TABLE PAGE
Table 1.1: Feed, Distillate and Bottom Composition 2
Table 1.2: Calculation Value of 2
Table 1.3: Calculation Value of Rm 3
Table 1.4: The Value of Coefficient 4
Table 1.5: Calculation for Bubble Point Temperature 5
Table 1.6: Calculation for Dew Point Temperature 5
Table 1.7: Calculation for Bubble Point Temperature 5
Table 1.8: Viscosity of TBA, PO and Acetone ` 6
Table 1.9: Relative Volatility 6
Table 1.10: Properties of TBA, PO and Acetone 9
Table 1.11: The Sugdens Parachor for TBA, PO and Acetone 10
Table 1.12: Calculation of Molar Volume PO 22
Table 1.13: Viscosity of TBA and PO at 356 K Temperature 23
Table 2.1: The Advantages and Disadvantages of Each
Types of Heat Exchanger 35
Table 2.2: Selection of Heat Exchanger 37
Table 2.3: Layout & Tube Size of Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger 45
Table 2.4: Summary of Chemical Engineering Design of
Heat Exchanger 55
Table 2.5 Shell-And-Tube Specification 57
Table 2.6: Material Selected for Shell-And-Tubes 59
Table 2.7: Types of Heads and Its Applications 62
Table 2.8: Standard Nozzle for Tube Size 66
Table 2.9: Standard Nozzle for Shell Side 67
Table 2.10 Steel Welding Neck Flanges 68
Table 2.11 Dimension of Selected Standard Steel Saddle 70
Table 2.12 Summary of Mechanical Engineering Design
of Heat Exchanger 70
Table 3.1: Reactor Mass Balance for Input Stream 71
Table 3.2: Reactor Mass Balance for Output Stream 72
Table 3.3: Properties of Flue Gas 80
Table 3.4: Chemical Design Specification Data 84
TABLE PAGE
Table 3.5: Mechanical Design Specification Data 96
Table 5.1: Summary of Chemical Engineering Design 150
Table 5.2: Summary of Mechanical Engineering Design 160
Table 6.1: Summary of the Piping of MTBE Plant 172
Table 7.1: Quantities Chemicals Stored/ Handled On-Site 186
Table 7.2: HAZOP Guide Words 198
Table 7.3: Typical HAZOP Process Parameter 199
Table 7.4: HAZOP Analysis of TBA Vaporizer
Table 8.1: Estimation Cost of Purchased Equipment 208
Table 8.2: Labor Cost 210
Table 8.3: Annual Cash Flow Before Tax And After Tax 214
Table 8.4: Annual IRR After Tax 215
Table 8.5: Cumulative Cash Flow After Tax 216
Table 8.6: Simple Payback Period 217
Table 8.7: Discounted Payback Period 217
Table 9.1: Data for Heat Integration 219
Table 9.2: Interval Temperatures for T Min = 10C 220
Table 9.3 Rank Order of Interval Temperature 220
Table 10.1: The Composition of Gases Discharged 224
Table 10.2: Flash Point and the Lower and Upper Flammable
Limit (LFL) and (UFL) 224
Table 10.3: Inventory of Waste Water 226
Table 10.4: Oxygen Demand of Component 227
LIST OF FIGURES
MARCH 2004
We declared that this report is the result of our own work except for quotations and
summaries have been duly acknowledged
(Signed) (Signed)
JUPLIN KINTI NOOR HARYANI MUSTAPHA
2000337672 2000132163
(Signed) (Signed)
MOHD NAZRI ISMAIL NORMARIAH ABDULLAH
2001193485 2000337665
(Signed)
ROHIZAD JAMEL
2001476067
18thMarch 2004
We declared that we read this report and in our point of view this report is
qualified in term of scope and quality for the purpose of awarding the
Bachelor of Engineering (Hons) in Chemical Engineering.
Signed:..
Date :..
Supervisor
Encik Rusmi Alias
Faculty of Chemical Engineering
Universiti Teknologi MARA
Shah Alam, Selangor
Signed:..
Date :..
Supervisor
Puan Sharifah Intan Baizura Syed Ahmad Fuad
Faculty of Chemical Engineering
Universiti Teknologi MARA
Shah Alam, Selangor
Accepted:
Signed:..
Date :..
Head of Programme
Prof. Madya Dr. Wan Shabuddin Wan Ali
Faculty of Chemical Engineering
Universiti Teknologi MARA
Shah Alam, Selangor
Signed:..
Date :..
Coordinator
Puan Noor Fitrah Abu Bakar
Faculty of Chemical Engineering
Universiti Teknologi MARA
Shah Alam, Selangor
CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE
CHAPTER 1 TBA DISTILLATION COLUMN
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 CHEMICAL DESIGN OF
DISTILLATION COLUMN 2
1.2.1 The Operating Line 2
1.2.2 Calculate Bubble Point
And Dew Point 4
1.2.3 Calculate The Number
Of Stages 6
1.2.4 Pressure Drop 8
1.2.5 Calculation For Density
And Relative Molar Mass 9
1.2.6 Calculation Surface
Tension () 10
1.2.7 Column Diameter 11
1.2.8 Provisional Plate Design 13
1.2.9 Evaluation Design 13
1.2.10 Plate Efficiency ( Emv) 21
1.3 MECHANICAL DESIGN 24
1.3.1 Dead Weight of Vessel. 25
1.3.2 Weight of Plates. 26
1.3.3 Weight of Insulation. 26
1.3.4 Wind Loading. 26
1.3.5 Analysis of Stresses At Bottom 27
1.4 DESIGN OF STIFFNESS RING 29
1.5 DESIGN OF DOMED END. 30
1.6 DESIGN FOR THE
SKIRT SUPPORT. 31
SUPERVISORS
1. EN. RUSMI BIN ALIAS
2. PN. SH. INTAN BAIZURA SYED A..FUAD DATE: 18 MARCH 2004
CHAPTER 1:
TITLE PAGE
CHAPTER 1 TBA DISTILLATION COLUMN
1.3 INTRODUCTION 1
1.4 CHEMICAL DESIGN OF
DISTILLATION COLUMN 2
1.2.11 The Operating Line 2
1.2.12 Calculate Bubble Point
And Dew Point 4
1.2.13 Calculate The Number
Of Stages 6
1.2.14 Pressure Drop 8
1.2.15 Calculation For Density
And Relative Molar Mass 9
1.2.16 Calculation Surface
Tension () 10
1.2.17 Column Diameter 11
1.2.18 Provisional Plate Design 13
1.2.19 Evaluation Design 13
1.2.20 Plate Efficiency ( Emv) 21
1.3 MECHANICAL DESIGN 24
1.3.6 Dead Weight of Vessel. 25
1.3.7 Weight of Plates. 26
1.3.8 Weight of Insulation. 26
1.3.9 Wind Loading. 26
1.3.10 Analysis of Stresses At Bottom 27
1.6 DESIGN OF STIFFNESS RING 29
1.7 DESIGN OF DOMED END. 30
1.6 DESIGN FOR THE
SKIRT SUPPORT. 31
CHAPTER 1
1.5 INTRODUCTION
Generally, the function of distillation column is to separate the element inside the
component by vaporization. In this method, the boiling points for each element are
important to know the top product and bottom product.
Based on our MTBE plant, multicomponent distillation are using because the
feed more than one component. There are tertiary butyl alcohol (TBA), Propylene
Oxide (PO) and Acetone. Here, distillation column is using to separate the mixture of
tertiary butyl alcohol and Propylene Oxide (PO) which the separation occurred
around the boiling point of the component. In our MTBE plant, tertiary butyl alcohol
is a bottom product that needed as a main material to synthesis MTBE
Hence,
The minimum reflux ratio
Rm + 1 = 2.2
Rm = 1.2
Hence,
Lm = 865.4990 + 1430.119
= 2295.618 kmol/hr
Vapour flow rate:
Vm = Lm W
W = bottom molar flowrate
Hence,
Vm = 2295.618 - 708.8699
= 1586.7481 kmol/hr
The equation for the operating lines below the feed plate:
The equation for the operating lines above the feed plate:
yi = Ki xi value is close to 1.0, accept this temperature. Hence, the bubble point
temperature is 510C.
xi = yi / ki value is close to 1.0, accept this temperature. Hence, the dew point
temperature is 350C.
yi = Ki xi value is close to 1.0, accept this temperature. Hence, the bubble point
temperature is 830C.
Eo = 51 -32.5 Log ()
= viscosity (mNs/m2)
= relative volatility for light.
Fenske equation, equation 11.58 (Coulson & Richardsons) vol.6 page 524
In order to find the feed point location, estimation can be made by using the Fenske
equation to calculate the number of stages in the rectifying and stripping section
separately, but this requires an estimate of the feed point temperature. As an
alternative approach, here I use the empirical equation given by Kirkbride (1944) as
a matter for the same objective.
Log [Nr/ Ns] = 0.206 log [ ( B/D) ( Xf, HK / Xf, LK) (Xb, HK / Xb, HK)2 ]
Where,
Nr = number of stages above the feed, include the condenser
Ns = number of stages below the feed, include the reboiler
B = molar flow bottom product
D = molar flow top product
Xf, HK = concentration of the heavy key in the feed
Xf, LK = concentration of the light key in the feed
Xd,HK = concentration of the heavy key in the top product
Xb, LK = concentration of the light key in the bottom product
Hence,
Xb, HK =1/ B = 1/ 708.8699
= 0.00014
Xb, HK =1/ D = 1/ 721.2491
= 0.00013
So,
Log [Nr/Ns]= 0.206log[708.87/ 721.25) (0.495/ 1.2957) (0.00014/0.00013)2 ]
Log [Nr/ Ns] = 0.206 log (0.4355)
[Nr/ Ns] = 0.0744
Nr = 0.0744Ns
From previous calculation, number of stages, excluding the reboiler = 35
Nr + Ns = 35
Ns = 35 Nr = 35 0.0744N s
1.0744N s = 35
Ns = 35 / 1.0744
= 32.58
Hence, we take the location of feed point is at stages 33.
Bottom product:
Liquid density (L) = 0.9989 (787) + 0.0011(829)
= 787.1 kg/m3
Vapour density (v) = (74 / 22.4) (273 / 356) (1.54 / 1.00)
= 3.90 kg/m3
Top product:
Liquid density (L) = 0.9844 (829) + 0.0156 (790)
= 828.4 kg/m3
Vapour density (v) = (58 / 22.4) (273 / 308) (1.0 / 1.0)
= 2.30 kg/m3
1.2.26 CALCULATION SURFACE TENSION ()
Using Sugden (1924), equation 8.23 (Coulson & Richardsons) vol.6 page 334
F LV = Lm,n { v / L)0.5
Vm,n
Where, FLV is a liquid flow factor.
Flooding velocity,
Uf = Ki (L v) / v
As first trial, take downcomer area as 10% of total column cross sectional area
Bottom = 6.69 / 0.90 = 7.43 m2
Top = 6.62 / 0.90 = 7.36 m2
Column Diameter
Hence, Column cross sectional area, A = (diameter / 2)2
Minimum vapour velocity through the holes based on the holes area.
Note: 200 mm liquid was assumed to calculate the bottom pressure. The calculation
could be repeated but the small change in physical properties will have effect on the
plate design. Hence, 212.14 mm liquid per plate is considered acceptable.
= 0.0876 m2
Where, Aap is the clearance area under downcomer.
Residence time, t
Sufficient residence time must be allowed in the downcomer for the entrained
vapour to disengage from the liquid stream, to prevent heavily aerated liquid being
carried under the downcomer. A time at least 3 seconds is recommended.
Check Entrainment.
value = 0.071
value is below 0.1, so the column diameter, which is proposed earlier, is
acceptable.
Trial Layout
50 mm
Iw=2.19
Dc = 3.0m
50 mm
Figure 1.1: Trial layout of plate
Perforated area:
= 4.32 m
= 50 x 10-3 x 4.32m
= 0.216 m2
Number of holes:
Area of one hole = 1.964 x 10-5 (with diameter 5mm)
Number of holes = 0.566 / 1.964 x 10-5
= 28819
Plate Specification
50 mm
Iw=2.19m Dc =3.0m
50 mm
Using Van Winkle correlation, equation 11.69 (Coulson & Richardsons) vol.6 page
551
Emv = 0.07 Dg 0.14 Sc 0.25 Re 0.08
Where,
Emv = Plate efficiency
Dg = surface tension number = L / (L V)
V = superficial vapour velocity
L = liquid surface tension
L = liquid Viscosity
Sc = liquid schimdt number = L / (L DLK)
L = liquid density
DLK = Liquid Diffusivity, Light Key Component
Re = Reynols number = (hw uv v) / (L FA)
Hw = weir height
v = Vapour density
FA = fractional area = area of holes
Total column cross sectional area
Note: reference for viscosity calculation from physical property data, C&R,vol 6
To estimate the molar (Vm) of the solute (PO) at its boiling point
This can be estimated from the group contributions given in table 8.6 (C & R),Vol. 6
page 333.
Liquid diffusivity, DL
FA (Fractional area),
= hole area
Total column cross sectional area
= 0.566 m2 / 7.36 m2
= 0.0769
= 0.37 x 100
= 37%
= 1280 N/m2.
= 3.26 m
Loading per unit length, Fw = 1280 x 3.26
= 4172.8 N/m.
h = PD / 2t
= 0.1529 x 3x103 / (2 x 12)
= 19.11 N/mm2
Dead weight stress
w = Wv
( Di + t ) t
= 858.1
x ( 3x103 + 12) 12
= - 7.56 N/mm2
(- ve sign because compressive stress)
Bending stress
b = M / Iv ( Di / 2 + t )
Where Iv is the second moment of area,
Iv = / 64 (Do4 - Di4 )
Do = 3000 + 2 x 12 = 3024 mm
Di = 3000 mm
Iv = / 64 x (30244-30004) =1.29 x 1011mm4
b = 2,341,462.4 x 103 x (3000/ 2 + 12)
1.29 x 1011
= 27.44 N/mm2.
The resultant longitudinal stress is
z = L + w b
w is compressive stress and therefore ve sign.
z (upwind) = 9.56 - 7.56 + 27.44
= 29.44 N/mm2
z (downwind) = 9.56 - 7.56 - 27.44
= - 25.44 N/mm2
As there is no torsional shear stress, the principle stresses will be z and h. The
radial stress r is negligible.
PcLs = 24 E Ir
Dr3 x factor of safety
= 3.5 x 10-7 m4
And the support rings is adequate size to be considered as a stiffening
Ring,
L
= 0.9 / 3 = 0.3
Do
Where L = plate spacing
Do = internal diameter
D
o = 3000 / 10 = 300
t
Where t = column shell mean thickness (10 mm).
From figure 13.16, (Coulson & Richardsons), vol.6 pg. 825,
(Please refer APPENDIX A-7)
Kc = 101
e = Pi Di
2 J f 0.2 P
i
= 1.31 mm
Add 2 mm for corrosion allowance = 3.31 mm. say 4.0 mm.
