(a)

Index of P & I Second semester course at Tarbela

Page.

Chapter 1 Basic distance protection theory, types etc. 1.

1.1) Introduction. 1.
1.2) Distance relay. 1.
1.3) Balance beam relay. 3.
1.4) Directional distance relay. 6.
1.5) Reactance model. 14.
1.6) Resistance relay. 16.
1.7) Angle impedance relay. 18.
1.8) Mho characteristic. 19.
1.9) Offset mho. 20.
Chapter 2 Distance relay L 3 w y s 24.

2.1) Introduction. 24
2.2) Basic operation. 24.
2.3) Measuring unit (MU). 28.
2.4) Pta . 34.
2.5) Dummy impedance M. 34.
2.6) Zone settings in L 3 w y s relay. 35.
2.7) Timer. 38.
2.8) Tripping contactors FD and PD. 39.
2.9) Contactors Ptrw and Ptaw. 39.
2.10) Channeling of tripping order. 40.
2.11) Wa Switch. 41.
2.12) PtrH. 41.
2.13) Signaling. 41.
2.14) Relay specifications. 42.
2.15) Settings calculations. 43.
2.15.1) Method 1. 43.
2.15.2) Method 2. 47.
2.16) Under reach and over each. 48
2.16.1) Causes of under reach and remedies.
2.16.2) Causes of over each and remedies.
Chapter 3 Distance relay LZ 31 50.

3.1) Introduction/ main features. 50.

3.2) Settings calculations. 50.

Chapter 4 Quadra mho relay. 56.

4.1) Introduction (Main features). 56.

4.2) Setting calculations. 56.

 (b)

Chapter 5 PYTS Relay. 62.

5.1) Introduction (main features) 62.

5.2) Setting calculations. 62.

5.3) Additional settings on PYTS. 65.

Chapter 6 Micro mho relay 67.

6.1) Introduction (Main features). 67.

6.2) Setting calculations.

Chapter 7. L 8 b. 73.

7.1) Introduction (main features). 73.

7.2) Setting calculations. 74.
7.3) Additional settings on the relay.
7.3.1) K0 settings. 80.
7.3.2) Angle settings. 81.
7.3.3) Zone 2 time settings. 81.
7.3.4) Under voltage settings. 81.
7.4) Testing. 81.

Chapter 8 Distance relay features and schemes. 82.

8.1) Introduction. 82.

8.2) SOTF feature. 82.
8.3) V- Fail feature. 85.
8.4) Aspect ratio. 89.
8.5) Compounding chokes. 91.
8.6) Distance relay schemes.
8.6.1) Basic scheme. 96.
8.6.2) Zone 1 extension scheme. 96.
8.6.3) Permissive under reach scheme,
(PUR/ PUTT). 101.

8.6.4) Permissive over reach scheme,

(POR/ POTT). 108.

8.6.5) Additional features of POR/ POTT,

i) Echo feature. 115.
ii) Tp and Td. 116.
8.6.6) Blocking scheme. 119.
 (c)

Chapter 9 Distance relay SIPROTEC 7 SA 6 127

9.1) Introduction (main features). 127.

9.2) Setting calculations. 131
. 9.2.1) Quadrilateral characteristics 132
9.2.2) Impedance/ circle
Characteristics 138
9.3) Power swing detection 144
9.4) Distance relay schemes 144
9.4.1) Direct under reach
Transfer trip 144
9.4.2) Directional comparison
Pick up 144
9.4.3 Pilot wire protection 145
 CHAPTER 1

BASIC DISTANCE RELAY THEORY AND TYPES

1.1) INTRODUCTION

Power system protection is basically composed of three main parts:-

1) Sensor
2) Decision maker
3) Action.

This section will deal with a type of decision maker called distance relay. But one must first clarify as
to what a decision maker does in power system protection.

Actually, it is a device that can distinguish between a normal condition, and an abnormal condition,
in a power system- and subsequent to that- take appropriate action.

In protection system such a device is called a relay- it is analogous to brain in a human body.

There are several types of such relays depending on input signals. Such signals are e g current from a
current transformer or voltage from a potential transformer or even both (at the same time) giving other
electrical quantities.

(These have already been dealt in another section).

Anyway, this section deals with a very important relay, called distance relay.

But before going further- I repeat- one must bear in mind that a relay is the actual brain in the overall
protection system and it is the one element that protects power system from abnormal conditions i.e.
faults.

Also, it must be kept in mind that relays can never predict as to when, how or where a fault will occur
or the nature of fault. Actually, it reacts only when a fault has occurred. Obviously, in laymans words, it
cannot predict the future.

1.2) DISTANCE RELAY

As is clear from its name-distance relay- it is a relay that measures distance in power system. A
question arises, as to what kind of distance, or for that matter whose distance and then, how does a relay
measures a physical parameter in electrical.

So, first, we deal with the question as to what kind of distance and whose. The answer to both is that,
normally the distance of a transmission line. (But later on we will see that it can be used for other
equipments also).

Second question is how?

1
 In this regard, manufacturers have solved us a big problem by giving the impedance of a conductor
used in transmission line in ohms/mile or ohms/km. Thus, with this data in mind we are automatically
shifting from a physical parameter to that of an electrical i.e. ohms.

But again how do you measure ohms?

The answer is simple- use an ohmmeter!

We now proceed to see how an ohmmeter works in a very crude form or simplified form.

It is well known that without a dry cell an ohmmeter cannot measure ohms. Or in other words you
require a voltage source (which is DC in these case usually 3 volts).

Next, when leads of the ohmmeter are connected to a resistor, the cell pushes a current in that resistor.
By manipulating the two- i.e. the voltage of cell and current flowing the ohmmeter measures resistance.

I am not going into any further details of how it happens but just understand this basic idea of
requirement of voltage and flow of current, in an ohmmeter.

If I say that the ohmmeter is using the ratio of voltage and current to measure ohms (ohms law) than for
the sake of understanding I am quite on target.

Surely, I dont intend to put an ohmmeter across a transmission line. It simply is absurd to think of.

Than how do we get to measure the resistance of a transmission line?

It is clear that we require a voltage source and a flow of current to measure ohms. In power system
protection we will take voltage from potential transformer and current from current transformer.

The example of ohmmeter is to give importance to voltage and current but there the similarity ends
between an ohmmeter and a distance relay..why?

1) Ohmmeter measures resistance where as distance relay being fed by AC quantities- measures mostly
impedance (for beginners only).
2) Very basic distance relay will take the shape of V / I.
But we have a problem here.
What if current from Ct goes to zero i.e. under no load condition. Here
Z= V/0
Or Z=
Surely, the distance of a transmission line cannot be infinity.
But a distance relay, does read it as infinity.

Next, when I is infinity (under extreme short circuit, than

Z= 0

Whatever the case be in the above two, the impedance of a transmission line as seen by distance
relay varies between two limits i.e. 0 and infinity.

2
 Next we see as to what happens in a transmission line during a fault in a solidly grounded system?

Before going into this question we Very briefly consider the type of faults in a solidly grounded
system.

There are two types of faults

1) Series faults i.e. open circuit faults

2) Shunt faults i.e. short circuit faults

And most dangerous of the two for transmission system are shunt faults where currents reach to
exceedingly high values. At the same time voltages will drop to minimum and as low as 0.

Point is. If we summarize our answer and take the combined effect of both current and voltage and
then, we see what happens to Z- (which is equal to V/I). It is quite obvious that under normal condition of
load the relay will be seeing an impedance depending on the PT voltage we are getting and on the CT
current flowing.

During a shunt fault where V drops and I increases -you can imagine the extent of increase in I by the
fact that our max load maybe 3000A on a 500KV line and its breakers in our system are for 50KA-, so Z
takes a dip from a very high value to a very low one.

By analyzing the above statement it is clear that certain minimum impedance seen by the distance
relay will be the criteria of its operation. Obviously, it is quite opposite to over current relay where we declare
a condition to be of fault condition when current exceeds a certain set limit.

Thus all distance relay will always be a minimum impedance relay.

How this minimum impedance is to be measured, and what will be the boundary that declares an
impedance to be minimum?

1.3) BALANCE BEAM TYPE

You people must have seen a tarazoo in bazaars. A balance beam works just like that. On the
weights side of this beam we apply a magnetic force through a coil which is energized by potential from a PT
and on the items side we apply a magnetic force by a coil that carries CT current.

Actually this is a very crude form to make you understand.

Voltage coil pull Current coil pull

Thus, as per above figure, clockwise rotation of the beam will be for operation. In a distance relay
current will be the primary actuating force for operation.

But on the other hand voltage will be the restraining force as it tries to oppose the operation of relay.

Whatever the case be, for distance relay we require both PT and CT and, each has its own function.

3
 Going back to the balance beam, we will now see as to what happens at balance point i.e. when the
beam is horizontal.

The torque applied by voltage coil will be equal to the torque applied by current coil.

So,

T (V) = T (I) (1)

But T (V) V^2

And T (I) I^2

So when constant of proportionality is placed than both these equation will change to,

T(V) = K1 V^2 (2)

And T(I) = K2 I^2 (3)

Using (2) and (3) in (1). So

K1 V^2 = K2 I^2

V^2/ I^2 = K2/K1

(V/I)^2 = K2/K1

But we can write this equation as,

(Z)^2 = K2/K1

Or ((R^2+X^2)^1/2)^2 = K2/K1

Hence R^2 + X ^2 = K2/K1

If we slightly modify this equation we can write it as,

(R-0)^2+ (X-0)^2= { (K2/K1) }

When this equation is observed closely, we see that it is an equation of a circle with center at (0, 0) and the
radius equal to (K2/K1). Also, it is very clear that the left hand side started from Z.

4
 Thus the figure will be,

So, we have a circle with radius equal to (K2/K1)1/2 and as we have seen- this will be equal to
impedance.

As a final analyses we will say that we have a circle with center at (0,0) and radius will be impedance.

Such type of relay will be called as a plain impedance relay.

Very important to note that, we have a circle and it defines a boundary.

Now, then what happens during, not before, not after but during a fault?

It is clear that when a fault occurs, V will drop and I will increase (for the moment ignore angle).The
combined effect of both will be reduction in impedance. Thus it is clear that whenever a short circuit occurs
impedance will drop from a higher value to a low value and ideally to zero. Our impedance relay will thus be
an under impedance type and will operate when the impedance drops to value within the circle i.e. the
operating region will be within the circle and outside will be non operating region. (This is inverse of over
current relay).

Also, it should to be noted that the operating region of plain impedance is irrespective of the angle of
approach. The angle of approach can be anything. The only condition is that impedance crosses the boundary
into the circle.

As this kind of relay is independent of angle of approach so it is clear that it will be a non directional
relay.

It is to be seen that on an R X diagram we will encounter a negative R - not practically possible. But
when you take into the fact that we are playing with V and I- forming Z, then there is always a possibility
that angles may be such that negative R is obtained.

5
To sum it- a plain impedance relay will be non directional and it will operate for any value of Z- regardless of
angle of approach.

Next, we take a step forward in distance relay. That is how to make it directional.

1.4) DIRECTIONAL DISTANCE RELAY

To make a distance relay directional, we will have to introduce a directional element.

Result will be to make the relay see impedance for certain angles and not to see other angles.

