESIS IT IS IMPORTANT TO
DEMONSTRATE A CONSISTENT RATIO OF VAPOR BUBBLE
VOLUME TO TOTAL INCLUSION VOLUME WITHIN THE
CRYSTAL 4HIS LIMITS POSSIBLE SOURCES OF ERROR
DURING MICROTHERMOMETRY -ANY OF THESE
INCLUSIONS FOR EXAMPLE HAVE CONSISTENT RATIOS
AND THEREFORE WOULD BE GOOD CANDIDATES FOR
mUID INCLUSION GEOTHERMOMETRY 0HOTOGRAPH
COURTESY OF #LYDE ( -OORE
00, (! ^ M
Lo. Cretaceous (Barremian)
Kharaib Fm., 3,793 ft (1,156 m)
depth, offshore Qatar
! VIEW OF LATH LIKE CALCITE CRYSTALS lLLING A
SECONDARY VUG IN A SHALLOW SHELF LIMESTONE
4HE CRYSTALS CONTAIN ABUNDANT LIQUID HYDRO
CARBON INCLUSIONS 4HESE INCLUSIONS ARE PSEU
DOSECONDARY BECAUSE THEY HAVE FORMED ALONG
CRYSTAL GROWTH ZONES $IFFERENTIATING BETWEEN
SECONDARY AND PSEUDOSECONDARY INCLUSIONS
CAN BE DIFlCULT SINCE THEY BOTH FORM LINEAR
TRENDS $ETAILED PETROGRAPHIC STUDIES IN CON
JUNCTION WITH mUID INCLUSION INVESTIGATIONS ARE
IMPORTANT TO HELP UNRAVEL THESE ISSUES
00, (! MM
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Lo. Cretaceous (Barremian)
Kharaib Fm., 3,793 ft (1,156 m)
depth, offshore Qatar
! CLOSE UP VIEW OF MATERIAL FROM THE SAME
SAMPLE AS SHOWN IN THE PREVIOUS PHOTOGRAPH
)T AGAIN SHOWS CALCITE CRYSTALS lLLING A SECOND
ARY VUG THE CRYSTALS CONTAIN ABUNDANT AND
LARGE LIQUID HYDROCARBON INCLUSIONS .OTE THE
HYDROCARBON STAINING ALONG GROWTH ZONES 4HE
CALCITE CRYSTAL MORPHOLOGY IN THIS SPECIMEN IS
UNUSUAL IN ITS LATH LIKE SHAPE THIS MAY BE DUE
TO POISONING OF THE LATTICE BY THE HYDROCAR
BONS
00, "3% (! MM
Up. Permian, (Guadalupian) Yates
Fm., Eddy Co., New Mexico
! COMPARISON OF PLANE POLARIZED TRANSMITTED
LIGHT LEFT AND ULTRAVIOLET EPI mUORESCENCE
RIGHT VIEWS OF HYDROCARBON AND BRINE INCLU
SIONS IN REPLACEMENT QUARTZ CRYSTALS .OTE THE
BROWNISH COLOR OF THE HYDROCARBONS IN TRANS
MITTED LIGHT AND THE VAPOR BUBBLE IN THE OIL
4HE HYDROCARBONS ALSO ARE CLEARLY DISTINGUISH
ABLE BY THEIR STRONG mUORESCENCE
00,&, (! M EACH
Up. Permian, (Guadalupian) Yates
Fm., Eddy Co., New Mexico
5SE OF HISTOGRAMS IS AN EFFECTIVE WAY TO
#
ILLUSTRATE THE DATA GATHERED DURING mUID IN
" " CLUSION MICROTHERMOMETRY STUDIES )N THIS
GRAPH AQUEOUS AND HYDROCARBON INCLUSIONS
"
IN REPLACEMENT QUARTZ ARE PLOTTED AGAINST THEIR
MEASURED HOMOGENIZATION TEMPERATURES 5S
ING HISTOGRAMS ENABLES EFFECTIVE VISUAL DISPLAY
OF THE DATA ON THE THERMAL HISTORY OF MULTIPLE
PHASES 2EDRAWN FROM 5LMER
3CHOLLE ET AL
$! !" %
CHAPTER 30: TECHNIQUES
3%- %.%2'9
$)30%23)6% !.!,93)3
4HE UTILITY OF SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY IN STUDYING VERY SMALL OBJECTS AND THREE
DIMENSIONAL GRAINS HAS BEEN
SHOWN THROUGHOUT THIS BOOK AND IN MANY OTHER PUBLICATIONS AND NEEDS NO ELABORATION HERE 4HE SCANNING
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE HOWEVER IS USEFUL NOT ONLY FOR EXAMINING SEDIMENT TEXTURES BUT WHEN EQUIPPED WITH
AN ENERGY DISPERSIVE ANALYZER IT ALSO CAN BE USED FOR MINERAL IDENTIlCATION AND SEMI
QUANTITATIVE CHEMICAL
ANALYSIS 4HE ANALYSES ARE RAPID SECONDS REQUIRE RELATIVELY LITTLE SAMPLE PREPARATION AND CAN BE USED FOR VERY
lNE
GRAINED SEDIMENT IN WHICH STAINING MAY BE UNABLE TO RESOLVE lNE
SCALE DETAILS )N MOST CASES SMALL CHIPS
OF THE SAMPLE CAN BE MOUNTED ON A SMALL PLUG WITH NO POLISHING OR CUTTING REQUIRED 4HE SAMPLE IS THEN COATED
WITH A GOLD
PALLADIUM ALLOY OR OTHER CONDUCTIVE MATERIAL AND IS INSERTED INTO THE 3%-
!LTHOUGH ENERGY
DISPERSIVE ANALYSIS ON THE 3%- PROVIDES AN EXCELLENT TOOL FOR MINERAL IDENTIlCATION IT IS NOT
IDEALLY SUITED FOR QUANTITATIVE ANALYTICAL WORK $ETAILED DETERMINATION OF MINERAL COMPOSITION OR ANALYSIS OF
SMALL CRYSTALS FOR TRACE ELEMENT CONTENTS IS BEST DONE USING POLISHED SAMPLES ON AN ELECTRON MICROPROBE
4HE EXAMPLES BELOW SHOW ACCESSORY MINERALS IN CHALKS FROM THE 5PPER #RETACEOUS !TCO &ORMATION !USTIN
'ROUP OF 4EXAS 4HE UPPER PAIR OF PHOTOGRAPHS ILLUSTRATE PYRITE CRYSTALS ABOUT M IN DIAMETER AND A
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF THE SAME AREA .OTE THE PROMINENT IRON AND SULFUR PEAKS HIGHLIGHTED IN WHITE 4HE LOWER
PAIR OF PHOTOGRAPHS SHOWS A FRAGMENT OF PHOSPHATIC SKELETAL MATERIAL CIRCULAR DEPRESSIONS ARE ABOUT M
ACROSS WITH THE HIGHEST PEAKS REPRESENTING THE PHOSPHOROUS AND CALCIUM CONCENTRATIONS
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
%,%#42/. -)#2/02/"% !.!,93)3
4HE UNIQUE CAPABILITY OF THE ELECTRON MICROPROBE IS THE ABILITY TO PROVIDE QUANTITATIVE GEOCHEMICAL ANALYSES
OF AREAS AS SMALL AS M ON A POLISHED SAMPLE SURFACE ! SINGLE GEOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS CAN BE PRODUCED IN A
MATTER OF MINUTES ONCE THE MACHINE IS CALIBRATED WITH WELL CHARACTERIZED REFERENCE MATERIALS 4HIS TYPE OF
ANALYSIS IS VALUABLE FOR ASSESSING THE COMPOSITION OF SAMPLE MATERIAL AND IS PARTICULARLY USEFUL IN CONJUNCTION
WITH BACKSCATTERED ELECTRON IMAGING THROUGH WHICH SUBTLE CHEMICAL VARIATIONS OR ZONATION CAN BE EASILY
IDENTIlED
! SECOND COMMONLY
USED APPLICATION OF THE ELECTRON MICROPROBE IS PRODUCTION OF CHEMICAL MAPS 4HESE MAPS
ARE MADE BY RASTERING THE ELECTRON BEAM OVER THE SAMPLE SURFACE COLLECTING THE X
RAY INTENSITY FOR EACH IMAGE
STEP AND COMBINING THIS INFORMATION TO PRODUCE AN IMAGE 4HESE MAP IMAGES CAN BE USEFUL FOR IDENTIlCATION
OF TRACE PHASES EXAMINATION OF COMPOSITIONAL ZONATION AND MINERALOGICAL IDENTIlCATION 7ITH CURRENT
COMPUTERIZED IMAGE
PROCESSING TECHNIQUES THE MAPS CAN BE USED TO QUICKLY PRODUCE THE TYPE OF INFORMATION
THAT TRADITIONALLY WOULD BE COLLECTED BY POINT COUNTING MINERAL GRAINS
4HE MAIN DISADVANTAGES OF ELECTRON MICROPROBE ANALYSIS ARE COST TIME REQUIRED FOR SAMPLE PREPARATION NEED FOR
WELL CHARACTERIZED STANDARDS FOR QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS AND DIFlCULTY OF ANALYZING TRACE ELEMENTS THAT ARE
PRESENT IN LOW ABUNDANCES
Plio-Pleistocene Santa Fe Gp.,
Socorro Co., New Mexico
4HE FOUR IMAGES SHOWN HERE IN TWO SETS ARE
A BACKSCATTERED ELECTRON "3% IMAGE AND
THREE CHEMICAL MAPS OF A CARBONATE
CEMENTED
CONCRETION 4HE CHEMICAL MAPS HIGHLIGHT THE
DISTRIBUTION OF DIFFERENT CHEMICAL ELEMENTS IN
THIS CASE 3I #A AND -G ACROSS THE POLISHED
SURFACE OF A SAMPLE 4HE #A CHEMICAL MAP
SHOWS THAT THE CEMENT IN THIS CONCRETION IS #A
BEARING AND THAT THE #A CONTENT OF THE CEMENT
IS RELATIVELY UNIFORM OVER THE MM AREA OF
THIS IMAGE 4HE 3I CHEMICAL MAP SHOWS THAT ALL
OF THE CLASTS ARE SILICATE FRAGMENTS AND BASED
ON THE INTENSITY OF SILICA X
RAYS AT LEAST THREE
DIFFERENT MINERALS ARE PRESENT 4HE -G MAP
SHOWS THAT THE OVERALL ABUNDANCE OF -G IN THE
CARBONATE MATRIX IS LOW BUT THAT THERE IS SOME
VARIABILITY IN THE -G ABUNDANCE !LSO ONE OF
THE SILICATE CLASTS IS -G
RICH AND BASED ON THE
PLATY SHAPE MAY BE A MICA 0HOTOGRAPHS COUR
TESY OF 0ETER -OZELY
(! MM FOR EACH OF THE FOUR PHOTOS
CHAPTER 30: TECHNIQUES
Tertiary terrigenous sediment,
U.S.A.
4HIS BACKSCATTERED ELECTRON IMAGE FROM A PRO
DELTAIC CARBONATE
CEMENTED SANDSTONE SHOWS
A VARIETY OF GRAINS QUARTZ DARK ANGULAR
GRAINS +
FELDSPAR BRIGHT ELONGATE BROKEN
CLAST ARGILLACEOUS ROCK FRAGMENTS LOWER
LEFT AND CHERT UPPER RIGHT WITH HOLES 4HE
CEMENT IS DOLOMITIC AND THE BANDING ID DUE TO
VARIATIONS IN #A-G RATIOS THE BRIGHTER AREAS
CONTAIN MORE #A THAN THE DARKER AREAS DUE TO
THE HIGHER ATOMIC NUMBER OF #A RELATIVE
TO -G
-0 (! MM
Detrital grain in Holocene surface
sediment, Great Australian Bight,
Australia
! BACKSCATTERED ELECTRON IMAGE OF A DETRITAL
CRYSTAL OF #ENOZOIC DOLOMITE REWORKED INTO
(OLOCENE SEDIMENT 4HE DOLOMITE CRYSTAL HAS
A HIGH MANGANESE STOICHIOMETRIC CORE SUR
ROUNDED BY A NON STOICHIOMETRIC OVERGROWTH
4HE LIGHT CRYSTAL AT THE VERY CENTER AS WELL AS
OTHER LIGHT AREAS ARE LOW -G CALCITE 0HOTO
GRAPH COURTESY OF +URT +YSER
-0 (! MM
8
2!9 $)&&2!#4)/. !.!,93)3
)N ADDITION TO BEING A FAST RELIABLE AND RELATIVELY INEXPENSIVE METHOD OF DETERMINING THE BULK MINERALOGY
OF CARBONATE ROCKS ARAGONITE CALCITE DOLOMITE SIDERITE ETC X
RAY DIFFRACTION ALLOWS FAIRLY ACCURATE
DETERMINATION OF THE AMOUNT OF MAGNESIUM SUBSTITUTION IN THE CALCITE OR DOLOMITE LATTICE &OR THIS ONE NEEDS
TO DO CAREFUL SLOW
SPEED SCANS )NCLUDING AN INTERNAL STANDARD THAT DOES NOT CONmICT WITH CARBONATE PEAKS
BUT THAT ALLOWS ACCURATE CALIBRATION IS IMPORTANT GALENA 0B3 IS A COMMON STANDARD FOR ANCIENT CARBONATES
AND HALITE .A#L OR mUORITE #A& FOR MODERN SEDIMENTS
5SING THOSE METHODS ONE CAN DETERMINE VERY ACCURATELY IN TERMS OF THE ANGLE Q THE REmECTION PEAK POSITIONS
REPRESENTING THE PLANE OF THE CALCITE CRYSTAL LATTICE "Y MATCHING THAT DATA AGAINST THE CHART GIVEN IN
THE FOLLOWING DIAGRAM MODIlED FROM 'OLDSMITH ET AL ONE CAN APPROXIMATE THE MAGNESIUM CONTENT
OF THE LATTICE TO ABOUT MOL /THER CATIONS BESIDES MAGNESIUM HOWEVER CAN CAUSE LATTICE
SPACING SHIFTS
AND THIS DATA SHOULD THUS BE CHECKED OCCASIONALLY WITH ELECTRON MICROPROBE OR ATOMIC ABSORPTION ANALYSIS
&URTHER INFORMATION ABOUT X
RAY ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES SUITABLE FOR CARBONATE ROCKS IS AVAILABLE IN &ANG AND
:EVIN
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Chart for x-ray determination of
Mg content in calcite and dolomite
lattices
4HIS CHART CAN BE USED TO CONVERT X
RAY PEAK
ANGLES TO PERCENTAGE OF MAGNESIUM IN MOL
-G IN THE CALCITE OR DOLOMITE LATTICE !CCU
RATE DETERMINATION OF PEAK POSITIONS HOWEVER
DEPENDS ON CAREFUL CALIBRATION AND THE USE OF
ADMIXED STANDARDS GALENA HALITE OR mUORITE
!FTER 'OLDSMITH ET AL
!
34!",% )3/4/0% !.!,93)3
3TABLE AND RADIOMETRIC ISOTOPIC GEOCHEMICAL ANALYSES ARE NOT PETROGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES BUT THEY HAVE BECOME
SUCH NATURAL ADJUNCTS TO PETROGRAPHY THAT IT IS IMPOSSIBLE NOT TO MENTION THEM IN A BOOK SUCH AS THIS /NLY THE
BRIEFEST OF SUMMARIES CAN BE PROVIDED HERE HOWEVER AND THE INTERESTED READER IS ENCOURAGED TO PERUSE THE
APPLICABLE LITERATURE FOR A FULLER EXPLANATION EG !RTHUR ET AL AND (OEFS
3TABLE ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY OF CARBONATE ROCKS INVOLVES THE MEASUREMENT OF // AND ## RATIOS AND
COMPARING THESE TO THE RATIOS IN A STANDARD TYPICALLY 0$" A BELEMNITE FOR CARBONATE ROCKS ANDOR 3-/7
STANDARD MEAN OCEAN WATER FOR WATERS AND FOR SOME CARBONATE AND SILICATE ROCKS )SOTOPIC RESULTS ARE GIVEN
AS DELTA VALUES D BETWEEN THE ISOTOPIC RATIO OF THE ANALYZED SAMPLE AND THAT OF THE STANDARD
#ARBON AND OXYGEN ISOTOPIC ANALYSES REQUIRE A MASS SPECTROMETER AND SO ARE MODERATELY EXPENSIVE 4HESE ANALYSES
NOW CAN BE DONE ON EXTREMELY SMALL SAMPLES SO SAMPLING OF CEMENT ZONES OR INDIVIDUAL FOSSIL CONSTITUENTS IS
FEASIBLE ALTHOUGH MICROSAMPLING COMMONLY IS THE MOST DIFlCULT PART OF ISOTOPIC STUDY 0REZBINDOWSKI
!DVANCES IN LASER ABLATION MASS SPECTROMETRY ALLOW IN
SITU SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS ON A VERY SMALL SCALE AND
SHOULD MINIMIZE SAMPLING PROBLEMS IN THE FUTURE
)NTERPRETATION OF STABLE ISOTOPIC DATA IS INHERENTLY COMPLEX BECAUSE THERE ARE MORE VARIABLES THAN KNOWNS
4HE // INCORPORATED INTO A CALCITE OR DOLOMITE FOR EXAMPLE IS A FUNCTION OF WATER TEMPERATURE HIGHER
TEMPERATURES YIELD PRECIPITATES WITH MORE / RELATIVE TO / AND THUS hLIGHTERv OR MORE NEGATIVE RATIOS
RELATIVE TO THE 0$" STANDARD 5NFORTUNATELY THE // RATIOS OF PRECIPITATED CARBONATES ARE ALSO A FUNCTION
OF THE // RATIOS IN THE WATERS FROM WHICH THEY PRECIPITATE 4HUS CARBONATES PRECIPITATED FROM FRESH
METEORIC WATERS WILL ALSO HAVE hLIGHTv OR NEGATIVE ISOTOPIC RATIOS RELATIVE TO 0$" &URTHER COMPLICATIONS
COME FROM POSSIBLE SECULAR VARIATIONS IN THE ISOTOPIC CHEMISTRY OF SEAWATER FROM ISOTOPIC FRACTIONATION IN THE
BIOLOGICAL PRECIPITATION OF TESTS AND SHELLS FRACTIONATION THAT VARIES EVEN DOWN TO THE SPECIES LEVEL AND FROM A
WIDE RANGE OF ISOTOPIC WATER COMPOSITIONS RESULTING FROM ISOTOPIC FRACTIONATION DURING REPEATED EVAPORATION
EVENTS AND FROM OTHER FACTORS
#ARBON ISOTOPIC VARIATION IS LESS DEPENDENT ON TEMPERATURE BUT DOES DEPEND ON BIOLOGICAL FRACTIONATION PROCESSES
THE CARBON ISOTOPIC COMPOSITION OF WATER WHICH ALSO SHOWS SECULAR VARIATIONS ORGANIC AND INORGANIC
DECOMPOSITION OF ORGANIC MATTER AND THE POSSIBLE INTRODUCTION OF PLANT
OR SOIL
DERIVED #/
$ESPITE ALL THESE COMPLICATIONS SOME USEFUL PATTERNS OF STABLE ISOTOPIC GEOCHEMISTRY IN CARBONATE ROCKS HAVE
EMERGED IN THE ROUGHLY YEARS THAT THESE ANALYSES HAVE BEEN CONDUCTED 3UCH PATTERNS ARE SUMMARIZED IN
THE DIAGRAMS THAT FOLLOW THIS TEXT AND THE READER IS URGED TO READ THE ORIGINAL ARTICLES FOR FULL EXPLANATIONS
"ASICALLY IF THE ISOTOPIC COMPOSITIONS OF TYPICAL MARINE PRECIPITATES OF A GIVEN AGE ARE KNOWN METEORIC PRODUCTS
TYPICALLY WILL HAVE SLIGHTLY LIGHTER // RATIOS AND SLIGHTLY TO SUBSTANTIALLY LIGHTER ## RATIOS "URIAL
DIAGENETIC PRODUCTS MAY HAVE LIGHTER TO MUCH LIGHTER // RATIOS AND VARIABLE ## RATIOS DEPENDING ON
THE NATURE OF ORGANIC DECOMPOSITION PROCESSES ACTIVE AT THE TIME OF CARBONATE PRECIPITATION
CHAPTER 30: TECHNIQUES
Diagenetic trends of carbon
and oxygen isotopic ratios in
limestones
4HESE DIAGRAMS SHOW GENERALIZED TRENDS IN THE
ISOTOPIC GEOCHEMISTRY OF CARBONATE ROCKS AND
OF #/ GENERATED BY THE DIAGENESIS OF ORGANIC
MATTER 4HE LEFT HAND DIAGRAM ADAPTED FROM
,OHMANN SHOWS THE EFFECTS OF METEORIC
ALTERATION IN SHIFTING ROCK CHEMISTRY TO LIGHTER
// RATIOS AND VARIABLY LIGHTER ## RA
TIOS DEPENDING ON THE RATIO OF WATER TO ROCK
INVOLVED IN THE DIAGENESIS 4HE hBURIAL TRENDv
ARROW SHOWS THE EXTENSION OF THAT ALTERATION
INTO THE SUBSURFACE 4HE RIGHT HAND DIAGRAM
ADAPTED FROM )RWIN ET AL SHOWS THE
## RATIOS IN #/ LIBERATED DURING BURIAL
DIAGENESIS OF ORGANIC MATTER 3OME OF THAT MAY
BE INCORPORATED IN BURIAL STAGE CALCITE CEMENTS
Up. Permian Wegener Halv Fm.,
Jameson Land, East Greenland '
4HIS DIAGRAM SHOWS THE RANGE OF CARBON
AND OXYGEN ISOTOPIC VALUES FOR A VARIETY OF
SEPARATELY ANALYZED CONSTITUENTS IN A 0ERMIAN
LIMESTONE )T ILLUSTRATES THE TYPICAL DIAGENETIC
'
TREND TO LIGHTER CARBON AND OXYGEN ISOTOPIC
VALUES THROUGH BURIAL DIAGENESIS 0RIMARY
MARINE CONSTITUENTS HAVE AVERAGE //
RATIOS OF ABOUT y AND AVERAGE ## RATIOS
OF ABOUT y IN THIS AREA 4HE LATEST STAGE
CEMENTS REmECTING DEEP AND HIGH TEMPERATURE
BURIAL CONDITIONS HAVE AVERAGE // RATIOS
OF y AND ## RATIOS OF ABOUT y
!LTHOUGH THE SPECIlC VALUES VARY FROM AREA
TO AREA THE TREND IS CONSISTENT AND AIDS IN THE #$&" " "&" " " $"
%" $# !"$ $# $# " ! #
RECOGNITION OF BURIAL STAGE PRECIPITATES
A simplied burial history plot for
Permian strata of the Delaware
Basin of west Texas-New Mexico
!