So, thickness for the Domed End with ellipsoidal head is 4 mm.
s (tensile) = bs - ws
and s (compressive) = bs + ws
where bs = bending stress in the skirt
ws = dead weight stress in the skirt
bs = 4 Ms
( Ds + ts ) ts Ds
Where, Ms = maximum bending moment, evaluated at the
base of the skirt (due to the wind, seismic and
Eccentric loads)
Ds = inside diameter of the skirt, at the base
ts = skirt thickness
bs = 4 x 2481.67 x 103 x 103
(3000 + 12) 3000 x 12
= 29.14 N/mm2
ws (test) = W
( Ds + ts ) ts
= 1828.42 x 103
(3000 + 12) 12
= 16.10 N/mm2
= 7.56 N/mm2
45.24 < 75
Both criteria are satisfied. Add 2 mm for corrosion allowance.
Therefore for the design thickness = 14 mm.
REFERENCES
Scott, Doug and Crawley Frank. 1992, Process Plant design and Operation,
Warwickshire, UK, Institution of Chemical Engineers.
Ludwig, E. Ernest, 1964, Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical
Plants, Vol. 1, Houston, Gulf Publishing Company.
LIST OF NOMENCLATURE
Dimensions in M, L, T
Aa Active area of plate L2
Aap Clearance area under apron L2
Ac Total column cross sectional area L2
Ad Downcomer cross - sectional area L2
Ah Total hole area L2
An Net area available for vapour liqud disengagement L2
Ap Perforated area L2
Co Orifice coefficient -
D Mols of distillate per unit time MT-1
Dc Column diameter L
dh Hole diameter L
Emv Plate efficiency -
g Gravitational acceleration -
hap Apron clearance LT-2
hb Height of liquid back up in down comer L
hbc Down comer back up in term of clear liquid head L
hd Dry plate pressure drop, head of liquid L
hdc Head loss in down comer L
how Height of liquid crest over down comer weir L
hr Plate residual pressure drop L
ht Total plate pressure drop L
hw Weir height L
K1 Constant -
Lm Molar flow rate of liquid per unit area ML-2T-1
Lw Liquid flow rate L2T-1
Lwd Liquid mass flow rate MT-1
Ip Pitch of holes (distance between centre) L
Iw Weir length L
Nm Minimum number of stages -
NT Theoretical number of stages -
pt Total plate pressure drop ML-1T-2
Po Partial pressure ML-1T-2
q Heat to vaporize one mol of feed divided by molar latent heat -
R Universal gas constant L2T2 -1
R Reflux ratio -
Rm Minimum reflux ratio -
Ua Vapour velocity based on active area LT-1
Uf Vapour velocity through holes LT-1
Uv Superficial velocity (based on total cross sectional area) LT-1
V Vapour flow rate per unit time MT-1
Vw Vapour mass flow rate MT-1
xi Mole fraction of component I -
xd Mole fraction of component in distillate -
yi Mole fraction of component I -
L Liquid viscosity -
Viscosity of solvent ML-1T-1
L Liquid density ML-1T-1
v Vapour density ML-3
Surface tension MT-2
Dm Mean diameter L
E Young Modulus ML-1T-2
Hv Height between tangent L
Pi Internal pressure ML-1T-2
Mx Bending moment at base of the skirt ML-1T-2
Ms Bending moment at point x from free end column ML2T-2
t Thickness of plate (shell) L
ts Skirt thickness L
J Joint factor -
b Bending stress ML-1T-2
w Dead weight stress ML-1T-2
cw Compressive stress ML-1T-2
ws Stress in skirt due to weight of vessel ML-1T-2
SUPERVISORS
1. EN. RUSMI BIN ALIAS
2. PN. SH. INTAN BAIZURA SYED A.FUAD DATE: 18 MARCH 2004
CHAPTER 2:
CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE
CHAPTER 2 HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN
2.1. INTRODUCTION 34
2.2 SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT 35
Selection of Shell-And-Tube-Type
Of Heat Exchanger 35
2.3 BASIS DESIGN PROCEDURE
OF HEAT EXCHANGER 39
2.4 CHEMICAL DESIGN OF FLOATING
HEAD HEAT EXCHANGER 41
2.4.1 Design Specification 41
2.4.2 Properties Of Steam And TBA 42
2.4.3 Heat Load 45
2.4.4 Heat Transfer Area 45
2.4.5 Number Of Tubes 46
2.4.6 Tubes Arrangement (Pitch) 47
2.4.7 Diameter Of Shell 48
2.4.8 Tube Side Coefficient, Hi 49
2.4.9 Shell Side Coefficient, Hs 50
2.4.10 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient, Uo 52
2.4.11 Tube Side Pressure Drop 53
2.4.12 Shell Side Pressure Drop 54
MECHANICAL DESIGN OF
HEAT EXCHANGER 56
Design Specification 57
DESIGN PRESSURE
AND TEMPERATURE 57
2.7 MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION 58
2.8 DESIGN STRESS 59
2.9 WELDED JOINT EFFICIENCY 60
CORROSION ALLOWANCE 60
2.11 DESIGN CRITERIA 60
TITLE PAGE
2.11.1 Minimum Thickness Of
Cylindrical Of The Shell 61
2.12HEADS AND CLOSURE 62
Design of Domed
Ends-Ellipsoidal Heads 62
2.13DESIGN LOAD 63
2.14DESIGN OF NOZZLES 64
Shell Side Nozzles 64
2.14.2 Tubes Side Nozzles 65
The selected tube size nozzle 66
2.14.4 Shell side nozzles 67
2.15BOLT-FLANGED JOINTS 67
BAFFLES 68
2.17SUPPORT DESIGN SADDLES
SUPPORT 69
CHAPTER 2
Heat exchanger is a device that provides the flow of thermal energy between 2
or more fluids at different temperature. Heat exchanger are used in a wide variety of
application which include power production; process, chemical and etc. In
production of MTBE, heat exchanger is one of the important equipment to design, in
spite of distillation column, reactor and separator. The purpose of this equipment is
to increase or decrease the mixture to the desired temperature that is from
temperature 82oC to temperature 316oC. Type of heat exchanger that has been
chosen is the shell-and-tube heat exchanger.
The shell and tube heat exchanger is the most common of the various types of
unfired heat transfer equipment used in industry. Although it is not especially
compact, it is robust and its shapes make it well suited to pressure operation. Shell-
and-tube heat exchanger gives a lot of advantage, which may include;
Basically there are three types of heat exchanger used in industries, which are
Among the three types of exchanger, the one that have been chosen is shell-
and-tubes heat exchanger because it is the most widely used and can be designed
for virtually application. Besides, it also relatively cheaper than other heat exchanger
with a sufficient in its applications.
There are various types of heat exchanger used in industries; each one of it can
give its own advantages and disadvantages. Table 2.1 shows the advantages and
disadvantages of each type of heat exchanger:
Table 2.1: The Advantages and Disadvantages Of Each Types Of Heat Exchanger
(Continue)
Construction Advantages Disadvantages
Provides multi-
tube pass
arrangement
Removable Bundle, Shell side can be Shell side fluids
Packed Floating Tube mechanically limited to non
Sheet cleaned volatile
Bundle can be Tube side
easily replaced or arrangement
repair limited to one or 2
Less costly than passes
pull, internal Tubes expand as
floating head a group, not
types individually, so
Maximum surface sudden shocks
per given shell should be
and tube size avoided
Limits design
pressure and
temperature
Removable Bundle, Good for More costly than
Internal Clamp ring, handling fixed tube sheet
Types Floating head flammable or or U tube heat
cover. toxic fluids exchanger design
High surface per Shell cover,
given shell and clamp ring and
tubes size floating head
Provides multi cover must be
tubes pass removed prior to
arrangement removing the
bundle. Results
Table 2.1: The Advantages and Disadvantages of Each Types of Heat Exchanger
(Continue)
Construction Advantages Disadvantages
in higher
maintenance cost
Removable Bundle U Less costly than Tube side only
tube floating head or can be cleaned
packed floating by chemical
tube sheet design means
Provides multi Individual tube
tube pass replacement is
arrangement not practical
High surface area Cannot made
single tube pass
Capable of Draining tube
withstanding side difficult in
thermal shock vertical position
An algorithm for the design of shell-and tube exchanger is shown in figure 2.1.
Step 1 Step 10
Specification
Decide baffle spacing and
Define duty
estimate shell-side heat transfer
Make energy balance if needed
coefficient
to calculate unspecified flow Step 11
rates of temperature
Calculate overall heat transfer
coefficient including fouling
Step 2
factors, Uo, calc
Step 3
Step 5
YES
Step 8
Step 7
Can design be
optimized to
reduce cost?
Calculate shell diameter
NO
Step 9
Step 14
Fresh feed TBA to the plant is 52385.26 kg per hour. The stream
specification at the vaporization stage can be obtained from the material and energy
balance. At this stage, the first heat exchanger is used to heat up the TBA stream
from 82oC to 316oC before entering the first reactor. The process operation is shown
above;
Figure 2.2: Process Operation Of Shell And Tube Heat Exchanger
Tin = 82oC
E-101
Tout = 316oC
But because the temperature used to heat up the TBA is 316oC, then, 2 units of heat
exchanger are needed to get the desired temperature. The process operation will
becomes as follows;
E-101 E-101
Assumption
1) Heat losses are negligible
2) The rate of each fluid flow is constant.
3) The specific heat of each flux flow is constant
4) All steam have been condensed
Properties of TBA
Temperature (oC)
Item Units 82 119
Flow rate kg/h 52385.26 52385.26
Specific Heat kJ/kg. oC 3.50 2.44
Dynamic viscosity kg/m.s 1.5500E-03 7.06E-06
Thermal conductivity, k W/m.K 0.11 0.1018
Density of fluids kg/m3 705.00 650.00
(Source: R.W.Gallant, Vol.1, 1992)
Mean Temperature
Tm = Ft Tlm (2.1)
where;
Tm = True temperature different
Ft = temperature correction factor
Tlm = Logarithmic mean temperature
( T1 t 2 ) ( T2 t1 )
Tlm = T1 t 2 (2.2)
ln
T t
2 1
where;
t1 = inlet shell-side fluid temperature
t2 = outlet shell-side temperature
T1 = inlet tube-side temperature
T2 = outlet tube-side temperature
= 66.8oC
Using Figure 12.19 (Coulson & Richardson, Vol. 6) the temperature correction
factor can be obtained
R = T1 T2
(2.3)
t 2 t1
= ( 250 110)
(119 82)
= 2.7
t 2 t1
S = (2.4)
T t
1 1
= (119 82)
( 250 82)
= 0.22
From figure 12.19 (Coulson & Richardson, Vol. 6) (Refer APPENDIX B-1)
Ft = 0.92
Tm = Ft Tlm
= 0.92 (66.8)
= 61.5oC
The tube layout and tube size of shell and tube heat exchanger with pull-through
floating head are shown above:
Table 2.3: Layout & Tube Size Of Shell And Tube Heat Exchanger
Unit Dimension
Tube Length, L m 4.8
Outer Diameter, OD mm 20
Inside Diameter, ID mm 16
Pitch, Pt mm 25
Birmingham wire gage - 14
(BWG)
Birmingham wire gage (BWG) with value 14 is chosen because it can give
moderate flow area and wall thickness to withstand significant pressure drop.
The hot fluids used is TBA and cold fluids is steam, then from Figure 12.1 assume
the Overall Coefficient,
Ao = Q ( U Tm ) (2.6)
Ao = 8.38E+06/(900*147.9)
= 62.94 m2
Standard pipe are taken from Table 12.3 (Coulson & Richardson, Vol. 6)
Inside diameter, di = 16 mm
Outside diameter, do = 20 mm
For a given surface area, the use of longer tubes will reduce the shell
diameter, which will result lower cost of exchanger.
= 0.3016 m2
Number Of tubes,
Nt = Ao/a
Nt = 245.67
say = 246
= 123
Bundle and Shell diameter: the tube in a heat exchanger arranged in triangular
patterns because it give a low-pressure drop.
Pt = 1.25 x do (2.8)
= (1.25) x (0.02)
= 0.03 m
Flow
Pt
From Table 14.2 for 2 tubes per pass (Refer APPENDIX B-3)
K1 = 0.249
n1 = 2.207
Bundle diameter
Db = do X (Nt/Kt)1/n1 (2.9)
= 0.02*(246/0.249) 1/2.207
Db = 0.4547 m @ 454.67 mm
For a pull-through floating head exchanger, the typical shell clearance from figure
12.10 is 90 mm (Refer APPENDIX B-4)
Shell diameter, Ds
Ds = 0.4547+0.09
= 0.5447 m @ 544.67 mm
2.4.8 TUBE SIDE COEFFICIENT, hi
= (2500/3600)/0.0247
= 28.1142
Steam linear velocity, ui m/s = (Gt) / (steam density)
= 28.1142 x 0.4902
= 57.3526
d i
= (2.10)
Reynolds Number, Re
= (0.4902) x (57.3526) x (0.016)/1.525E-05
= 2.4131x104
Cp
Prandtl number, Pr = (2.11)
k f
= (1.98 x 1.525E-05)/0.0299
= 1.0099
jh k f Re Pr 0.33
hi = (2.12)
di
= 204.6164 W/m2.oC
= 1226.2667/705
= 1.7394 m/s
Shell side equivalent diameter for triangular pitch arrangement
de =
1.10
do
(
p t 2 0.917 d o 2 ) (2.14)
= (1.10/0.02) x (0.0252 0.917 x 0.022)
= 0.0142 m
= 22368.0704
Prandtl number, Pr
C p TBA TBA
Pr = (2.16)
kf
= (3.5 x 1.55E-03)/0.109
= 21.9377
= 1817.06
2.4.10 OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT, Uo
From Table 12.2 (Coulson & Richardson, Vol.6) take dirt Coefficient as
(Refer APPENDIX B-8)
2o
hid = 10000 W/m C
hod = 5000 W/m2oC
d
d o ln o
1 1 1 di do 1 d 1 (2.18)
= + + + + o
U o hs hod 2k w d i hid d i hi
1
= 0.00711
Uo
Uo = 1/0.00711
= 140.6185 W/m2oC
Reynolds number, Re
d i
=
= (0.4902) x (57.3526) x (0.016)/1.525E-05
= 2.4131x104
From figure 12.24 (Coulson & Richardson, Vol.6), we can obtained
(Refer APPENDIX B-3)
jf = 5.50E-01
L
m u 2
Pt = N p 8 j f
+ 2.5 i i
di w 2 (2.19)
= 2132432.078 N/m2
= 2132.4321 kPa
= 21.0455 Psi
= 0.0002 Bar
Reynolds number, Re
Gs d e
Re = (2.15)
TBA
= 22368.0704
0.14
D L u s
P = 8 j f s
I
(2.20)
de B 2 w
= 33158.6806 N/m2
= 33.1587 kPa
= 0.3273 psi
= 0.3316 Bar
DESIGN SPECIFICATION
The most economical material selected for both chemical and mechanical
requirements should be selected; this will be the material that gives lowest cost over
the working life of the plant, allowing for maintenance and replacement.
The applied material selected must suitable for the various specific operation
conditions. A few factors that need to be considered:
Corrosion resistance
Operating conditions
Economic feasibility
Suitability for fabrication (welding)
Process safety.
The strength of a welded joint will depend on the types of joint and the
quality of the welding. Normally, the large size of the vessel (large d) is made from
the large plate. The plate will form using the machine and its joint will be welding.