The forward direction will be for angles in the first quadrant. In other words relay will consider those
impedances that fall in first quadrant as forward and will trip for those only. Whereas, it will not operate for
all others.

To sum it- since forward is the first quadrant- we will shift the impedance circle to this quadrant. But
it must be remembered that the condition of the relay being a minimum impedance relay stands.

Now, how to shift this circle?

This section will deal with this how.

Consider a permanent magnet with a current carrying conductor.

N S

We know from our basic knowledge that every current carrying conductor has a magnetic
field around it. The intensity of this magnetic field is dependant on the magnitude of current flowing
through it. When this current carrying conductor is placed in another magnetic field, the interaction of
the two magnetic fields will result in a force being exerted on this conductor. The magnitude of this
force will depend on the magnitude of current flowing through it, the length of the current path (i.e.
length of the conductor) and essentially the strength of the other magnetic field where the conductor
is placed.

This force will try to rotate the conductor and so we will in real words be dealing with a
torque.

The formula is,

=BIL sin

Where,

B= Flux density of the permanent magnet.

I=magnitude of current

6
L=length of conductor inside magnetic field.

It may also be noted that the angle , at which the conductor and the permanent magnet are placed
with respect to each other, is very important and it plays a major role in determining the force exerted on the
conductor. The force thus exerted (torque) will be maximum when this angle is 90 degrees.

Next, we replace the permanent magnet with an electromagnet and the figure above will have to be
modified as under.

I1 Electro- Magnet

I2

And as per the above figure the equation of torque will be,

=kI1I2 sin

In this equation we see that B for the permanent is replaced by magnetic field of an electro magnet
represented by second current. And k is the constant of proportionality.

It must be remembered that the source behind all currents are voltages so the above equation can be
modified to

=kV1V2 sin

Similarly we can write the same equation for one current and one voltage.

=k I V sin

We can use any of the above three equations. But it must be remembered that maximum will occur when
angle is 90.

It is now clear that maximum will be achieved when angle between the two currents, or two voltages,
or between a current and a voltage is 90.

Now, supposing we want to achieve a maximum at an angle other than 900. For this purpose we will
have to introduce a phase shift in one of the currents. It will be done by introducing an inductor in the path of
one of the currents -let us say- I 1. The figure will further be modified to

7
 I1 I2
I1//

0
I1/
I1-I2=90
I1

Torque will not be maximum for =90 0 rather will be maximum for some other angle. The equation
modifies to

=kI1 I2 sin or

=kI1 I2 sin ( + )_________________ (1)

And for max

+ has to be 900

or + = 900

To move forward we introduce another concept.

Whenever + =900 then the angle will no longer be called rather it will be called . That means for
maximum torque will be used.

So, we will write as

+ = 900 (for maximum torque)

Or = 90

Using this value in equation (1)

=kI1 I2 sin ( + 90 )

= k I1 I2 cos ( )________________(2)

In this equation

is any angle and

is the angle at which maximum torque occurs.

The angle set on relays will be . This will be the angle at which the relay will give maximum torque
or in other words maximum reach of the relay will be at this angle. Whereas, will be the angle of approach
of any fault. Whenever is not equal to , it will mean that the fault is not approaching relay characteristic at
maximum torque angle and so in such cases the reach of relay will be affected.

Summarizing, we will say that at angles other then RCA the reach of the relay will be less (It will be
clarified as we continue).

8
 In all respects equation 2 is a very important equation and it can also be written as

max = k V I cos ( - )___________(3) or

max = k V1 V2 cos ( - )_________(4)

This will be the operating torque.

Next, we move to another level.

We have already stated that in a distance relay there will be an operating torque and a restraining
torque.

Case nos. 1

In the first case we suppose that restraining is provided by a spring. This means that the restraining
force will always be constant.

Let

r = k___________________(5)

At balance point the restraining torque is equal to the operating torque. Or

r= o

I.e. equation 3 is equal to 5. But as both have constant k factor, so for the sake of distinguishing both
let the former will be k 1 and the later be k 2.

k 2 = k 1 V I cos ( )

Simplifying this equation

I = k 2 / k 1 V cos ( ) next dividing voltage by this equation.

V/I = V/ k 2 / (k 1 V cos ( ))

This will result in an impedance relay characteristic. Or

Z= V/ k 2 / (k 1 V cos ( ))

Z = V 2 k 1 / k 2 x cos ( )

Let voltage be constant and than replacing all the three constants with a single one k.

So we can write as.

Z = k cos ( )_______________(6)

Let us see what happens if you set k to a value- for example 20. And we set a relay characteristic
angle = 00.

So for = 00

Z = 20 cos (0 -0) = 20 * 1= 20

9
 For q= 30 0

Z = 20 cos (30 -0) = 20 * 0.866= 17.33

For q= 45 0

Z = 20 cos (45 0) = 20 * 0.707= 14.14

For q= 60

Z = 20 cos (60-0) = 20 * 0.5= 10

For q= 75 0

Z= 20 cos (75-0) = 20 * 0.258= 5.17

For q= 90 0

Z = 20 cos (90-0) = 20 * 0=0

Note that, when the fault angle q is e ual to the maximum tor ue angle , then the tor ue is
maximum.

Here it happens at 0 angle i.e. when is 0 tor ue is maximum.

The diameter will be at 00.

In addition to elaborating the above mentioned point these calculations also show that e uation (6)
represents a circle whose maximum i.e. diameter will be at the characteristic angle. It is also seen that the
circle is lying such that the circumference passes through the origin.

10
Now if we change the characteristic angle to 30 0 the diameter of the circle will shift to 30 and so maximum
tor ue will now be at 30 0 and not 0.

Similarly when is taken as 45 0 the maximum tor ue will occur at 450 and so the circle diameter will
shift to this angle, thereby, rotating the circle upwards.

From the above it will be concluded that will be the angle of maximum tor ue and in future the line
will be represented as OM. This is called as relay characteristic angle RCA.

Also, we conclude that with the help of the tor ue e uation, we will get a circle whose center will be
on line OM, and circumference will always pass through the origin i.e. the circle is shifted to first uadrant,
and so the relay will automatically become directional. This means that the relay will be operating for some
angles and not operating or silent for other angles.

In our entire example above we did not consider any restraining effect. Now let us suppose that there
is some restraining and it is provided by a spring. Such that,

G o = K 1 VI cos (q- )

And G r = K 2 (spring restraining force is constant)

At balance point

G o= G r

K 1 V I cos (q- ) = K 2

I = K 2 / {K 1 V cos (q- )}

Dividing V by I -given by the above e uation.

V / I = V / K 2 / {K 1 V cos (q- )}

Where we know that left hand side is e ual to impedance

So,

Z = K1 V2 cos (q- ) / K2

11
Where K 1 / K 2 are both constants and if we suppose for the sake of simplifying it further that V is also
constant then all three can be replaced by a single constant. Therefore, the above e uation simplifies to,

Z = K cos (q- )

Further

Z / K = cos (q- ). E . (a)

But we know that cosine of any angle is e ual to base divided by hypotenuse.

Further impedance Z will be the impedance at any angle q.

l
q

Suppose, we have a relay with an RCA of - then in the figure, we see that -when angles are taken in
conventional manner from X-axis- the angle between the two lines will be -q. But when we take the line of
maximum torque OM as reference and take the angle then the angle will be ( -q)

Or

Angle will be q- .

Keeping this in mind we move further.

This means that if a right triangle is drawn between the lines OM and ON then OM will act as base
and ON will act as hypotenuse Z.

We also know, that when Z is resolved into its components ( R and X ), R will thus be on OM.

In other words, e uation a can be written as

Z/K=R/Z

Or

Z 2= K R

[{R 2 + X 2} ] 2 = K R

R 2+ X 2= K R

12
 Or

R 2 K R + X 2= 0 E (b)

This e uation can be compared to the e uation a 2 + b 2 2 a b = (a b ) 2

Hence, a = R, and 2ab= K R

Therefore,

b= K R / 2 a where a = R

So,

b=KR/2R

b=K/2

E uation b can be modified as

R 2 K R + (K / R)2 ( K / R )2 + X2 = 0

i.e. adding and subtracting (K / R)2

or (R- K/R)2 +(X-0)2 = (K/R)2

This e uation is that of a circle which has its center at K/R on the maximum tor ue line ( it must be
noted that we are no longer using x-axis). The radius of the circle is also K/R. Hence the circle will be passing
through the origin.

Thus we see that with the help of the above mathematical model we will have a circle that is in the
first uadrant only.

It means whichever relay uses the above mathematical model, it will be inherently directional. But it
must be remembered that the circle will be drawn at the maximum torque line and the angle of the maximum
torque line will be RCA i.e. .

And the e uation G = K1 V I cos (q- ) provides the directional sensitivity.

1.5) REACTANCE MODEL

In the previous example we have seen that operating tor ue is provided by the cosine
e uation while the restraining is provided by spring.

In this section we will consider the case when the operating tor ue is provided by an over current
element and the restraining tor ue is provided by the directional element (directional element studied above).

It will thus be called as an over current operated directional restraint element. Mathematically,

G o = K 1 I2

G r = K2 V I cos (q- )

Here in the reactance model the directional element is kept at 90 0 and we will rewrite the above
e uation as

13
 G r = K2 V I cos (q-90)

G r = K2 V I sin (q)

It must be kept in mind that the directional restraint needs both V and I while the operating needs
only I. So both PT and CT are re uired in the directional restraint.

At balance point.

G o= G r

K 1 I2 = K2 V I sin (q)

V/I = K1 / (K2 sin q)

(V /I ) sin q= K1 / K2

We know that V/I = Z and sine q= Perpendicular / Hypotenuse or sin q= X /Z

So the above e uation simplifies to,

Z X/ Z = K1 / K2

X = K1 / K 2

This means that since the right hand side leads to a constant value so we can see that the graph
obtained will be a straight line parallel to the X axis but at a distance of K1 / K2 from it.

As the LHS is e ual to X so we will call the above e uation as the characteristic e uation of a
reactance relay.

Now let us see, as to what the characteristic e uation tells us.

1) The relay will operate for all those values when X is less than a preset value- regardless of
whether the value is to the left of Y axis or right of it.

14
 This means that a reactance relay is operating for all angles, provided the preset limit is crossed. And
any relay that operates for all angles is a non-directional relay. So reactance relay is inherently non-
directional.

To make it directional we will have to use a separate directional element. I.e. an additional unit will
be re uired.

This is a major drawback.

Another drawback is that at low power factor- when the angle between load current and voltages is
too high- the circuit resistance is more prominent and X is very low. Than under such a condition the relay
may operate, as this X value may fall within the preset value.

Such a condition may also arise due to Ct and Pt errors or some calculation errors.

To make the relay stable for such a condition we will have to add a mho unit, which makes the relay
stable and gives directional sense to it as well.

When this arrangement is carried out reactance unit is ideal for short lines and arcing faults will not
affect its performance (See serial nos. 2).

Summarizing, the characteristic and so operation of the relay depends on the reactance of the system
and so arcing faults or high resistance faults will not affect its performance.

A power swing results in change fre uency of the system and since X is 2 f so it is bound to be
affected, especially when the line is very long X will be very large and so there is every likelihood of
power swing causing uncalled for tripping.