$ETERMINATIONS OF TEMPERATURES OF FORMATION OF
CEMENTS USING mUID INCLUSION GEOTHERMOMETRY
OR STABLE ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY CAN BE RELATED
"
TO THE GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF AN AREA THROUGH PE
TROGRAPHIC STUDIES PARAGENESIS COUPLED WITH
BURIAL HISTORY PLOTS EG "URRUSS ET AL
'UIDISH ET AL 4HIS PLOT SHOWS AN
EXAMPLE OF A SIMPLE BURIAL HISTORY CONSISTING
OF RAPID EARLY
STAGE BURIAL INTERMEDIATE
STAGE
STABILITY AND LATE
STAGE UPLIFT -AXIMUM
BURIAL DEPTH AND BURIAL TEMPERATURES FOR ANY
ROCK UNIT AND TIME PERIOD CAN BE VISUALIZED
FROM THIS PLOT A PROCESS THAT CAN HELP IN THE IN
!
TERPRETATION OF PETROGRAPHIC AND ISOTOPIC DATA
$IAGRAM ADAPTED FROM MULTIPLE SOURCES
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
342/.4)5- )3/4/0% '%/#(%-)3429
4HE FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS IN STRONTIUM ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY OF CARBONATE ROCKS ARE THAT ALL OCEAN WATER IS WELL
MIXED AND HAS A UNIFORM 3R3R RATIO BUT THAT THE 3R3R RATIO OF SEAWATER HAS VARIED SIGNIlCANTLY THROUGH
GEOLOGIC TIME 4HE 0HANEROZOIC CURVE FOR SECULAR VARIATION OF STRONTIUM WAS lRST COMPILED BY "URKE ET AL
AND HAS SUBSEQUENTLY BEEN RElNED BY A NUMBER OF OTHER WORKERS SEE FOR EXAMPLE %LDERlELD
AND IS DEPICTED IN THE DIAGRAM BELOW 4HE VARIATIONS OF SEAWATER 3R3R RATIOS THROUGH TIME RESULT FROM
TEMPORAL VARIATIONS IN THE RELATIVE AMOUNTS OF 3R INPUTS FROM CONTINENTAL AND OCEANIC SOURCES WHICH HAVE
SUBSTANTIALLY DIFFERENT 3R3R RATIOS SEE DIAGRAM AT BOTTOM OF PAGE
4HE MEASUREMENT OF 3R3R IN UNALTERED LIMESTONES OR IN UNALTERED CONSTITUENTS WITHIN LIMESTONES ALLOWS
DATING OF SAMPLES ESPECIALLY FROM INTERVALS WITH LONG UNIDIRECTIONAL TRENDS OF CHANGING 3R3R RATIOS THE
#ENOZOIC FOR EXAMPLE
/THER STUDIES USING 3R3R RATIOS IN CARBONATE ROCKS HAVE TRIED TO TIE CEMENTATION OR REPLACEMENT PROCESSES
TO SUBSURFACE INmUX OF WATERS FROM SPECIlC SOURCES OR AGES $EEP BASINAL BRINES IN CONTINENTAL SEDIMENTS
COMMONLY ARE HIGHLY RADIOGENIC BECAUSE OF UPTAKE OF STRONTIUM FROM FELDSPAR DISSOLUTION OR CLAY DIAGENESIS
2EmUXING EVAPORATIVE MARINE mUIDS THAT PERCOLATE DOWNWARD CARRY WITH THEM THE 3R3R RATIOS OF SEAWATER
AT THE TIME OF REmUX A SIGNATURE THAT MAY BE MODIlED DURING ROCK
WATER INTERACTIONS BUT MAY ALSO BE USED TO
DETERMINE THE TIME OF ALTERATION EG $ENISON ET AL ,AND 6AHRENKAMP AND 3WART
Phanerozoic secular variation
curve of strontium isotopic ratios
in seawater
4HE ORANGE BAND ON THIS DIAGRAM SHOWS THE
BEST ESTIMATE lT FOR STRONTIUM ISOTOPIC
VALUES MEASURED FROM RELATIVELY UNALTERED
% %
0HANEROZOIC MARINE CARBONATE ROCKS AND
THUS BY INFERENCE FOR VARIATIONS IN THE 3R ISO
TOPIC RATIO OF SEAWATER THROUGH TIME REDRAWN
FROM "URKE ET AL AS MODIlED BY !LLAN
AND 7IGGINS 'IVEN A GOOD KNOWLEDGE
OF THE EXPECTED 3R3R RATIO OF SEAWATER AND
OF PRIMARY CARBONATE ROCK CONSTITUENTS FOR ANY
GIVEN AGE ALLOWS THE RECOGNITION OF ANOMALIES
% "
RESULTING FROM DIAGENETIC ALTERATION IN WATERS
OF DIFFERENT ISOTOPIC RATIOS MARINE METEORIC
" !! $#&$ ' %& OR BASINAL 3EE CITED PAPERS FOR SOME OF THE
MANY SUCCESSFUL APPLICATIONS
Reservoirs of strontium and cycles
# #
of inputs and output relative to
!$"# seawater
%!" ! DIAGRAM DEPICTING INTERACTIONS BETWEEN MA
# JOR RESERVOIRS OF RADIOGENIC AND NON
RADIOGEN
'! #! IC STRONTIUM AND THE GEOCHEMICAL CYCLES THAT
CONTROL THE VARIATIONS IN THE 3R3R RATIOS OF
"# "# &#! !$"# SEAWATER THROUGH TIME #ONTINENTAL SOURCES IN
!'
GENERAL ARE RADIOGENIC AND OCEANIC SOURCES ARE
NON
RADIOGENIC #HANGES IN THE RELATIVE INPUTS
!$ # FROM THOSE TWO MAJOR GROUPS OF SOURCES ARE IN
! # mUENCED BY OCEANIC SPREADING RATES EXTENT OF
"# CONTINENTAL EXPOSURE UPLIFT AND EROSION AND
"" MANY OTHER FACTORS !DAPTED FROM %LDERlELD
$$#
CHAPTER 30: TECHNIQUES
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GLOSSARY
Glossary of Petrographic Terms
!CICULAR
$ESCRIBES A l BROUS OR NEEDLE
LIKE GROWTH FORM OF CALCITE IN PELECYPODS OR BRACHIOPODS OR THE COLUMNALS OF CRINOIDS
WHICH CRYSTALS HAVE A LENGTH TO WIDTH RATIO GREATER THAN AND ARE LESS !UTHIGENIC
2OCK CONSTITUENTS AND MINERALS THAT HAVE BEEN NOT BEEN
THAN M WIDE #ONTRASTS WITH THE WIDER CRYSTALS OF THE hCOLUMNARv TRANSPORTED OR THAT CRYSTALLIZED LOCALLY AT THE SPOT WHERE THEY ARE NOW
GROWTH FORM FOUND (OLMES #ONTRAST WITH ALLOGENIC
!GGLUTINATED
! TERM USED TO DESCRIBE THE WALL COMPOSITION OF CERTAIN !UTOCHTHONOUS
&ORMED OR GROWN IN THE PLACE WHERE FOUND #ONTRAST
FORAMINIFERS TINTINNIDS AND OTHER GROUPS WHERE THE SHELL IS BUILT OF WITH hALLOCHTHONOUSv
FOREIGN PARTICLES SAND GRAINS CARBONATE FRAGMENTS SPONGE SPICULES "AFm ESTONE
! TERM USED BY %MBRY AND +LOVAN FOR A ROCK WITH
AND OTHERS BOUND TOGETHER WITH AN ORGANIC OR CALCAREOUS CEMENT ABUNDANT STALK
SHAPED DENDROID FOSSIL REMAINS THAT ARE INTERPRETED
!GGRADING NEOMORPHISM
! KIND OF NEOMORPHISM IN WHICH THE AVERAGE AS HAVING FORMED A BAFm E FOR MATRIX ACCUMULATION MATRIX IS
CRYSTAL SIZE HAS BEEN INCREASED AS A CONSEQUENCE OF DIAGENETIC VOLUMETRICALLY IMPORTANT COMMONLY POORLY SORTED
PROCESSES &OLK "AHAMITE
'RANULAR LIMESTONE COMPOSED LARGELY OF LUMPS INTRACLASTS
!LLOCHEM
! TERM USED FOR ONE OF SEVERAL VARIETIES OF DISCRETE AND OF CEMENTED OR AGGLUTINATED PELLETS PELOIDS AND SKELETAL FRAGMENTS
ORGANIZED CARBONATE AGGREGATES SKELETAL FRAGMENTS PELLETS PELOIDS SIMILAR TO THOSE FOUND ON PARTS OF THE "AHAMA 0LATFORM !N OUTDATED
INTRACLASTS OOIDS AND OTHERS THAT SERVE AS THE COARSER FRAMEWORK GRAINS TERM THAT IS NON
DESCRIPTIVE AND IS NO LONGER WIDELY USED
IN MOST MECHANICALLY DEPOSITED LIMESTONES COINED BY &OLK "ARITE
! WHITE YELLOW OR COLORLESS ORTHORHOMBIC MINERAL "A3/ )T
!LLOCHTHONOUS
2EFERS TO MATERIAL FORMED OR PRODUCED AT A SITE OTHER THAN ITS OCCURS IN TABULAR CRYSTALS IN GRANULAR FORM OR IN COMPACT MASSES
PRESENT LOCATION MATERIAL OF FOREIGN ORIGIN )N THE CONTEXT OF CARBONATE RESEMBLING MARBLE AND IT HAS A SPECIl C GRAVITY OF
STRATA THE TERM NORMALLY REFERS TO GRAINS PRODUCED IN ONE ENVIRONMENT "AROQUE DOLOMITE
$OLOMITE CHARACTERIZED BY LARGE CRYSTAL SIZE OPAQUE
THAT ARE LATER REWORKED TO ANOTHER SETTING THROUGH THE ACTION OF STORMS WHITE COLOR CURVING OR SADDLE
SHAPED CRYSTAL FACES AND UNDULOSE
DEBRIS m OWS OR OTHER TRANSPORT PROCESSES EXTINCTION 4YPICALLY FORMED AT TEMPERATURES ABOVE
# !LSO
!LLOGENIC
! TERM MEANING GENERATED ELSEWHERE APPLIED ESPECIALLY TO TERMED hSADDLE DOLOMITEv 3EE &OLK AND !SSERETO
ROCK CONSTITUENTS THAT CAME INTO EXISTENCE OUTSIDE OF AND PREVIOUS TO "EACHROCK
! FRIABLE TO WELL
CEMENTED ROCK CONSISTING OF CALCAREOUS SAND
THE ROCK OF WHICH THEY ARE NOW A PART FOR EXAMPLE THE PEBBLES OF A CEMENTED BY CALCIUM CARBONATE CRUSTS PRECIPITATED IN THE INTERTIDAL ZONE
LIMESTONE CONGLOMERATE (OLMES #ONTRAST WITH AUTHIGENIC 'ENERALLY FOUND AS THIN BEDS DIPPING SEAWARD AT LESS THAN DEGREES
!LVEOLAR TEXTURE
! TERM INTRODUCED BY %STEBAN AND +LAPPA FOR "INDSTONE
! TERM USED BY %MBRY AND +LOVAN FOR A ROCK WITH
CYLINDRICAL TO IRREGULAR PORES WHICH MAY OR MAY NOT BE l LLED WITH TABULAR
LAMELLAR ORGANISMS BINDING AND ENCRUSTING A LARGE AMOUNT OF
CALCITE CEMENT SEPARATED BY A NETWORK OF ANASTOMOSING MICRITE WALLS MATRIX .O SELF
SUPPORTING ORGANIC FABRIC IS PRESENT
4YPICALLY ASSOCIATED WITH A CALICHE OR SUBAERIAL EXPOSURE SURFACE
0ORE DIAMETERS ARE TYPICALLY
M AND WALLS ARE COMPOSED OF "IOCLASTIC
!SPECT OF A MATERIAL SEDIMENT ROCK PARTICLE ALLUDING TO ITS
BANDED CALCITE NEEDLE l BERS COMPOSITION OF BROKEN REMAINS OF CALCAREOUS ORGANISMS
!NHEDRAL
$ESCRIPTIVE OF A SINGLE CRYSTAL OR CRYSTAL FABRIC THAT DOES NOT "IOLITHITE
! LIMESTONE MADE UP OF ORGANIC STRUCTURES GROWING IN PLACE AND
SHOW WELL DEl NED OR TYPICAL CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC FORMS IE CRYSTAL FACES FORMING A COHERENT RESISTANT MASS DURING GROWTH &OLK
ARE ABSENT #OINED BY 0ETTIJOHN SEE ALSO &RIEDMAN "IOMICRITE
! LIMESTONE COMPOSED PREDOMINANTLY OF SKELETAL GRAINS IN A
!NHYDRITE
!N ORTHORHOMBIC EVAPORITE MINERAL CONSISTING OF ANHYDROUS MICRITE MATRIX &OLK
CALCIUM SULFATE #A3/ )T REPRESENTS GYPSUM WITHOUT ITS WATER OF "IOMICRUDITE
! BIOMICRITE CONTAINING FOSSILS OR FOSSIL FRAGMENTS THAT ARE
HYDRATION AND IT ALTERS READILY TO GYPSUM MORE THAN ONE MILLIMETER IN DIAMETER &OLK
!NKERITE
! WHITE RED OR GRAYISH IRON
RICH MINERAL RELATED TO DOLOMITE "IOSPARITE
! LIMESTONE COMPOSED PREDOMINANTLY OF SKELETAL GRAINS AND
#A&E -G -N #/ )T IS ASSOCIATED WITH IRON ORES AND COMMONLY SPARRY CALCITE CEMENT &OLK
FORMS AS THIN VEINS ASSOCIATED WITH COAL SEAMS
"IRDSEYES
)N SEDIMENTARY CARBONATES THE TERM IS USED FOR SMALL BUT
!PHANOCRYSTALLINE
$ESCRIPTIVE OF AN INTERLOCKING TEXTURE OF A CARBONATE CONSPICUOUS SOMEWHAT LENS
SHAPED OR GLOBULAR MASSES OF SPARRY
SEDIMENTARY ROCK HAVING CRYSTALS WHOSE DIAMETERS ARE IN THE RANGE OF CALCITE CEMENT A FEW MILLIMETERS TO ONE CENTIMETER OR MORE IN SIZE
MM
M &OLK !LTHOUGH THE TERM NORMALLY REFERS TO EITHER THE SPARRY CARBONATE
!RAGONITE
!N ORTHORHOMBIC VARIETY OF CALCIUM CARBONATE #A#/ FEATURES THEMSELVES OR TO THE ROCK CONTAINING THEM &OLK IT
THAT IS TRIMORPHOUS WITH CALCITE AND VATERITE )T IS DENSER AND HARDER HAS ALSO BEEN APPLIED TO VOIDS OF LIKE SIZES AND SHAPES HENCE THE
THAN CALCITE AND HAS LESS PRONOUNCED CLEAVAGE )T IS A COMMON EXPRESSION hBIRDSEYE POROSITYv #HOQUETTE AND 0RAY P
INORGANIC MARINE PRECIPITATE AND IS THE MAIN SKELETAL MATERIAL IN 'ENERALLY SYNONYMOUS WITH hFENESTRAL POROSITYv SOMETIMES SPELLED
MANY INVERTEBRATE GROUPS EG GREEN ALGAE SCLERACTINIAN CORALS AND hBIRDS
EYESv
MOLLUSKS !RAGONITE IS UNSTABLE IN MOST NONMARINE SETTINGS AND THUS "IREFRINGENCE
4HE PROPERTY OF A CRYSTAL TO SPLIT A BEAM OF LIGHT INTO
IS RARE IN PRE
4ERTIARY ROCKS EXCEPT IN SETTINGS WHICH PRECLUDE EXTENSIVE TWO BEAMS OF UNEQUAL VELOCITIES BASED ON THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
CONTACT WITH PORE m UIDS SUCH AS CONCRETIONS OR OIL
SATURATED STRATA THE GREATEST AND THE LEAST INDICES OF REFRACTION OF THAT CRYSTAL 5NDER
!RENACEOUS
! TEXTURAL TERM FOR CLASTIC SEDIMENTS OR SEDIMENTARY ROCKS A POLARIZING MICROSCOPE IN CROSS
POLARIZED LIGHT THE DEGREE OF
OF AVERAGE GRAIN SIZE RANGING FROM TO MM !LSO USED TO BIREFRINGENCE IS MANIFEST AS hINTERFERENCE COLORSv WHICH ARE A FUNCTION
DESCRIBE FORAMINIFERS AND OTHER ORGANISMS THAT AGGLUTINATE TERRIGENOUS OF THE MINERAL TYPE ORIENTATION AND THICKNESS AS WELL AS THE NATURE OF
SAND GRAINS TO FORM THEIR TEST OR SHELL WALLS THE LIGHT
!RGILLACEOUS
0ERTAINING TO A SEDIMENT OR SEDIMENTARY ROCK CONTAINING "ITUMEN
'ENERALLY THE SPECTRUM OF NATURAL m AMMABLE HYDROCARBONS
CLAY
SIZE PARTICLES CLAYEY OR SHALY PETROLEUM ASPHALT MINERAL WAX ETC INCLUDING SEMISOLID AND SOLID
ADMIXTURES WITH MINERAL MATTER
!RTICULATE
2EFERS TO FOSSILS HAVING TWO OR MORE PARTS JOINED TOGETHER
IN THEIR NATURAL RELATIONSHIP FOR EXAMPLE THE VALVES OF BIVALVES "LADED
)N REFERENCE TO SPARRY CALCITE CEMENT DEl NED AS INCLUDING CRYSTALS
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
WITH A LENGTH
TO
WIDTH RATIO BETWEEN AND 3EE &OLK DERIVED FROM OLDER LITHIl ED LIMESTONE GENERALLY EXTERNAL TO THE
CONTEMPORANEOUS DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEM #OMMONLY LOCATED ALONG
"ORINGBORING POROSITY
/PENINGS CREATED IN RELATIVELY RIGID ROCK SHELL
DOWNTHROWN SIDES OF FAULT SCARPS 4ERM COINED BY &OLK
OR OTHER MATERIAL BY BORING ORGANISMS 4HE RIGID HOST SUBSTRATE IS THE
FEATURE THAT DISTINGUISHES BORINGS FROM BURROWS THE LATTER ARE PRODUCED #ALCRETE
3URl CIAL MATERIAL SUCH AS SAND
GRAVEL
OR COBBLE
SIZED
IN UNCONSOLIDATED SEDIMENT 0OROSITY CREATED BY BORING ORGANISMS IS MATERIALS THAT ARE CEMENTED BY CALCIUM CARBONATE IN ARID CLIMATES AS A