The possible lower strength of a welded joint compared with the virgin plate is
usually allowed for in design by multiplying the allowable design stress for the
material by a welded joint factor J. taking the factor as 1.0 implies that the joint is
equally as strong as the virgin plate; this is achieve by radio graphing the complete
weld length and cutting out and remaking any defects.
CORROSION ALLOWANCE
Pi Di
e= (2.21)
2 f Pi
Where;
e = minimum thickness
Pi = design pressure
= 1.21 N/mm2
di = shell diameter
di = 454.6667 mm@0.4547m
f = design stress (From Table 13.2, Coulson &
Richardson, Vol. 6)
f = 85
J = welded joint efficiency
= 1
e = (1.21 x 0.5447)/(2(85)-1.21)
= 3.9 mm @ 0.0039 m
So the minimum thickness of the cylindrical shell after adding corrosion allowance is
5.9 mm
Heads closes the end of a cylindrical heat exchanger. The typical used of heads are
as follows:
These types of heads have been chosen because it gives economical evaluation
compared to other heads and since it save cost the minimum thickness of the heads
is calculated
The minimum thickness of torispherical head can be calculated by equation
Pi Di
e=
2 J f + 0.2 Pi (2.22)
Where
e = minimum thickness
Pi = design pressure
Di = shell diameter
f = design stress
= 70.00 N/mm2
e = (1.21x 544.6667)/2(1)+0.2(1.21)
= 4.7 mm
2.13DESIGN LOAD
W v= C v m Dm g ( H v + 0.8Dm ) t 1 0 3 (2.23)
Wv = 1580.56 N
A) Weight of tubes
( )
Wt = N t d o 2 d i 2 L m g (2.24)
Wt = 34190.24 N
B) Weight of insulation
WT = Wv + Wt + Wi
= 36294.59 N
= 36.29 kN
2.14DESIGN OF NOZZLES
There are four opening or known as nozzles in one heat exchanger for steam
inlet and outlet and also for TBA inlet and outlet. Designing tube side and shell side
nozzles are based on TEMA heat exchanger standard.
(2.27)
0.53 0.37
DTBA = 293G
DTBA = 107.00 mm
DTBA = 107.00 mm
D steam, in = 365.21 mm
Dsteam,out = 348.85 mm
Fluid: Steam
By taking D = 107 mm (4.21)
Table 2.8: Standard Nozzle for Tube size
Fluid: TBA
For the design, standard flanges are specified. The standards are adapted
from the British standard (BS 4504) with nominal pressure of 6 bars. Type of flange
chosen is full neck welding neck flange.
d1
de
d3
d4
k
D
Figure 2.3: Typical standard Flange Design
Baffles
To support the tubes for structural rigidity, preventing tube vibration and
sagging
To divert the flow across the bundle to obtain a higher heat transfer
coefficient
Table 2.12 above show the summaries of calculation on mechanical design of shell
and tube heat exchanger
CHAPTER 3:
ISOBUTYLENE REACTOR
CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE
CHAPTER 3 ISOBUTYLENE REACTOR
3.1 INTRODUCTION 71
3.2 CHEMICAL DESIGN 72
3.2.1 Selection of Catalyst 74
3.2.2 Effective Diffusivity, De 74
3.2.3 Tube Specification 76
3.2.4 Heat Transfer Calculation 78
3.2.5 Tube Side Coefficient 78
3.2.6 Shell Side Coefficient 80
3.2.7 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient 82
3.2.8 Tube Side Pressure Drop 83
3.2.9 Shell Side Pressure Drop 83
MECHANICAL DESIGN 85
3.3.1 Design Pressure 85
3.3.2 Design Temperature 85
3.3.3 Material of Construction 85
3.3.4 Corrosion Allowance 86
3.5.5 Thickness of Cylindrical Shell 86
3.3.6 Head and Closures 86
3.3.7 Weight Load 87
3.3.8 Wind Loading 89
3.3.9 Analysis of Stresses 90
CHAPTER 3
ISOBUTYLENE REACTOR
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Chemical design is carried out to determine the dimensions of the reactor as shown
in following sections. The reactor volume, combination of shell and tubes
dimensions, heat transfer coefficients and pressure drop are determined.
Dehydration of TBA is characterized by endothermic reaction and from the energy
balance the heat required for the reaction is 2.379x107 kJ/h. For isothermal fixed
bed reactor and first order reaction, the reaction rate constant for TBA dehydration is
given by equation below, (Journal of Hydrocarbon Processing, please refer to
APPENDIX C1):
Reaction involved:
C4H10O C4H8 + H2O
TBA Isobutylene Water
K 1
= 2 ln( ) X (3.1)
LHSV 1 X
K 1
= 2 ln( ) 0.98
LHSV 1 0.98
= 6.844
At 20 psig (3 bars), the equation relating reaction rate constant and temperature is
given by:
ln K = 21.7483 17992/T (3.2)
T = Temperature in degree Rankine, 316C = 1060R
ln K = 21.7483 17992/1060
K = 118.48 h
118.48
= 6.844
LHSV
1
= 0.0578h
LHSV
1 V
= (3.3)
LHSV v
Where,
V = Volume of catalyst
v = Feed volume flowrate
1
Volume of catalyst, Vc = v (3.4)
LHSV
= 66.5632 m3/h x 0.0578 h
= 3.8474 m3
The resistance to diffusion in a catalyst pore is due to collisions with other molecules
and with the walls of the pore. The corresponding diffusivities are called bulk
diffusivity and Knudsen diffusivity DK. The actual diffusivity in common porous
catalysts usually is intermediate between bulk and Knudsen. Moreover, it depends
on the pore size distribution and on the true length path. The effective diffusivity, De
is given by the equation below:
D
De = (3.8)
Where,
= particle porosity
= Tortuosity of the pores
D = Dk + DB (3.9)
Where,
Dk = Knudsen Diffusivity
DB = Bulk Diffusivity
RT
Dk = 1.0638 rp (3.10)
mt
Where,
rp = the pores radius = dp/2 = 6.1 nm/2 =3.05 nm
T = temperature in K = 589 K
mt = the mean molecular weight of tube side material
= 54.445 kg/kmol
589
Dk = (97)(3.05 10 9 )
54.445
= 9.73x10-7 m2/s
Therefore,
(9.73 10 7 )(0.56) 2
De = m /s
2
= 2.72x10-7 m2/s
3.2.3 Tube Specification
In order to decide the tube length and tube diameter used in this design, the
following criteria is followed:
Vc
Number of tube, Nt = A s L (3.12)
3.8474 m 3
3 2
= (2.0268 x10 m )(1.22m)
= 1556 tubes
V
Residence time, = (3.13)
v
3.8474 m 3 3600 s
=
66.5632 m3 / h
= 208.08 s
= 3.47 minutes
Flow through each tube, Vt = Vf / Nt (3.14)
4.7306 3
= m /s
1556
= 3.0402x10-3 m3/s
Vt
Superficial velocity, uc = (3.15)
AS
3.0402 x10 3
= m/s
2.0268 x10 3
= 1.51 m/s
Fixed bed reactor is designed as the shell and tube heat exchanger which catalysts
are in the tube.
2.379 x10 7
= K
3600 x0.06 x 283.2780
= 389 K
The tube side coefficient is split into two parts to account for the resistance in the
region very near the wall and for the resistance in the rest of the packed bed.
Cp
Pr = (3.22)
k
2.469 x10 3 x 0.0152 x10 3
=
0.0424
= 0.89
hw d p
Nu = = 1.6(Re)0.51(Pr)0.33 (3.23)
k
1.6k (Re) 0.51 (Pr) 0.33
hw =
dp
(3.24)
1 1
+
= 469 318
hi = 190 W/m2K
Correcting this coefficient to the heat transfer area corresponding to the centre of
the tube wall.
The source of heating medium is flue gas. It is assumed that the flue gas is available
at 760 K, therefore temperature of flue gas at outlet is 371 K.
Q
Mass flowrate of flue gas required, ms = (3.29)
Cp s T
2.379 x10 7
= kg / s
1.195 x3600 x (760 371)
= 14.22 kg/s
Take baffle spacing as 1/5 from the shell diameter.
Baffle spacing, Ib = Ds/5 (3.30)
= 2896/5 mm
= 579.2 mm
Tube pitch, pt = 1.25do (3.31)
= 1.25(0.0508 m)
= 0.0635 m
Gs d o
Reynolds number, Re = (3.34)
s
(42.3845)(50.8 x10 3 )
=
0.0255 x10 3
= 84436
From figure 12.31 (Coulson & Richardson, 1999, please refer to APPENDIX C2),
heat transfer factor for cross flow tube bank, jh = 3.7x10-3
Cp s s
Prandtl number, Pr = (3.35)
ks
hs d o
= j h Re Pr 1 / 3 ( ) 0.14
ks w (3.36)
0.14
neglecting ( ) term,
w
k s j h Re Pr 1 / 3
hs = (3.37)
do
(180)(2)(0.058)
= W / m2 K
(0.058 + 0.0445)
= 192 W/m2K
Hence,
Overall heat transfer coefficient:
do
d o ln( )
1 1 1 1
di 1 do
= + + + +
U o how hos 2k w hiw his di
50.8
0.0508 ln
1
=
1
+
1
+ 44.5 + 50.8 1 + 1 (3.39)
U o 192 3500 2(36) 44.5 177 5000
1
= 0.0123
Uo
U o = 82W / m 2 K
Hougan and Watson equation will be used to calculate tube side pressure drop
P 2 fG 2 v
= (3.40)
z ge1.7
Where,
Z = length of tube (1.22 m)
V = S(1-e)
= 1840(1-0.4)
= 1102
Gt 4.62
Re = = (3.41)
v (1102)(0.0152 x10 3 )
= 276
Therefore, f = 1.23(276)-0.15
= 0.53
2 1.22 47.4 2
= (8)(4.9 x10 )(2896 )( )(0.78)( )
579.2 2
= 2095 N/m2
= 2.1 kPa
MECHANICAL DESIGN
The design temperature at which the design stress is valuated should be taken as
the maximum working temperature of the material. For this reactor the design
temperature is 500C.
Corrosion and erosion or scaling will cause material lost, so an additional thickness
of material is needed and it is corrosion allowable. The recommended corrosion
allowance is 2 mm.
3.6.5 Thickness of Cylindrical Shell
The ends of a cylindrical vessel are closed by heads of various shapes. There are
three types of commonly used domed head:
1) Hemispherical head
2) Ellipsoidal head
3) Torispherical head
Torispherical head had been choosing for this reactor. The selection of head
depends on the cost and the thickness required for the head. The design equation
and chart for the various types of domed heads are given in the codes and standard
BS 5500 used in this design.
1 Rc
Cs = 3+ (3.46)
4 Rk
1 2.896
= 3 +
4 0.174
= 1.771
Therefore, minimum thickness:
Pi Di
e = (3.47)
2 Jf Pi (C s 0.2)
(0.99)(2896)
=
(2)(1)(90) (0.99)(1.771 0.2)
= 16 mm
Add corrosion allowance = 2 mm
e = (16 + 2) mm
= 18 mm
Where,
Wv = (240)(1.15)(2.915)(1.22+0.8(2.915))19
= 50991.77 N
= 51 kN
Weight of tubes, Wt
Wt = (
N tdo2 di2 )
Lmg
(3.49)
= 1556(0.0508 2-0.04452)(1.22)(3000)(9.81)
= 105376.31 N
= 105 kN
Weight of insulation
V=Hv [
(r +r1 )2 r2 ]
(3.50)
= (1.22)[(0.38 + 0.05)2 (0.38)2]
= 0.16 m3
Wi =V
g (3.51)
= (0.16)(130)(9.81)
= 197.96 N
= 0.2 kN
Weight of catalyst, Wc
Wc = (mc)(g) (3.52)
A vessel must be designed to withstand the highest wind speed that is likely to be
encountered at the site throughout the life span of the plant. A wind speed of 160
km/h is used for the preliminary design studies.
Pw = 0.05Uw2 (3.54)
= 0.05(160)2
= 1280 N/m2
Where,
Deff = Effective reactor diameter
= Diameter shell + 2(tshell + tinsulation)
= 2896 + 2(19 + 50)
= 3034 mm
= 3.034 m
Therefore,
Fw = (1280)(3.034)
= 2973.32 N/m
Bending Moment
Mx = Fw (X)2/2 (3.56)
Where,
X = Distance measure from the free end
=5m
Therefore,
Mx = 2973.32(5)2/2
= 37166.5 Nm
= 37.17 kNm
3.3.9 Analysis of Stresses
156.2 x10 3
=
(2896 + 19)19
= 0.8977 N/mm2
Bending stress,
M Di
b = + t (3.60)
Iv 2
Where,
M = total bending moment
Iv =
64
(
4
Do Di
4
) (3.61)
Where,
Di = 2896 mm
Do= (2896 + 2(19))
= 2934 mm
so,
Iv =
64
( 2934 4 2896 4 )
= 1.848x1011mm4
Therefore,
37166 .5 x1000 2896
b = 11 + 19
1.848 x10 2
= 0.30 N/mm2
z(downwind) = L w - b (3.63)
= 37.72 0.8977 + 0.30
= 36.52 N/mm2
t
1 = 2 10 4 (3.64)
Do
19
= 2 10
4
2934
= 129.52 N/mm2
Maximum compressive stress will occurs when the vessel not under pressure, max
= w + b (3.65)
= 0.8977+ 0.30
=1.1977 N/mm2
This is below critical bulking stress, so acceptable.
Approximate weight,
Di H v L g
2
Wapprox = (3.66)
4
= /4(2.896)2(1.44)(1000)(9.81)
= 93050.45 N
= 93.1 kN
( H v + H skirt ) 2
F
Ms = w (3.67)
2
(1.44 + 1) 2
= 2 . 97
2
= 8.84 kNm
As a first trial, take skirt thickness as same as the thickness of the bottom section of
the vessel, ts = 19 mm.
Bending stress in skirt,
4M s
bs = (3.68)
[ ( Ds + t s )t s Ds ]
Where,
Ms = maximum bending moment (at the base of the skirt)
ts = skirt thickness
Ds = inside diameter of the skirt base
= 2.896 m
Therefore,
4(8.84)(1000)(1000 )
bs =
[ (2896 + 19)(19)(2896 )]
= 7.07 N/mm2
(156.2)(1000)
ws (operating ) =
[ (2.896 + 0.019)(0.019)]
= 0.90 N/mm2
Therefore,
s (tensile) < 135 x 0.85 sin 90
6.17 N/mm2 < 113.08 N/mm2
19
s (compressive) < (0.125)(200, 000) sin 90
2896
12.42 N/mm2 < 161.53 N/mm2
Both criteria are satisfied, add 2 mm for corrosion, give design thickness of 21 mm.
Area of bolt,
1 4M s
Ab = W (3.72)
N b f b Db
1 4(80.8)(1000 )
= (273.3)(1000)
20.9(125) 3
= 580.25 mm2
Ab (4)
d= (3.73)
580.25(4)
=
= 27.18 mm
Total compressive load on the base ring per unit length,
4M W
Fb = s
+ (3.74)
Ds
2
Ds
4(80.8)(1000 ) 249.25(1000)
= +
(3.0)
2
(3)
= 37.88 kN/m
37.88 10 3
=
5 10 3
= 7.58 mm
Flanges used in this design are chosen from the standard flanges. Here standard
flanges are adapted from the British standard (BS 4504), nominal pressure of 6 bar.