1.6) RESISTANCE RELAY

So far we have seen what happens when operating tor ue is provided by the cosine e uation while
the restraining is provided by spring and when the operating tor ue is provided by an over current element
and the restraining tor ue is provided by the directional element (directional element studied above). It will
thus be called as an over current operated directional restraint element. The difference being that for
resistance characteristic cosine e uation is implemented rather than the sine e uation. So,

G o = K 1 I2

G r = K2 V I cos (q- )

Now in the resistance model the directional element is kept at 00 and we will rewrite the above
e uation as

G r = K2 V I cos (q- 0)

G r = K2 V I cos (q)

It must be kept in mind that the directional restraint needs both V and I, while the operating needs
only I. So both PT and CT are re uired in the directional restraint.

At balance point.

G o= G r

15
 K 1 I2 = K2 V I cos (q)

V/I = K1 / (K2 cos q)

(V /I ) sin q= K1 / K2

We know that V/I = Z and cosine q= base / Hypotenuse or cos q= R /Z

So the above e uation simplifies to,

Z R/ Z = K1 / K2

R = K1 / K 2

This means that since the right hand side leads to a constant value so we can see that the graph
obtained will be a straight line parallel to Y axis but at a distance of K1 / K2 from it.

As the LHS is e ual to R so we will call the above e uation as the characteristic e uation of a
resistance relay.

This is the characteristic e uation of a resistance relay and the following figure illustrates it.

1.7) ANGLE IMPEDANCE RELAY

It is similar to the former two i.e. a directional restraint over current relay but in this case
angle is kept between 00 and 900.

0< < 90

G o = K 1 I2

G r = K 2 V I cos (q- )

At balance point,

G0 = G r

16
 K 1 I2 = K 2 V I cos (q- )

{V / I} cos (q- ) = K 1 / K 2

Z cos (q- ) = K 1 / K 2

This e uation results in the following

figure.

At angle l

1.8) MHO CHARACTERISTIC

This characteristic is very important as majority of relays were made by using this
concept.

In this relay restraining is provided by voltage drawn from Pt and operational tor ue is provided by
the directional element.

Gr= K 2 V 2 and Go= K1 V I cos (q- )

At balance point both become e ual, so,

K 2 V 2 = K1 V I cos (q- )

V / I cos (q- ) = K1 / K2

Or Z / cos (q- ) = K1 / K2

Z = K1 / K2 cos (q- )

This e uation can also be written as

Y= K2 /{ K 1 {cos(q- )}}

This is the characteristic e uation of a mho relay.

17
 Applying the e uation of the impedance in this diagram, we will see that

Z= K1 / K2 * X/ Z

Or Z 2 = K1 / K 2 * X

R 2 + X 2 = K1 / K2 * X

R 2 + X 2 - K1 / K2 * X= 0

R 2 + X 2 - K1 / K2 * X + (K1 / 2K 2)2 - (K1 / 2K 2)2 = 0

R 2 + X 2 - K1 / K2 * X + (K1 / 2K 2)2 = (K1 / 2K 2)2

This e uation can be further modified into the following

(R -0)2 + (X - K1 / 2K 2)2 = (K1 / 2K 2)2

This is an e uation of a circle with center at (0, K1 / 2K 2) and radius e ual to K1 / 2K2.

Now if we draw its diagram on an R-X plane we will see that the diameter will be on the line OM i.e.
the center of the circle will lie on OM and the circle will cross origin. This will thus be a circle in the first
uadrant with some minor portions crossing into 2nd and 3rd.

This is the characteristic of a mho circle.

Mho unit has the following characteristics.

1) The mho unit is an inherently directional device. This means that only one mho unit
with one contact will perform both the functions of measurement and directional
sensitivity. Thereby, we can say that the circuits are simple and the operation of relay
is faster as compared with the other devices.

2) The operational characteristic of mho unit i.e. (the size of the circle) is smallest of all
relays and so it is least affected by power swings or power surges. This means that a
simple mho unit is ideal for the protection of long lines or heavy loaded lines.

18
 3) In arcing faults

Rarc = 8750 x L/ I 1.4

L = Spacing between conductors.

I = Fault current.

In mho relays arcing faults or high resistance ground faults badly affect the operation
of mho unit, because the resistance of the arc or ground will affect the magnitude of
impedance seen and will also affect the angle q. Therefore, a simple mho unit is not
fit for the protection of small lines or lightly loaded lines or medium or for high
resistance ground faults.

It may be noted that in the 1980s this problem was overcome to a large extent by
using cross polarized mho relays or OFFSET mho relays for the fore-mentioned lines.
(These terms will be clarified as we finish with second chapter).

1.9) OFFSET MHO

It is a simple mho unit but the mho unit is offset by current biasing. I.e. adding or subtracting a
voltage proportional to the current of the circuit in the voltage coil circuits. Current will be drawn from Ct
and the drop will be subtracted from the Pt circuit.

Usually a voltage I Z= I (j b) is added in the voltage coil circuit i.e. current flown through a reactance.

G0 = K 1 I (V+IZ) cos (q- )

G r = K 2 (V+I Z 1)2 voltage restraint.

At balance point.

K 1 I (V+IZ) cos (q- ) = K 2 (V+I Z 1)2 simplifying by canceling common factor.

K 1 I cos (q- ) = K 2 (V+I Z 1)

K 1 I cos (q- ) = K 2 I (V/I + Z 1) again canceling the common factor I

K 1 cos (q- ) = K 2 (V/I + Z 1) modifying by replacing V /I by Z i.e. the impedance of the line to be
protected.

K 1 cos (q- ) = K 2 (Z + Z 1)

K 1 /K2 cos (q- ) = (Z + Z 1)

This is the characteristic e uation of an offset mho relay.

We will further modify it as,

K 1 /K2 cos (q- ) = R + j X + j b this last j b for the modified

K 1 /K2 cos (q- ) = R + j (X + b) But cos (q- ) = X / Z

Z = K 1 /K2 * X / Z

19
Z 2 = K 1 /K2 * X

R2+ X2 = K 1 /K2 * X

R2+ X2 - K 1 /K2 * X = 0

R2+ X2 - K 1 /K2 * X + (K1/ 2K2)2 - (K1/ 2K2)2=0

R2+ X2 - K 1 /K2 * X + (K1/ 2K2)2 = (K1/ 2K2)2

(R- 0)2 + (X- K1/ 2K2)2 = (K1/ 2K2)2

(R- 0)2 + (X + b- K1/ 2K2)2 = (K1/ 2K2)2

(R- 0)2 +{X (K1/ 2K2 -b)} 2 = (K1/ 2K2)2

This is also an equation of a circle with center at (0, K1/ 2K2 b) on the line OM and radius K1/ 2K2.

It clearly means that the circumference of the circle will now not be passing through the origin but
above it.

The inherent property of this relay is that when there will be arcing the circle will be pulled below.

All types of relays so far studied will be used as follows, preferably under the following conditions.

1) Impedance relays for medium lines.

2) Reactance relays for high resistance ground faults, and also for short lines and ground faults.
Reactance relays have a very large characteristic and are greatly affected by power swings.
Since this unit is non directional, so a directional unit has to be incorporated. Also it has the
tendency to operate at unity power factor even at full load.

3) Mho unit has the smallest characteristic area. Therefore, it is least affected by power swings.
Thus we will be using a simple mho unit for the protection of long lines. Moreover, arc

20
 resistance or high resistance ground faults affect the measured Impedance and its angle .
This means that it is most severely affected in ground faults or arcing faults. Due to the
presence of these two quantities mho unit is not suitable for short or medium transmission
lines. But it must be kept in mind that as far as the basic theory is concerned the above
statement applies. Later we will see that the problem is solved to a large extent by using fully
cross polarized or partially cross polarized relays. Still, for short lines mho units are not
advisable.

4) Impedance unit- is a non directional relay- its characteristic is a large circle- and requires a
directional element too- so it is slow.

5) Offset mho- is usually used in zone 3 to provide protection as back up to bus bar faults. Its
setting is mostly adopted as 25 % of zone 1.

21
 CHAPTER 2

DISTANCE RELAY L 3wys

2.1) INTRODUCTION

Distance relay L 3wys was made by BBC i.e. Brown Boveri Company in the 60s. In this
chapter we will not only be discussing this relay in particular, but- as we move along- we will be clarifying
terms that are used in other distance relays as well.

This relay is a fully switched, fully cross polarized and four zones relay. The inherent time of
this relay is 3 cycles. Of course when we talk of cycles then we mean that- as our frequency is 50 Hz, the
time period of one cycle is 20 m sec, so, when we say that the relay is 3 cycles- it obviously means that the
relay is 60 m sec inherently, (No intentional time delay has been included or in other words the relay parts
take this much least time to operate).

This relay can be used for over head lines (not cables) and for medium and high voltage lines.

The main purpose of any protection device is to provide speed, selectivity, sensitivity,
discrimination and reliability. The purpose of using any distance relay is to provide all these especially
directional sensitivity.

This relay is particularly efficient in solidly grounded systems.

It can be used with an auto recloser to provide single phase, three phase auto reclosing or
both depending on the scheme selected.

2.2) BASIC OPERATION

Distance relay L 3 w y s has basic sensors that sense faults. It may be noted that normally in
protection system we say that Cts and Pts are the basic sensors. But the difference is that these two are
meant to measure or sense or in other words pick up the information of currents and voltages only and then
pass them on to relays for decision.

The sensors in distance relays are different- they sense faults.

It means that the sensors in a distance relay when sense a fault, they will give the fault information to
other units inside the distance relay, and then these units will decide upon tripping. In other words we can
say that a distance relay like L 3 w y s, is actuated with the help of sensors, as and when a fault occurs. But
essentially- sensors too, have to act on the information provided by Cts and Pts.

Once these sensors, actuate a distance relay, i.e. once they have decided that a fault has occurred,
rest of the relay will than operate on the basis of information provided by sensors.

To sum up, these sensors are declared as the basic fault sensing elements.

In practice and especially in older distance relays these were called as starters.

We know that when a short circuit fault occurs;

22
 The voltages collapse; Currents increase; and during the fault (very important to note that during the fault
not before and not after) frequency takes a dip while angle rises to (ideally) the line angle.

But, Ct and Pt basically give us I and V and we then use their combination to good effect.

Thus on the basis of power system properties during faults- starters are of three types.

1) Under voltage starters.

2) Over current starters and

3) Under impedance starters V/I (combination used).

In our system over current starters are not used, because it may happen that the minimum fault
current may be less then the maximum load current. For example, Tarbela power house peak capacity
is 3750 MW (2012) whereas in winter the generation may come down to as low as 200 MW. So
consider the load current at peak generation and then the fault current at 200 MW.

Starters are also called as phase selection logic PSL in some modern relays or General fault
criteria GFC in other relays.

In L 3 w y s relays, under impedance starters are used.

The characteristic of starters in this relay is plain impedance and to achieve this characteristic,
we will be using a rotating disc type relay- (what starters does further will be clarified as we go on).

Also we have a three phase system and faults can occur on any of the three phases or phase to
phase or even three phase. To cover all probabilities three starters will be used in all relays, i.e. one
on each phase.

In plain impedance we require Pt voltage in the restraining circuit and Ct current as operating.
But for one phase, say, red phase we can have several voltages from phase to neutral to phase to
phase. So, the question arises as to which voltage for red phase and which for yellow and likewise for
blue.

Similarly, we have to identify the currents for each of the starter so as to achieve

V /I = Z.