NOT COMMON IN ANCIENT CARBONATE ROCKS BUT SUCH PORES ARE RECOGNIZED RESULT OF EVAPORATIVE CONCENTRATION OF #A#/ IN SURFACE PORE WATERS
AS A DISTINCT IF MINOR POROSITY TYPE BY #HOQUETTE AND 0RAY /FTEN CHARACTERIZED BY CRUSTS PISOIDS REVERSE GRADING AUTOFRACTURING
"OTRYOIDBOTRYOIDAL
(AVING THE CURVED FORM OF A BUNCH OF GRAPES AND MICROSTALACTITIC TEXTURES 3YN CALICHE
#OMMONLY USED FOR MINERAL DEPOSITS SUCH AS ARAGONITE CHALCEDONY #ALCSPAR
! TERM USED FOR COARSELY CRYSTALLINE CALCITE CEMENT
OR HEMATITE WHICH HAVE A SURFACE OF SPHERICAL SHAPES !LSO USED FOR
#ALICHE
3URl CIAL MATERIAL SUCH AS SAND
GRAVEL
OR COBBLE
SIZED MATERIALS
CRYSTALLINE AGGREGATES IN WHICH THE SPHERICAL SHAPES ARE COMPOSED
THAT ARE CEMENTED BY CALCIUM CARBONATE IN ARID CLIMATES AS A RESULT OF
OF RADIATING CRYSTALS SUCH AS IN SOME MARINE ARAGONITE CEMENTS !N
EVAPORATIVE CONCENTRATION OF #A#/ IN SURFACE PORE WATERS #OMMONLY
INDIVIDUAL ROUNDED CRYSTAL CLUSTER IS TERMED A hBOTRYOIDv
CHARACTERIZED BY CRUSTS PISOIDS REVERSE GRADING AUTOFRACTURING AND
"OUDINAGE
! LENTICULAR STRUCTURE COMMON IN DEFORMED SEDIMENTARY MICROSTALACTITIC TEXTURES
AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS RESULTING FROM THE STRETCHING THINNING AND
#ATHODOLUMINESCENCE
4HE EMISSION OF CHARACTERISTIC VISIBLE
BREAKING OF A COMPETENT BED WITHIN LESS COMPETENT STRATA RESEMBLING
LUMINESCENCE BY A SUBSTANCE WHEN BOMBARDED BY AN ELECTRON STREAM
BOUDINS SAUSAGE IN CROSS
SECTION
OR IONIZED GAS BEAM
"OUNDSTONE
! CARBONATE ROCK SHOWING SIGNS OF GRAINS BEING LITHIl ED OR
#AVERNOUS POROSITY
! PORE SYSTEM CHARACTERIZED BY LARGE OPENINGS
hBOUNDv BY ORGANISMS DURING DEPOSITION $UNHAM
OR CAVERNS !LTHOUGH MUCH CAVERNOUS POROSITY IS OF SOLUTION ORIGIN
"RECCIA
! ROCK STRUCTURE MARKED BY AN ACCUMULATION OF ANGULAR THE TERM IS DESCRIPTIVE AND NOT GENETIC ! PRACTICAL LOWER SIZE LIMIT
FRAGMENTS OR OF AN ORE TEXTURE SHOWING MINERAL FRAGMENTS WITHOUT OF hCAVERNv FOR OUTCROP STUDIES IS ABOUT THE SMALLEST OPENING AN
NOTABLE ROUNDING -AJOR TYPES OF BRECCIAS IN CARBONATE STRATA INCLUDE ADULT PERSON CAN ENTER 3UCH PORE SPACE IS TOO LARGE TO BE IDENTIl ED
FRACTURE BRECCIAS ASSOCIATED WITH STRUCTURAL FEATURES OR SOLUTION
IN NORMAL SUBSURFACE CORES BUT IS RECOGNIZABLE DURING DRILLING BY
COLLAPSE BRECCIAS TYPICALLY ASSOCIATED WITH REMOVAL OF ASSOCIATED LARGE DROPS M OR GREATER OF THE DRILL BIT 3EE #HOQUETTE AND 0RAY
EVAPORITES OR CAVERN FORMATION AND COLLAPSE IN LIMESTONES
"RECCIA POROSITY
THE TYPE OF INTERPARTICLE POROSITY IN A BRECCIA "RECCIAS #ELESTITE
!N ORTHORHOMBIC MINERAL 3R3/ )T IS COMMONLY WHITE
ARE RATHER COMMON IN MANY CARBONATE FACIES BUT BRECCIA POROSITY IS WITH AN OCCASIONAL PALE
BLUE TINT )T OFTEN OCCURS IN RESIDUAL CLAYS
ONLY LOCALLY OF QUANTITATIVE IMPORTANCE ESPECIALLY ALONG FRACTURE ZONES AND IN DEPOSITS OF SALT GYPSUM AND ASSOCIATED DOLOMITE AND SHALE
FRACTURE BRECCIAS DISSOLUTION FEATURES SOLUTION BRECCIAS OR IN DEBRIS 4YPICALLY IT IS ASSOCIATED WITH SUBAERIALLY ALTERED EVAPORITES ANDOR
m OWS DEPOSITIONAL BRECCIAS 3EE #HOQUETTE AND 0RAY P CARBONATES WITH THE STRONTIUM BEING DERIVED FROM ALTERATION OF MARINE
ARAGONITE OR DETRITAL SILICICLASTIC MINERALS CLAYS FELDSPARS
"URROW POROSITY
&EATURE CREATED BY ORGANIC BURROWING IN RELATIVELY
UNCONSOLIDATED SEDIMENT IN CONTRAST TO BORINGS WHICH FORMED IN RIGID #ELLULAR LIMESTONE
! CARBONATE ROCK CHARACTERIZED BY CELLULAR
SEDIMENTARY PARTICLES OR ROCK -OST BURROWS COLLAPSE BECOME l LLED OPENINGS PORES THAT ARE LARGELY UNCONNECTED OR MAY BE ONLY PARTIALLY
WITH SEDIMENT OR ARE BACK
l LLED BY THE BURROW
FORMING ORGANISM CONNECTED ! FABRIC IN WHICH CALCITIC VEINS OR PARTITIONS INTERVENE
ITSELF 4HUS BURROWS RARELY FORM DISCRETE MACROPOROSITY ALTHOUGH BETWEEN LARGE PORES 4HIS FABRIC IS COMMONLY FORMED THROUGH THE
THEY MAY AFFECT INTERPARTICLE PORE SPACE DISTRIBUTION #HOQUETTE AND ALTERATION DISSOLUTION OF NODULAR EVAPORITES IN A CARBONATE MATRIX
0RAY P 3YN RAUHWACKE
#ALCARENITE
! LIMESTONE COMPOSED PREDOMINANTLY MORE THAN #ELLULAR POROSITY
h#ELLULAR POROSITYv IS TERM WITH DIVERSE MEANINGS l RST
PERCENT OF SAND
SIZED CALCIUM CARBONATE GRAINS A CARBONATE SAND USED FOR SOLUTION
FORMED MOLDS AND OTHER GENERALLY EQUIDIMENSIONAL
4ERM WAS l RST INTRODUCED BY 'RABAU SOLUTION VUGS AS OPPOSED TO MORE ELONGATE CHANNEL
LIKE OPENINGS
IN ROCKS !LSO APPLIED TO INTRAPARTICLE OPENINGS WITHIN FOSSILS
#ALCILUTITE
! LIMESTONE CONSISTING PREDOMINANTLY MORE THAN PERCENT PARTICULARLY CHAMBERED ORGANISMS 4HE TERM IS LITTLE USED NOW AND
OF DETRITAL CALCITE PARTICLES OF SILT ANDOR CLAY SIZE A LITHIl ED CALCAREOUS #HOQUETTE AND 0RAY P
ADVOCATED ITS ABANDONMENT
MUD LIME MUD 4ERM WAS l RST INTRODUCED BY 'RABAU
#EMENT
-INERAL MATERIAL TYPICALLY PRECIPITATED THAT OCCURS IN THE
#ALCIRUDITE
! LIMESTONE COMPOSED PREDOMINANTLY MORE THAN PERCENT SPACES BETWEEN INDIVIDUAL GRAINS OF A CONSOLIDATED OR PARTIALLY
OF CALCIUM CARBONATE FRAGMENTS LARGER THAN SAND SIZE CARBONATE CONSOLIDATED SEDIMENTARY ROCK
CONGLOMERATE 4ERM WAS l RST INTRODUCED BY 'RABAU
#HALCEDONY
! CRYPTOCRYSTALLINE VARIETY OF SILICA COMMONLY MICRO
#ALCISPHERES
3ILT
OR SAND
SIZED SPHERES OF CLEAR SPARRY CALCITE SCOPICALLY l BROUS WITH LOWER INDICES OF REFRACTION AND MINERAL DENSITY
SOME WITH A DISCERNIBLE SINGLE OR DOUBLE WALL AND SOME WITHOUT THAN QUARTZ
#ALCISPHERES ARE PROBLEMATIC GRAINS THAT HAVE IN MOST INSTANCES
NO CERTAIN ORIGIN 3EVERAL TYPES OF CALCISPHERES EXIST AND MOST ARE #HALK
! LIMESTONE THAT CONSISTS PREDOMINANTLY OF THE REMAINS OF
ATTRIBUTED TO ALGAL SOURCES -ESOZOIC TO 2ECENT CALCISPHERES ARE CALCAREOUS NANNOPLANKTON ESPECIALLY COCCOLITHS AND MICROPLANKTON
PREDOMINANTLY THE REMAINS OF DINOm AGELLATES ESPECIALLY FORAMINIFERS #HALKS COMMONLY ARE ALSO CONSIDERED TO
BE SOFT AND FRIABLE AND hCHALKYv IS USED AS A SYNONYM FOR hPOROUS AND
#ALCITE
! COMMON ROCK
FORMING MATERIAL COMPOSED OF #A#/ THAT UNCONSOLIDATEDv !LTHOUGH MANY EXPOSED CHALKS ARE INDEED FRIABLE
IS THE MAJOR CONSTITUENT OF LIMESTONES 4HIS HEXAGONAL MINERAL IS BURIAL AND DIAGENETIC ALTERATION CAN LEAD TO THE COMPLETE LITHIl CATION
TRIMORPHOUS WITH ARAGONITE AND VATERITE )T IS USUALLY WHITE COLORLESS OF CHALKS
OR PALE SHADES OF GRAY IT HAS PERFECT RHOMBOHEDRAL CLEAVAGE A
HARDNESS OF ON THE -OHS SCALE AND EFFERVESCES IN COLD DILUTE (#L )T #HALKY POROSITY
h#HALKYv IS A WIDELY USED SURFACE
TEXTURE TERM DENOTING
IS THE MOST STABLE CALCIUM CARBONATE MINERAL UNDER MOST EARTH
SURFACE THE DISTINCTIVE DULL AND EARTHY CHARACTER OF l NE
GRAINED CARBONATE
CONDITIONS INCLUDING FRESH WATER AND BURIAL DIAGENETIC ENVIRONMENTS ROCKS AND HAS ALSO BEEN APPLIED TO THE POROSITY OF SUCH VERY l NELY
TEXTURED ROCKS )T IS USEFUL WHERE A MORE SPECIl C SIZE OR POROSITY
TYPE
#ALCLITHITE
! ROCK FORMED CHIEm Y OF CARBONATE CLASTS EXTRACLASTS DESIGNATION SUCH AS hMICROPORE v hMICRO
INTERPARTICLEv OR hMICROMOLDv
GLOSSARY
IS NOT WARRANTED SEE #HOQUETTE AND 0RAY P
#HANNEL CHANNEL POROSITY
! TYPE OF PORE OR PORE SYSTEM WITH MARKED #OMPACT
! SURFACE
TEXTURE TERM APPLIED TO ROCKS THAT BREAK ALONG
ELONGATION OR CONTINUITY OF PORES IN ONE OR TWO DIMENSIONS RELATIVE TO SMOOTH TO CONCHOIDAL FACES AND GENERALLY HAVE LITTLE OR NO MACRO
A THIRD DIMENSION #HOQUETTE AND 0RAY P 4HESE AUTHORS OR MICRO
POROSITY 4HE TERM WAS ADVOCATED IN A CLASSIl CATION OF
RECOMMEND THAT THE TERM BE APPLIED ONLY TO SUCH PORES AND OPENINGS CARBONATE RESERVOIR ROCKS BY !RCHIE P AND HAS WIDE
WHICH SHOW BY THEIR BOUNDARIES OR CONTINUITY THAT THEY HAVE DEVELOPED USAGE IN THIS SENSE h#OMPACTv IS USEFUL AS A GROSS INDICATOR OF LOW
INDISCRIMINATELY WITH RESPECT TO TEXTURE OR FABRIC ELEMENTS IN THE HOST ROCK MATRIX POROSITY IN A l NELY TEXTURED ROCK AND SEEMS PREFERABLE TO THE
I E THEY ARE NON
FABRIC SELECTIVE AND ARE ESSENTIALLY ELONGATE VUGS SOMEWHAT SYNONYMOUS TERM hDENSE v AS IT AVOIDS CONNOTATIONS OF
MASS #HOQUETTE AND 0RAY
#HERT
! HARD DENSE DULL TO SEMI
VITREOUS CRYPTOCRYSTALLINE SEDIMENTARY
ROCK COMPOSED OF VARIABLE AMOUNTS OF SILICA MAINLY IN THE FORM OF #OQUINA n #ARBONATE ROCK OR SEDIMENT CONSISTING ENTIRELY OR NEARLY SO OF
MICROCRYSTALLINE QUARTZ MAY CONTAIN MINOR CARBONATE IRON OXIDE OR MECHANICALLY SORTED SKELETAL DEBRIS -OST COMMONLY APPLIED TO MORE OR
OTHER IMPURITIES LESS CEMENTED SHELL DEBRIS &OR l NER
GRAINED SHELLY DETRITUS OF SAND SIZE
OR LESS THE TERM hMICROCOQUINAv IS MORE APPROPRIATE 0ETTIJOHN
#HLORALGAL
! TERM PROPOSED BY ,EES AND "ULLER FOR THE COMMON
ASSOCIATION OF SKELETAL GRAINS IN WARM
WATER OR LOW
LATITUDE ELEVATED #RISTOBALITE
! SILICA 3I/ POLYMORPH OF QUARTZ THAT IS STABLE ONLY
SALINITY CARBONATE SEDIMENTS DERIVED FROM A CONTRACTION OF TWO OF THE ABOVE # )T IS A COMMON INTERMEDIATE STAGE IN THE DIAGENETIC
SKELETAL GROUPS TYPICALLY PRESENT AND OFTEN DOMINANT IN SALINE WARM
TRANSITION FROM /PAL
! TO QUARTZ
WATER SETTINGS #HLOROPHYTA AND ALGAL SPECIES 4HESE ORGANISMS #ROSSED
LAMELLAR MICROSTRUCTURE
! COMMON WALL STRUCTURE IN
REm ECT TEMPERATURES ABOVE # AND VARIABLE SALINITIES THAT REACH MOLLUSKS BIVALVES AND GASTROPODS )T IS BEST DEVELOPED IN ARAGONITIC
ABOVE PPT 4HE TERM STANDS IN CONTRAST TO THE hFORAMOL h OR COLD
SHELLS ESPECIALLY GASTROPODS BIVALVES SCAPHOPODS AND CHITONS
WATER SKELETAL GRAIN ASSOCIATION AND THE hCHLOROZOAN h WARM
WATER BUT MAY ALSO BE FOUND IN CALCITIC ONES )T CONSISTS OF A COMPLEX OF
NORMAL
SALINITY ASSOCIATION MICROMETER
SCALE LAMELLAE PACKED TOGETHER IN ROUGHLY PARALLEL VERTICAL
#HLOROZOAN
! TERM PROPOSED BY ,EES AND "ULLER FOR THE COMMON SHEETS !LTERNATING ORIENTATIONS OF CRYSTALS WITHIN ADJACENT LAMELLAE
ASSOCIATION OF SKELETAL GRAINS IN WARM
WATER OR LOW
LATITUDE NORMAL YIELDS A DISTINCTIVE hZEBRA
STRIPINGv TO THE SHELL WALL WHEN VIEWED
SALINITY CARBONATE SEDIMENTS DERIVED FROM A CONTRACTION OF THE NAMES PERPENDICULAR TO THE BANDING
OF TWO OF THE SKELETAL GROUPS TYPICALLY PRESENT AND OFTEN DOMINANT #RYPTOCRYSTALLINE
$ESCRIPTIVE OF A CRYSTALLINE TEXTURE OF A CARBONATE
IN WARM
WATER SETTINGS #HLOROPHYTA AND :OANTHARIANS 4HESE SEDIMENTARY ROCK HAVING DISCRETE CRYSTALS WHOSE DIAMETERS ARE LESS
ORGANISMS REm ECT TEMPERATURES ABOVE # AND SALINITIES IN THE RANGE THAN MM
OF TO PPT 4HE TERM STANDS IN CONTRAST TO THE hFORAMOL h OR COLD
#UTAN
! PEDOLOGICAL FEATURE CRUST OR GRAIN COATING WHICH CAN BE USED
WATER SKELETAL GRAIN ASSOCIATION AND THE hCHLORALGAL h WARM
WATER AS DIAGNOSTIC INDICATOR OF PALEO
SOIL FORMATION WHEN COMPOSED OF
ELEVATED
SALINITY ASSOCIATION CLAY MINERALS $El NED BY "REWER AS hA MODIl CATION OF THE
#IRCUMGRANULAR CRACKING
)RREGULAR TO GLOBULAR MASSES OF SEDIMENT TEXTURE STRUCTURE OR FABRIC AT NATURAL SURFACES IN SOIL MATERIALS DUE TO THE
SEPARATED BY NON
TECTONIC FRACTURES AND PRODUCED BY ALTERNATE CONCENTRATION OF SOIL CONSTITUENTS OR IN
PLACE MODIl CATIONS OF THE PLASMA
SHRINKAGE AND EXPANSION ARE CALLED CIRCUMGRANULAR CRACKING RELATIVELY UNSTABLE SOIL MATRIX v 3EE %STEBAN AND +LAPPA
3WINEFORD ET AL %STEBAN AND +LAPPA ! COMMON $ECIMICRON
SIZED
2EFERS TO A FABRIC IN WHICH THE CRYSTAL DIAMETERS ARE
FEATURE IN SOILS IN GENERAL AND CALICHE IN PARTICULAR
M MICRONS 3EE &RIEDMAN
#LASTIC
!S USED BY MOST SEDIMENTARY PETROLOGISTS COMPOSED OF PARTICLES $EDOLOMITE
4HE PRODUCT OF DIAGENETIC CONVERSION OF DOLOMITE TO ANOTHER
THAT HAVE BEEN MECHANICALLY TRANSPORTED AT LEAST LOCALLY 3PECIl CALLY MINERAL TYPICALLY CALCITE A PROCESS THAT OCCURS MOST COMMONLY DURING
INCLUDES LIMESTONES MADE UP OF FOSSILS OR OTHER ALLOCHEMS THAT HAVE THE DISSOLUTION OF ASSOCIATED CALCIUM SULFATES OR AT HIGH TEMPERATURES