(Please refer to APPENDIX C5).
REFERENCES
Coulson, J M and Richardson, J F, 1998, Coulson & Richardsons Chemical
Engineering, Vol. 1 : Fluid Flow, Heat Transfer and Mass Transfer, Oxford,
Pergamon,
Elvers B. et. al., 1989, Ullmans Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Volume 13,
Germany, VCH Verlagsgesellschuft.
Ludwig, E. Ernest, 1964, Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical
Plants, Vol. 1, Houston, Gulf Publishing Coompany.
Perry R.H., Green D.W., 1997, Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, 7th edition,
USA, McGraw-Hill.
Scott, Doug and Crawley, Frank, 1992, Process Plant Design and Operation,
Warwickshire, UK, Institution of Chemical Engineers.
LIST OF FORMULA
K 1
= 2 ln( ) X (3.1)
LHSV 1 X
ln K = 21.7483 17992/T (3.2)
1 V
= (3.3)
LHSV v
1
Vc = v (3.4)
LHSV
VR = Vc/ (1 ) (3.5)
B = (1-)(p) (3.6)
Wc = (Vc)(B) (3.7)
D
De = (3.8)
D = Dk + DB (3.9)
RT
Dk = 1.0638 rp (3.10)
mt
(d o ) 2
As = (3.11)
4
Vc
Nt = A s L (3.12)
V
= (3.13)
v
Vt = Vf / Nt (3.14)
Vt
uc = (3.15)
AS
Gm
Gt = (3.16)
As N t
1 / n1
Nt
Db = d o (3.17)
k
1
pt = 1.25do (3.18)
1 1 1
= +
hi hw hbed (3.27)
hi 2d i
hiw = (3.28)
di + do
Q
ms = (3.29)
Cp s T
Ib = Ds/5 (3.30)
pt = 1.25do (3.31)
Gs = m/Ac (3.33)
Gs d o
Re = (3.34)
s
Cp s s
Pr = (3.35)
ks
hs d o
= j h Re Pr 1 / 3 ( ) 0.14
ks w (3.36)
k s j h Re Pr 1 / 3
hs = (3.37)
do
hs 2 d o
how = (3.38)
(d o + d i )
do
d o ln( )
1 1 1 di do 1 1 (3.39)
= + + + +
U o how hos 2k w di hiw his
P 2 fG 2 v
= (3.40)
z ge1.7
Gt
Re = (3.41)
v
Gs
us = (3.42)
s
2
L u
Ps = 8 j f Ds ( ) s ( ) 0.14 (3.43)
Ib 2 w
2
L us
Ps = 8 j f Ds ( ) (3.44)
Ib 2
Pi Ds
e= (3.45)
2 f Pi
1 Rc
Cs= 3+ (3.46)
4 Rk
Pi Di
e= (3.47)
2 Jf Pi (C s 0.2)
Wv = 240CV Dm ( H v + 0.8Dm )t (3.48)
Wt = (
N tdo2 di2 )
Lmg
(3.49)
V=Hv [
(r +r1 )2 r2 ]
(3.50)
Wi =V
g (3.51)
Wc = (mc)(g) (3.52)
Wt = Wv + Wt +Wi + Wc (3.53)
Pw = 0.05Uw2 (3.54)
Fw = PwDeff (3.55)
Mx = Fw (X)2/2 (3.56)
PDi
L = (3.57)
4t
PDi
h = (3.58)
2t
W
w = (3.59)
( Di + t )t
M Di
b = + t (3.60)
Iv 2
Iv =
64
4
(
Do Di
4
) (3.61)
z(upwind) = L w + b (3.62)
z(downwind) = L w - b (3.63)
t
1 = 2 10 4 (3.64)
Do
max = w + b (3.65)
Di H v L g
2
Wapprox = (3.66)
4
( H v + H skirt ) 2
Ms = Fw (3.67)
2
4M s
bs = (3.68)
[ ( Ds + t s )t s Ds ]
W
ws = (3.69)
[ ( Ds + t s )t s ]
s (compressive) = bs - ws(test) (3.70)
1 4M s
Ab = W (3.72)
N b f b Db
Ab (4)
d= (3.73)
4M W
Fb = s
+ (3.74)
Ds
2
Ds
Fb 1
Lb = 3 (3.75)
f c 10
DTBA = 260 G0.52 -0.37 (3.76)
PRODUCTION OF 400,000 METRIC TONNES PER YEAR OF MTBE
SUPERVISORS
1. EN. RUSMI BIN ALIAS
2. PN. SH. INTAN BAIZURA SYED A.FUAD DATE: 18 MARCH 2004
CHAPTER 4:
MTBE REACTOR
CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE
CHAPTER 4 MTBE REACTOR
4.1 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN
OF REACTOR 97
4.1.1Catalyst 98
4.1.2 Tube side 103
4.1.3 Shell 105
4.1.4 Condition Calculation 106
4.2 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF REACTOR 112
4.2.1 Design Consideration 112
4.2.2 The Design of Thin Walled Vessels
Under Internal Pressure 113
4.2.3 Design of Vessels Subject to
Combined Loading 116
4.2.4 Vessel Support 121
4.2.5 Base Ring and Anchor Bolt Design 124
4.2.6 Bolt Flanged Joint 127
4.2.7 Pipe Sizing 129
4.2.8 Compensation for Opening and
Branch Connections 130
CHAPTER 4
MTBE REACTOR
The major equipment in the MTBE process plant is reactor, where the
conversion of reactant to products takes place. The reactor use is fixed bed reactor
which operates isothermally. The fixed bed reactor consists of a number of tubes
packed with catalyst particles and operated at vertical position. The condition of the
reactor is plug flow reactor where the reactants flow through the tube without back
mixing with concentration changing down the tube as a result of the reaction.
Feed
Cooling
Water Outlet
Cooling
water inlet
Product
700 kg / m3
=
1 0.32
= 1029 kg/ m3
tanh
= 0.93
K1 = A1 e(-E1/ RT)
= 3.07 x 10-2 hr-1
K2 = A1 e(-E2/ RT)
= 2.285 hr-1
W x dx
F o rB
=
150 (1 b ) 1 b
1.75 + 3
Re b
u = superficial linear velocity
= density of fluid
L = depth of the bed
dp = effective particle diameter = 5 x 10-4 m
L = 4.88 m
D = 2.0 m
Q
U=
A
93.20 m3 / hr
= ( 2 m ) ( 4.88 m )
4
= 3.377 x 10-3 m/s
150 (1 b ) 1 b
f = 1.75 +
3
Re b
150 (1 0.54 )
1 0.54
f = 1.75 +
3
0.59 0.54 b
f = 346.76
4977 kg
=
1029 kg / m3
= 4.84 m3
4.1.2 Tube Side
= 4.84 m3
4.88 m
= 0.99 m2
1
596 2.142
Db = 0.05
0.319
= 1.68 m
8.11x10 3
th =
83.77
= 0.35 s
4.1.3 Shell
4.1.3.3 Baffles
Baffles are used in the shell to increase the fluid velocity and to improve the
rate of the heat transfer. 25% baffles cut is used for this shell.
Bs = 0.4 x 1.780 m
= 0.712 m
Pt OD
As = x Ds x Bs
Pt
62.5 50 6
= x 1780 x 712 x10
62.5
= 0.2535 m2
Ds 2
VR = x bed height
4
= 12.15 m3
DGmax
Re =
Where;
D = outside diameter
= average viscosity
0.050 (17.21)
Re =
1.89 x10 3
= 455.29
0.14
hi d i
= jh Re Pr 0.33
kf w
= w
Neglect
w
Cp
Pr = = 84.45
kf
L 4.88
=
d i 0.046
= 106.09
kf
hi = x jh Re Pr 0.33
di
=
0.21989
0.046
( )
x 8 x10 3 ( 455.29 )( 84.45)
0.33
= 75.267 W/m2.K
L ut 2
P = 8jf
di 2
= 33.981 N/m2
Pt 1 do
2
4 x 0.87 Pt
2 2 4
De =
d o
2
= 0.037 m
Neglect
w
1
kf
hs = x jn Re Pr 3
de
0.21989
( )
1
= x 1.5 x10 1 (1315.73)( 84.45) 3
0.037
= 5145.90 W/m2.K
4.1.4.2.6 Overall heat transfer coefficient
The overall heat transfer coefficient can be determined from Fourier
equation. By neglecting the wall effect, the equation is;
hi o ho
U0 =
hi o + hi
U0 =
( 75.267 )( 5145.90 )
75.267 + 5145.90
= 74.182 W/m2.K
Neglect
w
-2 0.037 0.712 2
Ps = 8 (7.0 x 10 )
Ps = 632.139 N/m2
TLMTD = To - TL
ln(To / TL)
By trial and error, outlet temperature of cooling water = 155 oC
4.2.1.3 Material
A suitable material must take into account the suitability of material for
fabrication as well as the compatibility of the material with the process environment
since the maximum working temperature at this reactor is
200 oC because it will oxidize rapidly at high temperature. Stainless steel is
recommended in construction of vessel tubes and shell.
e= 1 N/mm2 (1780mm)
2 (115 N/mm2)-1N/mm2
= 7.773 mm
Design equations and charts for the various types of domed heads are given
in the codes and standards and values for design constant Cp and the nominal plate
diameter De of flat end closures are given in the design codes and standards for
various arrangements of flat end closures. The selection of head depends on the
thickness required for the head which contributed to cost.
a) Torispherical heads.
The minimum thickness of head can be calculated from equation
below:
Pi Rc Cs
e=
2 fJ + Pi ( Cs 0.2 )
where :
Cs = stress concentration factor for torispherical
heads
1 Rc
3 +
4 Rk
Rc = 1.78 m
Rk = 0.06 Rc
= 0.1068 m
1 Rc
Cs = 3 +
4 Rk
= 1.771 m
Add corrosion allowance of 2 mm
e = 1.773 m
b) Ellipsoidal heads with major and minor axis ratio of 2:1. The minimum
thickness required can be determined by equation below:
Pi Di
e=
2 Jf 0.2 Pi
e= 1 N/mm2 (1780mm)
2 (115 N/mm2)-0.2(1N/mm2)
= 7.746 mm
Add corrosion allowance of 2 mm
e = 9.746 mm
c) Flat heads
The minimum thickness required is given by equation below:
Pi
e = C p De
f
Where Cp = a design constant, dependent on the edge
constraint
De = nominal plate diameter
f = design stress
For bolted cover with a full face gasket (to avoid leakage) take Cp =
0.4 and De equal to the bolt circle diameter, take as approximately 1.7
m
10 x 10 5
e = 0.4 x 1.7 x
1.15 x 10 8
= 0.063 m
Wv = C v m Dm g ( H v + 0.8Dm ) t x10 3
For a stainless steel vessel, the equation reduces to:
Wv = 240C v Dm ( H v + 0.8 Dm ) t
where;
Wv = total weight of the shell, excluding internal
fittings
Cv = a factor to account for the weight of nozzles
manways, internal supports,etc, Cv is taken as
1.08 for vessel with only a few internal fittings.
Hv = Height between tangent lines
t = wall thickness
g = gravitational acceleration, 9.81m/s2
m = density of vessel material, kg/m3
Dm = mean diameter of vessel
= ( Di + t x10-3)
= (1.780 + 9.773 x 10-3)
= 1.790 m
WX 2
Mx =
2
= 3494.40 (4.88)2
2
= 41608.52 Nm
= Di + 2t
= 1780 + 2(9.7730
= 1799.55 mm
t
c = 2 x 10 4
Do
= 2 x 10-4 (9.773/1780)
= 109.81 N/mm2
The maximum compressive stress will occur when the vessel is not under pressure.
The skirt thickness should be such that under the worst combination of wind and
dead weight loading the following design criteria not exceeded
s ( tensile ) f s J sin s
t
s ( compressive ) 0.125 E s sin s
Ds
where fs = maximum allowable design stress for the skirt material,
normally taken at ambient temperature.
J = weld joint factor, if applicable
s= base angle of a conical skirt (80o to 90o)
Take joint factor J as 0.85 because type of joint is double welded butt and requires
less non-destructive testing but places some limitations on the materials which can
be used and the maximum plate thickness, and Youngs Modulus 200000N/mm2.
Criteria for design:
s ( tensile ) f s J sin
s ( tensile ) 0.85(105) sin 90o
s ( tensile ) 89.25N/mm2
t
s ( compressive ) 0.125 E s sin
Ds
s ( compressive ) 0.125 (200000)(18/1780)sin 90o
s ( compressive ) 252.81 N/mm2
Both criteria are satisfied, add 2 mm for corrosion, gives a design thickness of 20
mm.
The loads carried by the skirt are transmitted to the foundation slab by the
skirt base ring (bearing plate). The moment produced by the wind and other lateral
loads will tend to overturn the vessel: this will be opposed by the couple set up by
the weight of the vessel and the tensile load in the anchor bolts.
Since reactor is considered as small vessels, the simplest type rolled angle rings is
recommended.
Scheimans method can be used for preliminary design.
4.2.5.1 Calculation for area of bolt
The anchor bolts are assumed to share the overturning load equally, and the
bolt area required is given by:
1 4M s
Ab = W
N b f b Db
where Ab = area of one bolt at the root of the thread,mm2
Nb = number of bolts
fb = maximum allowable bolts stress, N/mm2 :
typical design value 125 N/mm2 (18,000 psi)
Ms = bending (overturning) moment at the base, Nm
W = weight of the vessel, N
Db = bolt circle diameter, m
Scheiman gives several guide rule for selecting the anchor bolts.
a. Bolts smaller than 25 mm (1 in) diameter should not be used.
b. Minimum number of bolts 8
c. Use multiples of 4 bolts.
d. Bolt pitch should not be less than 600 mm (2 ft)
1 4M s
Ab = W
N b f b Db
1 4( 60408 .39 )
Ab = 134.408 x10 3
8(125 ) 0.49
= 359 mm2
From BS 4190 : 1967, M24 bolts with root area of 353 can be used.
Bolt root diameter = (353 x 4/ )1/2
= 21.20 mm
4M s W
Fb = +
Ds
2
Ds
t b = Lr x 3 f c f r
where tb = Base ring thickness, mm
Lr = The distance from the edge of the skirt to the outer edge
of the ring, mm
fc = Actual bearing pressure on base , N/mm2
fr = Allowable design stress in the ring material, typically
140 N/mm2
t b = Lr x 3 f c f r
= 64 ((3 x 0.366)/140) 1/2
= 5.67 mm
Flanged joints are used for connecting pipes and instruments to vessels, for
manhole covers, and for removable vessel heads when ease of access is required.
Flanges may also be used on the vessel body, when it is necessary to divide the
vessel into sections for transport or maintenance.
M op = H d hd + H t ht + H g hg
= ( 4) B Pi
2
rd f fo
1 2( hb + rd ) f fo
1 2( hb + tg ) f fo
where f fo is the maximum allowable design stress for the flange material at
The presence of openings and branches weakens the shell and give rise to
stress concentrations. Sufficient reinforcement must be provided to compensate for
the weakening effect of the opening.
The equal area method is chosen because it is the simplest method used
for calculating the amount of reinforcement required and experience has proved it to
be satisfactory for a wide range of application.