The starters in L 3 w y s relays are called as ZA relays. And these relays will be working on
the following voltages and currents.

Red phase starter ZAR= VRT / IR

Yellow phase starter ZA s = VSR / IS

Blue phase starter ZA T = VTS /IT

It may be noted that the voltages are selected in cyclic order R S T R

Thus for R phase it is RT and so on.

After understanding the above we move on to consider the voltage and the current circuits of these
starters.

23
Voltage circuit first.

We have already stated that voltage from Pt will be acting as restraining force in a plain
impedance relay. But what ever voltage is used for a particular starter it is to an AC cycle with
frequency of 50 Hz. We also know that in any AC cycle of voltage- voltages will be passing through
zero. This means that we have a problem that when voltages are passing the zero point restraining is
finished- And may result in initiation of relay.

To solve problem of zero crossing, we will be using the concept of split phasing. The idea is
the same as we use in fans. The restraining circuit will be composed of two windings one will be
supplied directly from Pt and the other will be supplied from an RC circuit causing a 900 phase
displacement. Both windings provide restraining in such a way that the arrangement will cause a
rotating magnetic force on the disc opposite to that of the current (in fact it is not a disc it is a
cylinder). This force will be used as opposing to that of current and so restraining will be provided.

There will also be a spring attached to the cylinder to bring it back to its original position
after operation or- after operating current has gone. It means that the spring will also be providing
some restraining.

Supposing voltages disappears due to fuse blowing or MCB opening. Under such a condition
the relay still requires a certain minimum current for operation so as to over come the restraining
force exerted by this spring. Even if there is no spring, a certain minimum current is required to over-
come the frictional force of the moving elements for operation of the relay. Just like an over current
relay, where if spring is removed we still require a certain minimum current to rotate the disc.

In fact all relays- whether electro mechanical or digital- require certain minimum current for
operation. This will be referred to as the minimum operating current of the relays. In L 3 w y s relays
it is 0.5 * I n. In our lab I n is 5 A so it means that minimum Ct secondary current should be 2.5 A for
operation. If the fault current (secondary) is less then this- than there will be no operation. Even if
fault current is less than this value, there will be no operation.

In L 3 w y s relays, all three starters will initially be receiving phase to phase voltages but
whenever a phase to ground fault occurs these voltages will be shifted to phase to neutral. Such that,

ZAR= VRN / IR

ZA s = VSN / IS

ZAT = VTN /IT

This shifting of voltages from phase to phase to phase to neutral is very important and will be
done by an earth fault over current relay in the neutral of the CT star secondary. Whenever an earth
fault occurs, the path of Ct secondary current will be through that phase or phases and into Ct neutral,
where this earth fault relay will be present. This O/C E/F relay in L 3 w y s is called as RLV and as
with other over current relays it will have a certain plug setting. The plug setting is adjustable.

Point to be noted is that we will be having switching before the operation of starter. This
particular reason plus some more points (that will appear in later parts of this chapter) make the relay
a switched relay. We will also see that there will be other distance relays that are non-switched or
partially switched.

24
 But of course one must realize that a relay that carries out tripping without carrying out
switching i.e. a non switched one will be inherently faster than the switched one.

Whatever the case be, in switched or partially switched relays it is pertinent to note that
initially i.e. before the occurrence of fault the starters will always be in phase to phase condition.

Now, supposing a phase to phase fault occurs e.g. R-S.

The starters equations reveal that

ZAR= V RT / I R

Z AS = VSR / I S

Z AT = VTS / I T

Here we see that IR and I s will increase to a high value, while I T remains low. As for
voltages VSR drops to a very low level but there is partial collapse of V RT and V TS. This is because the former
are both faulty phases whereas the later are part faulty phase part healthy phase. So in the later two voltages
collapse is partial. In such a situation yellow phase starter is sure to operate but the red phase and blue may or
may not operate. Confusion is created but we cannot do anything as it is the inherent characteristic of the
relay. Such a problem may arise in almost all relays but it, must not be construed as a protection fault. This
problem is more profound when fault currents are low or we say that the fault level is low. But this is just the
behavior of relay and we have to compromise.

So far we have seen the Pt circuit. Next we will see how the Ct circuit is built.

As we know that Ct circuits secondary are always in star with a neutral (which is connected
to ground). We have also said that there will be an over current earth fault relay in the Ct circuit.

Moving further, in L 3 w y s relay Ct circuit will be applying the operating force on the rotating
cylinder of the starters. Here, red phase current is used for red phase starter and yellow of yellow and like
wise blue.

Similar to the zero crossing of Pt circuit, we have the same problem in current. It must be
kept in mind that the splitting of phases not only helps in avoiding zero crossing but also helps in developing
a rotating torque.

In the voltage circuit we used split phase technique to establish a restraining rotating torque
on the starter cylinders as we also need a rotating magnetic field in the current circuit. In the current circuit or
Ct circuits we cannot use elements like C- rather we will be using pole shading technique to have a split
flux from the same current.

Settings on RLV relay is such that it is made of two current coils that can be interconnected
either in series or in parallel. Such an arrangement helps in changing the maximum range of RLV,

2.5 to 5 A with In =5 A

And 0.5 to 1.0 A with In=! A.

This setting can be read off directly from RLV by observing the position of the links. Also, it
has a continuous plug setting scale.

25
 To make RLV a fast operating contact it is essential that it should have one or two light
weight contacts (just like those ZA relays). But, as we require a number of functions from it, two auxiliary
contactors named PE and PEC are used.

Note:- We know that -Starters are under impedance relays working on the principle of plain
impedance. I.e. they will have a set boundary defined by a certain Z (calculated as per settings of the relay)
below which starters will operate and being plain impedance the angle of fault will not affect measurements.
We can also call starters as minimum impedance relays and the boundary of Z will be set on front of the
starters with a sliding arrangement. The impedance range of starters- for 110 volts Pt supply-is as under

1 to 7 ohms/phase for In = 5 A relays

5 to 35 ohms/phase for In = 1 A relays.

These ranges will be doubled for relays using 220V 0r 200V Pt supplies.

So far it has been as to the details of operation of the starter.

Now the question arises as to what the starter does. This is more complex.

As we have said that starters are the basic fault sensing elements within the distance relay L 3 w y s.
However they are not the instruments that decide upon tripping of relay. Actually, these starters cannot
provide discrimination, selectivity and directional sensitivity. These are very important requirements.

These are achieved with the help of a unit called as the measuring unit (which in-fact is the actual
brain within the distance relay). The function of the starter is to give information to this MU. It means that
when starters sense a fault they will pass on the information about the nature of fault and the affected
voltages and currents to the MU. Nature of fault means whether it is phase to phase or single phase. These
starters will be feeding the MU with the relevant voltages and currents of the fault.

Note this is just one function of starter.

Also, to make the starter a light and quick moving unit it just has only one or two contacts. Since it
has to perform several functions including feeding info to MU so, we will be using auxiliary contactors for
starters, thereby increasing the capacity of the starters. These contactors are called as PA contactors, and are
named as PA R, PA S, PA T. These PA contactors have mechanical signaling arrangement so that the affected
phases are clearly indicated.

2.3) MEASURING UNIT (MU)

It has been stated that starters or the minimum impedance relays ZA will act as the basic fault
sensing units and their function will be to feed the relevant information of the affected phases, their voltages
from Pt, and their currents from Cts to another unit called the measuring unit. It will be the MU which will
decide whether to trip or not to trip. This mean the decision for discrimination, selectivity and so directional
measurement lies with MU and not with the starter. It is the MU which will give final tripping order and it is
its operation that is essential for all faults except in zone 4 (we will clarify as we move on).

MU of L 3 w y s relay uses mho characteristics, thereby giving magnitude comparison as well as

directional decision in one go. There is only one MU in L 3 w y s and it will be responsible for final decision
of tripping on all types of faults. Actually one is used for cost and space requirements.

26
 It means that the info given to it will change according to fault nature and as provided by starters.
Point that is being made here is that this action of giving info of different voltages and currents to the MU
will require switching.

From this statement another aspect of relays is clarified, that if we use multiple MUs i.e. MU for
each type of fault than we can eliminate starters altogether and for such relays the MUs will be fed directly
from the relevant Cts and Pts. That means no switching. Such relays are called as non switched relays and
off course they will be expensive but a lot faster as we are eliminating the time taken by switching before info
gets to the MU.

Such an example is micro mho relay which is regarded as a half cycle relay. Similarly, there will be
relays that are switched for some faults and non-switched for others. These will be called as partially
switched relays.

Coming back to the MU of L 3 w y s relay, the torque equation that MU follows for
operation is

= V ref .V difference. sine (as designed by BBC)

(29)

We define each of the above quantities.

= Operating torque of MU

V ref = Reference voltage.

V difference= V M V f

And sine is the sine of angle between the above two quantities.

But what are these quantities.

First lets see V ref

For any one to give directions a person has to give it with respect to a reference and keeping in view
from this reference a person will be able to specify the relevant direction. So, to specify direction, reference is
important.

In distance relays or in any other directional relays we will always be requiring a certain reference,
we call it directional sensitivity, otherwise relays will not be able to specify or pinpoint direction. Therefore,
reference is very important for any distance relay and so also in L 3 w y s. But a question arises as to from
where will we get this reference or what kind of reference.

Surely, in distance relays we have only two electrical quantities i.e. Ct secondary current or Pts
secondary voltage.

If we use current as reference- there are several problems associated with it.

1) Currents are drawn from Cts, which in fact are picking load/ fault currents. But both are not
stable. In peak loads the currents are very high and under low loads they are low and further
under no load conditions we have zero currents- so sensitivity is lost.

27
 2) We have said that there is only one MU for all types of faults and the information of phases
involved is to be given by starters.

It must also be clear that there is angle displacement between phases (1200 displacement
between phases).

Then surely one can understand that we cannot be using a single reference for all types of
faults rather reference will change according to the nature of fault and hence according to the
phases involved. That means switching and that in turn means when current is used as reference,
switching in Ct circuits. And this has to be avoided at all costs, lest Ct gets open.

3) To accommodate Ct currents we will be using heavy contacts. It will make the relay costlier and
more importantly it will be heavy and slow.

For the fore mentioned reasons we will not be using currents as reference. We will be using Pt voltages.
In doing so all of the problems stated above will be solved.

But again a question arises as to which Pt for which fault.

This will be elaborated with a vector diagram. In this vector diagram all of the quantities mentioned
in the above formula will be clear and we will see as to what actually happens in L 3 w y s in
particular and in other relays too.

After drawing the Pt voltages in delta we have shown the load currents at a minor angle for all three
phases, lagging behind the voltages by a certain power factor angle. In all faults the angle between the
voltages of the affected phase will rise to a value near the line angle. So the affect will be transmitted to the
MU also and reflected in the vector diagram. Plus -two more things will happen.

One- the magnitude of the fault current will increase many times and

28
 Two -the fault phase voltage will collapse. This has been elaborated in the figure.

First we analyze the currents to the MU.

In phase to phase fault, currents will complete their loop within the two affected Cts. It is
common knowledge that the two currents will be 180 0 to each other and if these currents are combined to
flow in a coil, the effect will be zero. This, results in the fact that take only one current. But that would mean
we would not be using the other current to any effect and so we will be wasting it. This is not effective
engineering, to waste resources that nature has provided. So, what is done that the second current is also used.
The following discussion will clarify.