BEEN MOVED BY WAVES OR CURRENTS .OTE THAT MOST FACIES MAPPERS USE "ECAUSE THE TERM DOES NOT SPECIFY THE END PRODUCT OF CONVERSION IT IS
CLASTIC FOR TERRIGENOUS ROCKS AND NOT LIMESTONES LESS DEl NITIVE THAN TERMS SUCH AS hCALCITIZED DOLOMITEv
#LEAVAGE
4HE FRACTURING OR BREAKAGE OF A MINERAL ALONG ITS CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC $EGRADING NEOMORPHISM
! KIND OF NEOMORPHISM IN WHICH THE CRYSTAL
PLANES CLEAVAGE IS THEREFORE A REm ECTION OF CRYSTAL STRUCTURE SIZE DECREASES &OLK
#OALESCIVE NEOMORPHISM
! TERM INTRODUCED BY &OLK FOR AGGRADING $ETRITAL
5SED IN DIFFERENT WAYS BY DIFFERENT AUTHORS AND HENCE LARGELY
NEOMORPHISM IN WHICH SMALL CRYSTALS ARE CONVERTED TO LARGE ONES BY UNDEl NABLE OUT OF CONTEXT 3OMETIMES SYNONYMOUS WITH CLASTIC
GRADUAL ENLARGEMENT MAINTAINING A UNIFORM CRYSTAL SIZE AT ALL TIMES SOMETIMES WITH TERRIGENOUS AND SOMETIMES RESTRICTED TO ROCKS
#OARSELY CRYSTALLINE
$ESCRIPTIVE OF AN INTERLOCKING TEXTURE OF A COMPOSED OF BROKEN FRAGMENTS OF OLDER ROCKS
CARBONATE SEDIMENTARY ROCK HAVING CRYSTALS WHOSE DIAMETERS ARE IN $IAGENESIS
!NY PHYSICAL OR CHEMICAL CHANGES IN SEDIMENTS OR SEDIMENTARY
THE RANGE OF
MM &OLK OR EXCEED MM ROCKS THAT OCCUR AFTER DEPOSITION EXCLUDING PROCESSES INVOLVING HIGH
#OATED GRAINS
! GENERAL TERM FOR GRAINS WITH COATINGS OR RIMS OF ENOUGH TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE TO BE CALLED METAMORPHISM
CALCIUM CARBONATE INCLUDES OOLITES AND SUPERl CIAL OOLITES PISOLITES $ISMICRITE
! DISTURBED MICRITE A CARBONATE MUD THAT CONTAINS STRINGERS
AND ALGALLY COATED GRAINS ONCOIDS OR hEYESv OF SPARRY CALCITE RESULTING FROM l LLING OF BURROWS SLUMP OR
#OLLOPHANE
! CARBONATE
HYDROXYL
m UORAPATITE 4HIS COLORLESS GRAY SHRINKAGE CRACKS OR OTHER PARTIAL DISRUPTION ON THE SEA m OOR &OLK
OR YELLOWISH BROWN TO DARK BROWN PHOSPHATE MINERAL IS A COMMON
CONSTITUENT OF SOME SKELETAL MATERIALS AND PHOSPHATIC MARINE $OLOMITE
! TERM USED FOR BOTH A MINERAL AND A ROCK $OLOMITE IS
SEDIMENTS )T HAS EXTREMELY LOW BIREFRINGENCE VIRTUALLY ISOTROPIC A WIDESPREAD ROCK
FORMING RHOMBOHEDRAL MINERAL CONSISTING OF
WHEN VIEWED IN THIN SECTION #A-G#/ 0ART OF THE MAGNESIUM MAY BE REPLACED BY IRON OR
#OLUMNAR
$ESCRIBES A FORM OF l BROUS CALCITE IN WHICH CRYSTALS HAVE MANGANESE $OLOMITE IS TYPICALLY COLORLESS OR WHITE BUT MAY BE TINTED
A LENGTH TO WIDTH RATIO GREATER THAN AND THE CRYSTALS TYPICALLY REDDISH BROWN YELLOW ETC )T HAS PERFECT CLEAVAGE AND EFFERVESCES
ARE MORE THAN M WIDE #ONTRASTS WITH THE NARROWER CRYSTALS OF FEEBLY IN COLD DILUTE (#L $OLOMITE OCCURS MOST COMMONLY AS A
THE hACICULARv GROWTH FORM #OLUMNAR CALCITES CAN OCCUR AS RADIAL
REPLACEMENT OF CALCIUM CARBONATE MINERALS 4HE TERM IS ALSO USED
l BROUS RADIAXIAL
l BROUS OR FASCICULAR
OPTIC
l BROUS VARIETIES FOLLOWING +AY FOR A ROCK COMPOSED PREDOMINANTLY OF THE
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
MINERAL DOLOMITE ALTHOUGH THE TERM hDOLOSTONEv IS PREFERABLE CONSISTING OF l BROUS CRYSTALS AND SUBCRYSTALS RADIATING AWAY FROM
$OLOSPAR
! SPARRY DOLOMITE CRYSTAL GENERALLY OF RATHER COARSE SIZE ON THE INITIAL GROWTH SURFACE AND ALLIED TO OPTIC AXES THAT DIVERGE AWAY
THE ORDER OF M MICROMETERS OR MORE FROM THE WALL &/&# IS CHARACTERIZED BY CURVED CLEAVAGES UNDULOSE
EXTINCTION AND IRREGULAR INTERGRANULAR BOUNDARIES WHICH DISTINGUISH THIS
$OLOSTONE
! TERM EMPLOYED FOR A SEDIMENTARY ROCK COMPOSED OF THE FABRIC FROM SIMPLE RADIAL
l BROUS CALCITE -UST ALSO BE DISTINGUISHED
MINERAL DOLOMITE FROM RADIAXIAL
l BROUS CALCITE 2&# &/&# HAS TWIN PLANES THAT ARE
$RUSE DRUSY
! CRUST OR COATING OF CRYSTALS LINING A CAVITY DRUSE IN CONCAVE DOWNWARD RELATIVE TO THE SUBSTRATE AND EXTINCTION SWEEPS
A ROCK SPECIl CALLY SPARRY CALCITE LINING THE PORES OF A LIMESTONE IN THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION FROM STAGE ROTATION THE OPPOSITE IS TRUE FOR
GENERALLY WITH CRYSTAL SIZES INCREASING FROM THE EDGES TO THE CENTER 2&# 3EE +ENDALL
OF THE PORES &ENESTRAE FENESTRAL FABRIC
0RIMARY OR PENECONTEMPORANEOUS GAPS
%FFECTIVE POROSITY
4HE hINTERCOMMUNICATING VOID SPACE OF A ROCKv IN ROCK FRAMEWORK LARGER THAN GRAIN
SUPPORTED INTERSTICES 3UCH
-USKAT P !S IT IS USUALLY THE EFFECTIVE AND NOT THE FEATURES MAY BE OPEN PORES OR MAY HAVE BEEN PARTIALLY OR COMPLETELY
TOTAL POROSITY OF A ROCK THAT IS MEASURED IN STANDARD CORE
ANALYSIS l LLED WITH INTERNAL SEDIMENT ANDOR SPARRY CEMENT &ENESTRAE OCCUR
PROCEDURES AND THAT CONTRIBUTES TO ITS PERMEABILITY IN PETROLEUM
AS SOMEWHAT ROUNDED FEATURES OF SPHERICAL LENTICULAR OR MORE
ENGINEERING PRACTICE THE TERM hPOROSITYv NORMALLY MEANS hEFFECTIVE IRREGULAR SHAPES THEIR LARGE SIZE IN COMPARISON TO NORMAL INTERPARTICLE
POROSITYv #HOQUETTE AND 0RAY OPENINGS AND THEIR MULTIGRANULAR ROOFS m OORS AND OTHER MARGINS ARE
KEY CHARACTERISTICS &ENESTRAE ARE COMMONLY SOMEWHAT m ATTENED
%NCRINITE
! CRINOIDAL LIMESTONE SPECIl CALLY ONE IN WHICH CRINOIDAL
PARALLEL WITH THE LAMINAE OR STRATIGRAPHIC PLANES OF THE ROCK 4HEY
GRAINS CONSTITUTE MORE THAN PERCENT OF THE VOLUME OF THE ROCK SEE
MAY HOWEVER BE ROUND OR VERY IRREGULAR AND SOME ARE ELONGATE IN A
"ISSELL AND #HILINGAR
VERTICAL DIMENSION !LTHOUGH ISOLATED FENESTRAE OCCUR IN SEDIMENTARY
%NFACIAL JUNCTION
! TRIPLE
JUNCTION MEETING PLACE BETWEEN THREE CARBONATES IT IS MORE COMMON TO l ND MANY IN CLOSE ASSOCIATION
ADJACENT CRYSTALS WHERE ONE OF THE THREE ANGLES IS DEGREES "ATHURST &ENESTRAE ARE COMMONLY ASSOCIATED WITH MICROBIAL MATS AND CAN RESULT
P AND !N ABUNDANCE OF ENFACIAL JUNCTIONS IN A FROM SHRINKAGE GAS FORMATION ORGANIC DECAY OR OTHER SYNSEDIMENTARY
SPARRY CALCITE MOSAIC HAS BEEN INTERPRETED AS INDICATING PRECIPITATED PROCESSES
VOID l LLING SPAR )T ALSO MAY INDICATE TWO DISTINCT GENERATIONS OF
&ERROAN DOLOMITE
! MINERAL THAT IS INTERMEDIATE IN COMPOSITION
SPAR FORMATION WITH NEWLY FORMED CRYSTALS OF THE SECOND GENERATION
BETWEEN DOLOMITE AND FERRODOLOMITE 4HAT IS IT HAS SOME DEGREE OF
ABUTTING AGAINST THOSE OF THE EARLIER GENERATION
SUBSTITUTION OF &E FOR -G IN THE DOLOMITE LATTICE TYPICALLY FROM TO
%OGENETIC POROSITY
0OROSITY THAT FORMED IN THE EOGENETIC STAGE OF SLIGHTLY MORE THAN 'ENERALLY USED AS A SYNONYM OF ANKERITE
DIAGENESIS TERM PROPOSED BY #HOQUETTE AND 0RAY #ONTRAST
&IBROUS
)N REFERENCE TO SPARRY CALCITE CEMENT IT IS DEl NED AS INCLUDING
WITH MESOGENETIC AND TELOGENETIC
CRYSTALS WITH LENGTH
TO
WIDTH RATIOS GREATER THAN
%OGENETIC STAGE
! STAGE OF DIAGENESIS OCCURRING DURING THE TIME INTERVAL
&INELY CRYSTALLINE
$ESCRIPTIVE OF AN INTERLOCKING TEXTURE OF A CARBONATE
BETWEEN l NAL DEPOSITION AND BURIAL OF THE NEWLY DEPOSITED SEDIMENT
SEDIMENTARY ROCK HAVING CRYSTALS WHOSE DIAMETERS ARE IN THE RANGE OF
OR ROCK BELOW THE DEPTH OF SIGNIl CANT INm UENCE BY PROCESSES THAT
MM &OLK
EITHER OPERATE FROM THE SURFACE OR DEPEND FOR THEIR EFFECTIVENESS ON
PROXIMITY TO THE SURFACE &ROM #HOQUETTE AND 0RAY &LOATSTONE
! TEXTURAL TYPE OF A LIMESTONE IN WHICH FRAGMENTED MAINLY
BIOGENIC CONSTITUENTS ARE NOT ORGANICALLY BOUND ARE MOSTLY GREATER
%PIGENETIC
0ERTAINING TO SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES MINERALS AND MINERAL
THAN MM IN DIAMETER BUT ARE MUD SUPPORTED 3EE %MBRY AND
DEPOSITS FORMED AFTER DEPOSITION AT LOW TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE
+LOVAN
CHANGES OR TRANSFORMATIONS AFFECTING SEDIMENTARY ROCKS SUBSEQUENT TO
COMPACTION A DEl NABLE STAGE OF DIAGENESIS &OLIATED MICROSTRUCTURE
! COMMON WALL STRUCTURE IN BRACHIOPODS
BRYOZOANS SOME BIVALVES AND GASTROPODS AND SOME CALCIl ED WORMS
%PITAXIAL
3EE hSYNTAXIALv
4HIS STRUCTURE IS ALWAYS CALCITIC AND CONSISTS OF THIN
M CALCITE
%QUANT
)N REFERENCE TO SPARRY CALCITE CEMENT IT IS DEl NED AS INCLUDING LAMELLAE 4HE LAMELLAE MAY BE LONG AND UNIFORMLY ORIENTED WITHIN
CRYSTALS WITH A LENGTH TO WIDTH RATIO OF LESS THAN LAYERS OR THEY MAY BE SHORT AND RANDOMLY ORIENTED
%UHEDRAL
2EFERS TO A SINGLE CRYSTAL OR CRYSTAL FABRIC THAT SHOWS WELL &ORAMOL
! TERM PROPOSED BY ,EES AND "ULLER FOR THE COMMON
DEl NED TYPICAL CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC FORMS IE THE CRYSTAL IS LARGELY OR ASSOCIATION OF SKELETAL GRAINS IN COLD
WATER OR HIGH
LATITUDE CARBONATE
COMPLETELY BOUNDED BY CRYSTAL FACES 3EE &RIEDMAN SEDIMENTS DERIVED FROM A CONTRACTION OF TWO OF THE SKELETAL GROUPS TYPICALLY
%VAPORITE
! NONCLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCK COMPOSED PRIMARILY OF PRESENT AND OFTEN DOMINANT IN COLD
WATER SETTINGS FORAMINIFERS AND
MINERALS PRODUCED FROM A SALINE SOLUTION AS A RESULT OF EXTENSIVE OR MOLLUSKS 4HE TERM STANDS IN CONTRAST TO THE hCHLOROZOANv OR hCHLORALGAL
TOTAL EVAPORATION OF THE PARENT SOLUTION 'YPSUM ANHYDRITE AND h SKELETAL GRAIN ASSOCIATIONS OF WARMER WATERS
HALITE ARE THE MOST COMMON EVAPORITE MINERALS IN CARBONATE STRATA BUT &RACTURE POROSITY
0OROSITY FORMED BY FRACTURING 4HE TERM IS GENERALLY
CELESTITE SYLVITE AND MANY OTHER MINERALS ALSO FALL IN THIS CATEGORY USED FOR POROSITY OCCURRING ALONG BREAKS IN A SEDIMENT OR ROCK BODY
%XTRACLAST
! DETRITAL GRAIN OF LITHIl ED CARBONATE SEDIMENT LITHOCLAST WHERE THERE HAS BEEN LITTLE MUTUAL DISPLACEMENT OF THE OPPOSING
DERIVED FROM OUTSIDE THE DEPOSITIONAL AREA OF CURRENT SEDIMENTATION BLOCKS &RACTURE POROSITY GRADES INTO BRECCIA POROSITY WITH INCREASING
4HE ROCK COMPOSED OF THESE GRAINS WOULD BE A CALCLITHITE 3EE ALSO DISLOCATION OR hCHAOSv )N CARBONATE ROCKS FRACTURES AND HENCE
INTRACLAST &OLK FRACTURE POROSITY MAY ORIGINATE IN DIVERSE WAYS SUCH AS BY COLLAPSE
RELATED TO SOLUTION SLUMPING OR VARIOUS KINDS OF TECTONIC DEFORMATION
&ABRIC
4HE ARRANGEMENT OF GRAINS ANDOR CRYSTALS IN A ROCK IN TERMS OF 3EE #HOQUETTE AND 0RAY P
THEIR SIZES SHAPES AND ORIENTATIONS
&RAMBOID
-ICROSCOPIC SPHEROIDAL CLUSTERS OF PYRITE GRAINS COMMONLY
&ABRIC SELECTIVE
! TERM THAT REFERS TO A DEPENDENT SPATIAL RELATIONSHIP ASSOCIATED WITH BITS OF ORGANIC MATERIAL
BETWEEN PORES OR REPLACEMENT CRYSTALS AND PRIMARY OR DIAGENETIC
FABRIC ELEMENTS OF THE HOST ROCK 4ERM COINED BY #HOQUETTE AND 0RAY &RAMESTONE
! TERM USED BY %MBRY AND +LOVAN FOR A BOUNDSTONE
WITH DETAILED DISCUSSION ON P
WITH IN
SITU MASSIVE FOSSILS WHICH CONSTRUCT A RIGID FRAMEWORK
MATRIX CEMENT OR VOID SPACE l LLS IN THE FRAMEWORK
&ASCICULAR
OPTIC l BROUS CALCITE
! CAVITY
l LLING CALCITE MOSAIC
GLOSSARY
&RUSTULE
4HE SILICEOUS SKELETON OF A DIATOM AREAS ARE GENERALLY FOUND BELOW THE PHOTIC ZONE OR IN AREAS OF ELEVATED
'EOPETAL STRUCTURE
!NY INTERNAL STRUCTURE OR ORGANIZATION OF A ROCK TROPHIC RESOURCES $El NED BY *AMES
INDICATING ORIGINAL ORIENTATION SUCH AS TOP AND BOTTOM OF STRATA (IGH
MAGNESIUM CALCITE
! VARIETY OF CALCITE #A#/ )T CONSISTS OF
#OMMON EXAMPLES ARE INTERNAL SEDIMENT ACCUMULATING ON THE m OOR OF RANDOMLY SUBSTITUTED MAGNESIUM IONS IN SOLID SOLUTION FOR CALCIUM
A CAVITY WHICH IT PARTLY l LLS OR SOLUTION
COLLAPSE RESIDUE THAT HAS FALLEN IN THE CALCITE STRUCTURE $IFFERENT WORKERS USE DIFFERENT PERCENTAGES
TO THE BOTTOM OF A VUG OR CAVE 3EE 3ANDER OF -G SUBSTITUTION AS THE MINIMUM CUTOFF FOR THE USE OF THIS TERM BUT
'LAEBULE
! SOIL FEATURE USUALLY EQUANT PROLATE TO IRREGULAR IN SHAPE MOST DEl NITIONS USE TO MOL PERCENT -G AS THE MINIMUM THE
GENERALLY A NODULE OR CONCRETION THAT HAS NOT PRECIPITATED IN A PRE
PRACTICAL UPPER END OF THE RANGE IN MODERN CARBONATES IS ABOUT
EXISTING VOID SPACE SEE %STEBAN AND +LAPPA P
)N MOL PERCENT -G (IGH
MAGNESIUM CALCITE SOMETIMES CALLED SIMPLY
CALICHE PROl LES GLAEBULES CONSIST OF DISCRETE POWDERY TO INDURATED hMAGNESIUM CALCITEv OR ABBREVIATED AS h-G
CALCITEv OR h(-#v IS A
CONCENTRATIONS OF CALCITE COMMONLY WITH SOME DEGREE OF CONCENTRIC COMMON CONSTITUENT OF MODERN CARBONATE SEDIMENTS BOTH IN THE FORM