I. Feed stream
From Perrys Handbook,
For d = 104.06 mm
Nominal pipe size = 127.00 mm
Outside diameter = 141.30 mm
Nominal wall thickness = 19.05 mm
Minimum thickness of branch , e1 = PiDi
(2f-Pi)
= 0.454 mm
4.2.8.1 Manholes
The maximum length of manhole is dependent on the manhole diameter.
The length is perpendicular distance fro the face of the opening including lining or
any projection of the branch within the vessel.
Type of branch connection: flush nozzle
Inside diameter = 598.50 mm
Nominal size = 600 mm
Outside diameter = 609.60 mm
Nominal wall thickness = 5.54 mm
Distance, N = 2.5 ta
= 13.875 mm
Length, S = di /2
= 299.25 mm
REFERENCES
LIST OF NOMENCLATURE
Dimension
A Total Heat Transfer Area for Tubes L-2
Ab Area of One Bolt At The Root of the Thread
As Cross section Area of Shell L-2
At Total Cross Section Area of Tubes L-2
Bs Baffles Spacing L
Cs Stress Concentration Factor for Torispherical
Head
Cv Account Factor
d Particle diameter
Db Bolt Circle Diameter L
Db Bundle diameter L2
De Effective diffusivity L2T-1
De Effective Column Diameter L
De Equivalent Diameter of Shell L2
Dk Knudsen Diffusivity L2T-1
Di Inner Diameter of Tube L
Di Inner Diameter L
Dm Vessel Mean Diameter L
Do Outer Diameter of Tube L
Ds Shell Diameter L
Ds Skirt Diameter L
dc Diameter of Catalyst L
E Youngs Modulus ML-1T-2
e Shell Thickness L
eh Domed Head Thickness L
Fb Compressive Load on the Base Ring MT-2
Fw Wind Loading MT-2
fb Maximum Allowable Bolt Stress ML-1T-2
fc Maximum Allowable Bearing Pressure on
Concrete Foundation ML-1T-2
fs Maximum Allowable Design Stress for the
Skirt Material ML-1T-2
fc Actual Bearing Stress on Base ML-1T-2
g Gravitational Acceleration LT-2
Hs Skirt Height L
Hv Height Between Two Tangent Lines of A Vessel L
Hi Tube Side Heat Transfer Coefficient MT-3 -1
Hio Corrected Tube Side Coefficient MT-3 -1
Hs Shell Side Heat Transfer Coefficient MT-3 -1
Iv Second Moment of Area L4
J Welded Joint Efficiency
jf Shell Side Friction Factor
jHS Shell Side Heat Transfer Factor
jHt Tube Side Heat Transfer Factor
K1,K2 Velocity constant of Reaction T-1
Kf Thermal Conductivity of Fluid In Tubes MLT-3 -1
L Length of Tube L
Lb Base Ring Width L
M Mass flowrate
Mx Bending Moment ML2T-2
Nb Number of Bolts
Nc Number of Crosses
nt Total number of Tubes
PD Design Pressure ML-1T-2
Pi Internal Pressure ML-1T-2
Pw Wind Pressure ML-1T-2
P Pressure Drop In the Tube Side ML-1T-1
Pr Prandt Number
Ps Pressure Drop In Shell Side ML-1T-1
Pt Tube Pitch L
Rc Crown Radius L
Re Reynold number
r Pore radius
Sg Total Surface area of Catalyst M-1L2
T Operating temperature
t Wall Thickness L
ts Skirt Thickness L
TLMTD Log Mean Temperature
Ud Design Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient MT-3 -1
V Volume flowrate M-2L3
Vg Void Volume of Catalyst M-2L3
W Weight of Catalyst M
Wc Weight of Catalyst MLT-2
W Total Weight MLT-2
Wt Weight of Tubes MLT-2
Wi weight of Insulation MLT-2
Wv Weight of Vessel MLT-2
X Total Conversion of Reactant
b Voidage of Catalyst
p Internal void fraction
Fluid density ML-3
p Particle Solid Density ML-3
Thiele Modulus
Effectiveness Factor
D Design Stress ML-1T-2
L Longitudinal Stress ML-1T-2
b Bending Stress ML-1T-2
h Circumferential Stress ML-1T-2
m Maximum Compressive Stress ML-1T-2
w Dead Weight Stress ML-1T-2
z Resultant Longitudinal Stress ML-1T-2
r Radial Stress ML-1T-2
Fluid viscosity at the bulk fluid temperature ML-1T-2
w Fluid viscosity at the wall ML-1T-2
SUPERVISORS
1. EN. RUSMI BIN ALIAS
2. PN. SH. INTAN BAIZURA SYED A.FUAD DATE: 18 MARCH 2004
CHAPTER 5:
TITLE PAGE
CHAPTER 5 MTBE DISTILLATION COLUMN
INTRODUCTION 133
5.2 CHEMICAL DESIGN 134
5.2.1 Determination of Key Components 134
5.2.2 Determination of Bubble Point and
Dew Point 134
5.2.3 Determination Relative Volatility, 136
5.2.4 Determination The Number of
Stages 137
5.2.5 Calculation to Determine Overall
Tray Efficiency, Eo 138
TITLE PAGE
5.2.6 Determination Of Feed Point
Location 138
5.2.7 Estimate or Gather The Physical
Properties 139
5.2.8 Determination Of Maximum And
Minimum Vapor and Liquid Flow
Factor and Flooding Velocity
For The Turn Down Ratio 140
5.2.9 Determination Of Column Diameter 141
5.2.10 Liquid Flow Arrangements 142
5.2.11 Plate Layout 142
5.2.12 Determination of Weir Length, lw 143
5.2.13 Check The Weeping Rate 143
5.2.14 Plate Pressure Drop 145
5.2.15 Downcomer Design 146
5.2.16 Check Entrainment 147
5.2.17 Plate Layout 147
5.2.18 Number Of Hole 148
5.2.19 Column Size 149
MECHANICAL DESIGN 150
Introduction
The value of Tdp can be found by trial and error once expressions
0.4567 0.9973
Log
Nm = 0.0073 0.0003
log( 315.1148 )
log( 207975 .758)
Nm =
log(315.1148)
Nm = 2.1285
NT = 2Nm (5.11)
NT = 2(2.1285)
= 4.2570
5 stages
5.1.5 Calculation to Determine Overall Tray Efficiency, Eo
0.5 0.5
Therefore, Eo = =
( ) 0.25 (315.1148 x 0.1646 ) 0.25
Eo = 0.1863
Eo = 18.63 %
In order to find the feed point location, estimation can be made by using the
Fenske equation to calculate the number of stages in the rectifying and
stripping section separately, but this requires an estimate of the feed point
temperature. As an alternative approach, here I use the empirical equation
given by Kirkbride (1944) as a matter for the same objective.
N B X X b , LK
2
log r = 0 . 206 log f , HK (5.14)
D X f , LK X
NS d , HK
Where,
Nr = number of stages above the feed, include the condenser
Ns = number of stages below the feed, include the reboiler
B = molar flow bottom product
D = molar flow top product
Xf, HK = concentration of the heavy key in the feed
Xf, LK = concentration of the light key in the feed
Xd,HK = concentration of the heavy key in the top product
Xb, LK = concentration of the light key in the bottom product
The properties consider in this design are liquid flow rate, LW, vapor flow
rate, VW, liquid surface tension, , liquid density, l and vapor density, v.
This physical properties evaluated at the system temperature by using
HYSIS generated data or estimate manually from mass and energy
balance data. The useful properties data is given as below:
Feed;
Liquid flow rate, LW = 55802.0640 kg/hr = 15.5006 kg/s
Liquid surface tension,
= ( 0.0135 0.9795 ) + ( 7.50E - 03 0.0020 ) +
( 8.50E - 03 0.0003) + ( 9.50E - 03 0.0004 )
= 0.013245 N/m
Liquid density, l
= ( 0.68 0.9795 ) + ( 0.44 0.0020 ) + ( 0.44 0.0003 ) + ( 0.57 0.0004 )
= 0.6673g/ml
= 667.3 kg/m3
Distillate;
Vapor flow rate, VW = 5531.1456 kg/hr = 1.5364 kg/s
Lw V
FLV = (5.16)
Vw l
15.5006 9.0296
FLV =
1.5364 667.3
= 1.1736
Assumption were made for initial tray spacing based on value of FLV by
referring to figure 11.27 from Coulson Richardson Chemical engineering
volume page 567. The data were used to determine the constant, K1 for
estimation of flooding velocity.
So, Assumption initially 0.5m of tray spacing, the value k1 = 0.080
(constant) and correction factor are used as equation below:
0.2
K1 = k1 0.02 (5.17)
0.2
0.0132
= 0.080
0.02
= 0.0736
and flooding velocity, Uf determine by equation 5.18.
L V
U f = K1 (5.18)
V
667.3 9.0296
Uf = 0.0736
9.0296
= 0.6284 m / s
The flooding percentage was assumed to be 85%, this is based on flooding
velocity for design, a value of 80 to 85 %. Therefore, Uv were found by
using below,
UV = 0.80 (Uf) (5.19)
= 0.80 (0.6284 m/s)
= 0.5027 m/s
0.50 m/s
5.1.9 Determination Of Column Diameter
4Vm
Dc = (5.20)
vU v
4(1.5364 )
Dc =
(9.0296 )(0.5027 )
= 0.6582m
0.7 m @ 700mm
Lw
VL = (5.21)
v
15.5006
VL =
9.0296
= 1.7166 m3/s
Based on value of volumetric flow rate and column diameter, DC. Figure
11.28 from Coulson Richardson Chemical engineering volume 6, page
568. Therefore, types of liquid flow found as single pass.
The value of downcomer area, active area, hole area, hole size, and weir
height were determined based on above value calculated, trial plate layout
column area determine by using below,
Um
Column area, AC = (5.22)
Uv
1.0052
AC =
0.5027
= 2.0000 m2
Where Um = Velocity at below plate,
Down comer area were found by assume 20% of column area and using
below,
Down comer Area, Ad = 0.2 AC (5.23)
Ad = 0.2(2.0000m 2)
= 0.4 m2
Net area and active area were determined by using equation 5.24 and
equation 5.25,
Net Area, An = Ac - Ad (5.24)
2
= 2.000 0.4000 m
= 1.6000 m2
Where,
lw = Weir length
how = weir crest
Lw = liquid flow rate
So at minimum liquid flow rate determine by adding weir height hw and weir
crest, how. After that, the constant, K2 where find based on the value and
referring to figure 11.30 from Coulson Richardson Chemical engineering
volume 6, page 571;
hw + how (mm) = 50 mm + 86.3114 mm
hw + how (mm) = 136.3114 mm (since this value is too big, I use h w + how =
100 mm )
hw + how (mm) 100mm
K2 = 31
Minimum vapor velocity Uh, were determine by equation 5.29
K 2 0.90(25.4 d h )
Uh = (5.28)
v 0.5
31 0.90(25.4 5)
=
(9.0296 ) 0.5
= 4.2064 m/s
4.2 m/s
And actual minimum vapor velocity is ratio of Minimum vapor rate / A h were
determine and comparing to value of weep point. Satisfaction value must
above weep point. Therefore, the calculation as below;
12.5 x10 3
hr = (5.32)
L
12.5 x10 3
=
667.3
= 18.7322 mm liquid
Total pressure drop,
ht = hd+(hw + how) + hr (5.33)
= 70 + 100 + 18.7322
= 188.7 mm liquid
190 mm liqiuid (H2O)
2
0.7169
= 166
(667.3)(0.0238)
= 0.33821mm liquid
Where
Lwd = liquid flow rate in downcomer
Am = Ad (downcomer) area or Aap (Area under downcomer) either is
smaller
h = head loss in downcomer
, dc
Downcomer backup, hb
hb = (hw +how) + ht + hdc (5.37)
= 100 + 190 + 0.3382
= 290.3382 mm liquid
hb @ > (lt + hw)
Resident time, tr were determined by equation 6.44,
A d h b l
tr = (5.38)
L wd
(0.4000 )(0.2903)(667.3)
=
0.7169
= 108.08660 second
108 second
The value is relevant and recommended to proceed for another design.
Therefore, plate layout details, calming zones, unperforated area,
and check hole pitch will be decide as below section.
Ah
Determine ratio (5.47)
Ap
Ah 0.1200
=
Ap 1.0971
= 0.1094
and referring to figure 11.32 from Coulson Richardson Chemical
engineering volume 6, page 574.
lp
= 2.8 satisfactory, within 2.5 to 4.0 (5.48)
dh
Area of hole
d h 2
AH = (5.49)
4
0.005 2
=
4
= 0.00001964 m2
= 1.9635 x10-5 m2
Ah
Number of Hole = (5.50)
AH
0.1200
=
1.9635 x10 5
= 6111.5498unit
6112 units
5.1.19 Column Size
= 10.25 m = 10250 mm
MECHANICAL DESIGN
5.1.20 Design Pressure
The material used is stainless steel (18Cr/8Ni, 304). For this material, the
design stress at 150 C is obtained from table 13.2, page 809 Chemical
Engineering Vol. 6.
Design stress, f = 130 N/mm2
= 1.30 x 108 N/m2
Diameter vessel, Di = 0.7000 m
Tensile strength, = 510 N/mm2
= 5.1 x 108 N/m2
As a first trial, divide the column into five sections (courses), with
the thickness increasing by 2 mm per section. Try 7, 9, 11, 13 and 15 mm
to determine the thickness average.
Therefore, average thickness = 7+9+11+13+15 mm / 5 = 11 mm (5.55)
1 Rc
Cs = 3+ (5.56)
4 Rk
1 0.7000
= 3 +
4 0.0420
= 1.7706
Where
Crown radius, Rc = Di
Knuckle radius, Rk = 6% Rc
Pi RC C S
Therefore, minimum thickness: e = (5.57)
2 Jf + Pi ( C S 0.2 )
( 0.7733)( 700 )(1.7706 )
=
2(1)(130 ) + 0.7733(1.7706 0.2 )
= 3.6692mm
For welding purposes, the thickness of head were taken as same as
thickness of the vessel, = 5 mm. Its, matching to joint factor were taken as
1.
5.1.24 Column Weight
2. Weight of Plates, Wp
From Nelson Guide, page 833 Chemical Engineering Volume 6; take
contacting plates, 1.2 kN/m2. The total of weight of plate determine by
multiply the value with number of plate design.
