Interpretation Misunderstandings about Elementary

Quantum Mechanics*
Confusiones de interpretacin en Mecnica Cuntica elemental
Federico G. Lopez Armengol
Gustavo E. Romero

Abstract
Quantum Mechanics is a fundamental physical theory about atomic-scale processes. It was built between 1920 and
1940 by the most distinguished physicists of that time. The accordance between the predictions of the theory and
experimental results is remarkable. The physical interpretation of its mathematical constructs, however, raised
unprecedented controversies. Ontological, semantic, and epistemic vagueness abound in the orthodox interpretations
and have resulted in serious misunderstandings that are often repeated in textbooks and elsewhere. In this work, we
identify, criticize, and clarify the most spread ones.
Keywords: elementary quantum mechanics - interpretation misunderstandings - Bunge

Resumen
La Mecnica Cuntica es una teora de fsica fundamental que modela procesos a escalas atmicas. La teora fue
formulada entre los aos 1920 y 1940. El acuerdo entre las predicciones obtenidas a partir de su formalismo
matemtico y los resultados experimentales es notable. Sin embargo, las interpretaciones fsicas de los constructos de la
teora originaron controversias sin precedentes en la historia de la Fsica. Las imprecisiones ontolgicas, semnticas y
epistmicas de las distintas interpretaciones han ocasionado que se repitan y propaguen graves malentendidos que
obstaculizan la investigacin bsica. En este trabajo identificaremos, criticaremos y aclararemos algunas de estas
confusiones, con nfasis en las ms bsicas y difundidas.
Palabras claves: mecnica cuntica elemental - interpretacin - confusiones - Bunge

*
Recibido: 16 de Febrero de 2016. Aceptado con revisiones: 19 de Septiembre de 2016.

Instituto Argentino de Radioastronoma CCT La Plata (CONICET), C.C.5 1894 Villa Elisa, Buenos Aires, Argentina. Para contactar al
autor, por favor, escribir a: flopezar@iar-conicet.gov.ar

Facultad de Ciencias Astronmicas y Geofsicas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Paseo del Bosque s/n, 1900 La Plata, Buenos Aires,
Argentina. Para contactar al autor, por favor, escribir a: romero@iar-conicet.gov.ar.
Metatheoria 7(2)(2017): 55-60. ISSN 1853-2322.
Editorial de la Universidad Nacional de Tres de Febrero. Publicado en la Repblica Argentina.
56 | Federico G. Lopez Armengol y Gustavo E. Romero

1. Introduction
Modeling atomic-scale physical systems with classical laws yields inaccurate results. This fact was
noticed in the first half of the XX century with phenomena such as black body radiation, the
photoelectric effect, Stern-Gerlach deflections, and the Comptom effect. A battery of novel
experiments based on these and other phenomena, along with remarkable theoretical work, led to the
formulation of Quantum Mechanics (QM). The list of physicists that contributed to the new theory is
long and includes illustrious names: Max Planck, Niels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg, Albert
Einstein, Erwin Schrdinger, Max Born, John von Neumann, Wolfgang Pauli, David Hilbert, Paul
Dirac, and Pascual Jordan among many others.
The predictions made with the theory were confirmed by several experimental measurements and
the mathematical formalism was rapidly accepted by most physicist of the time. Nevertheless, the
interpretation of the new theoretical constructs was far from clear and raised serious controversies.
From this intellectual conflict, numerous interpretations of QM emerged. To name just a few: the
Copenhagen interpretation, the de Broglie-Bohm theory, interpretations based on Quantum Logic,
Time-Symmetric theories, the Many-Worlds interpretation, statistical interpretations, and realistic ones
(for a review of QM interpretations and their historical context, see Jammer 1974)
The most accepted and spread interpretation of QM is the Copenhagen interpretation, proposed by
Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg in 1927. The popularity of this view resides on its practical
usefulness. The Copenhagen interpretation is, however, implicitly influenced by subjective and
pragmatic philosophy.
In this work, we briefly describe a realistic interpretation of QM. Then, we discuss some widely used
statements that are usually taught in QM elementary courses and sometimes even invoked in academic
discussions. We hope to clarify some misunderstandings about interpretation issues related to the
deterministic character of the theory, the so-called uncertainty principles, the wave function collapse,
the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen (EPR) paradox, and the related ontology. The main reference of the
article is Bunge (1967), but the reader might also benefit from Bunge (1973, 2010), and the discussion
in Bunge (1983).