STRUCTURE SEE ALSO PISOIDS OF MARINE CEMENTS AND IN SHELLSTESTS OF MANY ORGANISMS ESPECIALLY
RED ALGAE AND ECHINODERMS 'ENERALLY UNSTABLE IN FRESH WATERS
'RAINS
SOLID PARTICLES WHOSE PHYSICAL LIMITS MAY ENCOMPASS MANY
CRYSTALLINE ENTITIES $ISTINCTIONS AS BETWEEN COARSE GRAINED AND (OMOGENEOUS MICROSTRUCTURE
! COMMON WALL STRUCTURE IN CALCITIC TESTS
COARSELY CRYSTALLINE ARE NOT ALWAYS OBSERVED BUT ARE FUNDAMENTAL OR SHELLS OF FORAMINIFERS OSTRACODES AND TRILOBITES AND IN THE ARAGONITIC
THE FRIABLE AGGREGATES OF SILT
SIZED CARBONATE CRYSTALS THAT ARE FORMED SHELLS OF SOME MOLLUSKS )T CONSISTS OF AN ORDERLY ARRANGEMENT
FROM THE PARTIAL CEMENTATION OF CRYSTALS IN CONTACT WITH EACH OTHER AS OF UNIFORMLY SMALL MICROSTRUCTURAL ELEMENTS OF SUCH SIZE THAT THE
FOUND IN MODERN DEPOSITS OF THE "AHAMA PLATFORM AND COMPARABLE INDIVIDUAL ELEMENTS ARE NOT DISTINGUISHABLE WITH STANDARD THIN
SECTIONS
AREAS A GENERAL TERM USED TO DESCRIBE SILT
AND LARGER
SIZED AND LIGHT
MICROSCOPE MAGNIl CATIONS 4HE UNIFORM ORIENTATION OF THE
CARBONATE SEDIMENT PARTICLES INCLUDING PELLETS SKELETAL FRAGMENTS CRYSTAL ELEMENTS LEADS TO A SWEEPING EXTINCTION AS THE GRAIN IS ROTATED
OOIDS AND INTRACLASTS SEE ALSO ALLOCHEM UNDER CROSSED POLARS
'RAIN SUPPORTED
2EFERS TO THE FABRIC OF A ROCK IN WHICH THE GRAINS )NTERCRYSTAL POROSITY
0OROSITY BETWEEN CRYSTALS !LTHOUGH THIS SIMPLE
ALLOCHEMS ARE IN CONTACT WITH EACH OTHER FORMING A FRAMEWORK EVEN DEl NITION COULD APPLY IN A STRICT SENSE TO ALMOST ALL POROSITY IN
THOUGH THEY MAY HAVE A CARBONATE MUD MICRITE MATRIX CARBONATES hINTERCRYSTALv OR hINTERCRYSTALLINEv NORMALLY IS RESTRICTED TO
THE POROSITY BETWEEN INDIVIDUAL CRYSTALS OF SOMEWHAT EQUANT AND EQUAL
'RAINSTONE
! CARBONATE ROCK COMPOSED OF GRAINS ALLOCHEMS THAT LACKS SIZE AS IN MANY POROUS DOLOMITES )NTERCRYSTAL POROSITY MAY BE OF EITHER
CARBONATE MUD IN THE INTERSTICES COINED BY $UNHAM PRIMARY OR SECONDARY ORIGIN 3EE #HOQUETTE AND 0RAY P
'RAPESTONE
3OMETIMES USED FOR AGGREGATES OF SILT
SIZED CARBONATE )NTERGRAIN POROSITY
2EFERRING TO PORE SPACES EXISTING BETWEEN
CRYSTALS OR GRAINS BUT MORE PROPERLY APPLIED TO GRAPE
LIKE CLUSTERS INDIVIDUAL GRAINS OR PARTICLES OF A SEDIMENTARY ROCK )NTERGRAIN
OF SUCH AGGREGATES POROSITY IS THE MOST COMMONLY USED TERM FOR BETWEEN
GRAIN POROSITY
'RAVITATIONAL CEMENT
! DESCRIPTIVE TERM FOR CEMENTS WHICH ARE IN SANDSTONES AND CARBONATES CF hINTERPARTICLE POROSITYv BUT IT IS
CONCENTRATED ON THE BOTTOM SIDES OF GRAINS 3UCH TEXTURES GENERALLY NOT SYNONYMOUS WITH PRIMARY POROSITY IT IS A NON
GENETIC TERM
FORM IN METEORIC VADOSE OR UPPER INTERTIDAL AREAS MARINE VADOSE DENOTING ONLY THE RELATIVE POSITION NOT THE TIME OF FORMATION OF THE
SETTINGS WHERE PORES ARE ONLY PARTIALLY WATER
l LLED AND IN WHICH PORES 3EE #HOQUETTE AND 0RAY P
WATER DROPLETS CAN HANG FROM THE UNDERSIDES OF GRAINS 3YN PENDANT )NTERPARTICLE POROSITY
0OROSITY BETWEEN ANY TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY
OR MICROSTALACTITIC CEMENT PARTICLES #AN EVEN BE USED FOR PORES BETWEEN PARTICLES OF SILT AND CLAY
'ROWTH
FRAMEWORK POROSITY
0RIMARY POROSITY CREATED BY THE IN
PLACE SIZES WHERE IT ISNT OBVIOUS THAT THE PARTICLES ARE SEDIMENTARY OR HAVE
GROWTH OF A CARBONATE ROCK FRAMEWORK 4ERM IS SPECIl CALLY USED BEEN DIAGENETICALLY MODIl ED AND THUS THIS TERM DIFFERS SOMEWHAT
FOR PORE SPACE OF ROCK FRAMEWORKS KNOWN OR INFERRED TO HAVE GROWN FROM hINTERGRAIN POROSITYv OR hINTERGRANULAR POROSITYv )NTERPARTICLE
IN PLACE AS RIGID OR SEMI
RIGID FABRICS AS A RESULT OF ORGANIC ANDOR POROSITY DENOTES POSITION AND NOT GENESIS )N CLASTIC CARBONATES
INORGANIC PROCESSES IE BOUNDSTONES OR BIOLITHITES 3EE #HOQUETTE INTERPARTICLE POROSITY IS GENERALLY OF DEPOSITIONAL PRIMARY ORIGIN
AND 0RAY P
BUT IT CAN ALSO FORM BY SEVERAL POST
DEPOSITIONAL PROCESSES OF WHICH
THE PREDOMINANT MECHANISM IS SELECTIVE DISSOLUTION OF l NER TEXTURED
'YPSUM
!N EVAPORITE MINERAL CONSISTING OF HYDROUS CALCIUM SULFATE
MATRIX FROM BETWEEN LARGER PARTICLES 3EE #HOQUETTE AND 0RAY
#A3/ s(/ )T IS THE COMMONEST SULFATE MINERAL AND IS WHITE OR
P
COLORLESS WHEN PURE
)NTERSTICES
4ECHNICALLY VOIDS BUT USED MOSTLY FOR AREAS THAT WERE VOIDS
(ALITE
!N EVAPORITE MINERAL SODIUM CHLORIDE .A#L COMMONLY
IN THE INITIAL SEDIMENT THOUGH THEY ARE NOW l LLED
TERMED hTABLE SALTv OR hROCK SALTv )T OCCURS IN MASSIVE GRANULAR
COMPACT OR CUBIC
CRYSTALLINE FORMS "ECAUSE OF ITS GREAT SOLUBILITY )NTRACLAST
! FRAGMENT OF PENECONTEMPORANEOUS COMMONLY WEAKLY
SPECIAL CARE MUST BE TAKEN TO PRESERVE HALITE IN THIN SECTIONS INCLUDING CONSOLIDATED CARBONATE SEDIMENT THAT HAS BEEN ERODED AND
CUTTING AND GRINDING IN OIL REDEPOSITED GENERALLY NEARBY WITHIN THE SAME DEPOSITIONAL SEQUENCE
IN WHICH IT FORMED &OLK 3EE ALSO EXTRACLAST
(ARDGROUND
! ZONE AT THE SEA m OOR GENERALLY A FEW CENTIMETERS THICK
IN WHICH THE SEDIMENT WAS LITHIl ED TO FORM A HARDENED SURFACE OFTEN )NTRACRYSTAL POROSITY
0OROSITY WITHIN INDIVIDUAL CRYSTALS PORES IN
ENCRUSTED DISCOLORED HARDENED BY CALCIUM CARBONATE PHOSPHATE LARGE CRYSTALS OF ECHINODERMS AND m UIDGASEOUS INCLUSIONS FORM MOST
ANDOR GLAUCONITE IMPREGNATION AND ENCRUSTED OR BORED BY ORGANISMS OF THIS CATEGORY OF POROSITY
IMPLIES A SLOWDOWN OR GAP IN SEDIMENTATION AND MAY BE PRESERVED )NTRAGRAIN POROSITY
4HE POROSITY EXISTING WITHIN INDIVIDUAL GRAINS OR
STRATIGRAPHICALLY AS A DISCONFORMITY ! SOFTER INCIPIENT HARDGROUND IS PARTICLES OF A ROCK ESPECIALLY WITHIN SKELETAL MATERIAL OF A SEDIMENTARY
SOMETIMES TERMED A hl RMGROUNDv CARBONATE ROCK $ESPITE WIDE USAGE OF hINTRAGRAINv OR hINTRAGRANULAR v
(ETEROZOAN ASSOCIATION
5SED AS A MORE GENERALIZED LESS BIOLOGICALLY #HOQUETTE AND 0RAY PREFER TO USE hINTRAPARTICLEv AS THE GENERAL
RESTRICTED SYNONYM FOR A hFORAMOLv ASSOCIATION OF SKELETAL ORGANISMS TERM FOR THIS TYPE OF POROSITY
OR GRAINS TYPICALLY FOUND IN COOL
OR DEEP
WATER AREA 4HIS BIOTIC )NTRAMICRITE
! LIMESTONE CONTAINING AT LEAST PERCENT INTRACLASTS AND IN
ASSEMBLAGE CONTRASTS WITH THAT OF THE PHOTOZOAN ASSOCIATION WHICH THE CARBONATE
MUD MATRIX MICRITE IS MORE ABUNDANT THAN THE
(ETEROZOAN ASSEMBLAGES CAN OCCUR IN WARM WATER AREAS BUT IN SUCH SPARRY
CALCITE CEMENT &OLK
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
CLAY AND l NE
GRAINED CALCIUM CARBONATE IN VARYING PROPORTIONS BETWEEN
)NTRAPARTICLE POROSITY
4HE POROSITY WITHIN INDIVIDUAL PARTICLES OR GRAINS AND OF EACH FORMED UNDER MARINE OR FRESHWATER CONDITIONS
OF A ROCK 3EE ALSO INTRAGRAIN POROSITY h)NTRAPARTICLE POROSITYv AS -ATRIX
$ESCRIPTIVE OF THE SEDIMENTARY MECHANICALLY DEPOSITED MATERIAL
USED HERE IS A PHYSICAL POSITIONAL NOT A GENETIC POROSITY TYPE )T IS BETWEEN GRAINS )NCLUDES CARBONATE MUD OR MICRITE AS WELL AS
ABUNDANT IN CARBONATE SEDIMENTS AND CAN BE AN IMPORTANT PART OF THE TERRIGENOUS MUD OR OTHER l NE
GRAINED INTERSTITIAL MATERIAL
PRESERVED POROSITY IN CARBONATE ROCKS -UCH INTRAPARTICLE POROSITY IN
CARBONATES FORMS BEFORE l NAL DEPOSITION OF THE SEDIMENTARY PARTICLE -ATRIX POROSITY
4HE POROSITY OF THE MATRIX OR l NER PORTION OF A CARBONATE
OR GRAIN PREDEPOSITIONAL POROSITY SOME FORMS DURING OR AFTER l NAL SEDIMENT OR ROCK IN CONTRAST TO POROSITY ASSOCIATED WITH THE COARSER
DEPOSITION )NTERNAL CHAMBERS OR OTHER OPENINGS WITHIN INDIVIDUAL PARTICLES OR CONSTITUENTS OR THE POROSITY OF hBLOCKSv OF THE ROCK IN
OR COLONIAL SKELETAL ORGANISMS ARE THE MOST COMMONLY RECOGNIZED CONTRAST TO THE POROSITY OF THE FRACTURES #HOQUETTE AND 0RAY
INTRAPARTICLE PORES (OWEVER AN APPRECIABLE AMOUNT OF THE PRIMARY -EDIUM CRYSTALLINE
$ESCRIPTIVE OF AN INTERLOCKING TEXTURE OF A
INTRAPARTICLE POROSITY IN CARBONATE SEDIMENTS CONSISTS OF PORE SPACE CARBONATE SEDIMENTARY ROCK HAVING CRYSTALS WHOSE DIAMETERS FALL IN
WITHIN INDIVIDUAL PELLETS INTRACLASTS OOIDS AND OTHER NONSKELETAL THE RANGE OF
MM &OLK
GRAINS #HOQUETTE AND 0RAY
-EGAPORE MEGAPOROSITY
! SIZE TERM PROPOSED BY #HOQUETTE AND
)NTRASPARITE
! LIMESTONE CONTAINING AT LEAST PERCENT INTRACLASTS AND IN 0RAY FOR LARGE PORES -EGAPORE IS THE LARGEST OF THREE PORE
WHICH THE SPARRY
CALCITE CEMENT IS MORE ABUNDANT THAN THE CARBONATE
SIZE CLASSES ALONG WITH MESOPORE AND MICROPORE 4HE hMEGA
v SIZE
MUD MATRIX MICRITE &OLK DESIGNATION IS USED FOR EQUANT TO EQUANT
ELONGATE PORES WHOSE AVERAGE
)NVERSION
4HE DIAGENETIC TRANSFORMATION REPLACEMENT IN THE LOOSE DIAMETER IS LARGER THAN MM AND FOR TUBULAR OR PLATY PORES WHOSE
SENSE OF A MINERAL BY ITS POLYMORPH SPECIl CALLY THE TRANSFORMATION AVERAGE CROSS
SECTIONAL DIAMETER OR THICKNESS RESPECTIVELY IS LARGER
OF ARAGONITE TO CALCITE 3EE &OLK THAN MM -EGAPOROSITY IS THE LARGEST OF THREE PORE
SIZE GROUPINGS
ALONG WITH MESOPOROSITY AND MICROPOROSITY
)SOPACHOUS
! DESCRIPTIVE TERM FOR CEMENT WHICH HAS FORMED AS A
UNIFORM
THICKNESS COATING AROUND GRAINS 3YN hGRAINSKINv -ENISCUS CEMENT
2EFERS TO A CARBONATE CEMENT TYPE FORMED DURING
VADOSE DIAGENESIS WHERE CEMENT CRYSTALS FORM ONLY AT OR NEAR GRAIN
)SOTROPIC
)N PETROGRAPHY THE TERM REFERS TO A CRYSTAL WHOSE OPTICAL CONTACTS IN THE POSITIONS A WATER MENISCUS WOULD OCCUPY
PROPERTIES DO NOT VARY ACCORDING TO CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC DIRECTION 4HUS
LIGHT TRAVELS WITH THE SAME SPEED IN ANY DIRECTION THROUGH THE CRYSTAL -ESOGENETIC
/CCURRING DURING THE TIME INTERVAL IN WHICH ROCKS OR
AND THE CRYSTAL SHOWS NO BIREFRINGENCE UNDER CROSSED POLARS 4YPICAL SEDIMENTS ARE BURIED AT DEPTH BELOW THE MAJOR INm UENCE OF PROCESSES
OF CUBIC AND AMORPHOUS SUBSTANCES DIRECTLY OPERATING FROM OR CLOSELY RELATED TO THE SURFACE 3EE
#HOQUETTE AND 0RAY
,IMESTONE
! CARBONATE ROCK COMPOSED OF MORE THAN PERCENT BY
WEIGHT OF CALCIUM CARBONATE IN THE FORM OF CALCITE OR ARAGONITE &OR -ESOPORE MESOPOROSITY
! SIZE TERM PROPOSED BY #HOQUETTE AND
PRACTICAL PETROGRAPHIC WORK AREAL PERCENTAGES ARE USED INSTEAD OF 0RAY FOR INTERMEDIATE
SIZE PORES AS CONTRASTED WITH MEGAPORE
WEIGHT PERCENTAGES AND MICROPORE 4HE hMESO
v SIZE DESIGNATION IS USED FOR EQUANT TO
EQUANT
ELONGATE PORES WHOSE AVERAGE DIAMETER IS BETWEEN AND
,IMPID DOLOMITE
! VARIETY OF DOLOMITE CRYSTAL THAT IS OPTICALLY CLEAR MM AND FOR TUBULAR OR PLATY PORES WHOSE AVERAGE CROSS
SECTIONAL
ESSENTIALLY FREE OF INCLUSIONS GENERALLY LESS THAN M IN SIZE AND DIAMETER OR LEAST DIAMETER RESPECTIVELY IS BETWEEN AND MM
THOUGHT TO HAVE PRECIPITATED FROM RELATIVELY DILUTE PORE WATERS -ESOPOROSITY IS DOMINATED BY INTERMEDIATE
SIZE PORES AS CONTRASTED
,ITHOCLAST
! MECHANICALLY FORMED AND DEPOSITED FRAGMENT OF A WITH MEGAPOROSITY AND MICROPOROSITY
CARBONATE ROCK NORMALLY MM IN DIAMETER DERIVED FROM AN OLDER -ETEORIC ENVIRONMENT
:ONE AT OR NEAR THE EARTHS SURFACE INm UENCED OR
LIMESTONE DOLOMITE OR OTHER SEDIMENTARY ROCK STRATUM !LSO TERMED PERVADED BY WATERS OF RECENT ATMOSPHERIC ORIGIN 4YPICALLY DIVIDED
AN EXTRACLAST INTO UNSATURATED VADOSE AND SATURATED PHREATIC ZONES DIVIDED BY A
,ITHOGRAPHIC
2EFERS TO EXTREMELY l NE
GRAINED AND UNIFORM CARBONATE WATER TABLE
ROCK USUALLY WITH SMOOTH CONCHOIDAL FRACTURE -ICRITE
!N ABBREVIATION OF hMICROCRYSTALLINE CALCITE 4HE TERM IS USED
,OFERITE
#ARBONATE ROCK CONTAINING A GREAT ABUNDANCE OF SHRINKAGE
TYPE BOTH AS A SYNONYM FOR CARBONATE MUD OR hOOZEv AND FOR A ROCK
PORES A hBIRDSEYEv OR FENESTRAL LIMESTONE OR DOLOMITE 3EE &ISCHER COMPOSED OF CARBONATE MUD CALCILUTITE -ICRITE IS DEl NED AS HAVING
! TERM NOW RARELY USED AS THE TERM hFENESTRAL FABRICv HAS CRYSTALS TO M IN DIAMETER AND IS FORMED AS ORGANIC OR INORGANIC
BECOME MORE WIDELY APPLIED PRECIPITATES OR AS THE PRODUCT OF BREAKDOWN OF COARSER CARBONATE
,UMPS
)N MODERN SEDIMENTS IRREGULAR COMPOSITE AGGREGATES OF SILT