Weight of plate = Ac x 1.2 (5.60)
= 0.3848 x 1.2
= 0.4618 kN
Weight of 22 plates, Wp = 0.4618 x 22 (5.61)
= 10.1596 kN
10.2 kN
3. Weight of Insulation, Wi
The fiberglass was choosing as insulation material. By referring to Coulson
Richardson Chemical engineering volume 6, page 833,
Density, of fiber glass = 100 kg/m3
Thickness = 50 mm = 0.05 m
Volume of insulation,VI = x Dm x Hv x thickness of insulation (5.62)
= (0.7000) (10.25) (0.05)
= 1.1270m3
Weight of insulation, WI = Volume of insulation x x g (5.63)
= 1.1270 x 100 x 9.81
= 1105.587 N
= 1.1056 kN
Double this value to allow fittings, so weight of insulation will be = 2.2112
kN
4. Total Weight
Double this value to allow fittings. The total weight is the summation of
dead weight of vessel, weight of insulation, weight of plates,
Total weight = Wv + Wp + WI (5.64)
= 23.3534 + 10.2 + 2.2112
= 35.7646 kN
36 kN
Fw ( X ) 2
Mx = (5.68)
2
Where, X = Distance measure from the free end
= 10.25 m
Therefore,
1254.4 (10.25) 2
Mx =
2
= 65895.2 Nm
= (0.72)(10.25)(667.3)(9.81)
4
= 25822.5995N
26 kN
Weight of vessel + insulation + plates = 36kN
( H v + H skirt ) 2
Bending moment at skirt base, Ms = Fw (5.71)
2
(10.25 + 2.5) 2
= 1.2544
2
= 101.9593kNm
102kNm
As a first trial, take skirt thickness as same as the thickness of the bottom
section of the vessel, ts = 11 mm
4 Ms
Bending stresses in skirt, bs = (5.72)
[ ( Ds + ts ) ts Ds ]
Where, Ms = maximum bending moment (at the base of
the skirt)
ts = skirt thickness
Ds = inside diameter of the skirt base
= 0.7 m = 700 mm
4(102)
Therefore, bs =
[ ( 0.7 + 0.011) (0.011)(0.7)]
= 23721.9270 kN/m2
= 23.7219 N/mm2
W
Dead weight stress in the skirt, ws = (5.73)
[ ( Ds + ts ) ts ]
Where, W = Total weight of the vessel and content
= 62 kN
26000
Therefore, ws(test) =
[ ( 700 + 11) (11)]
= 1.0582 N/mm2
36000
wbs,(operating) =
[ ( 700 + 11) (11)]
= 1.4652 N/mm2
Thus, the resulting stress in the skirt, s:
Maximum s (compressive) = ws (test) + wbs (5.74)
= 1.0582 +1.4652 N/mm2
= 2.5234N/mm 2
1 4M s
Area of bolt, Ab = W (5.79)
N b f b Db
1 4(102000 )
= 36000
8(125) 0.9
= 417mm2
417 x 4
Bolt root diameter, d = (5.80)
= 23.04 mm
23 mm
Total compressive load on the base ring per unit length,
4M s W
Fb = + (5.81)
Ds
2
Ds
4 (102000 ) 36000
= +
( 0 .9 )
2
(0.9)
= 173066N/m
By assuming that a pressure of 5 N/mm2 is one of the concrete foundation
pad, fc
Fb 1
Minimum width of the base ring, Lb = x 3 (5.82)
f c 10
173066
=
5 x 10 3
= 34.61 mm
With this minimum width, can get actual width
Use M56 bolts (BS 4190:1967) root area = 2030 mm2, figure 13.30, page
849, Chemical Engineering Volume 6, 1996.
Actual width required = Lr + ts + 50 (5.83)
= 150 + 11 + 50
= 211 mm
Actual bearing pressure on concrete foundation
Fb
f'c = (5.84)
actual width
173.066
=
211
= 0.8202 N/mm2
0.5
3f
Actual minimum base thickness, tb = Lr c (5.85)
fr
Where , fc= actual bearing pressure on base, N/mm2
fr= allowable design stress in the ring material, typically 140 N/mm2
3( 0.8202 )
Therefore, tb = 150
140
= 19.8860 mm
20 mm
REFERENCES
J. M. Coulson, J. F. Richardson, Chemical Engineering, Volume Two,
Third Edition, The Pergamon Press, 1977.
R. K Sinnot, Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering,
Chemical Engineering Design, Volume Six, Butterworth
Heinemann, 1999.
Robert H. Perry, Don W. green, Perrys Chemical Engineers
Handbook, Seventh Edition, McGraw-Hill, 1998.
James, M. Douglas, Conceptual Design of Chemical Processes,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1988.
Martyn S. Ray and David, W. Johnston, Chemical Engineering,
Design Project: A Case Study Approach, Gordon and Breach
Science Publishers, 1989.
Carl R. Branan, Rules of Thumb for Chemical Engineers, Gulf
Publishing Company, 1994.
Billet, R., Distillation Engineering, Heydon Publishing, 1979.
King, C. J., Separation Processes, Second Edition, McGraw-Hill,
1992.
Kister, H. Z., Distillation Design, McGraw-Hill, 1992.
Lockett, M. J., Distillation Tray Fundamentals, Cambridge University
Press, 1986.
Normans, W. S., Absorption, Distillation and Cooling Towers,
Longmans, 1961.
Oliver, E. D., Diffusional Separation Procesess, John-Wiley, 1966.
Robinson, C.S., and Gilliland, E.R., Elements of Fractional
Distillation, McGraw-Hill, 1950.
Smith, R., Chemical Process Design, McGraw-Hill, 1995.
Van Winkle, M., Distillation, McGraw-Hill, 1967.
Micheal J. Barber, Handbook of Hose, Pipes, Couplings and
Fittings, First Edition, The Trade & Technical Press Limited,
1985.
Louis Gary Lamit, Piping Systems: Drafting and Design, Prentice-
Hall, Inc., 1981.
David H. F. Liu, Bela. G. Liptak, Wastewater Treatment, Lewis
Publishers, 2000.
LIST OF NOMENCLATURE
Dimensions in M, L, T
Aa Active area of plate L2
Aap Clearance area under apron L2
Ac Total column cross sectional area L2
Ad Downcomer cross - sectional area L2
Ah Total hole area L2
An Net area available for vapour liqud disengagement L2
Ap Perforated area L2
Co Orifice coefficient -
D Mols of distillate per unit time MT-1
Dc Column diameter L
dh Hole diameter L
Emv Plate efficiency -
g Gravitational acceleration -
hap Apron clearance LT-2
hb Height of liquid back up in down comer L
hbc Down comer back up in term of clear liquid head L
hd Dry plate pressure drop, head of liquid L
hdc Head loss in down comer L
how Height of liquid crest over down comer weir L
hr Plate residual pressure drop L
ht Total plate pressure drop L
hw Weir height L
K1 Constant -
Lm Molar flow rate of liquid per unit area ML-2T-1
Lw Liquid flow rate L2T-1
Lwd Liquid mass flow rate MT-1
Ip Pitch of holes (distance between centre) L
Iw Weir length L
Nm Minimum number of stages -
NT Theoretical number of stages -
pt Total plate pressure drop ML-1T-2
Po Partial pressure ML-1T-2
q Heat to vaporize one mol of feed divided by molar latent heat -
R Universal gas constant LT 2 2 -1
R Reflux ratio -
Rm Minimum reflux ratio -
Ua Vapour velocity based on active area LT-1
Uf Vapour velocity through holes LT-1
Uv Superficial velocity (based on total cross sectional area) LT-1
V Vapour flow rate per unit time MT-1
Vw Vapour mass flow rate MT-1
xi Mole fraction of component I -
xd Mole fraction of component in distillate -
yi Mole fraction of component I -
L Liquid viscosity -
Viscosity of solvent ML-1T-1
L Liquid density ML-1T-1
v Vapour density ML-3
Surface tension MT-2
Dm Mean diameter L
E Young Modulus ML-1T-2
Hv Height between tangent L
Pi Internal pressure ML-1T-2
Mx Bending moment at base of the skirt ML-1T-2
Ms Bending moment at point x from free end column ML2T-2
t Thickness of plate (shell) L
ts Skirt thickness L
J Joint factor -
b Bending stress ML-1T-2
w Dead weight stress ML-1T-2
cw Compressive stress ML-1T-2
ws Stress in skirt due to weight of vessel ML-1T-2
PRODUCTION OF 400,000 METRIC TONNES PER YEAR OF MTBE
SUPERVISORS
1. EN. RUSMI BIN ALIAS
2. PN. SH. INTAN BAIZURA SYED A.FUAD DATE: 18 MARCH 2004
CHAPTER 6:
TITLE PAGE
CHAPTER 6 PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION
6.1 INTRODUCTION 161
TITLE PAGE
6.2 TYPES OF CONTROL 161
6.2.1 Feedback Control 161
6.2.2 Feed forward Control 162
6.2.3 Cascade Control 162
6.3 CONTROLLING SHELL AND TUBE
HEAT EXCHANGER 163
6.4 FIXED BED REACTOR CONTROL 165
6.5 DISTILLATION COLUMN CONTROL 167
6.6 PIPING 170
6.6.1 Introduction 170
6.6.2 Material of Construction 170
6.6.3 Pipe Sizing 170
6.6.4 Fluid Velocity 171
CHAPTER 6
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.3.1 INTRODUCTION
T set
Feedback
Controller
F Steam
TT
T2
F
Heat Exchanger
T1
F
Liquid in
T
Condensate
T1 = Temperature of inlet fluid T = Transducer
T2 = Temperature of outlet fluid Tset = Temperature set
TT = Temperature Transmitter
F = Fluid flowrate
Condensate
Besides, it also required minimum knowledge about the
process to be controlled.
Manipulated variable
A steam flow rate, F
Load/disturbance
Temperature and flow rate of liquid in temperature outlet.
Tout = f (Ti,Fi)
6.4.1 INTRODUCTION
REACTOR
TC
COOLING
WATER IN OUTLET PRODUCT
The cooling water is passed through the reactor jacket to regulate the
reactor temperature. The reactor temperature is affected by changes in
disturbances variables such as reactant feed temperature or composition.
The control strategy to handle such disturbances is by adjusting a control
valve on the cooling water inlet stream. By adding cascade control on the
feedback controller will overcome the increase of the inlet cooling water
temperature that may cause unsatisfactory performance. Cascade control
measures the jacket temperature, compares to it set point, and uses the
resulting error as the input to a controller for the cooling water makeup,
thus maintaining the heat removal rate from the reactor at constant level.
The controller set point and both measurements are used to adjust a single
manipulated variable, the cooling water makeup.
PC
Condenser LC
FC
Reflux Distillate
Feed
Boilup
LC
FC
Reboiler Bottoms
6.5.1 INTRODUCTION
The most basic distillation control system consider only the column
inventory and relies on the process operator to counteract disturbances to
the process by adjusting (when required) on the manipulated variables
which are not being used for inventory control. The effectiveness of this
approach depends on the variable pairings (i.e. the control configuration).
It is convenient to adopt a nomenclature to concisely describe the
variable pairings or control configuration. The most widely accepted method
of describing control configuration employs two letter designations that
correspond to the variables which are not used for inventory control.
6.6.1 INTRODUCTION
The installation cost of piping systems varies widely with the materials of
construction and the complexity of the system. The economics also depend
on the pipe size and fabrication techniques employed. Therefore, it is
important to choose pipe sizes which give a minimum total cost for pumping
and fixed changes.
Pi + D
t=
2 f + Pi
where t = minimum wall thickness, mm
Pi = Internal pressure of the pipe, N/mm2
f = maximum allowable stress, N/mm2
D = Pipe outer diameter, mm
The fluid velocity should be kept below erosion is likely to occur. For gases
and vapor, the velocity must not exceed the critical velocity.
3
Gases, U = 223( KZT / m )
Table 6.1: Summary of the piping for MTBE plant
Mwmix G d
Stream Pi(bar) T(K) (kg/kmol) (N/mm2) (kg/m3) G (kg/h) (kg/s) (opt),mm t(mm) u (m/s) D (mm)
S1 1.000 324.000 66.990 165.000 461.990 19525.130 26.190 159.135 0.4822 2.8502438 254.8322
S2 1.000 309.000 58.000 165.000 315.750 41490.910 11.620 120.060 0.3638 3.2506812 267.4558
S3 1.500 356.000 73.980 145.000 714.010 61016.040 14.570 99.857 0.3443 2.6056159 254.1877
S4 11.000 589.000 73.980 85.000 721.930 41655.890 14.570 99.450 0.5850 2.5981534 326.9544
S5 15.000 477.400 45.300 105.000 664.690 41655.890 14.570 102.537 0.4883 2.6545600 376.1654
S6 15.000 371.000 56.000 145.000 599.290 579.890 10.810 91.225 0.3146 2.7597723 298.2495
S7 10.000 473.000 22.330 115.000 969.360 41076.000 3.760 44.091 0.1917 2.5404945 533.3017
S8 5.000 308.000 56.000 135.000 599.290 41076.000 10.810 91.225 0.3379 2.7597723 271.7491
S9 2.000 338.000 47.170 145.000 658.300 414.910 17.040 111.634 0.3849 2.6446178 310.1788
S10 8.020 473.000 84.136 115.000 732.190 19360.150 17.040 107.325 0.4666 2.5724736 274.7422
S11 4.080 400.000 46.057 115.000 667.180 605.940 1.550 31.934 0.1388 2.9006508 341.4829
S12 7.850 335.000 87.950 125.000 740.670 18754.210 15.480 101.664 0.4067 2.5746525 226.1472
S13 8.050 408.000 45.150 115.000 474.970 18755.210 1.610 36.934 0.1606 3.1637755 348.3276
S14 5.000 340.000 54.030 125.000 612.840 18756.210 1.000 26.238 0.1050 3.0178778 290.6757
S15 2.000 340.000 30.610 125.000 808.360 18757.210 0.610 18.315 0.0733 2.8643195 386.1842
S16 1.000 335.000 31.860 125.000 792.520 18758.210 0.560 17.647 0.0706 2.8889613 375.7390
S17 1.000 330.000 18.000 115.000 998.550 18759.210 0.050 4.613 0.0201 2.9965184 496.1437
S18 1.000 340.000 31.860 145.000 793.160 18760.210 5.670 58.796 0.2027 2.6329025 378.5326
S19 1.000 340.000 31.860 125.000 793.120 18761.210 6.230 61.749 0.2470 2.6230361 378.5326
PC PC
LC LC
FC FC
S2 S7
PROPYLENEOXIDE
ISOBUTYLENE
ISOBUTYLENE S5
S1 DISTILLATIONCOLUMN DISTILLATIONCOLUMN
FEED
FC
FT
T SET
I/P FC
LC
FBCONTROLLER LC
COOLING
TC WATEROUT
TBA
S3 TT S8
REACTOR
FC
INERT
COOLINGWATERIN FC
HEATEXCHANGER
S4 COOLING
WATERIN S6
T TRAP TBA
T CONDENSATE
SYMBOL;
FC TEMPERATURETRANSMITTER
CONTROLVALVE FLOWCONTROLLER TT
CENTRIFUGALPUMP TC TEMPERATURECONTROLLER
DESIGNEDBY;
PC LC NORMARIAHABDULLAH
PRESSURECONTROLLER LEVELCONTROLLER
PC
S14
PURGE
LC
FC
METHANOLRECOVERY S16
METHANOL
+W ATER WASHWATERCOLUMN
S18
TSET
ISOBUTYLENE
TT
FEEDBACKCONTROLL
E R
S8
S15 LC
FC TT
S17
S19 S9
METHANOL FC
HEATEXCHANGER ISOBUTYLENE PC
S10
FT LC
FC
I/P COOLING
FC
WATERO UT S12
TT
MTBEREACTOR
TT
FC DISTILLATIONCOLUMN
COOLINGWATER S11
MTBE
LC
S13
MTBE
FC
T Temperature
T Transducer
TC Temperature controller
F Fluid flowrate
Mw Molecular weight
Design stress
Density
G Mass flowrate
D Optimum diameter
t Thickness
u Velocity
D Outer diameter
PRODUCTION OF 400,000 METRIC TONNES PER YEAR OF MTBE
SUPERVISORS
1. EN. RUSMI BIN ALIAS
2. PN. SH. INTAN BAIZURA SYED A.FUAD DATE: 18 MARCH 2004
CHAPTER 7:
PLANT SAFETY
CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE
CHAPTER 7 PLANT SAFETY
7.1 GENERAL SITE
CONSIDERATIONS 175
7.1.1 Introduction 175
7.1.3 Site Layout 175
7.1.3 Plant Layout 179
7.2 PLANT SAFETY 181
7.2.1 General Overview
Of Safety 181
7.2.8 The Integration Of Safety
Procedure 182
7.2.9 Safety During Start-Up
And Shutdown 183
7.2.10 Emergency Response
Plan (ERP) 185
7.2.11 HAZOP Study 197
7.2.12 HAZOP Report 200
7.2.13 Hazard Analysis 204
CHAPTER: 7
PLANT SAFETY
7.1.1 INTRODUCTION
In determining plant layout designers should consider all the factors that
have been outlined. Plant layout actually is often a compromise between a
numbers of factors, which will discuss later in this chapter. The most
important factors of plant layout as far as safety aspects are concerned are:
A suitable site must be found for a new project and the site and equipment
layout planned. Ancillary building must have the provision and service
needed for plant operation. All of these should lie out in order to give the
most economical flow of materials and personnel around the site.