In an R and S fault, R and S currents are affected, in magnitude as well as angle.. What the manufacturer does
is that he takes R at maximum angle with the R voltage and then takes S current at180 0 to the R current.

Some will say that they will take S current at line angle to the S voltage and after that take R
current opposite to it.

What L 3 w y s does is that it gives preference to the red current i.e. the former case.

Very important to note that these currents are not taken directly from the Ct secondary rather
relays use auxiliary Cts to further step down the Ct current. So it means that whatever manipulating we are
to do is to be done in the secondary of the auxiliary Cts.

There will be an auxiliary Ct for each phase and they will perform three functions.

1) Galvanic isolation from the system.

2) Reduction in the Ct currents thereby facilitating and simplifying changeover actions

in the current circuits, as now currents are reduced to much lower level and most
importantly main Ct secondary is never opened.

3) Allowing of compensation in case of phase to ground fault (will be clarified in next

few paragraphs).

After this point of use of auxiliary Cts is clear, we go back to the previous paragraph about
handling of the currents.

The secondary of these aux Cts will always be lying in delta form. When a phase to phase
fault occurs the secondary of that auxiliary Ct whose phase is not involved in the fault will be shorted to give
path to the other currents. The arrangement is such that it results in the addition of red phase current of the
auxiliary Ct and that of S phase. Previously we had

I R I S

But with help of the above stated arrangement we will be getting

I R (-I S)

And so I R +I S is obtained.

Since both are equal we get twice the value of one current. In L 3 w y s has priority for R phase in an
R S fault so

29
 2I R

It must be noted that the above resulted from the very first arrangement that we took I R as the starting
point and than took I S at 180 0. Next we then reversed I S to get twice the current. But we can do vice versa i.e.
we start from I S and reverse I R to get twice of I S . In L 3 w y s, rather in most relays it will be the former case.

This currents thus obtained, will be passed through an impedance named M. This M will be
an exact replica of 80-85 % of the first section. It will be called as replica impedance M.

It will have an R component and an X component. When the above current passes through
this replica impedance we will get a drop 2 I R x R M and 2I R X M. The resultant of the two gives 2 I R Z
M .This is the V M voltage mentioned in the torque equation on page 27.

V M is used for determination of the difference voltage.

When this point is under stood we can easily understand the difference voltage

V Difference = V M V f

It will be obtained by simple head to tail rule of vector addition. It will be this voltage that
actively takes part in the determination of the operating torque.

Also, and very important to note, is that both the faulty phase voltage and the fault currents of
the affected phases been accounted for.

Next we see as to what is reference in the same equation of operating torque. And, we do
need this reference for directional sensitivity as stated earlier.

In the torque equation sine of angle between the two voltages is taken. So to achieve
maximum torque -sine should be maximum, or, the angle will have to be 90 0. It is clear from the figure that
the resultant i.e. V difference is making a 90 0 angle with TS so this voltage (V TS) will be taken as reference.

We see that L 3 w y s will be treating an R S fault as an R fault.

Two things to be noted here

1) Since the fore mentioned fault is being treated as an R fault. It results in such a reference
that does not include the faulty phase. Such relays are called as fully cross polarized
relays i.e. such relays which do not include the faulty phase in reference are called as
fully cross polarized relays.

There are relays that are self polarized and relays that are partially cross polarized.

Self polarized have the disadvantage that

i) They are phase to neutral (63.5 V) and so they automatically form a low torque as
compared to phase to phase (110 V).

ii) They collapse more and on a very close up fault they may disappear completely. If this
happens than the polarizing properties and hence directional sensitivity will be lost.

For obvious reasons we will be using phase to phase voltages for reference either fully cross
polarized or partially cross polarized.

30
 Here, in L 3 w y s we use fully cross polarized voltages as reference

2) An important factor that comes into play, especially in arcing faults, is the presence of
arc resistance. It is given by

R arc = 8750 x L/ I 1.4 where I is the fault current and L is the

spacing between conductors or conductor to ground.

If arc occurs then as our relays are under impedance relays, this arc resistance adds up to
the impedance seen by the relay. The result is inaccurate measurement by MU.

The arc current will cause a voltage drop to be included in the torque equation and
will add up to R M. If we do not use fully cross polarized in L 3 w y s relay this drop will
automatically contribute to the operating torque.

Importantly, the fault current varies as per system condition etc, so this arc drop
is not constant- and so at the same location of fault we will not get the same torque for
different conditions. Thereby- affecting the distance measurement of the relay.

It means that the formation of arc and its voltage drop will lead to great
inaccuracies in the relay measurements, and so this problem needs to be resolved.

The resistive drop of the replica makes an angle of 90 0 with T S. This means that
the contribution of the resistive component in the torque equation goes to zero, as sine of
0 is 0.

When an arcing fault occurs the drop caused by the arc resistance adds directly to
the resistive component of the replica. Since, the contribution of the resistive component
is already zero, so any addition or subtraction to this resistive component automatically
results in zero torque too. Thus, when T S is selected as reference for R phase arcing
faults, the operating torque remains unaffected by any arc resistance.

In other words any contribution by arc resistance in the torque equation is

nullified.

But if we have high resistive ground faults- where X is very low- then the
performance of relay may be affected. Similarly, with lines having high value of resistive
component in impedance than again the performance of the relay will not be so good.

It may be noted that other relays will be using other techniques to get rid of the arc effect and
so resolving the above mentioned problems.

Till this point of chapter it is hoped that matters regarding polarization and switching are
clarified.

Next, we move on to how directional sensitivity is achieved with the above arrangement.

From the vector diagram it is clear that

i) V M > V f i.e. the torque equation is positive or

ii) V M < V f i.e. the torque equation is negative.

31
Thus the cylinder of MU will either rotate clockwise or anti-clockwise.

As such, one direction is for operation and the other direction is for non operation. This is
how- by having positive or negative torques- directional sensitivity is achieved.

In relay terminology we say that one direction will be blocking and the other will be tripping.

But whatever the case be there is arrangement in the relay that when MU goes to blocking
there should be no bouncing of its contacts. And like wise for tripping.

For this purpose damping is provided by PB to avoid contact bouncing.

After dealing with phase to phase faults we will now see what happens in phase to ground
faults and for the sake of comparison we will consider R G fault.

It is obvious that the reference remains the same i.e. T S being a fully cross polarized relay.
The vector diagram more or less is the same. Two differences however have to be accounted for.

First is that the fault voltage will be V RN and second the current is not 2 I R rather single IR.

First the effect of fault voltage is that V difference will shift causing a shift in V M . Thus the
angle between V M and reference will not be ideally 90 0 rather will be less. To have an angle as close
to 90 as possible RLV will shift the reference by 5 0 with the operation of PE and PEC, so that angle
between the two quantities in the torque equation get as much close to 90 as possible. This helps in
maintaining an accurate reading by the MU and angle adjustment is achieved.

There is another problem with phase to ground faults that the currents become single, and the
problem does not end there.

We know that the conductors have impedance magnitudes from 0.4 ohms to 0.65 ohms per
mile or kilometer. In Pakistan, the earth resistance is taken as 2.5 ohms per Km (on average).

Thus when a fault occurs at the exact same location, than in phase to phase the loop
impedance is less while in phase to ground it is more. It is thus clear that such a situation will directly
affect the magnitude of current. So on one hand we have single current and at the same time even this
single current is less as compared to phase to phase faults.

Another factor that comes into play is that ground faults are of a more resistive nature; the arc
is more; and so angles of the currents will be less than those in phase to phase condition but- as
already stated in the previous paragraph- compensation of angle due to ground resistance will be
resolved by tilting of reference. The torque contribution due to arc is already solved by selection of
proper reference.

The problem of less current in phase to ground faults still exists.

What L 3 w y s manufacturers have done is that they use three auxiliary Cts in the neutral of
secondary of the main Cts. These three are in series and the secondary of these auxiliary Ctss step
up neutral current and add it to the phase current by shifting the delta of the aux Cts secondary to
star. The adjustment is such that this arrangement compensates for the current getting that was

i) single

ii) And was the less in magnitude due to higher value of loop resistance.

32
 Thus such a value of operating torque is achieved that it remains unaffected for phase to
ground or phase to phase or arcing faults etc at the same location.

This compensation of current is called as Earth fault compensation factor K0.

In L 3 w y s three auxiliary Cts have been used but other relays may have only one.
Point is, earth fault compensation will always have to be incorporated. It will be set by using
the impedances of the transmission lines. It is given by the following formula.

K 0 = [1/3{(Z0 /Z + ) 1}]

By knowing the zero and positive sequence impedances of the transmission lines we
will be able to calculate K 0. It will be set on the front of the three auxiliary Cts.

Up to this point phase to phase and phase to ground faults are cleared.

Next we see what happens in a three phase fault condition.

The three phase fault is treated as an R T fault. It must be remembered that all three PAs will
pick up. But under the three phase fault condition MU is by-passed by a contactor P t a .

2.4) Pta

This contactor is a standby contactor for three phase short circuit faults and has a contact in
parallel with MU and so it bypasses MU when all three PAs respond e.g. in the following
conditions:-

i) For a very close up three phase faults when all the reference collapses and MU is un-
decided.

ii) Or when the difference voltage goes to zero at the end of the protected line and so no
torque can be developed.

33
2.5) DUMMY IMPEDANCE M

It is the replica impedance through which auxiliary Ct current flows to form V M . In L 3 w y s only
the angle of the impedance of the transmission line to be protected is set here. It is very important that only
the first section i.e. from the Relay location to the next bus bar is taken and that too only 80 to 85 %. (Why?).
We will answer this in zone settings in the topic of V transformer.

The settings are in form of cos ranging from 0.1 to 0.85.

2.6) ZONES SETTING IN L 3 W Y S RELAY

Any distance relay is a unique protection equipment in the sense that it is highly
discriminative, reliable, sensitive, fast and good in selection. In fact all the requirements of a fine protective
device- or to be more precise- a fine decision making equipment are fulfilled by a distance relay to a great
extent.

To use it for a single section is a waste of technology when it can provide back up not only to
its own operation in the first section but also back up for other sections as well.

Whatever the case may be- protection of first section of the transmission line is its primary
responsibility. For other sections it will act as back up. For this reason distance relays have a feature called
zones of protection. Such as zone 1, zone 2, zone 3 and zone 4 etc. Some relays are 3 zones some 4 zones
while there are some that are only single zone. It will always be the responsibility of the relay to cover first
section of the transmission line in zone 1.

So, zone 1 has to be always instantaneous. As we know that the other zones will act as back
up, therefore there will be some intentional time delay. The idea of time delay is such as to provide enough
time to the relay protecting the next section to clear the fault, but if for some reason it fails to do, then the
relay of the preceding section will operate and in doing so a larger section will be switched off.

Normally in Pakistan zone 2 is taken as 350 milli seconds , zone 3 as 750 milli seconds and
zone 4( if available) as 900 m sec. And obviously zone 2 is larger than zone 1 and zone 3 is then larger than
zone 2 and so on. Thus as we go up in zones very large sections are protected.

We do not object to the number of zones but the main thing is how they are implemented i.e.
how they are implemented in a switched relay and how do we get zones in a non switched relay.

The operation of a switched relay (and here we will consider L 3 w y s relay) is very simple.