OR GRAINS -ICRITE IS PRODUCED WITHIN THE BASIN OF DEPOSITION AND SHOWS
SAND
SIZED CARBONATE PARTICLES THAT ARE CEMENTED TOGETHER AT POINTS OF LITTLE OR NO EVIDENCE OF SIGNIl CANT TRANSPORT &OLK
CONTACT IN ANCIENT CARBONATES SIMILAR
APPEARING LOBATE GRAINS THAT ARE -ICRITIZATION
#ONVERSION OF SAND
OR SILT
SIZED SEDIMENTARY PARTICLES
COMPOSED OF CARBONATE MUD MICRITE !FTER )LLING PARTLY OR COMPLETELY TO MICRITE
SIZED CALCIUM CARBONATE POSSIBLY DUE
-AGNESITE
! WHITE TO GRAYISH YELLOW OR BROWN MINERAL -G#/ )T IS TO MICROSCOPIC BORING ALGAE ANDOR FUNGI
ISOMORPHOUS WITH SIDERITE -AGNESITE IS GENERALLY FOUND AS EARTHLY -ICROCODIUM
%LONGATE PETAL
SHAPED CALCITE PRISMS OR ELLIPSOIDS MM
MASSES OR IRREGULAR VEINS RESULTING FROM THE ALTERCATION OF DOLOMITE OR LESS IN LENGTH AND GROUPED IN SPHERICAL SHEET OR BELL
LIKE CLUSTERS
ROCKS OR OF ROCKS RICH IN MAGNESIUM SILICATES BY MAGMATIC SOLUTIONS )T 4YPICALLY ASSOCIATED WITH CALICHE CRUSTS AND OTHER SUBAERIAL EXPOSURE
IS USED CHIEm Y IN MAKING REFRACTORIES AND MAGNESIA 3YN hGIOBERTITEv SURFACES #URRENTLY THOUGHT TO BE FORMED BY THE CALCIl CATION OF
-ARINE PHREATIC
! SUBSURFACE ZONE IN WHICH THE INTERSTITIAL PORES ARE MICRORHIZAE SYMBIOTIC ASSOCIATIONS BETWEEN SOIL FUNGI AND CORTICAL
COMPLETELY l LLED WITH m UIDS DERIVED FROM THE OVERLYING MARINE WATER CELLS OF HIGHER PLANT ROOTS SEE %STEBAN AND +LAPPA
MASS 5SED SPECIl CALLY TO REFER TO THE ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION -ICROCRYSTALLINE
4EXTURE OF A ROCK CONSISTING OF OR HAVING CRYSTALS THAT
OF MARINE CEMENTS SUCH AS BOTRYOIDAL ARAGONITE OR PELOIDAL HIGH
ARE SMALL ENOUGH TO BE VISIBLE ONLY UNDER THE MICROSCOPE
MAGNESIUM CALCITE IN NEAR
SURFACE SETTINGS WHERE MARINE PORE m UIDS -ICRON
SIZED
2EFERS TO A FABRIC IN WHICH CRYSTAL DIAMETERS ARE
M
ARE MOVED THROUGH SEDIMENTS BY WAVE
OR TIDAL PUMPING CONVECTION MICROMETERS
OR DIFFUSION
-ICROPORE
3IZE TERM PROPOSED BY #HOQUETTE AND 0RAY FOR
-ARL
3OFT LOOSE EARTHY SEDIMENT OR ROCK CONSISTING CHIEm Y OF A MIXTURE OF
GLOSSARY
MICROSCOPIC PORES OR PORES SMALL ENOUGH TO HOLD WATER AGAINST THE PULL EACH SEPARATED BY A THIN l LM OF ORGANIC MATERIAL OF EQUAL THICKNESS
OF GRAVITY AND TO INHIBIT THE m OW OF WATER -ICROPORE IS THE SMALLEST AND UNIFORM ORIENTATION ,AMINAE MAY BE PARALLEL TO THE SHELL SURFACE
OF THREE PORE
SIZE TERMS WITH MESOPORE AND MEGAPORE 4HE hMICRO
v OR PARALLEL TO GROWTH LINES .ACRE IS EASILY RECOGNIZED IN HAND SAMPLE
DESIGNATION IS USED FOR EQUANT TO EQUANT
ELONGATE PORES WHOSE AVERAGE AS IT SHOWS PEARLY LUSTER
DIAMETER IS LESS THAN MM AND FOR TUBULAR OR PLATY PORES WHOSE .EOMORPHISM
! GENERAL hTERM OF IGNORANCEv FOR ALL DIAGENETIC
AVERAGE CROSS
SECTIONAL DIAMETER OR LEAST DIAMETER RESPECTIVELY IS LESS TRANSFORMATIONS BETWEEN ONE MINERAL AND ITSELF OR A POLYMORPH
THAN MM WHETHER THE NEW CRYSTALS ARE LARGER OR SMALLER OR SIMPLY DIFFER IN SHAPE
-ICROSPAR
'ENERALLY
TO
M
SIZED CALCITE PRODUCED BY RECRYSTAL
FROM THE PREVIOUS ONES OR REPRESENT A NEW MINERAL SPECIES )NCLUDES
LIZATION NEOMORPHISM OF MICRITE CAN BE AS COARSE AS M &OLK BOTH INVERSION AND RECRYSTALLIZATION 3EE &OLK
.EPTUNIAN DIKE
! BODY OF SEDIMENT THAT CROSS
CUTS BEDS IN THE
-ICROSPARITE
! TERM USED BY &OLK FOR A LIMESTONE WHOSE MANNER OF A DIKE FORMED BY SEDIMENTATION IN SUBMARINE l SSURES
CARBONATE
MUD MATRIX HAS RECRYSTALLIZED TO MICROSPAR 3EDIMENTATION CAN INCLUDE REWORKING OF SEDIMENT FROM THE SEAm OOR
-ICROSTALACTITIC CEMENT
! DESCRIPTIVE TERM FOR CEMENTS WHICH ARE DOWNWARD INTO THE l SSURE GROWTH OF ORGANISMS ON THE WALLS OF THE
CONCENTRATED ON THE BOTTOM SIDES OF GRAINS 3UCH TEXTURES GENERALLY l SSURE OR PRECIPITATION OF CEMENTS FROM SEAWATER CIRCULATING INTO THE
FORM IN METEORIC VADOSE OR UPPER INTERTIDAL AREAS MARINE VADOSE l SSURE
SETTINGS WHERE PORES ARE ONLY PARTIALLY WATER
l LLED AND IN WHICH /CCLUSION
4HE REDUCTION OR REPLACEMENT OF POROSITY BY MINERAL GROWTH
WATER DROPLETS CAN HANG FROM THE UNDERSIDES OF GRAINS 3YN PENDANT OR INTERNAL SEDIMENT INl LLING
OR GRAVITATIONAL CEMENT /NCOID
)N .ORTH !MERICAN USAGE AN ONCOID IS A COATED GRAIN OF ALGAL
-ICROSTYLOLITE
! LOW
RELIEF LESS THAN MM OF RELIEF SURFACE PRODUCED BUT NOT RED ALGAL OR MICROBIAL ORIGIN THAT IS COARSER THAN MM IN
BY TECTONIC OF BURIAL
RELATED PRESSURE DISSOLUTION OF SOLUBLE CARBONATE DIAMETER A SPHEROIDAL FORM OF A MICROBIALALGAL STROMATOLITE SHOWING
TYPICALLY MARKED BY THE PRESENCE OF CLAYS ORGANIC MATTER OR OTHER A SERIES OF CONCENTRIC OFTEN IRREGULAR OR SCALLOPED LAMINATIONS 4HESE
INSOLUBLE MATERIAL /FTEN MICROSTYLOLITES FORM IN GROUPS OR CLUSTERS UNATTACHED STROMATOLITES ARE PRODUCED BY MECHANICAL TURNING OR
SOMETIMES REFERRED TO AS HORSE
TAIL SEAMS 3YN SOLUTION SEAM ALSO ROLLING EXPOSING NEW SURFACES TO ALGAL GROWTH #OMMON %UROPEAN
SEE STYLOLITE USAGE IS LESS GENETIC AS A MICROBIALALGAL ORIGIN IS NOT A PREREQUISITE
-ICROSUCROSIC
-ICROCRYSTALLINE TEXTURE OF LARGELY EUHEDRAL TO SUBHEDRAL FOR USING THE TERM 0ERYT DIVIDED ONCOIDS INTO TWO GROUPS
CALCITE OR DOLOMITE CRYSTAL MOSAICS IN THE APPROXIMATE SIZE RANGE OF POROSTROMATE FORMS AND SPONGIOSTROMATE FORMS
TO M /NCOLITE
! ROCK COMPOSED OF ONCOIDS 4HE TERM IS OFTEN IMPROPERLY
-ILLIMETER
SIZED
2EFERS TO A FABRIC IN WHICH THE CRYSTAL DIAMETERS ARE USED HOWEVER AS A SYNONYM FOR AN ONCOID
MM &RIEDMAN "RIT USAGE
hMILLIMETRE
SIZEDv /OID
! SPHERICAL TO ELLIPSOIDAL GRAIN TO MM IN DIAMETER WITH
-OLD
! MOLD IS A PORE FORMED BY THE SELECTIVE REMOVAL OF A FORMER A NUCLEUS COVERED BY ONE OR MORE PRECIPITATED CONCENTRIC COATINGS THAT
INDIVIDUAL CONSTITUENT OF THE SEDIMENT OR ROCK -OST MOLDS IN HAVE RADIAL ANDOR CONCENTRIC ORIENTATION OF CONSTITUENT CRYSTALS /OIDS
SEDIMENTARY CARBONATES ARE CREATED BY THE SELECTIVE DISSOLUTION CAN HAVE CALCAREOUS FERRUGINOUS ESPECIALLY HEMATITE OR CHAMOSITE
OF VARIOUS TYPES OF CARBONATE DEPOSITIONAL PARTICLES %SPECIALLY SILICEOUS BAUXITIC PHOSPHATIC EVAPORITIC GYPSUM HALITE OR OTHER
COMMON IN LIMESTONES ARE MOLDS OF PRIMARY ARAGONITIC CONSTITUENTS CONCENTRIC COATINGS
NOTABLY OOIDS AND MOLLUSCAN SHELLS -OLDS IN DOLOMITE COMMONLY /OLITE
! ROCK COMPOSED DOMINANTLY OF OOIDS 4HE TERM COMMONLY IS
FORMED BY SELECTIVE DISSOLUTION OF EITHER ARAGONITE OR CALCITE PRIMARY MISUSED TO DESCRIBE THE CONSTITUENT GRAINS
CONSTITUENTS AND LESS COMMONLY BY SOLUTION OF ANHYDRITE GYPSUM OR /OMICRITE
! LIMESTONE COMPOSED DOMINANTLY OF OOIDS IN A MATRIX OF
HALITE "RIT USAGE
hMOULDv MICRITE &OLK
-OLDIC POROSITY
$ESCRIPTIVE OF PORES FORMED BY THE SELECTIVE REMOVAL /OMOLD
! SPHEROIDAL PORE OR IN A SEDIMENTARY ROCK RESULTING FROM THE
OF A FORMER INDIVIDUAL CONSTITUENT OF THE SEDIMENT OR ROCK -OST DISSOLUTION OF AN OOID /OMOLDIC IS THE ADJECTIVAL FORM AS USED IN THE
MOLDIC POROSITY IN SEDIMENTARY CARBONATES IS CREATED BY THE SELECTIVE TERM hOOMOLDIC POROSITYv
DISSOLUTION OF VARIOUS TYPES OF CARBONATE DEPOSITIONAL PARTICLES
%SPECIALLY COMMON IN LIMESTONES ARE MOLDS OF PRIMARY ARAGONITIC /OSPARITE
! LIMESTONE CONTAINING AT LEAST OOLITHS AND NO MORE
CONSTITUENTS NOTABLY OOIDS AND MOLLUSCAN SHELLS -OLDIC PORES THAN INTRACLASTS AND IN WHICH THE SPARRY
CALCITE CEMENT IS MORE
IN DOLOMITE COMMONLY FORMED BY SELECTIVE DISSOLUTION OF EITHER ABUNDANT THAN THE CARBONATE
MUD MATRIX MICRITE &OLK
ARAGONITE OR CALCITE PRIMARY CONSTITUENTS AND LESS COMMONLY BY /PAL
!
!N AMORPHOUS FORM OF SILICA 3I/ s N(/ PROBABLY COLLOIDAL
SOLUTION OF ANHYDRITE GYPSUM OR HALITE #HOQUETTE AND 0RAY IN ORIGIN THAT COMPOSES THE PRECIPITATED SKELETAL MATERIAL OF DIATOMS
-OLDIC IS OFTEN USED WITH MODIFYING PREl XES INCLUDING OOMOLDIC OR RADIOLARIANS AND SILICEOUS SPONGES 4HE MINERAL IS COLORLESS TO GRAY OR
DOLOMOLDIC "RIT USAGE
hMOULDICv BROWN HAS HIGH NEGATIVE RELIEF AND IS ISOTROPIC IN THIN SECTION )T CAN
-ONOMICT
REFERRING TO A SEDIMENTARY ROCK CONTAINING CLASTS OF JUST CONTAIN UP TO WATER BUT USUALLY HAS
4YPICALLY CONVERTS TO
A SINGLE ROCK TYPE FOR EXAMPLE AN INTRACLASTIC LIMESTONE BEARING OPAL
#4 OR QUARTZ AT HIGHER TEMPERATURES DURING SEDIMENT BURIAL
ONLY CLASTS OF LAMINATED TIDAL m AT SEDIMENT OR ONE CONTAINING ONLY /RTHOCHEMICAL
! ROCK CONSTITUENT THAT IS A NORMAL CHEMICAL PRECIPITATE
BEACHROCK FRAGMENTS 3YN MONOMICTIC CONTRAST WITH POLYMICT AS CONTRASTED TO FOSSILS OOIDS OR OTHER MECHANICALLY OR BIOLOGICALLY
-UDSTONE
)N REFERRING TO CARBONATES A CARBONATE ROCK COMPOSED OF DEPOSITED CONSTITUENTS &OLK P
CARBONATE MUD WITH LESS THAN ALLOCHEMS $UNHAM /SSICLES
)NDIVIDUAL CALCAREOUS SKELETAL COMPONENTS OF ECHINODERMS EG
-UD
SUPPORTED
2EFERS TO THE FABRIC OF A MUDSTONE MICRITE IN WHICH PLATES %CHINOIDS OR CRINOIDS CONSIST OF NUMEROUS OSSICLES WHICH
THE GRAINS ALLOCHEMS ARE SEPARATED FROM EACH OTHER BY AND hm OATv IN TYPICALLY DISAGGREGATE UPON THE DEATH OF THE ORGANISM %ACH OSSICLE
A MICRITE MATRIX $UNHAM EFFECTIVELY ACTS AS A SINGLE CRYSTAL OF CALCITE UNDER THE POLARIZING
MICROSCOPE IN REALITY HOWEVER EACH OSSICLE ACTUALLY CONSISTS OF AN
.ACREOUS MICROSTRUCTURE
! SHELL WALL STRUCTURE PRESENT ONLY IN AGGLOMERATION OF NUMEROUS SUBMICROSCOPIC CRYSTALLITES WITH NEARLY
MOLLUSKS BIVALVES GASTROPODS AND CEPHALOPODS )T CONSISTS OF AN PERFECTLY PARALLEL C
AXES AND WELL ALIGNED A
AXES
ORDERLY ARRANGEMENT OF NUMEROUS THIN TABLET
LIKE ARAGONITE LAMINAE
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
/VERGROWTH 3ECONDARY MATERIAL DEPOSITED IN OPTICAL AND CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC 0ISOID ! SMALL SPHEROIDAL PARTICLE WITH CONCENTRICALLY LAMINATED INTERNAL
CONTINUITY AROUND A CRYSTAL GRAIN OF THE SAME MINERAL COMPOSITION STRUCTURE LARGER THAN MM AND IN SOME USAGES LESS THAN MM IN
0ACKED #ONTAINING SUFl CIENT GRAINS ALLOCHEMS FOR THE GRAINS TO BE IN DIAMETER
CONTACT AND MUTUALLY SUPPORTING AS CONTRASTED WITH ROCKS WITH GRAINS 0ISOLITE ! ROCK CONTAINING ABUNDANT PISOIDS
hm OATINGv IN MUD &OLK 0OIKILOTOPIC POIKILITIC 4EXTURAL TERM DENOTING A CONDITION IN WHICH
0ACKSTONE ! GRAIN SUPPORTED CARBONATE ROCK WITH MORE THAN PERCENT SMALL GRANULAR CRYSTALS OR GRAINS ARE IRREGULARLY SCATTERED WITHOUT
INTERSTITIAL CARBONATE MUD MATRIX CF GRAINSTONE AND WACKESTONE COMMON ORIENTATION IN A LARGER CRYSTAL OF ANOTHER MINERAL GENERALLY
$UNHAM SAND OR SILT GRAINS IN A SINGLE COARSE CEMENT CRYSTAL 3EE &RIEDMAN
0ALISADE STYLE ! TYPE OF PORE LINING CALCIUM CARBONATE CEMENT
COMPOSED OF MARKEDLY ELONGATE CRYSTALS ARRANGED PICKET FENCE STYLE 0OLYMICT REFERRING TO A SEDIMENTARY ROCK CONTAINING CLASTS OF MULTIPLE
ON OR AROUND A GRAIN OR OTHER SUBSTRATE ROCK TYPES FOR EXAMPLE AN INTRACLASTIC LIMESTONE OR CALCLITHITE WITH
0ARAGENESIS ! SEQUENTIAL ORDER OF MINERAL FORMATION OR TRANSFORMATION VARIED CLAST LITHOLOGIES OR FABRIC TYPES 3YN POLYMICTIC CONTRAST WITH
MONOMICT
0ARAMORPHISM 4HE TRANSFORMATION OF INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A MINERAL
WITHOUT CHANGE OF EXTERNAL FORM OR OF CHEMICAL COMPOSITION 0OLYMORPH /NE OF TWO OR MORE CRYSTALLINE FORMS OF THE SAME
CHEMICAL SUBSTANCE &OR EXAMPLE CALCITE RHOMBOHEDRAL ARAGONITE
0ASSIVE PRECIPITATION 4HE PRECIPITATION OF CEMENT IN OPEN SPACES AS IN ORTHORHOMBIC AND VATERITE HEXAGONAL ARE POLYMORPHS OF CALCIUM
BETWEEN GRAINS IN THE BODY CHAMBERS OF FOSSILS OR IN FENESTRAE &OLK CARBONATE
4O BE DISTINGUISHED FROM THE GROWTH OF NEOMORPHIC SPAR AND
THE GROWTH OF CRYSTALS BY DISPLACEMENT 0OORLY WASHED ! ROCK WHICH HAS SPARRY CALCITE CEMENT BUT WHICH ALSO
HAS ONE THIRD TO ONE HALF OF ALL INTERSTICES l LLED WITH CARBONATE MUD
0ELLET ! PELLET IS A GRAIN ALLOCHEM COMPOSED OF LIME MUD MICRITE IE A POORLY SORTED ROCK
GENERALLY LACKING SIGNIl CANT INTERNAL STRUCTURE 0ELLETS COMMONLY