Considerations have to be take into account especially for the hazardous
processes where the site must be located at a safe distance from other
buildings.
1. Storage for raw materials and products: tank farms and warehouse
2. Maintenance workshop
3. Stores for maintenance and operating supplies
4. Laboratories for process control
5. Fire station and other emergency services
6. Utilities; steam boilers, compressed air, power generation,
refrigeration, and transformer station.
7. Effluent disposal plant
8. Offices for general administration
9. Cafeteria and other amenity buildings, such as medical center
10. Car parks and bicycle sheds
Normally, during roughing out the preliminary site layout, the first and
foremost to be sited and arranged is the process unit, in order to give the
smooth flow of material starting from the raw material until the final product
storage.
While for the controller room also must located at a safer distance
from the hazardous processes but normally it is located adjacent to the
process unit. Layout for plant roads, pipe alleys and drains also must be
taken into consideration in locating the main process units. Each building
for construction, operation and maintenance needs the easy access road,
so that the process can be done smoothly. Site location for utilities building
and process units must give the most economical run of pipes to and from
the process center.
Finally is the storage area to keep the products and raw materials
where these areas should be placed between loading and unloading
facilities and the process units they serve. But for hazardous storage tank
the site should be located at least 70 m from the site boundary. Flammable
storage should be sited in the open air so that minor leaks or thermal out-
breathing can be dissipated by natural ventilation.
(Source: Coulson & Richardson, Vol. 6, 2002)
3
2 6 7
4
8
1 20
1 2
1 1
0 1 1
1
3 8
1
1 9
4 1
5
2
1 1
6
ROAD 1 ROAD
7
How well the plant and equipment specified on the process flow sheet is laid out
may influence the economic construction and efficiency of the process operation units.
There are 7 principal factors that to be considered in a plant layout which include:
c) Operation
Convenience of equipment that needs a frequent attention from the
operator should be located near to the control room.
Sufficient working space and headroom must be provided to allow easy
access to equipment convenience.
d) Maintenance
Heat exchange need to be sited so that the tube bundles can be easily
withdrawn for cleaning and tube replacement.
Equipment that requires dismantling for maintenance, such as
compressor and large pumps should be placed under cover.
e) Safety
At least 2 escape roots for operators must be provided from each level in
process building.
Site boundaries and people living in the local neighborhoods need to be
locating as far as possible from hazardous materials facilities.
The need to prevent confinement where release of flammable
substances may occur.
The need to provide access for emergency services
f) Plant expansion
Equipment should be located so that in the future expansion of the
process it can be conveniently tied in.
Some space should be left to on pipe alley for future needs and service
pipes over sized to allow for future requirements.
g) Modular construction
The modules may include the equipment structural steel, piping and
instrumentation.
Advantages of modular construction
1. Improved quality control
2. Reduced construction cost
3. Less need for skilled labor on site
4. Less need for skilled personnel on overseas site
Disadvantages
1. Higher design cost
2. More structural steel work
3. More flanged connection
4. Possible problems, with assembly on site
Process safety can be applied in any process industry, but the term and the
approaches have been particularly widely used in the process industries, where its
usually means the same as loss prevention. Safety can be defined as; concerned with
adverse reactions to prolonged exposure to dangerous but less intense hazard. Safety
is also good business; the good management practices needed to ensure safe
operation would also ensure efficient operation.
The engineers should aware of hazard associated with the chemical used and
the process conditions and ensure that through the sound engineering practice
application, the risk can be reduced to acceptable levels. When a physician makes an
error, only one victim suffer, but when an engineer makes mistakes an error in design
of a product, many persons may suffer.
For many years, since chemical plant was opened, accident tragedies happened
in chemical industry plant, which have injured thousand of people and many more were
killed due to the leaks of safety considerations and no considerations in the factor of
safety (FOS) and in engineering designed. But fortunately nowadays, almost all
chemical industries have given full attention on considering the safety in their plant,
start from the research, development on new process, construction manufacture and
distribution and lastly are the use of the product.
Anyway, there are few steps that may steps in order to prevent losses in
chemical plant industries design, which included;
Occupational Safety & Health Act (OSHA) 1994 is an organization in Malaysia that
has listed some legal and administrative forced to promote, stimulate the high quality
standards and encourage safety at work place. The aims of OSHA 1994 only can be
achieved by;
It is important during the process and plant operation to study the near-misses
incident because a serious consequence could have occurred but did not.
Process and plant personnel need to identify and mitigate the causes of the
incident and near misses of similar operation that have been previously
constructed. The main objective is to learn from past experience and thereby
avoid repeating the mistake.
By doing a lots of maintenance activities through out the plan, the personnel
become familiar with all of the processes of normal plant operation and the
related equipment in the plant. With this exposure, this will allow maintenance
employees the ability to identify, analyze and correct many unsafe conditions in
the plant and its process units.
Operating facilities need to go through a start up period before normal operations been
reached. The start-up and shutdown of the plant must proceed safely and easily, yet be
flexible enough to be carried out in several ways. The operating limits of the plant must
not exceed and dangerous mixtures must not be formed.
During start-up and normal operating phase of the new facility, procedures should
be in placed to maintain the integrity of process equipment, where hazardous materials
are involved. The probability for a successful start-up is greatly enhances through
operator training and process design that anticipates start-up problems before they
actually occurred. Some errors that could occur during start-up of the plant may include:
1. Wrong routing, involving failure to ensure that correct valves are closed.
2. Setting of wrong valves for operating parameters (e.g.; jacket temperature in the
reactor and reflux in the distillation column).
3. Drain valves are left open resulting in loss of material and possibly endangering
the lives of workers.
4. Valves left closed resulting in over pressure in the vessel.
5. Failure to complete purging cycle before admission of fuel air mixture.
6. Backflow of material because of the flow from high pressure to low-pressure
system.
a) Plugged lines
b) Damage to instrumentation
c) Stress and corrosion of construction materials
d) Poor documentation procedures followed,
e) And other safety hazard may results.
7.2.16 EMERGENCY RESPONSE PLAN (ERP)
Material safety data sheet (MSDS) for each of the component are shown in
APPENDIX G
C) DESCRIPTION OF POTENTIAL EMERGENCIES
The potential emergency, which could occur in MTBE plant, may include fire,
flooding (plumbing failure), explosion, natural gas leak, and boiler plant failure. The
entire potential emergencies need some evacuations procedure either to the workers,
engineers manager or foreman so that any disaster wont happen.
FIRE
a) If see fire or smoke, immediately push/pull the nearest fire alarm station
to warn occupant.
b) Call the Kemaman Fire Department at 9-994, given the location and
description of the fire.
c) If the fire small, then use the fire extinguisher, but do not put yourself at
undue risk while fighting the fire
d) If the alarm sounds, turn off any electrical equipment that been operating
and evacuation the building immediately.
- Close all doors to help preventing the fire from spreading, exit
via stairwells
e) Go to the assigned assembly area and keep away from the building. Do
not enter the building until authorized by the police.
f) Call 994 (HAZMAT) to give location and extent of fire and notify the
management to report the fire.
State if there are any circumstance, such as dangerous
chemical
g) Do not use elevators, when fire occurred, it safe if use the stairways.
2. FLOODING/PLUMBING FAILURE
a) If you smell natural or hear blowing or hissing noise, turn off possible ignition
source.
b) Do not switch on light or any electrical equipment
c) Activate fire alarm if you believe there is a potential damage to building
occupants.
d) Once outside move to a clear area that is at least 500 ft away from the affected
building.
a) Evacuate the area and keep people from entering the area
b) If the heat too great and the building valve cannot be turned off, shut off the
main isolator valves for the area, but under covered by the boiler plant operator.
c) In certain situations, the entire plant system may need to be shut down where it
is made by Boiler operator if there is a catastrophic problem
d) In the event of a potential steam explosion inside the boiler plant immediately hit
the kill switch by the door and leave the facility. Notify supervision.
D) RISK ASSESSMENTS
a) In industrial operations employees, materials and equipment come together in
the work environment to produce product. Productivity is best when the
operation at the facility runs smoothly, thereby allowing time and resources to be
used efficiently and effectively.
b) Risk assessment in safety, health and environmental protection often involves
exposure to potential chemical hazards. The health risk begin with identify of the
chemical and their exposure levels for the various employees activities and
behavior pattern.
MTBE
MTBE may cause minor eye irritation, moderate skin irritant; over-exposure may
produce anesthetic or narcotic effects.
Prolonged over-exposure may cause coughing, shortness of breath, dizziness
and intoxication.
TBA
TBA is extremely flammable liquid. Can cause severe eye irritant, skin irritant,
inhalation and ingestion hazard.
Prolonged over-exposure may also cause coughing, shortness of breath,
dizziness and intoxication.
METHANOL
Methanol also a flammable liquid that may cause skin irritation and also can
cause central nervous system depression.
It may absorb through the skin and also can cause kidney damage
More worse is that it may be fatal or blindness if swallowed it.
Methanol also can cause severe eye irritation and possible injury in spites of
causing respiratory and digestive tract irritation.
ACETONE
Inhalation of acetone vapors irritates the respiratory tract, cause coughing,
dizziness, dullness and headache.
Higher concentration can produce central nervous system depression, narcosis
and unconsciousness.
It also irritating due to default action on skin.
Prolonged or repeated skin contact may produce severe irritation and dermatitis.
PROPYLENE OXIDE
Ingestion of PO can cause gastrointestinal irritation and diarrhea.
PO splashed in eye can cause severe burning, tearing, etc.
It also can cause severe skin irritation and blistering.
Excessive inhalation of vapor can cause nasal and respiratory irritation, central
nervous system such as dizziness, weakness, fatigue and etc.
ISOBUTENE
It can cause irritation, nausea, headache, symptoms of drunkenness, coma, etc.
in short-term exposure.
Major health hazard is central nervous system depression and difficulty to
breath.
(Refer APPENDIX G)
E) ALLOCATE RESPONSIBILITY
On-site Plans
The emergency plan details how the accident is dealt with, the name of the person
responsible for on-site safety and the names of the persons authorized to take action
under the plan
a) Incident Controller
The SMC goes to emergency control centre and takes overall control of the
emergency in the work
All outside emergency services are called in upon declaration of emergency
Key personnel are called in
Emergency response is then coordinated in communication with the emergency
services
The emergency duties end on assertion of the emergency
c) Spokesperson
F) COMMMUNICATIONS
G) EVACUATION
a) Exit the plant as calmly and quickly as possible using the nearest safety exit. DO
NOT USE ELEVATOR
b) Alert all persons in the area. Turn off all ignition sources if possible.
c) Wear personal protective equipment (PPE) such as coals, shoes, and take a
wet towel to place over the face in case of smoke or fire.
d) Proceed to the assembly area outside the plant are and wait for the further
instruction. Stay away from the plant as well far as possible.
e) Evacuation plans should be posted on every floor or every placed in the plant
area either the control room, workshop, or store. The plans are showing the
location and updated by the safety officer.
Do not re-enter the building until and unless the safety officer or fire
personnel have been determined that it is safe.
H) INCIDENT INVESTIGATION
a) Major accident might be defined as one having the potential to kill three or
more people or damage a specific area of the environment or cause property
damage and loss in excess of a particular sum.
b) Most major accident in the process industries will involved a large accidental
release of chemicals or the energy from their reaction, in such a away as to
cause appreciable damage.
c) The major accident may give adverse effect either to humans, or
environment.
Management of risk
A prime consideration and precaution to the location of hazardous
process, materials and product, when a new operating facility, major
plant expansion or significant process modification is being planned.
The management of risk should involve the health and safety of the
employees and community, the protection of the environment and the
protection of the plant property.
The hazard analysis include; maximum release of flammable,
explosive, reactive and toxic materials, interruption of business
activities, and the determination of exposure to employees and
community
I) MEDIA INTEREST
J) NOTIFICATION OF AUTHORITIES
K) NOTIFICATION OF NEIGHBOURS
L) BACKUP RESOURCES
c) Only an expert and experience analysis team that is familiar with HAZOP
analysis should do HAZOP analysis.
d) HAZOP analysis uses guidewords that shown in Table 7.2 and applied in
the HAZOP process parameter as shown in Table 7.3;
The HAZOP report for heat transfer equipment and reactor as shown in Table 7.4
and Table 7.5
Figure 7.2, shows the operability of vaporizer while Table 7.5 shows the HAZOP report
of the vaporizer operation.
PC
CRV2
Vapor reactor
LA2
LC1
LA1
Steam LC
2
CRV3
NRV CRV1
Trap
TBA Feed
An operability study will identify potential hazards, but gives no guidance on the
likelihood on an incident occurring or loss suffer.
Incident usually occurred through the coincident failure of two or more items;
failure of equipment, control system and instrumentation and miss-operation.
Failure of level
control
Flooding of
vaporizer
Failure of high-level AND
S / D system
liquid TBA
to reactor
Figure 7.3: Simple Fault Chart
REFERENCES
Green W. Don & Perry Robert H. Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook. Seventh
Edition Kansas. McGraw Hill, 1997.
Charles A.Wentz, Safety, Health, And Environmental Protection, McGraw Hill, 1998
R.K Sinnott. Coulson & Richardson, Chemical Engineering Design. Vol.6. Butterworth
Heinemann 1999.
www.yahoo.com
www.google.com
www.altavista.com
SUPERVISORS
1. EN. RUSMI BIN ALIAS
2. PN. SH. INTAN BAIZURA SYED A.FUAD DATE: 18 MARCH 2004
CHAPTER 8:
ECONOMIC EVALUATION
CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE
CHAPTER 8 ECONOMIC EVALUATION
8.8 INTRODUCTION 206
8.9 The specification of plant 206
TITLE PAGE
8.10 Revenue from sales 207
8.11 Cost Estimation 207
8.11.1 Capital Cost Estimation 207
8.11.2 Manufacturing Cost Estimation 209
8.11.3 Cost of Operating Labor (COL) 210
8.11.4 Cost of Utilities (CUT) 211
8.11.5 Cost of Raw Material (CRM) 212
8.12 Profitability Analysis 213
8.12.1 Before Tax and After Tax
Cash Flow 214
8.12.2 Present Worth and IRR Method 215
8.12.3 Cumulative Cash Flow After Tax 216
8.13 PAYBACK PERIOD 217
8.13.1 Simple Payback Period 217
8.13.2 Discounted Payback Period 217
8.14 CONCLUSION 217
CHAPTER 8
ECONOMIC EVALUATION
8.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, the costing of equipment which has been designed will be estimated
and the feasibility of MTBE production will be evaluated by profitability analysis to make
sure the project is economically attractive. There are some general assumptions to this
chapter;
i. The plant life span is fifteen years.
ii. The currency exchange rate of US dollar to Ringgit Malaysia is fixed at
3.8 as fixed by Malaysian Government.
iii. The price of raw materials, catalyst and product is fixed for the whole
period of operation.