2. Realistic approach
We present a short description of the formalism of QM from a realistic perspective. We do not intend
to be exhaustive, but rather to focus on those postulates that are key for understanding the theory. We
include some equations using bra-ket notation, but mostly we are interested on semantic issues.
The referents of QM are particular physical systems called quantum systems. This statement may
sound trivial, but is crucial for properly understanding the theory. We discuss it in Section 3.5.
The states of a quantum system are represented by non-unique unit vectors in some Hilbert
space , known as the state space, with a defined inner product. The state space is isomorphic to
, the set of square integrable functions on the configuration space of the system. For this
reason, it is usual to associate square integrable normalized functions on configuration space
with quantum states. The latter function is called wave function and is a fundamental tool for
calculating the properties of the quantum systems.
Then, unlike classical theories, quantum states are represented by vectors in a space where a
summation operation is defined. This fact and the linearity of the dynamic equations of the theory
imply that the Principle of Superposition holds at the level of states. Consider, for instance, the wave
functions that represent the states of an electron with its spin up and down, respectively.
Then, the state:

,
 Interpretation Misunderstandings of Elementary Quantum Mechanics | 57

represents a plausible quantum system that is a superposition of the spin-up and spin-down electron.
For empirical confirmation of such counterintuitive feature of QM, called quantum entanglement, see
Schlosshauer (2007), p. 21.
The values of the properties of the quantum systems can be calculated with self-adjoint operators
, acting on the corresponding states. But, unlike classical systems, quantum systems may
not have precise values for its properties. Instead, we can calculate the average of a certain property
by:
.
The spread of the average is:

If the spread of a certain property of a quantum state is null, then the property takes a
precise value . The corresponding state is called eigenstate of the operator , its eigenvalue,
and they satisfy:
.
Under certain conditions, the values may constitute a countable set, i.e. may be quantized. This is
another peculiar and contrastable feature of QM. The name of the theory comes from this feature.
Because of the Superposition Principle, quantum states are not exclusive. For example, given an
eigenstate of certain self-adjoint operator , the propensity of any quantum state to take
the value is measured by a probability:
,
where (see Popper 1959).
Finally, QM has an evolution equation that describes how properties change with time. The
equation reads:

where denotes a particular operator called Hamiltonian of the system.

We have specified the referents of QM, how to calculate their properties, and their dynamical
equation. This short explanation suffices to clarify some usual misconceptions about quantum systems.
For a detailed realistic formulation of the formalism see Perez Bergliaffa et al. (1993, 1996).

3. Interpretation misunderstandings
3.1. Determinism
It is usually argued that: QM is not deterministic as Classical Mechanics because it cannot predict precisely the
properties of its referents. The latter argument is misleading and needs clarification. This subsection is
based mostly on Earman (1986).
Determinism is a polysemic word. We find numerous definitions in the literature but none of them
refers to the accuracy of predictions. Instead, they refer to dynamical properties of the theory.
QM dynamic equation is invariant under time reversal if we accept that time reversal operation is
given by and , where * denotes complex conjugation. On the other
hand, QM evolution equation admits unique solutions under precise initial conditions. Classical
theories do not possess this attribute because of possible disturbances coming from spatial infinity with
unbounded velocity. QM forbids the invasion from spatial infinity because, in order to keep the wave
58 | Federico G. Lopez Armengol y Gustavo E. Romero

function normalized, . Moreover, the normalization of the wave function entails

stability under variations of the initial conditions. This is not the general case in Classical Mechanics.
In summary, determinism does not refer to predictability, but to features of the time evolution. In
this sense, we find that QM is even more deterministic than Classical Mechanics.
It is true that QM does not predict precise values for the properties of the system. However, that is
not a problem of QM dynamics, but of its ontology. Quantum systems, as characterized by the
standard formalism, do not have precise values for their properties; thats why we cannot predict them.

3.2. Uncertainty relations

Under the misleading name of uncertainty principles, it is stated that: Given a quantum system, we
cannot measure simultaneously and with arbitrary precision the values of properties whose associated operators do
not commute.1 The main reference for this subsection is Bunge (1967).
First, the mentioned statement is based on a theorem; it is not a principle. The theorem reads: Let
be self-adjoint operators such that , then , for any quantum state
.
The theorem does not make any reference to measurements processes, neither to unavoidable
disturbances caused by our interaction with the system, nor to our incapability to measure precise
quantum properties. It makes reference to the averaged properties of the quantum systems. In short,
epistemic uncertainty is distinct from ontological variance of properties.
Furthermore, it is usually argued that time and energy satisfy an uncertainty relation of the form:
. This relation is alien to QM formalism simply because the parameter time does not
have an associated operator and, therefore, does not apply to the mentioned theorem (see Bunge,
1970). The correct time dependent uncertainty relation between the energy and a self-adjoint
operator is (Messiah 1981):