This relay has been designed in such a manner that at the end of the first section to be
protected i.e. zone 1, V difference becomes 0 i.e. here V M = V f. If a fault occurs farther than this point -i.e.
further then zone 1 or in other words in zone 2- a negative torque will be created by MU, because V M V f
will be negative or in other words we will have V M < V f If by some means we can

increase V M or reduce V f to a predetermined value then the difference will again go positive and the relay
will move from blocking to operation.

First we see as to what happens when we try increasing V M.

We know that this V M is the voltage drop caused by Ct current (fault current) when it flows in the
replica impedance Z M . I.e. it is developed by I f * Z M. But, we have already stated that Z M will be fixed
according to zone 1 and it cannot be changed after that. So, we can leave out Z M .

34
 Also, I f is also not in our control.

Thus the result is that we cannot change V M to a predetermined value.

This leaves out V f . Changing V f is possible. What we will be doing is that we will set a
predetermined limit and the action will be such that we will not feed V f directly to the measuring unit to have
a difference voltage with V M , rather we will be using a tap changing transformer in the Pt circuit. The input
to this tap changing transformer will be the faulty phase voltage V f .

But which phase or phase to phase voltage will be applied to the input?

It will depend on the nature of fault and thus it will be the job of starter ZA through PA to apply that
voltage to the input. (This is another reason that we call it a switched relay- and starter is doing the switching).
While the out put will be several taps just like an auto transformer. These taps of the tap changing transformer
are selected according to a pre determined limit of V f.

The transformer itself is called as the V transformer in L 3 w y s or HG transformer etc in other relays.

The action will be such that a predetermined tap is set for zone 1, zone 2, and zone 3. Initially it will
be such that the transformer taps will be lying on the zone 1 tap (it will be calculated and this calculation will
be according to setting formula).

When a negative torque is developed, that means the limit of zone 1 has been crossed so after a set
time delay, tap will be changed such that a lower voltage of V f is applied. (This second limit is also set by
calculations and according to a formula given by manufacturer).

A very important point to note here is that this change will occur after a set time delay and in an
attempt to get V M - V f positive and hence a positive torque. Very important to note- that the change will
occur after a set time delay i.e. after zone 2 time and so a timer is essentially needed. If the torque becomes
positive then obviously MU will issue a tripping order but if it is still negative then the timer will change
another step to the lower side-( again after a set time delay and to a predetermined/ calculated value of zone
3). If the torque goes positive than a tripping order will be issued after zone 3 time by the measuring unit
other wise if negative torque still persists, than it will be up to the zone 4 (starter or ZA relay) to issue a
tripping order directly provided that the impedance falls within the impedance range of the starter, other wise
there will be no operation by the relay.

To sum up, we see that zone selection will be at the V transformer and that will be according to some
formulae given by the manufacturer.

How he does that is beyond our scope. But essentially V transformer needs a timer.

So far as the operation of timer is concerned it is easy. The timer itself will not act directly on the V
transformer rather it will cause changes through auxiliary contactors PS II and PS III.

These contactors have pins that come out to indicate their operation and so we would know as to in
which zone the relay has operated.

But the question is when will the timer start?

In all relays the timer will start as soon as the relay senses a fault. But we know that the basic fault
sensing element in L 3 w y s relay is starter or minimum impedance relays ZA. Thus, another function of

35
starter- apart from giving info to measuring unit; causing Doubling of current in replica impedance; selection
of reference voltages; etc -it will be the job of ZA relays through PAs to start the timer.

The timer will stop at the fall back of these ZA relays. It will happen when the fault current has gone
back to zero by the operation of a circuit breaker or falls back to normal when the fault is cleared by other
relays.

As stated the relay will initially be set to zone 1 so that the action of instantaneous tripping is
achieved and there is no time lost. Then as per Pakistan standard -after 350 m sec tap will be changed to zone
2 and after 750 m sec it will be changed to zone 3. Also, after zone 3, zone 4 will operated at 900 m sec and
this operation is actually tripping by starter.

There are other taps in the V transformer and additional contacts in the timer.

It will be clarified, after we have told as to how to carry out settings on the V transformer.

We have already stated that MU unit will be fed a difference voltage. It must be remembered that this
difference will be formed after the V transformer or in the out put circuit of V transformer.

In the V transformer the taps are selected as per the following formula.

N i = ( L * 100)/ (C * X i ) %

Where i = zone 1, 2, 3

L and C are selected according to the following table.

Relay rated 5 A Relay rated 1 A

X1s (ohms/ phase) L C X1s (ohms/ phase) L Ohms/ C

Ohms/ phase
phase

0.2 0.4 0.2 1 12 1 1

0.4 0.8 0.4 1 24 2 1

- 0.8 0.4 0.5 - 4.0 2 0.5

** values of X and L are doubled for relays requiring 220 V Pt.

It must be noted that all settings are as per secondary values of the reactances. If it is difficult or
cumbersome to get X values, you can safely operate for Z secondary values.

But it must be kept in mind that the settings of L and C will be carried out for zone 1 values and
once set, will remain fixed for zone 2 and zone 3 i.e. only X or Z will change.

It will be this value of N % that will be set on the V transformer.

36
 It will be our endeavor that N % should be <= 100 % but where possible >= 50 %.

For relays L 3 w y a s and L 3 w y b s 110 V Pt

Relay rated 5 A Relay rated 1 A

X1s (ohms/ phase) L C X1s (ohms/ phase) L C

Ohms/ Ohms/
phase phase

0.4 0.8 0.4 1 24 2 1

0.8 1.6 0.8 1 48 4 1

- 1.6 & above 0.8 0.5 - 8 & above 4 0.5

** X and L will be doubled for 220 V Pt.

These taps are set on tap changing transformer, such that I is for zone 1, II for zone 2, and III for zone
3. There are other taps on these transformers. Actually, this transformer was made to suite other relays also,
due to which there is IV and B.

Tap A is used for zone 1 extension scheme for which chapter for schemes should be consulted.
Nevertheless, when zone 1 extension is being used than this tap will be used for the extended zone and the
fall back to zone 1 will be achieved with the help of contactor PSA.

L contributes in defining replica impedance.

C defines the voltages per tap on the V transformer.

2.7) TIMER

We have already mentioned the function and operation of the timer. The various steps in the timer are.

TI zone 1 (will always remain in closed position to make operation of

relay instantaneous)

T II zone 2

T III zone 3

T IV needs explanation.

TV zone 4

T IV:- Distance relays can be used with an auto recloser. (Details of auto reclosure in chapter of
schemes).

37
 To distinguish between a temporary fault and a permanent fault the timer T IV is used. In Pakistan it
is normally set at 120 m sec. Thus if a fault takes less than 120 m sec than it will be a temporary fault and
auto reclosing can take place. But if it takes longer than 120 m sec to clear, the relay will take it as a
permanent fault and will not cause auto reclosing. Such tripping will be taken as final tripping by the relay
and will be ensured by the contactor PSW.

As all zone 2, 3, and 4 faults will have T IV operated thus all will have final tripping i.e. there will be
no auto reclosing. Thus when ever final tripping is to be achieved it will be PSW duty to ensure it.

It must be remembered that we are using the term final tripping order and not lock out. Actually, both
are different terminologies and concepts. Lock out is a condition that requires manual reset, while final
tripping does not require such an action. Also, lockout has a normally close contact in the closing circuit, thus
when it operates, lock out relay will open this normally close contact and will thus prevent closing of the
circuit breaker, if an attempt is made. But final tripping does not have this feature.

So far we have seen the function of starter (ZA), PAs, RLV, PE and PEC, MU, replica
impedance M, Pta , PB, K 0 , V transformer, timer, PS II, PS III and PSW.

At this stage we have come to the point where now the relay MU has issued a tripping order. We will now see
as to who will execute this tripping order and how.

2.8) TRIPPING CONTACTORS FD AND PD

To make the measuring unit fast it should be light weight, so a single contact is used. Otherwise it
will be sluggish. When the MU decides to trip, it will send the tripping signal to FD (another light weight
contactor).

FD has four contacts and even they are not able to carry out the required multiple functions of the
relay. So FD will give signal to PD and it will be this PD to carry out tripping of the circuit breaker. It has
multiple contacts and the ones that are used for circuit breaker tripping are heavy duty.

When PD operates it will cause fall back of MU by opening its contacts in the circuit of difference
voltage.

PD also causes the fall back of the timer, the contactors Pta , PS II and PS III.

Opening of the CB will cause fall back of the ZA relays. When Z As fall back, than all PAs, FD and
PD will fall back too.

To have a complete understanding the relay timing sequence provided in the annexure- may please
be consulted.

We now understand that the following sequence will be adopted for tripping.

ZA PAMUFDPDCB trip coil.

2.9) CONTACTORS PtrW AND Ptaw

Both these contactors are related with the operation of auto reclosure.

To start the dead time of the auto reclosure we require an input from the protection device when it has
tripped. In this relay PD will energize PtrW (at the very same time when it issues a tripping signal to the

38
circuit breaker). And Ptrw will initiate the dead time of the auto reclosure. There is no intentional time delay
in the pick up of Ptrw. How ever once picked up it has a 5 seconds delay on drop off.

Ptrw will energize Ptaw and thus keep it energized for 5 sec. But Ptaw has a 0.3 sec delay on pick up
of its contacts. If supposing tripping occurs in zone 1, there is auto reclosing. Closing will take more then 0.3
seconds, by which time Ptaw would have energized. Now on closing, if the fault is still there or the fault
repeats in the delay set on Ptaw than there will be no auto reclosing. But if after tripping the fault has cleared,
closing is successful, but the fault is repeated after Ptrw and Ptaw time. The entire process will be repeated.

PSW ensures that there is no auto reclosing when fault persists or when it repeats itself within Ptrw
and Ptaw time. PSW is the contactor for final tripping.

* What we see is that in the event of temporary fault- there is auto reclosing.

** In the event of permanent fault (as decided by T IV) there is final tripping.

*** In the event when fault repeats its self after 0.3 seconds than again auto reclosing is
prevented as the relay says the fault is not cleared permanently.

**** As and when Ptaw falls back after successful closure of CB and after that fault occurs
then the relay is placed back in its initial position and now if tripping occurs all the process
will be repeated.

2.10) CHANNELING OF TRIPPING ORDER

The Channeling of the tripping signal means as to which phases to trip. That means the idea
behind it is to cause single phase and/or three phase tripping, depending on the nature of fault. This is
achieved with the help of the selector switch W.

It has four positions.

Position 1:- Single and three phase reclosing.

Single phase faults will cause single phase tripping and single
phase reclosing. And 2 and 3 phase faults will cause three

Phase faults will cause 3 phase tripping and 3 phase closing.

Position 2:- Three Phase reclosure.

Irrespective of the type of fault- tripping will be 3 phase and

Reclosing will also be 3 phase.

Position 3:- Single phase reclosing.

Single phase faults cause tripping on that phase only and

There will be single phase reclosing. For all other faults there

Will be 3 phase final tripping i.e. no reclosing.

39
 Position 4:- No reclosure.

Irrespective of the type of fault, there will be no reclosing and

There will be only final three phase tripping.

2.11) WA SWITCH

This switch is used when zone extension scheme is to be used. This scheme is also called as over lap
scheme. (It will be clarified in chapter for schemes).