ARE ROUNDED SPHERICAL TO ELLIPTICAL OR OVOID IN SHAPE AND MOST ARE 0ORCELANEOUS MICROSTRUCTURE ! CALCAREOUS WALL TYPE COMMON IN
CONSIDERED TO BE THE FECAL PRODUCTS OF INVERTEBRATE ORGANISMS !S FORAMINIFERS AND CHARACTERIZED BY A DENSE l NE GRAINED CALCITE WITH A
SUCH PELLETS ARE GENERALLY SMALL TO MM AND OF UNIFORM SIZE DULL WHITE LUSTER 2ESEMBLES UNGLAZED PORCELAIN
AND SHAPE IN ANY SINGLE SAMPLE 4HE RELATED TERM hPELOIDv SOMETIMES 0OROSITY 4HE PERCENTAGE OF VOID EMPTY SPACE WHETHER ISOLATED OR
IS USED AS A MORE INCLUSIVE TERM TO DESCRIBE MICRITIC OR MICRITIZED CONNECTED IN EARTH MATERIAL SUCH AS SOIL OR ROCK &OR A CLASSIl CATION
GRAINS OF UNCERTAIN ORIGIN OF POROSITY TYPES IN CARBONATE ROCKS SEE #HOQUETTE AND 0RAY
0ELLETAL $ESCRIBING A ROCK CONTAINING A SIGNIl CANT PERCENTAGE OF PELLETS 0ORPHYRITIC ! TEXTURAL TERM FOR THE FABRIC OF A SEDIMENTARY ROCK IN WHICH
0ELMATOZOAN !NY ECHINODERM WITH OR WITHOUT A STEM THAT LIVES OR LIVED THE CRYSTALS ARE OF MORE THAN ONE SIZE AND IN WHICH LARGER CRYSTALS
ATTACHED TO ITS SUBSTRATE ! TERM FOR ANY ATTACHED ECHINODERM MOST PORPHYROTOPES ARE ENCLOSED IN A GROUNDMASS OF SMALLER CRYSTALS
COMMONLY CRINOIDS ! MODIl ER USED TO DESCRIBE AND ECHINODERM RICH THE TERM IS RESTRICTED TO CARBONATE ROCKS WHICH HAVE UNDERGONE
LIMESTONE NEOMORPHISM OR ARE PRECIPITATES &RIEDMAN
0ELMICRITE
! LIMESTONE COMPOSED DOMINANTLY OF PELOIDS OR PELLETS IN 0ORPHYROID NEOMORPHISM
! TERM INTRODUCED BY &OLK FOR
A MATRIX OF MICRITE &OLK AGGRADING NEOMORPHISM IN WHICH SMALL CRYSTALS ARE CONVERTED TO
LARGE ONES BY GROWTH OF A FEW LARGE CRYSTALS IN AND REPLACING MICRITIC
0ELOID
!N ALLOCHEM FORMED OF CRYPTOCRYSTALLINE OR MICROCRYSTALLINE MATRIX
CARBONATE REGARDLESS OF SIZE OR ORIGIN 4HIS TERM COINED BY -C+EE
AND 'UTSCHICK ALLOWS REFERENCE TO GRAINS COMPOSED OF MICRITE 0RIMARY POROSITY
0OROSITY FORMED DURING l NAL SEDIMENTATION OR PRESENT
OR MICROSPAR WITHOUT THE NEED TO IMPLY ANY PARTICULAR MODE OF ORIGIN IN THE ROCK OR SEDIMENT AT THE TIME OF DEPOSITION 4HE TERM hPRIMARY
CAN THUS INCLUDE PELLETS SOME VAGUE INTRACLASTS MICRITIZED FOSSILS POROSITYv INCLUDES ALL PREDEPOSITIONAL AND DEPOSITIONAL POROSITY OF
DEGRADED OOIDS AND OTHER GRAINS OF PROBLEMATIC ORIGIN A PARTICLE SEDIMENT OR ROCK )T ALSO REFERS TO ANY POST
DIAGENETIC
REMNANT OF PRIMARY PORE SPACE 3EE #HOQUETTE AND 0RAY P
0ELSPARITE
! LIMESTONE COMPOSED DOMINANTLY OF PELOIDS OR PELLETS IN
SPARRY CALCITE CEMENT &OLK
0RISMATIC MICROSTRUCTURE
! WALL STRUCTURE COMMON TO THE SHELLS OF
0ENDANT CEMENT
3EE hMICROSTALACTITICv CEMENT A NUMBER OF ORGANISMS AND FOUND IN THREE VARIETIES .ORMAL
0ENECONTEMPORANEOUS
'ENERALLY REFERRING TO CEMENTS OR REPLACEMENT PRISMATIC
CONSISTS OF MULTIPLE SINGLE CRYSTALS OF QUADRANGULAR
TEXTURES INDICATING THAT IN THE OPINION OF THE USER THE FEATURE OR OR POLYGONAL CROSS SECTION GENERALLY ORIENTED WITH THEIR LONG AXIS
MINERAL FORMED AT ALMOST THE SAME TIME AS THE ORIGINAL SEDIMENT PERPENDICULAR OR SLIGHTLY INCLINED TO THE PLANE OF THE LAYER 4HIS
WAS DEPOSITED THAT IS CLOSE TO THE SEDIMENT
AIR OR SEDIMENT
WATER TYPE CAN FORM IN EITHER ARAGONITIC OR CALCITIC SHELLS AND IS ESPECIALLY
INTERFACE 3YN SYNDEPOSITIONAL COMMON IN MOLLUSCAN SHELLS #OMPLEX PRISMATIC
NUMEROUS
UNITS OF QUADRANGULAR OR POLYGONAL CROSS SECTION ORIENTED AS IN NORMAL
0HOTOZOAN ASSOCIATION
5SED TO DESCRIBE SHALLOW WARM
WATER
PRISMATIC SHELLS &OUND ONLY IN MOLLUSKS OF EITHER ARAGONITIC OR
BENTHIC CALCAREOUS COMMUNITIES AND THEIR RESULTANT SEDIMENTS 4HE
CALCITIC COMPOSITION %ACH UNIT ALTHOUGH IT LOOKS LIKE A NORMAL PRISM
TERM hEMPHASIZES THE LIGHT
DEPENDENT NATURE OF THE MAJOR BIOTIC
CONSISTS OF SMALLER CRYSTALS THAT RADIATE OUTWARD FROM THE CENTRAL AXIS
CONSTITUENTSv INCLUDING THE INm UENCES OF HARBORED PHOTOSYMBIONTS
4RANSVERSE SECTIONS SHOW A BLACK EXTINCTION CROSS UNDER CROSSED
#ONTRASTS WITH hHETEROZOAN ASSOCIATIONv $El NED BY *AMES
POLARS LONGITUDINAL SECTIONS SHOW A SWEEPING EXTINCTION AS THE STAGE
0HREATIC
4HE ZONE OF WATER SATURATION BELOW THE WATER TABLE 4HERE IS ROTATED #OMPOSITE PRISMATIC
LARGE UNITS EACH COMPOSED
CAN BE MARINE OR METEORIC PHREATIC ZONES 3OMETIMES TERMED THE OF SMALL GEOMETRIC PRISMS NORMAL OR COMPLEX RADIATING OUTWARD
hSATURATED ZONEv #ONTRAST WITH hVADOSEv OR UNSATURATED ZONEv FROM A CENTRAL AXIS 'ENERALLY ORIENTED WITH THE LONG DIMENSION OF
0HYLLOID ALGAE
A TERM COINED BY 0RAY AND 7RAY TO DESCRIBE ALL THE COMPOSITE PRISM IN THE PLANE OF THE SHELL LAYER &OUND ONLY IN
,ATE 0ALEOZOIC CALCAREOUS ALGAE WITH PLATY OR LEAF
LIKE FORMS AND A MOLLUSKS OF EITHER ARAGONITIC OR CALCITIC COMPOSITION
LACK OF SUFl CIENT INTERNAL FABRIC PRESERVATION TO ALLOW GENERIC
LEVEL 0ROTODOLOMITE
! CRYSTALLINE CALCIUM
MAGNESIUM CARBONATE WITH
IDENTIl CATION A DISORDERED STRUCTURE IN WHICH THE TWO CATIONS OCCUR IN THE SAME
GLOSSARY
CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC LAYERS INSTEAD OF IN ALTERNATE LAYERS AS IN THE DOLOMITE OCCURS AS EITHER A CEMENT OR A REPLACEMENT IS COMMONLY ASSOCIATED
MINERAL 4HE TERM IS NOW RARELY USED WITH HYDROTHERMAL ORE MINERALIZATION SULFATE
RICH CARBONATES AND
0SEUDOMORPH
! MINERAL WHOSE OUTWARD CRYSTAL FORM IS THAT OF THE PRESENCE OF HYDROCARBONS )T HAS BEEN INTERPRETED TO INDICATE
ANOTHER MINERAL SPECIES IT HAS DEVELOPED BY ALTERATION SUBSTITUTION FORMATION THROUGH SULFATE REDUCTION AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES
ENCRUSTATION OR PARAMORPHISM # 3EE 2ADKE AND -ATHIS AND &OLK AND !SSERETO
3YN BAROQUE DOLOMITE
0SEUDOSPAR
! NEOMORPHIC RECRYSTALLIZATION CALCITE FABRIC WITH AVERAGE
CRYSTAL SIZE LARGER THAN
M &OLK 3CLERITE
! HARD CALCAREOUS OR CHITINOUS PLATE PIECE OR SPICULE OF
ANY INVERTEBRATE #OMMONLY USED FOR OSSICLES OF HOLOTHURIANS AND
2ADIAL
l BROUS CALCITE
! DESCRIPTIVE TERM FOR A FABRIC OF CRYSTAL l BERS CALCAREOUS SPICULES IN GORGONIAN OCTOCORALS
ARRANGED WITH THEIR LONG AXES RADIATING FROM A CENTER OPPOSITE TO
TANGENTIAL 2ADIAL l BROUS CRYSTALS ALSO HAVE UNIT EXTINCTION AND 3ECONDARY POROSITY
! HARD CALCAREOUS OR CHITINOUS PLATE PIECE
STRAIGHT TWIN PLANES 3EE ALSO RADIAXIAL
l BROUS CALCITE AND FASCICULAR
OR SPICULE OF ANY INVERTEBRATE #OMMONLY USED FOR OSSICLES OF
OPTIC l BROUS CALCITE +ENDALL HOLOTHURIANS AND CALCAREOUS SPICULES IN GORGONIAN OCTOCORALS
2ADIAXIAL
l BROUS CALCITE
! CAVITY
l LLING CALCITE MOSAIC CONSISTING 3EPTARIAN NODULE
! HARD ROUGHLY SPHERICAL DIAGENETIC NODULE
OF l BROUS CRYSTALS AND SUBCRYSTALS RADIATING AWAY FROM THE INITIAL OR CONCRETION FORMED OF CALCITE SIDERITE IRON OXIDES OR OTHER
GROWTH SURFACE AND ALLIED TO OPTIC AXES THAT CONVERGE AWAY FROM THE MATERIALS 4HE MOST DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERISTIC IS A COMPLEX NETWORK
WALL 2&# IS CHARACTERIZED BY CURVED CLEAVAGES UNDULOSE EXTINCTION OF INTERSECTING RADIAL ANDOR CONCENTRIC FRACTURES SIMILAR TO SHRINKAGE
AND IRREGULAR INTERGRANULAR BOUNDARIES WHICH DISTINGUISH THIS FABRIC CRACKS 4HE FRACTURES ARE TYPICALLY l LLED WITH CALCITE CEMENTS IN MANY
FROM SIMPLE RADIAL
l BROUS CALCITE -UST ALSO BE DIFFERENTIATED FROM CASES CONSISTING OF MULTIPLE GENERATIONS OF YELLOWISH
BROWN TO WHITE
FASCICULAR
OPTIC l BROUS CALCITE &/&# 2&# HAS TWIN PLANES THAT ARE l BROUS TO BLADED CALCITE 3YN SEPTARIUM
CONCAVE UPWARD RELATIVE TO THE SUBSTRATE AND EXTINCTION SWEEPS IN THE 3HELTER POROSITY
! TYPE OF PRIMARY INTERPARTICLE POROSITY CREATED
SAME DIRECTION AS STAGE ROTATION THE OPPOSITE IS TRUE FOR &/&# 3EE BY THE SHELTERING EFFECT OF RELATIVELY LARGE SEDIMENTARY PARTICLES
+ENDALL WHICH PREVENT THE INl LLING OF PORE SPACE BENEATH THEM BY l NER
2AUHWACKE
! 'ERMAN TERM RAUH ROUGH FOR A CARBONATE ROCK CLASTIC PARTICLES !S SHELTER PORES ARE COMMONLY LARGER THAN MOST OF
CHARACTERIZED BY CELLULAR OPENINGS PORES THAT ARE LARGELY UNCONNECTED THE ASSOCIATED INTERPARTICLE PRIMARY PORES THEY TEND TO BE SITES OF
OR MAY BE ONLY PARTIALLY CONNECTED ! FABRIC IN WHICH CALCITIC VEINS PRESERVED PRIMARY POROSITY IN MANY ROCKS WHOSE l NER INTERPARTICLE
OR PARTITIONS INTERVENE BETWEEN LARGE PORES 4HIS FABRIC IS COMMONLY PORES HAVE BEEN l LLED BY CEMENTATION #HOQUETTE AND 0RAY P
FORMED THROUGH THE ALTERATION DISSOLUTION OF NODULAR EVAPORITES IN A 3YN UMBRELLA VOIDS
CARBONATE MATRIX 3YN CELLULAR LIMESTONE 3HRINKAGE POROSITY
0OROSITY PRODUCED BY SEDIMENT SHRINKAGE $RYING
2ECRYSTALLIZATION
4HE FORMATION ESSENTIALLY IN THE SOLID STATE OF NEW COMMONLY PRODUCES SHRINKAGE POROSITY BUT OTHER PROCESSES CAN CREATE
CRYSTALLINE MINERAL GRAINS IN A ROCK 4HE NEW GRAINS ARE GENERALLY CONTRACTION CRACKS SHRINKAGE POROSITY IN AQUEOUS ENVIRONMENTS
LARGER THAN THE ORIGINAL GRAINS AND MAY HAVE THE SAME OR A DIFFERENT !LTHOUGH MOST SHRINKAGE POROSITY IS A SPECIALIZED TYPE OF FRACTURE
MINERALOGICAL COMPOSITION POROSITY IT CAN BE FORMED BY SHRINKAGE OF INDIVIDUAL SEDIMENTARY
PARTICLES 3CHMIDT #HOQUETTE AND 0RAY
2EPLACEMENT
)N ITS GENERAL SENSE THE TERM REFERS TO THE TRANSFORMATION
OF ONE MINERAL TO ANOTHER EITHER A POLYMORPH OR A MINERAL OF A 3IDERITE
! RHOMBOHEDRAL MINERAL OF THE CALCITE GROUP &E#/ )T IS
DIFFERENT COMPOSITION )N THE STRICT AND MORE WIDELY USED DEl NITION ISOMORPHOUS WITH MAGNESITE AND RHODOCHROSITE AND COMMONLY
PROPOSED BY &OLK THE TERM REFERS TO THE REPLACEMENT OF A CONTAINS UP TO A FEW PERCENT MAGNESIUM AND MANGANESE #RYSTALS
MINERAL BY ONE OF A DIFFERENT COMPOSITION EG SILICA OR DOLOMITE USUALLY ARE YELLOW
BROWN BROWNISH RED OR BROWNISH BLACK BUT
REPLACEMENT OF CALCITE SOMETIMES CAN BE WHITE OR GRAY OFTEN FOUND IMPURE IN BEDS OR
NODULES IN CLAYS AND CALCAREOUS SHALES AS A CEMENT IN SANDSTONES AND
2HIZOLITHS
/RGANOSEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES PRODUCED IN ROOTS BY AS A DIRECTLY PRECIPITATED DEPOSIT ALTERED BY IRON OXIDES #HARACTERIZED
ACCUMULATION ANDOR CEMENTATION AROUND CEMENTATION WITHIN OR IN THIN
SECTION BY m ATTENED RHOMBS ! COMMON EARLY
DIAGENETIC
REPLACEMENT OF HIGHER PLANT ROOTS BY MINERAL MATTER +LAPPA CEMENT IN AREAS OF REDUCING FRESH TO BRACKISH PORE m UIDS
)NCLUDES ROOT CASTS TUBULES AND MOLDS AS WELL AS RHIZOCRETIONS AND
ROOT PETRIl CATIONS 2HIZOLITHS ARE TYPICALLY MILLIMETERS TO CENTIMETERS 3INGLE
CRYSTAL MICROSTRUCTURE
! SKELETAL WALL STRUCTURE IN WHICH THE
IN DIAMETER AND CENTIMETERS TO METERS IN LENGTH OCCUR JUST BELOW HIATUS SHELL LAYERS OR LARGE SEGMENTS OF SHELL LAYERS HAVE THE PROPERTIES OF A
SURFACES AND MAY TAPER SLIGHTLY 3EE %STEBAN AND +LAPPA SINGLE CRYSTAL ! COMMON FEATURE OF MANY ECHINODERMS
2HODOID RHODOLITH
!N IRREGULARLY LAMINATED CALCAREOUS NODULE 3ILICICLASTIC
0ERTAINING TO CLASTIC NONCARBONATE ROCKS OR TO SEDIMENTARY
COMPOSED LARGELY OF ENCRUSTING CORALLINE ALGAE ARRANGED IN MORE OR FRAGMENTS OF PREVIOUS ROCKS COMPRISED DOMINANTLY OF SILICON
RICH
LESS CONCENTRIC LAYERS ABOUT A CORE GENERALLY CREAM TO PINK SPHEROIDAL MINERALS SUCH AS QUARTZ OR FELDSPAR
BUT WITH A SOMEWHAT KNOBBY SURFACE AND UP TO SEVERAL CENTIMETERS 3KELETAL
#ARBONATE COMPONENTS OR THE ROCKS THEY FORM DERIVED FROM
IN DIAMETER FORMS IN WARM OR COLD CLEAR SHALLOW SEA WATER DOWN TO HARD MATERIAL SECRETED DIRECTLY BY ORGANISMS ! SUBSTITUTE FOR THE
DEPTHS OF
M CONFUSING TERM hORGANICv OF SOME OLDER LITERATURE
2UDSTONE
! TEXTURAL TYPE OF COARSE
GRAINED LIMESTONE GRAIN SUPPORTED BY 3MEAR MOUNT
! SMEAR MOUNT IS A MICROSCOPIC PREPARATION IN WHICH
FRAGMENTED CONSTITUENTS THAT ARE NOT ORGANICALLY BOUND AND ARE MOSTLY INDIVIDUAL GRAINS OR THIN PASTES OF MUDDY SEDIMENT ARE SPREAD
GREATER THAN MM IN DIAMETER 3EE %MBRY AND +LOVAN OR SMEARED ACROSS A GLASS SLIDE 4HE MATERIAL MAY BE AFl XED WITH
3ACCHAROIDAL
! TEXTURAL TERM ESSENTIALLY SYNONYMOUS WITH hSUCROSE v AN ADHESIVE OR SIMPLY BE ALLOWED TO DRY 4HIS PREPARATION ALLOWS