3.3. The wave function collapse

The most controversial postulate of the Copenhagen interpretation is the Projection Postulate: If the
measurement of a property of a quantum system gives the result , where is an eigenvalue of , the
quantum state immediately changes to the corresponding eigenstate .
First, we remark that QM is a fundamental physical theory that models the behavior of its referents,
i.e. quantum systems. There is no place in its formalism for observers, human measurements, or
classical entities. We admit that understanding the quantum-classical interaction is essential, and the
Projection Postulate contributes on that sense, but it does not belong to QM proper. It should be a
consequence of a theory, yet inexistent, that formally models quantum systems, classical apparatus, and
their interactions, i.e. a quantum theory of measurement.
The Projection Postulate is a valuable pragmatic statement, but should be replaced by a formal
model of the quantum-classical interaction. Moreover, strictly speaking mathematical objects such as
functions in a Hilbert space cannot collapse. Only the physical systems can change their state or
collapse. The representation of physical collapse should not be confused with the collapse of
mathematical objects.

3.4. The Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox

Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen (1935) argued that formalism of QM was either incomplete, or
unrealistic. The argument is based on a thought experiment about an entangled quantum state, whose
components are arbitrarily distant from each other. The apparent paradox resides on instantaneous

1
Two operators do not commute if, and only if,
 Interpretation Misunderstandings of Elementary Quantum Mechanics | 59

effects over one of the components, produced by the local interaction of the other with an observer.
For a detailed discussion see, e.g. Perez Bergliaffa et al. (1996).
Thanks to the leading work of Bell (1964), the ideas of EPR could be tested by experience. Several
experiments were made, the latest by Hensen et al. (2015), and the results are clear: QM formalism is
not local and incomplete.
According to some authors, the work of EPR and the mentioned experimental results seem to imply
that QM is inconsistent with realism. Such statement, however, is based on a questionable hypothesis:
locality. A realistic interpretation of QM, only demands to accept non-local effects in entangled
systems.
Setting aside locality is polemical, but the reader should notice that not real action at distance
between a general class of physical systems is implied. Possible non-local correlations are limited to
highly manipulated entangled systems.
In short, QM may manifest non-local effects in order to preserve systemic features with no
detriment of ontological realism (see Perez Bergliaffa et al. 1996).

3.5. Ontology
Ontological questions in elementary courses on QM are often answered with the so-called wave-particle
duality: depending on the experimental set up, particles may behave as waves, or waves as particles.
This proposition was stated by Louis de Broglie before the formalization of QM was established and
was fundamental in a heuristic sense. However, we emphasize that the referents of QM are not
particles, nor waves, not even the wave function. The referents of QM are quantum systems, per se.
In other words, quantum systems are not compound by particles nor waves. The latter are classical
concepts that do not belong to QM. Classical analogies are heuristically important for the making of a
theory, but they have no place in its final postulates (Bunge 1967).
The ontology based on quantum systems may not satisfy our curiosity about the components of the
quantum world. In that case, we should proceed to study Quantum Field Theory, a deeper theory that
models quantum systems as particular physical fields.

3. Conclusions
QM is an extraordinary fundamental physical theory. However, it has been victim of imprecise,
subjective, and vague interpretations. In this article we outlined a realistic approach of QM and
criticize several misleading propositions that are usually heard around. Inattention on interpretational
issues may not affect experimental predictions. However, they engender confusing statements that
obscure the theory and hinder further theoretical developments.
From an ethical perspective, vague and confusing statements enhance the action of pseudoscience:
QM has been applied to New Age culture, telepathy, pseudo-medicine, the existence of God, mind-
body dualism, and other forms of non-sense. All this can be avoided with precise and formal
philosophy, essential for interpreting counterintuitive modern physical theories.

References

Bell, J.S. (1964), On the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen Paradox, Physics 1: 195-200.

Bunge, M.A. (1967), Foundations of Physics, Berlin-Heidelberg-New York: Springer.
Bunge, M.A. (1970), The So-called Fourth Indeterminacy Relation, Canadian Journal of Physics 48: 1410.
Bunge, M.A. (1973), Philosophy of Physics, Dordrecht: Reidel.
Bunge, M.A. (1983), Controversias en fsica, Madrid: Tecnos.
60 | Federico G. Lopez Armengol y Gustavo E. Romero

Bunge, M.A. (2010), Matter and Mind, Dordrecht-Heidelberg-London-New York: Springer.

Earman, J. (1986), A Primer on Determinism, Dordrecht: Springer.
Einstein, A., Podolsky, B. and N. Rosen (1935), Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be
Considered Complete?, Physical Review 47(10): 777--780.
Hensen, B., Bernien, H., Drau, A.E., Reiserer, A., Kalb, N., Blok, M.S. and W. Amaya (2015), Loophole-free Bell
Inequality Violation Using Electron Spins Separated by 1.3 Kilometres, Nature 526: 682-686.
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