2.12) PtrH

The contactor PtrH involves how signaling from the other station is used.

Schemes like POR, PUR and blocking schemes can be used for this relay.

The main terminals used are 34 for emission of signal and 39 and 22 for reception. The terminal 39
for preparation of the relay for final tripping when fault is repeated after 0.3 sec. While 22 is used for tripping
with the aid of carrier signal from the other station.

The signal can be transmitted by the use of PLC, or micro wave, or OPGW (optical fiber ground
wire).

Signal is sent by FD via its contacts 5-6.

When L 3 w y s its self initiates tripping, it will use PtrH to block all incoming signals because the
relay says! I have initiated tripping so need for any signal. It has a time delay on drop off so that any
delayed signal from the other station does not interfere. PtrH will get initiation from PD.

2.13) SIGNALLING

A separate signaling block type B is used for signals other then on the relay. For connection of this
signaling unit terminals are provided. Similarly terminals for fault recorder connections are also provided.

The indications provided are as under,

D final tripping AK 25

R Red phase fault AK 26

S Yellow phase fault AK 27

T Blue phase fault AK 28

E Ground fault AK 29

3 phase short near the relay AK 30

2 zone 2 fault AK 31

3 zone 3 fault AK 32

W Final tripping AK 33

40
H Signal sent.

2.14) RELAY SPECIFICATIONS

Rated voltage 100/110 V (or 200/220V)

Frequency 50 or 60 cps

Rated current 1 or 5 A (2 A also possible)

DC supply 60-220 V with +- 10 % tolerance

Pickup impedance of ZA

In= 5 A 1- 7 ohms/ phase

In= 1 A 5-35 ohms/phase

Doubled for PT of 200/220 V

Minimum value of pick up

Current (at zero voltage) 0.5-0.6 I n

Pick up current of RLV (adjustable) 0.5 I n and 2 I n

Minimum possible measurement

Reactance by MU

In= 5 A 0.1 ohms/phase

In= 1 A 0.5 ohms /phase.

(With compounding the values are doubled)

Directional sensitivity:-

Triple pole short circuit

At max measurement

Range (100% fault voltage) and

2 In 2V

Other faults sensitivity unlimited

K0 0-1.2 in steps of 0.1

Cos 0.1 to 0.85

Number of zones 4 (4th is non directional)

Zone 1 min operating time 60 m sec +- 10 m sec

41
2.15) SETTINGS CALCULATIONS

Before carrying out setting calculations it must be noted that:-

The potential transformer must have the property that when CVTs are employed and the primary of
CVT is shorted for certain reason, the voltage on the secondary side must immediately drop from its rated
value to zero. And in the event of possible transients the residual voltage after 0.04 sec must be less then 1 %
of the phase voltage.

Usually it is preferred that Ct of the highest VA rating be used for distance relays so that it gets ample
time for operation, before the Ct goes into saturation.

There are two methods for calculations

2.15.1) METHOD 1

Consider the following system. And note that we are to carry out setting calculations for relay at A looking
towards B with the source at A.

The system data is as under:-

Conductor: - Zigolo /lynx Z = 0.689 75 0 ohms/ mile

But for the sake of simplicity we will take

It as ohms/ km

Ct ratio:- 600/5 5 because the relay in our lab is of 5 A

Pt ratio:- 132 kV/ 110 V

Let the earth fault compensation factor be K 0 = 0.6

To compensate for any over reach of the relay- (will be discussed in next topic) - it is always a settled
principle to take zone 1 as 80 to 85% of first section i.e. AB. This rule will be applicable to all kinds of
distance relays.

Hence,

42
Z 1Primary = 0.85 x total Impedance of the first section

So,

Z 1Primary= 0.85 x 40 km x 0.689 75 0 ohms/ mile

Z 1Primary= 23.42 75 0 ohms

Next we will calculate the primary impedance of the second third and fourth step and will be
explaining the rules to be followed in setting of these zones. But very important to remember that the rule for
zone 1 will be strictly followed and only in situations that there is no other way than this rule can be extended
to 90 % of first section. But again, never 100 % of the first section.

So now we move on to the next step i.e. zone 2.

In the system shown above, zone 2 is

Z 2primary= Total Impedance of the complete first section + 50 % of the next shortest line.

Thus,

Z 2primary= AB + 0.5x 10 km beyond B

Z 2primary= 40 km x 0.689 750 + 0.5 x 0.689 750 ohms/km x 10 km

Z 2primary= 31 750 ohms

For Zone 3, the rule to be followed is that impedance of the first section complete and 50% of the next
longest line. So,

Z 3primary= Total Impedance of AB + 50 % of BC

Z 3primary= 40 km x 0.689 750 + 0.5 x 0.689 750 ohms/km x 20 km

Z 3primary= 34.45 750 ohms.

Whereas step 4 i.e. zone 4 will be normally taken as 120% of zone 3.

The principles laid down for step 2, 3 and 4 can be adjusted to a certain degree to meet requirements.
This means that there is flexibility in setting of higher time steps and this flexibility increases as we move up
the zone.

Z 4primary= 120% of zone 3

Z 4primary= 1.2 x 34.45 750 ohms.

Z 4primary= 41.35 750 ohms

All of the values calculated are on the primary side of the relay, so, these have to be converted to secondary
side by using the given Ct and Pt ratios.

We know that

Z= V / I

43
 To calculate Z secondary a factor U z is, used-such that

U Z= Pt ratio / Ct ratio. Or (V primary / I primary) / (V secondary / I secondary)

Or

U Z = (V primary / V secondary) x (I secondary / I primary)

Again,

U Z = Pt ratio/ Ct ratio

In our example- it will be

U Z = (132 kV/ 110V) / (600/5)

U Z= 10

The secondary values of the zone impedances are now calculated as under:

Z 1Secondary = Z1primary / U Z

And,

Z 2Secondary = Z2primary / U Z

Z 3Secondary = Z3primary / U Z

Z 4Secondary = Z4primary / U Z

Now, using all the calculated values.

Z 1Secondary= 23.42 75 0 / 10 = 2.342 75 0

Z 2Secondary= 31 75 0 / 10 = 3.1 75 0

Z 3Secondary= 34.45 75 0 / 10 = 3.445 75 0

Z 4Secondary= 41.35 75 0 / 10 = 4.135 75 0

These are the values that will be set on the distance relay.

For this purpose we will be using the formula

N i%= ( L x 100 %) / (C x Z i secondary)

Where i= 1, 2, 3.

We will find the values of L and C from the table given on page 39.

Thus for 2.32 (to get more accuracy you can use Z 1sec x sin where = 75 0.

The value of L comes out to be 0.4 and the value of C as 0.5.

These will be set on the relay and once selected/ set will remain constant for all first three steps. Zone 4 will
be set on ZA relays through a sliding knob.

44
Thus,

N1 % = (0.4 x 100) / (2.34 x 0.5) = 34.158 %

N2 % = (0.4 x 100) / (3.1 x 0.5) = 25.8 %

N3 % = (0.4 x 100) / (3.44 x 0.5) = 23.25 %

These N %s are the taps on the V transformer. Decimal digits cannot be set so we will take only the values
34 for N 1, let 26 for N2 and 24 for N3.

The fourth step will be set directly on ZA relay with the help of sliding impedance.

K0 will be set on three auxiliary Cts.

Cos will be set on the replica impedance (M).

Timing of zones will be

T II = 350 m sec

T III= 750 m sec

T IV= 120 m sec

T V= 900 m sec.

Set the value of RLV as low as possible.

Different contactors timing will be set as per annexure.

With this setting calculations are complete.

Now, we consider the second method in brief.

2.15.2) SECOND METHOD

This method can be employed for parallel lines with settings on both lines but with the
following considerations.

a) Starters;-

The settings of the starting relays ZA fixes the pick up of this distance relay, and the
limit is determined by the following:

After one line has tripped the adjoining section ZA relays must fall back as the fault
has been cleared. When one of the parallel lines trip, the current in the healthy line
will increase. Another point to consider that in the case of single pole tripping the ZA
relays of the healthy phases must not pick up.

* System insulated or

Earthed through suppression coil Z = E / (2 x 1.4 I B)

** Earthed system Z = (0.85 x E)/ {2 x 3 (IB / I A)}

Where E is the minimum line voltage.

45
 0.85x E/ 3 : min phase voltage in the healthy phases with 1 earth faults.

IB : max possible service current.

IA : max possible transient current in the healthy phases during

During an earth fault.

1.4 : holding ratio of ZA relays.

These values will be reduced on secondary side by U Z.

Now,

Zone 1 = a 1= 0.85 x a (where a is the first section)

Zone 2 = a 2= 0.85 x (a + k x b 1)

Zone 3 = a 3= 0.85 x (a + k x b 2)

Where,

K = (I A + I B)/ I A

Care must be taken to keep I B to the minimum.

b is the next section.

b 1 is zone 1 of the relay at bus bar B looking towards C.

b 2 is total zone 2 of the same relay at B.

Reduce these values using U Z to get secondary values and then calculate N% as before.

Implementation is the same as before.

Testing of L 3 w y s relay is carried out with the help of BB test set in our lab, but it can be tested
with ZFB test set as well.

Testing procedure is demonstrated practically in Lab.

2.16) UNDER REACH AND OVER REACH

There are chances that the relay may make inaccurate measurements. In doing so two
conditions arise.

1) Under reach i.e. when the relay is set to a certain value of impedance e.g. 20 ohms for a certain step
and instead of reading 20 ohms at a certain location, it reads an impedance of 21 ohms. This means
that the relay will be reading 20 ohms for a bit lesser location. Subsequently, the location which was
intended to be seen in this step will be read in the next step. Or in other words the location which
should have been read in a certain step, it is now being read in the next step and so the relay may
remain silent for this fault if already it is in zone 4. Here the term, under each is used for the relay
behavior.

46
 2) Over reach .i.e. when the relay is set for the same value of 20 ohms for a certain step and instead of
reading 20 ohms at a certain location it is reading 19 ohms. This means that the relay will be
reading 20 ohms for a bit farther location. Subsequently, the location which was intended to be seen
in the next step will be read in this step. Or in other words the location which should have been read
in a certain step, it is now being read before this step and so the relay may operate earlier then
expected. Here the term, over each is used for the relay behavior.

2.16.1) CAUSE OF UNDER REACH AND REMEDIES.

The causes are,

1) Arc resistance- it is nit defined and adds up into the impedance seen by the relay. Thus originally if
the relay was supposed to see 20 ohms it is now reading more than that.

2) Intermediate power sources- They disturb the arrangement of currents.

3) Parallel in feeds- i.e. parallel lines.

4) Ct, Pt, errors and line data calculations.

Remedies

1) Use a cross polarized or fully cross polarized mho relay will eliminate the contribution of arc.

2) Reactance unit.

3) Offset mho unit to some extent or modified impedance unit.

4) By keeping < .

2.16.2) CAUSE OF OVER REACH AND REMEDIES.

The causes are:

1) The primary cause of over reach is the initial offset in fault currents. (transients)

Mostly these affects the reach of the high speed zone i.e. zone 1. Because by the time
operation in zone 2 or zone 3 is required the transients die down.

2) Ct Pt errors and line data calculations.

To avoid this always keep zone 1 less than 100 % and most suitably 80 85% of first section. Maybe
to provide time delay in zone 1 but this is not an advisable option.