Grass Root Cost, CGR = CTM + 0.35 ( CBM) (Reference: Appendix H5)(8.3)
= 6162265 + 0.35 (4351027)
= 7685124 x 3.8
= RM 29203471
When,
CWC = 15% of fixed capital cost (CFC) (8.5)
(Coulson & Richardson,1999)
So,
CGR = 1.15 CFC
CGR
i. CFC = (Coulson & Richardson,1999) (8.6)
1.15
29203471
=
1.15
= RM 25394323
(8.7)
The cost of manufacturing (COM) can be determined when the following costs are
known or can be estimated:
1. Fixed Capital Investment (FCI): (CTM or CGR)
2. Cost of Operating Labor (COL)
3. Cost of Utilities (CUT)
4. Cost of Waste Treatment (CWT)
5. Cost of Raw Material (CRM)
Since, a single operators works on the average 49 weeks (3 weeks time off for vacation
and sick leave) a year, five 8-hour shifts a week.
49 week 5 shift
1 operator =
Year week
245 shift
=
Year
300 days 3 operating shift
Operating shift per Year =
Year days
900 operating shift
=
Year
900 operating shift
Year
So, the number operator needed =
245 shift
Year
= 3.7 operators
Thus,
Operating Labor = 3.7operators x 5.15 operator per shift
= 19.1 operator
= 20 operator
A mechanical engineers maximum wages per year (MIDA Jan, 2003) RM 54,000.00
Thus,
Labor Cost (2003) = 20 x RM 54,000.00
= RM 1,080,000.00
Since, assuming the plants operating days per year = 300 days
So,
Stream factor (SF) = no. of days plant operates per year
no. of days per year
300
=
365
= 0.82
1. Heater (E-100)
Duty = 0.8 10 6 KJ hr = 0.8 GJ hr
Thus,
Yearly cost = (Q) (C steam) (t)
GJ 19.3 hr day
= 0.8 RM 24 300 0.82
hr GJ day yr
= RM 91157.77
2. Pump
Power (shaft) = 2.34x105kJ/h = 65 kW
Effeciency of drives, dr = 91.3% (Reference: Appendix H6)
Power output
Electric Power, Pr =
dr
65
=
0.913
= 71.19kW
0.06 hr day
Yearly cost = 71.19kW 24 300 0.82 (Reference: Appendix G7)
kWh day yr
= RM 25218.35
3. Compressor
Power (shaft) = 1.8x107kJ/h = 5000kW
Effeciency of drives, dr = 96% (Reference: Appendix H6 & H7)
Power output
Electric Power, Pr =
dr
5000
=
0.96
= 5208.33 kW
0.06 hr day
Yearly cost = 5208.33kW 24 300 0.82
kWh day yr
= RM 1, 844, 998.82
Total of utilities costs = RM (91157.76 + 25218.35 + 1, 844, 998.82)
= RM 1, 961, 374.93/yr
COM = RM 883260746/yr
In theory, the Minimum Attractive Rate of Return (MARR) is choosen higher than the
rate expected from the bank or some safe investment that involved minimal
investment risk. The MARR for after taxes is selected at 15%. (Analysis and Design
of Chemical Processes)
Table 8.4: Annual IRR After Tax
Year CFAT 30% PW 40% PW
0 -25394323 -25394323 -25394323
-3809148 -3809148 -3809148
-24,281,136 -24,281,136 -24,281,136
14350726.0
1 18655962.51 0.76923 4 0.71129 13269799.57
19640246.4 11621526.6
2 7 0.59172 4 0.5102 10020453.75
18964757.4 0.3644
3 8 0.45517 8632188.66 3 6911326.567
18482265.3 6471195.56
4 4 0.35013 3 0.26031 4811118.49
18138730.9 4885304.40
5 4 0.26933 3 0.18593 3372534.243
18137765.9
6 5 0.20718 3757782.35 0.13281 2408876.696
18138730.9 2890769.54
7 4 0.15937 9 0.09486 1720640.017
17707382.9 2170748.07
8 7 0.12259 8 0.06776 1199852.27
17276999.9
9 8 0.0943 1629221.098 0.0484 836206.799
17276999.9 1253273.57
10 8 0.07254 9 0.03457 597265.8893
17276999.9 964056.598
11 8 0.0558 9 0.02469 426569.1295
17276999.9 741528.839
12 8 0.04292 1 0.01764 304766.2796
17276999.9 570486.539
13 8 0.03302 3 0.0126 217690.1997
17276999.9 438835.799
14 8 0.0254 5 0.009 155492.9998
17276999.9 337592.579
15 8 0.01954 6 0.00643 111091.1099
567739.942
15 29055268.27 0.01954 1 0.00643 186825.375
7798369.25 -6934097.616
8
After interpolation it is found that the value of IRR is equal to 34.65% and therefore,
since it is bigger than the value of MARR (15%) this project is acceptable
8.5.3 Cumulative Cash Flow After Tax
450,000,000
400,000,000
350,000,000
300,000,000
Cumulative Cash Flow
250,000,000
200,000,000
150,000,000
100,000,000
50,000,000
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
-50,000,000
-100,000,000
Year
From Table 8.6 it is found that the simple payback period is in the second year.
From Table 8.7 it is found that the discounted payback period is in the third year of
operation.
8.7 Conclusion
Based on this chapter, the economic evaluation plant are made through
study in all aspect including feasibility study, process synthesis and flow sheeting
and designed of major equipment. From the cash flow analysis, the payback period
is about 3 years. By looking to the IRR value (34.65%) which is bigger than the
MARR therefore it can be concluded that this project is profitable and acceptable.
Furthermore, it should be stated that the present work is primarily illustrated based
on the method of engineering economic analysis of chemical processes.
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 9:
PROCESS INTEGRATION
CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE
CHAPTER 9 PROCESS INTEGRATION
9.1 INTRODUCTION 218
9.2 PINCH TECHNOLOGY 219
PROCESS INTEGRATION
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Pinch technology was introduced by Linnhoff and Vredeveld to represent a new set
of thermodynamics based methods to minimized energy level in design of heat
exchanger networks. Process integration can lead to a substantial reduction in
energy requirements and increase the efficiency of a plant. One of the generally
useful techniques is pinch technology. The term derives from the fact that in a plot of
the system temperature versus the heat transferred, a pinch occurs at the minimum
temperature difference between the hot and cold stream, refer to Figure 9.1. It has
been shown that the pinch represents a distinct thermodynamic break in the system.
Temperature, oC
Hot Cold
Stream Stream
Pinch Tmin
Enthalpy, kW
Figure 9.1: Hot and cold stream composite curves (not according to the value in this
case)
In this problem, the hot stream, stream 11-12 which requires cooling and cold
stream, stream 3, 4 has to be heated. Each starts at from a source temperature Ts,
and is to be treated to a target temperature Tt. The heat capacity of each stream is
shown as CP where given by:
CP = mCp (9.1)
Where m = mass flow rate, kg/s
Cp = average specific heat capacity between Ts and Tt, kW kg-1 oC-1
The heat load is the total heat required to be exchange as the objective is to reduce
the power consumption.
The actual stream temperatures Tact need to be converted into stream interval
temperatures, Tint. The use of interval temperatures rather than the actual
temperatures allows the minimum temperature difference to be taken into account.
T min
Hot stream Tint = Tact - (9.2)
2
= 400 10/2
= 395 oC
T min
Cold stream Tint = Tact + (9.3)
2
= 55 + 10/2
= 60C
The bracketed temperature indicates the duplicated temperature. All Tint are ranked
in order of magnitude and carry out a heat balance for the streams falling within
each temperature interval.
Rank
Interval( T ) CP - CP
c h H = ( CPc CPh)(T )
o
C kW/oC kW
395
325 70 -106.55 -7458.5
287 38 0 0
60 227 -76.5 -17263.35
Cascading the heat from one interval to the next implies that the temperature
difference is such that the heat can be transferred between the hot and cold
streams. The pinch occurs where the heat flow in the cascade is zero. This is
because the rule of heat integration says that for minimum utility requirements no
heat flows across the pinch. The supply of external heat only occurs above the
pinch, and external cooling only below the pinch.
Interval temperature
0 kW
395 oC 0 kW
-7458.5
o
325 C 7458.5 kW
0
o
287 C 7458.5 kW
-17263.35
24721.85 kW
60C
From the Figure 9.2 above, the pinch occurs at interval temperature = 395C
For the case which CPhot CPcold, the heat transfer can only occurs below the pinch.
Stream 3-4 will received the full load amount of heat required to bring up the
temperature to the Tt.
Hex = CP (Tt Ts ) (9.5)
= 30.5 (282 - 55)
= 6923.5 kW
400C 330 oC
11-12
A
535 kW
282 oC 55oC
A 3-4
6923.5 kW
The network shown in Figure 9.3 was designed to give the maximum heat recovery
and minimum energy consumption, hence increase the efficiency. Before process
integration, the process requires 7458.5 kW for cooling and 6923.5 kW for heating,
which will total up to 14382 kW. However, after heat exchanger was designed, the
process only requires 535 kW for cooling.
REFERENCES
H - Change in enthalpy kW
WASTE TREATMENT
CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE
CHAPTER 10 WASTE TREATMENT
10.6 INTRODUCTION 223
10.7 DESCRIPTION AND PROCESS
SYNTHESIS 224
10.2.3 Air Treatment 224
10.2.4 Water Treatment 225
10.8 LAYOUT OF WASTE WATER
TREATMENT 227
10.9 MECHANICAL DESIGN WASTE
TREATMENT 228
10.10 CONCLUSION 229
CHAPTER 10
WASTE TREATMENT
10.11 INTRODUCTION
Generally, MTBE plant produces waste into air and water during operation.
This waste will be treating before discharge to the environment. The
purpose to treat this waste is to make sure that component have not been
hazardous to the animal, plants and human health. The entire waste
component must be treated to fulfill the requirement of Environmental
Quality Act (1974) before discharge to the environment
In aspect air pollution, air discharge from MTBE plant contains the
Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) such as Acetone. These materials are
been hazardous in high concentration in the air.
Generally, the waste that released into air in our MTBE plant is Volatile
Organics Component (VOC). There is acetone that produces in the first
distillation column. The concentration of acetone must be compare with the
Air Quality, Industrial Emission Standards for Organic Substances (1995)
which the limitation value is 2400 mg / m3. (Please refer to APPENDIX J-1)
This waste is flammable gases and has been low of flash point.
Based on this characteristic, direct combustion with flare is using to dispose
this waste with high temperature to make sure the complete combustion
occurred.
Table 10.2: The Flash Point and the lower flammable limit (LFL) and
upper flammable limit (UFL).
Properties Acetone
Acetone passed through at the stack flare and burned with high
temperature 10900C to make sure these waste burned in complete
combustion. This combustion will produce CO2 and dust into air. The
concentration of CO2 must be compare with level of emissions
Environmental Quality (Clean Air) Regulation 1978.
10.2.6 Water Treatment
In our MTBE plant, we discharged three types of waste water. There are
Methanol, Dimethyl and Propylene Oxide. This component must be treated
before discharge into river because it will be toxicity in human health, skin
and eyes irritation. For the long term, this component can reduce the
productive of animals and plant. The waste water treatment divided into
three parts. There are primary water treatment, secondary water treatment
and sludge water treatment.
Primary Treatment
In this treatment, the waste water passed through the settling tank to
remove oil and grease from waste water by disperses process and
sedimentation will occur by reducing the velocity of flowrate. Aeration tank
are using to keep the waste in suspension. In suspension, the waste having
a higher specific gravity then the liquid tend to settle while the lower specific
gravity will tend to rise. The precipitation component will pass through the
sludge digester.
Secondary Treatment
The sludge will discharge into sludge digester and remain passing
through the secondary settling using Granular medium filtration. Here, the
flocs settles out in this clarifying tank and pass through the digester tank.
Sludge Treatment
Generally, raw sludge that produces is untreated non-stabilized sludge and
it tends to acidify digestion and produce odor. Hence, we need sludge
digester to eliminate nuisances and reduce health related threat. Aerobic
digestion are apply with no external food supplied into tank because the
bacteria can metabolic their own protoplasm and oxidation the sludge be
stable and not harmful.
Oxygen required.
a. Methanol
c. Propylene oxide
Generally, the value of total oxygen related with Biological oxygen demand
(BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD). This total oxygen demand is
high and must be reduced before discharged into river. Based on the
Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulation 1979
the BOD discharge must below 50 mg / l and COD 100 mg / l in standard B.
(Please refer to APPENDIX J-3)
Grit camber
Generally, Grid chamber as a function to remove inorganic likes sand in
the waste water. In this treatment, grid chamber provided to remove the oil
and grease in the settling tank.
Aeration Tank
Oxygen will supply from the air into aeration tank and consumed by the
microorganism. The process biological occurs when the microorganism
oxidize the organics material to be a stable compound. This process will
provide a higher degree of treatment.
Pump
The waste water from the aeration tank will pass through to the secondary
settling tank by the centrifugal pump. This pump is needed to raise and
distribute the waste water to settling tank.
Stack flame is the equipment to disposed gases that produce in the plant.
The combustion of gases will occurred at the top of stack with continuous
flare at high temperature so that the gases will burn in complete
combustion to prevent any hazardous gases released.
The stack design must be high and designed plus 2.5 with higher
structure in the plant. The purpose is to make sure the plume to upward
level. In our MTBE plant the higher structure is 33.5 meter (Distillation
Column). Based on the EPA guidelines, the flare designed has the
operating temperature between 1370 K and 1920 K (1090 0C and 1650 0C).
(Please refer to APPENDIX J-5)
h = (33.5 + 2.5) m
= 36 m.
10.15 CONCLUSION
In our MTBE plant the waste water treatment discharge must be followed
the standard B in Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents)
Regulation 1979 which the value of BOD not exceed 50 mg/L and COD 100
mg / L. The waste water will continuously treat until achieved this
requirement.
Besides that, certain product such as TBA and isobutylene are not
disposed but reuse again to the plant operation because these components
are raw material to produce MTBE. This directly reduce cost production of
MTBE and pollution into environmental.
Environmental Quality Act 1974 ( Act 127). 1999. Laws of Malaysia. Kuala
Lumpur . International Law Book services
Hammer. 2004. Water and Waste Technology . Fifth Edition. New Jersey.
Pearson Education
LIST OF NOMENCLATURES
BOD biochemical oxygen demand
h height of stack
H effective height
LFL lower flammable limit
UFL upper flammable limit
VOC Volatile Organics Component