REFERRING TO A TEXTURAL RESEMBLANCE TO COMMON TABLE SUGAR SEE QUICK AND INEXPENSIVE VIEWING OF MATERIALS UNDER THE PETROGRAPHIC
SUCROSESUCROSIC MICROSCOPE AND IS ESPECIALLY VALUABLE IN EXAMINATION OF EXTREMELY
SMALL OBJECTS SUCH AS COCCOLITHS THAT MAY BE OBSCURED BY OTHER
3ADDLE DOLOMITE
! VARIETY OF DOLOMITE THAT HAS A WARPED CRYSTAL LATTICE MATERIAL IN STANDARD M THIN SECTIONS
IT IS CHARACTERIZED BY CURVED CRYSTAL FACES CURVED CLEAVAGE AND
SWEEPING EXTINCTION 3ADDLE DOLOMITE IS SLIGHTLY ENRICHED IN CALCIUM 3OLUTION
COLLAPSE BRECCIA
! COLLAPSE BRECCIA FORMED WHERE SOLUBLE
TYPICALLY
MOL AND IN MANY CASES IRON
MOL )T MATERIAL HAS BEEN PARTLY OR WHOLLY REMOVED BY DISSOLUTION THEREBY
PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
ALLOWING THE OVERLYING ROCK TO SETTLE AND BECOME FRAGMENTED 3UPERl CIAL OOID !N OOID OOLITH WITH AN INCOMPLETE OR VERY THIN CORTICAL
3OLUTION CAVITY l LL ! PHRASE USED BY &OLK TO DESCRIBE THE COATING SPECIl CALLY ONE IN WHICH THE THICKNESS OF THE ACCRETIONARY
PROCESS COMMON IN CARBONATE ROCKS WHERE AN UNSTABLE MINERAL COATING IS LESS COMMONLY FAR LESS THAN THE RADIUS OF THE NUCLEUS
IS DISSOLVED AWAY LEAVING A VOID SPACE !FTER THE PASSAGE OF AN 3YNDEPOSITIONAL 3EE hPENECONTEMPORANEOUSv
INDETERMINATE PERIOD OF TIME THE VOID SPACE IS l LLED WITH A NEWLY 3YNTAXIAL 2EFERS TO OVERGROWTHS WHICH ARE IN OPTICAL CONTINUITY WITH
PRECIPITATED MINERAL THAT NATURALLY CONTAINS NO RELICT INCLUSIONS OF THE THEIR UNDERLYING GRAINS SUCH THAT THE ORIGINAL CRYSTAL AND THE OVERGROWTH
ORIGINAL MATERIAL THAT ONCE OCCUPIED THE AREA FORM A SINGLE LARGER CRYSTAL SHARING THE SAME CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC AXES
3OLUTION SEAM n ! LOW RELIEF INTERNAL SURFACE PRODUCED BY SUBSURFACE !PPLIED FOR EXAMPLE TO OVERGROWTHS OF CALCITE ON ECHINOID GRAINS
PRESSURE DISSOLUTION OF SOLUBLE CARBONATE TYPICALLY MARKED BY THE "ATHURST 3YN OPTICALLY CONTINUOUS EPITAXIAL
PRESENCE OF CLAYS ORGANIC MATTER OR OTHER INSOLUBLE MATERIAL 3IMILAR 4ELOGENETIC /CCURRING IN THE TIME INTERVAL DURING WHICH LONG BURIED
TO STYLOLITES BUT MARKED BY LOWER RELIEF AND LESS OBVIOUS INSOLUBLE SEDIMENTS OR ROCKS ARE LOCATED NEAR THE SURFACE AGAIN AS A RESULT OF
RESIDUE AND GENERALLY OCCURRING AS CLOSELY SPACED SWARMS OF SUCH CRUSTAL MOVEMENT AND EROSION AND ARE INm UENCED SIGNIl CANTLY BY
DISSOLUTION SURFACES 3YN (ORSE TAIL SEAM OR MICROSTYLOLITE PROCESSES EG KARST DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATED WITH THE FORMATION OF
3PAR ! COMMON SIMPLIl CATION OF THE TERM hSPARRY CALCITEv AN UNCONFORMITY #HOQUETTE AND 0RAY #ONTRAST WITH EOGENETIC
3PARRY CALCITE ! MOSAIC OF CALCITE CRYSTALS FORMED EITHER AS CEMENT AND MESOGENETIC
OR BY NEOMORPHIC PROCESSES SUFl CIENTLY COARSELY CRYSTALLINE TO 4ERRA ROSSA ! REDDISH BROWN RESIDUAL SOIL FOUND AS A MANTLE OVER
APPEAR FAIRLY TRANSPARENT IN THIN SECTION AS CONTRASTED TO DARK CLOUDY LIMESTONE BEDROCK !LSO SPELLED hTERRA ROSAv
APPEARING CARBONATE MUD OR MICRITE &OLK #OMMONLY 4ERRIGENOUS $ERIVED FROM THE LAND AREA AND TRANSPORTED MECHANICALLY
SIMPLY TERMED hSPARv TO THE BASIN OF DEPOSITION COMMONLY ESSENTIALLY SYNONYMOUS WITH
3PARSE n 2EFERS TO THE SCARCITY OF GRAINS RELATIVE TO MUDDY MATRIX hNONCARBONATEv EG TERRIGENOUS SAND VS CARBONATE SAND
A SITUATION IN WHICH ALLOCHEMS ARE SUFl CIENTLY SCARCE SO AS TO BE 4EST !N EXTERNAL SHELL OF VARIABLE MINERAL COMPOSITION AND ARCHITECTURE
SEPARATED FROM EACH OTHER BY CARBONATE MUD AND CONSTITUTE LESS THAN SECRETED BY INVERTEBRATES ESPECIALLY PROTOZOANS OF THE ORDER
OF THE ROCK &OLK &ORAMINIFERIDA
3PASTOLITH !N OOID OR OTHER COATED GRAIN THAT HAS BEEN DEFORMED 4RABECULAR STRUCTURE ! WALL STRUCTURE FOUND IN SCLERACTINIAN CORALS
GENERALLY BY SHEARING THE CONCENTRIC LAMINATIONS AWAY FROM EACH IN WHICH A ROD OR COLUMN OF RADIATING CALCAREOUS ELEMENTS l BER
OTHER OR FROM THE NUCLEUS FASCICLES FORMING A SKELETAL ELEMENT IN THE STRUCTURE OF THE SEPTA AND
3TEINKERN ! TERM DERIVED FROM THE 'ERMAN LITERATURE TO DESCRIBE THE RELATED PARTS OF A CORAL WALL !LSO USED FOR SMALL SKELETAL ELEMENTS IN
LITHIl ED INTERNAL SEDIMENT l LLING OF A SHELL OR ARTICULATED PAIR OF BRYOZOANS HEXACTINELLID SPONGES AND HOLOTHURIAN SCLERITES
SHELLS SUCH AS A BIVALVE OR THE hFOSSILv GENERATED BY THE SUBSEQUENT 4RAVERTINE ! RELATIVELY DENSE BANDED DEPOSIT OF #A#/ ESPECIALLY
DISSOLUTION OF THE SHELL MOLD AND hLIBERATIONv OF THE LITHIl ED l LLING COMMON IN CAVERNS AND FORMED BY THE EVAPORATION OF SPRING OR RIVER
3TRAIN RECRYSTALLIZATION 2ECRYSTALLIZATION IN WHICH A DEFORMED MINERAL WATER 0ETTIJOHN
ALTERS TO A MOSAIC OF UNDEFORMED CRYSTALS OF THE SAME MINERAL EG 4UFA ! SPONGY POROUS SEDIMENTARY ROCK LIMESTONE OR SILICA DEPOSITED
STRAINED TO UNSTRAINED CALCITE 3EE &OLK IN OR AROUND SPRINGS LAKES AND RIVERS FROM EMERGING GROUND WATERS
3TROMATACTIS ! CAVITY STRUCTURE COMMON IN MUDDY CARBONATE SEDIMENTS CHARGED WITH #/ AND #A#/ OR 3I/ AND THUS TYPICALLY OF LIMITED
TYPICALLY TO CM IN DIAMETER CHARACTERIZED BY A m AT m OOR AND AN AERIAL EXTENT #OMMONLY BUILDS CALCITE DEPOSITS RICH IN ALGAE AND
IRREGULAR ROOF 4HE m OOR OF THIS FORMER CAVITY TYPICALLY IS OVERLAIN HIGHER PLANT MATERIAL 4UFA DEPOSITS CAN FORM AROUND BOTH COLD AND
BY l NE GRAINED INTERNAL SEDIMENT THE REMAINING VOID IS l LLED WITH HOT WATER SPRINGS 3IMILAR TO TRAVERTINE CALCAREOUS TUFA DEPOSITS ARE
MARINE CEMENT OR LATER SPARRY CEMENT 4HESE POORLY UNDERSTOOD VUGS SOMETIMES TERMED hCALCTUFAv
HAVE BEEN ATTRIBUTED TO THE DECAY OF UNKNOWN SOFT BODIED ORGANISMS 4WINNING 4HE DEVELOPMENT OF A TWIN CRYSTAL ONE WITH REVERSED OR
TO GAS FORMATION IN IMPERMEABLE SEDIMENTS TO GRAVITY SLIDING AND REm ECTED CRYSTAL SYMMETRY BY GROWTH TRANSFORMATION OR GLIDING !
SHEAR TO THE ALTERATION OF SPONGES AND SPONGE HOLDFASTS AND TO SEVERAL COMMON FEATURE IN STRAINED UNRECRYSTALLIZED CALCITE CRYSTALS
OTHER CAUSES
5MBRELLA VOID ! VOID PERHAPS LATER l LLED WITH SPARRY CALCITE PRODUCED
3TROMATOLITE !N ORGANOSEDIMENTARY STRUCTURE PRODUCED BY SEDIMENT BY THE PRESENCE OF A LARGE GRAIN SHELTERING THE UNDERLYING AREA BY
TRAPPING BINDING ANDOR PRECIPITATION AS A RESULT OF THE GROWTH AND PREVENTING INl LTRATION OF MUD SIZED GRAINS !LSO CALLED SHELTER
METABOLIC ACTIVITY OF MICROBIAL ORGANISMS PRINCIPALLY CYANOPHYTES POROSITY
3TYLOLITE ! JAGGED COLUMNAR SURFACE IN CARBONATE ROCKS WHICH MAY BE 5NDULOSE UNDULATORY EXTINCTION ! TYPE OF EXTINCTION OF CRYSTALS
AT ANY ORIENTATION RELATIVE TO BEDDING PRODUCED BY PRESSURE INDUCED UNDER CROSSED POLARS THAT OCCURS SUCCESSIVELY IN ADJACENT AREAS AS
DISSOLUTION AND GRAIN INTERPENETRATION AND OFTEN ASSOCIATED WITH THE MICROSCOPE STAGE IS TURNED 3YN WAVY EXTINCTION OR SWEEPING
LARGE AMOUNTS OF INSOLUBLE MATERIAL ACCUMULATED AS A RESULT OF SUCH EXTINCTION
DISSOLUTION
5NIT EXTINCTION ! TYPE OF EXTINCTION BEHAVIOR UNDER CROSSED POLARS IN
3UBAERIAL ! TERM DESCRIPTIVE OF LOCATION OF PROCESSES OR CONDITIONS WHICH LARGE SEGMENTS OF A FOSSIL REACH EXTINCTION AT THE SAME TIME
OPERATING IN OPEN AIR OR IMMEDIATELY BENEATH LAND SURFACES AS MICROSCOPE STAGE IS TURNED "EST EXHIBITED BY MEMBERS OF THE
3UBHEDRAL $ESCRIPTIVE OF THE SHAPE OF MINERAL CRYSTALS ON WHICH CRYSTAL %CHINODERMATA IN WHICH EACH SHELL SEGMENT PLATE SPINE COLUMNAL
FACES ARE PARTIALLY DEVELOPED 4AKEN HERE TO IMPLY THAT A CRYSTAL IS ETC ACTS AS A SINGLE CRYSTAL THAT EXTINGUISHES AT THE SAME TIME
PARTLY BOUNDED BY CRYSTAL FACES
3UCROSICSUCROSE #ARBONATE ROCKS THAT HAVE APPRECIABLE INTERCRYSTAL 6ADOID ! COATED GRAIN OOID OR PISOID THAT FORMED IN A VADOSE SETTING
PORE SPACE AND ARE COMPOSED DOMINANTLY OF RELATIVELY EQUANT 6ADOIDS INCLUDE CAVE PEARLS VADOSE SOIL OR CALICHE PISOLITES AND
UNIFORMLY SIZED EUHEDRAL TO SUBHEDRAL CRYSTALS THAT GIVE THE ROCK A COATED GRAINS FROM HOT SPRING AND TRAVERTINE DEPOSITS 0ERYT
hSUGARYv APPEARANCE -OST TYPICALLY USED TO DESCRIBE A DOLOMITIZED 6ADOSE 0ERTAINING TO THAT ZONE OF PARTIAL OR COMPLETE GROUNDWATER
FABRIC SATURATION SUBJECT TO AERATION AND LYING BETWEEN THE LAND SURFACE AND
GLOSSARY
THE PHREATIC ZONE ABOVE THE GROUNDWATER TABLE 4HAT IS IT IS A ZONE +ANSAS 'EOLOGICAL 3URVEY "ULLETIN P
IN WHICH BOTH WATER AND AIR MAY BE PRESENT IN PORES &OLK 2 , 0RACTICAL PETROGRAPHIC CLASSIl CATION OF LIMESTONES
!MERICAN !SSOCIATION OF 0ETROLEUM 'EOLOGISTS "ULLETIN V P
6ADOSE DIAGENESIS !LTERATION ESPECIALLY OF CARBONATE STRATA WHICH
&OLK 2 , 3PECTRAL SUBDIVISION OF LIMESTONE TYPES IN 7 %
OCCURS WITHIN THE VADOSE ZONE -AY BE CHARACTERIZED BY ONE OR
(AM ED #LASSIl CATION OF #ARBONATE 2OCKS 4ULSA /+ !MERICAN
MORE SPECIl C FABRICS SUCH AS KARST TOPOGRAPHY ALVEOLAR STRUCTURE
!SSOCIATION OF 0ETROLEUM 'EOLOGISTS -EMOIR P
SOIL GLAEBULES -ICROCODIUM CALICHE HARDPAN SURFACES PENDANT AND
&OLK 2 , 3OME ASPECTS OF RECRYSTALLIZATION IN ANCIENT LIMESTONES
MENISCUS CEMENTS AND OTHERS 3EE %STEBAN AND +LAPPA
IN , # 0RAY AND 2 3 -URRAY EDS $OLOMITIZATION AND ,IMESTONE
6ADOSE SILT ! CRYSTAL SILT LARGELY LACKING CLAY SIZED OR SAND SIZED $IAGENESIS 4ULSA /+ 3%0- 3PECIAL 0UBLICATION .O P
CONSTITUENTS AS WELL AS RECOGNIZABLE SKELETAL DEBRIS DEPOSITED AS &OLK 2 , AND 2 !SSERETO 'IANT ARAGONITE RAYS AND BAROQUE
INTERNAL SEDIMENT IN VOIDS WITHIN PARTIALLY CEMENTED MARINE SEDIMENT WHITE DOLOMITE IN TEPEE l LLINGS 4RIASSIC OF ,OMBARDY )TALY !MERICAN
)NTERPRETED BY $UNHAM TO BE A PRODUCT OF VADOSE DIAGENESIS !SSOCIATION OF 0ETROLEUM 'EOLOGISTS AND 3OCIETY OF %CONOMIC
DURING EARLY EMERGENCE OF MARINE CARBONATE SEDIMENTS 0ALEONTOLOGISTS AND -INERALOGISTS !NNUAL -EETING !BSTRACTS V P
6ATERITE ! RARE HEXAGONAL FORM OF CALCIUM CARBONATE )T IS TRIMORPHOUS
&RIEDMAN ' - 4ERMINOLOGY OF CRYSTALLIZATION TEXTURES AND
WITH ARAGONITE AND CALCITE AND IS A RELATIVELY UNSTABLE FORM OF #A#/
FABRICS IN SEDIMENTARY ROCKS *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V
!LTHOUGH RARE IN NATURE VATERITE IS A COMMON ARTIl CIAL PRODUCT IN
P
LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS
'RABAU ! 7 /N THE CLASSIl CATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS !MERICAN
6UG ! PORE THAT IS SOMEWHAT EQUANT IS LARGER THAN MM IN DIAMETER 'EOLOGIST V P
AND DOES NOT SPECIl CALLY CONFORM IN POSITION SHAPE OR BOUNDARY TO (OLMES ! 4HE .OMENCLATURE OF 0ETROLOGY ;ND %DITION= ,ONDON
PARTICULAR FABRIC ELEMENTS TO THE HOST ROCK IE IS NOT FABRIC SELECTIVE 4HOMAS -URBY P
'ENERALLY FORMED BY SOLUTION BUT THE TERM IS DESCRIPTIVE NOT GENETIC )LLING , 6 "AHAMAN CALCAREOUS SANDS !MERICAN !SSOCIATION OF
#HOQUETTE AND 0RAY 0ETROLEUM 'EOLOGISTS "ULLETIN V P
*AMES . 0 4HE COOL WATER CARBONATE DEPOSITIONAL REALM IN .
7ACKESTONE #ARBONATE ROCK COMPOSED OF CARBONATE MUD WITH OVER
0 *AMES AND ! $ #LARKE EDS #OOL 7ATER #ARBONATES 4ULSA /+
ALLOCHEMS GRAINS SUSPENDED IN IT $UNHAM
3%0- 3PECIAL 0UBLICATION .O P
:EBRA LIMESTONE ! LIMESTONE BANDED BY PARALLEL SHEET CRACKS GENERALLY +AY ' - .ORTH !MERICAN GEOSYNCLINES .EW 9ORK 'EOLOGICAL
l LLED WITH CARBONATE CEMENT $El NED BY &ISCHER 3OCIETY OF !MERICA '3! -EMOIR P
+ENDALL ! # &ASCICULAR OPTIC CALCITE A REPLACEMENT OF BUNDLED
#)4%$ 2%&%2%.#%3 ACICULAR CARBONATE CEMENTS *OURNAL OF 3EDIMENTARY 0ETROLOGY V
P
!RCHIE ' % #LASSIl CATION OF CARBONATE RESERVOIR ROCKS AND +ENDALL ! # 2ADIAXIAL l BROUS CALCITE A REAPPRAISAL IN .
PETROPHYSICAL CONSIDERATIONS !MERICAN !SSOCIATION OF 0ETROLEUM 3CHNEIDERMANN AND 0 - (ARRIS EDS #ARBONATE #EMENTS 4ULSA
'EOLOGISTS "ULLETIN V P /+ 3%0- 3PECIAL 0UBLICATION .O P
"ATHURST 2 ' # $IAGENETIC FABRICS IN SOME "RITISH $INANTIAN +LAPPA # & 2HIZOLITHS IN TERRESTRIAL CARBONATES CLASSIl CATION RE
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