47
48
49
50
51
52
53
 CHAPTER 3

DISTANCE RELAY L Z 31

3.1) INTRODUCTION/ MAIN FEATURES

- Switched relay -so starters in the shape of minimum impedance relays- are present.

- Earth fault relay I E instead of RLV.

- Four zones. Fourth is starter independent of MU and is a plain impedance relay.

- Zone timings are independently adjustable.

- Mho characteristic and offset mho can be used.

-Suitable for over head lines and cables for solidly grounded, ungrounded, and for grounding
through suppression coil networks and preferably for EHV lines.

- Permissive schemes of POR and PUR can be employed

- Can be used for single tripping or three phase tripping and closing- as the case may be.

- Facility of reversing neutral point available without changing any Ct wiring, so polarity of
Ct can be very easily changed.

- Arc resistance does not effect measurement.

- Operating time is 40 m sec +- 5 m sec.

3.2) SETTING CALCULATIONS.

Consider the following system.

Relay located at station A and looking towards B.

Conductor Rail = 0.6347 81.40

Pt ratio = 220 Kv / 110 V

Ct ratio = 800/1 (relay in our lab is of 1 A).

K0 = 0.63

54
 Zone 1 = 85% of the first section i.e. AB

Z 1 Primary= 0.85 x 75 x 0.634 81.40

Z 1 Primary= 40.4 81.40 ohms

Z 2 Primary= AB complete + 50 % of BC

Z 2 Primary= 75 x 0.634 + 0.5 x 40 x 0.634

Z 2 Primary= 60.23 81.40 ohms

Z 3 Primary = AB complete + BC complete + 20 % of CD.

Very important to note that in zone 2, zone 3 and in zone 4, flexibility is allowed in settings.

Z 3 Primary= 47.55 + 40 x 0.634 + 0.2 x 30 x 0.634

Z 3Primary = 47.55 + 25.36 + 3.80

Z 3 Primary = 76.71 81.40 ohms

Next Zone 4

Z 4 Primary = 120 % of Z 3

Z4 Primary = 1.2 x 76.71 = 92.13 ohms. (Angle does not apply as it is direction less)

Secondary values

UZ = (Pt ratio) / (Ct ratio) = (220000 / 110) / (800/1) = 2.5

Z1 secondary = Z1 Primary / U Z = 40.4 / 2.5 = 16.6 81.40 ohms

Z2 secondary = Z2 Primary / U Z = 60.23 / 2.5 = 24.09 81.40 ohms

Z3 secondary = Z3 Primary / U Z = 76.71 / 2.5 = 30.65 81.40 ohms

Z4 secondary = Z4 Primary / U Z = 92.13 / 2.5 = 36.82 ohms (angle does not apply)

Formula for the implementation of these values is as under:

NI%= ( L x 100)/ (C x X i sec)

For the sake of easier calculations we will take Z in place of X and I = 1, 2, 3.

Z4 secondary will be set on the ZA starting relays.

To find L and C we consult the following tables. Again, remember they will be selected for Z 1 and
will remain fixed for the other two zones.

55
 Table 1:- For relays of In = 5 A and 110 V Pt.

X1sec (ohms/phase) L

N1%= .100%... 50% Ohms/phase At which C is

200%.....

0.75. ..0.15.. ..0.3 0.15 1

01. 0.2 0.4 0.2 1

0.2. 0.4 0.8 0.4 1

-------- 0.8 1.6 0.4 0.5

Table 2:- For relays In = 1 A and 110 V Pt.

X1sec (ohms/phase) L

N1%= .100%... 50% Ohms/phase At which C is

200%.....

0.375 0.75 1.5 0.75 1

0.5 1 2 1 1

1 2 4 2 1

-------- 4 8 2 0.5

Table 3:- For relays with *compounding chokes and In =5 A and 110 V Pt.

X1sec (ohms/phase) L

N1%= .100%... 50% Ohms/phase At which C is

200%.....

0.2 0.4 0.8 0.4 1

0.4 0.8 1.6 0.8 1

------- 1.6 3.2 0.8 0.5

56
 Table 4:- For relays with *compounding chokes and In =1 A and 110 V Pt

X1sec (ohms/phase) L

N1%= .100%... 50% Ohms/phase At which C is

200%.....

1 2 4 2 1

2 4 8 4 1

-- 8 16 4 0.5

For relays designed for Pt voltage of 200 or 220 V the values of X and L will be doubled.
Similarly when relays of 2A are being used the values for that of I n = 1 A will be halved.

In this relay the V transformer is named as HG transformer. Tap settings are carried out on this
transformer. Any value of the fault voltage between 0.5 % and 200 % can be obtained from this transformer.
These are than used to get the fault voltage and subsequently the difference voltage for the measuring unit
composed of M and PU.

The matching transformer has 8 leads, 4 for unit percentages and 4 for decade percentages and the
some of same colors gives the percentage for that particular color (colors are specified for each zones).

The colors are designated as follows:-

White : Step I (zone 1)

Yellow : Step II (zone II)

Red : Step III (zone III)

Green : zone 1 extension also called as the over lap zone.

Black : Value for C (No other cable should be connected to the terminals marked for C).

Example 1: 64 % is to be set.

Unit cable to 4 %. And the decade cable to 60 % but same colors.

Example 2: 160 %

Here we are choosing between 110 % and 200%.

The 1 % cable for the relevant step will be connected to 110%

Decade % cable will be connected to 50 % (160-110=50 %)

And the black lead will be connected to C=1

57
Example 3 43.5 %

i.e. the percentages are less then 50 %

The black lead for c will be connected at C=0.5

And than we will be setting at 43.5 x 2= 87%

Thus the one percent cable will be set to 7%

And the decade cable will be set to 80 %.

Returning to our calculations.

Starter will be set at Z4 secondary = 36.83 ohms.

And as our relay is of 1A compounded so table 4 is used. We try to bring N % below 100 %.
Consulting the table gives L = 4 and C = 0.5

N 1% = (4 x 100)/ (0.5 x 16.6) = 48.19 % (rounding it to 48%)

N 2% = (4 x 100)/ (0.5 x 24.09) = 33.20 % (rounding it to 33%)

N 3% = (4 x 100)/ (0.5 x 30.68) = 26.07 % (rounding it to 26%)

After carrying of the desired settings the relay will be tested with the help of Q Z W test set.

58
 CHAPTER 4

DISTANCE RELAY QUADRAMHO.

4.1) INTRODUCTION (MAIN FEATURES)

- It is a completely non switched relay and so the function of the starter is

eliminated. Each type of fault has its own measuring unit, therefore it has total of
18 MUs. That means there will be 18 replica impedances etc. It is thus highly
reliable and fast.

- Suitable for single pole, three pole trippings.

- As it is non-switched, so it is much faster than other relays for 132Kv system.

Typical timings are 35 m sec for the first step. And fast operating time is
maintained for wide range of fault conditions.

- Used for medium and high voltage lines like 110 Kv and 132 Kv.

- It is using mho characteristic and is a partially cross polarized relay.

Quadrilaterals are also available.

- Since this relay is a product of GEC (now AREVA) therefore star point of Ct
will be towards line.

- Burden of the relay on Ct and Pt circuit is very low.

- It is a three zone relay. With an additional zone 3 reverse (Z).

- Has additional features of PT fail, SOTF, Power swing blocking and all distance
relay schemes can be used one at a time. ( all these terms have been clarified in
the chapter for schemes.

- Minimum operating current is 20 % of I n.

4.2) SETTING CALCULATIONS

Consider the following 132 Kv system, with the relay at A looking towards B.

59
The data for the above system is as below.

Pt ratio = 132Kv/ 110 V

Ct ratio= 600/5

Conductor= Zigolo/ lynx Z+ = 0.689 750

K0 = 0.65

Zone 1 = 85% of the first section i.e. AB

Z 1 Primary= 0.85 x 50 x 0.689 750

Z 1 Primary= 29.28 750 ohms

Z 2 Primary= AB complete + 50 % of 15 km line.

Z 2 Primary= 50 x 0.689 + 0.5 x 15 x 0.689

Z 2 Primary= 39.62 750 ohms

Z 3 Primary = AB complete + 50 % of BC.

Very important to note that in zone 2, zone 3 and in zone 4, flexibility is allowed in settings.

Z 3 Primary= 50 x 0.689 + 0.5 x 30 x 0.689

Z 3 Primary = 44.79 750 ohms

There is no Zone 4.

Secondary values

UZ = (Pt ratio) / (Ct ratio) = (132000 / 110) / (600/5) = 10

Z1 secondary = Z1 Primary / U Z = 29.28 / 10 = 2.928 750 ohms

Z2 secondary = Z2 Primary / U Z = 39.62 / 10 = 3.962 750 ohms

Z3 secondary = Z3 Primary / U Z = 44.79 / 10 = 4.479 750 ohms

Formula for the implementation of these values is such that we have coarse setting and fine setting.
Coarse setting once set will be common to all zones while fine setting is applied independently to each zone.
They are as under:

Z ph = (K1 + K2) / In K1 = 0- 4 (in steps of 1)

K2 = 0- 0.8 (in steps of 0.2)

We know that In is 5A. Now we will select the two in such a way that we get maximum value for Z ph but at
the same time, taking care, that zone 1 secondary is not in decimal points

When these limits are considered then we can safely have

60
 K1 = 4 and K2= 0.8

Z ph= (4+ 0.8)/ 5 = 0.96 ohms/ phase.

These settings are carried on the first module.

Other settings that are to be carried out on this module are :

K0 = (Z L0-Z L1)/ (3ZL1) = ZN / Z ph

Z N = K0 x Z ph = 0.65 x 0.96 =0.624

ZN is implemented with the help of the following formula:

ZN = (K4 + K5 + K6) / I n

Where K3 if fitted = 8, 16, 32, 40, 48.

K4 = 0 - 5 (in steps of 1)

K5 = 0 0.9 (in steps of 0.1)

K6 = 0 0.08 (in steps of 0.02)

Thus: Z N x I n= (K3 + K4 + K5) = 0.624 x 5= 3.12

K 4 = 3, K5 = 0.1 and K6 = 0.02

Zone settings are now calculated as under.

Z1= (K11 + K12 + K13) K14 x Z ph

Using the values of Z1 and Z ph

Z 1 / Z ph = (K11 + K12 + K13) K14

2.93 / 0.96 = 3.052

K11 = 1 to 9 (in steps of 1)

K12 = 0 t0 0.9 (Steps of 0.1)

K13 = 0 to 0.8 (steps of 0.02)

K14 = 1 and 5

Keeping in view the available values we get

K11 = 3 K12 = 0 K13= 0.06 (as we dont have 0.05 we select one step higher or lower)
K14 = 1

Z2 = (K21 + K22) K14 x Z ph

Z 2 / Z ph = (K21 + K22) K14

61
 3.96 / 0.96 = 4.125

K21 = 1 to 9 (in steps of 1)

K22 = 0 t0 0.9 (Steps of 0.1)

K14 = Already set at 1

Keeping in view the available values we get

K21 = 4 K22 = 0.1 K14 = is already 1

Z3 = (K31 + K32) K33 x Z ph

Z 3 / Z ph = (K31 + K32) K33

4.48 / 0.96 = 4.66

K31 = 1 to 9 (in steps of 1)

K32 = 0 t0 0.9 (Steps of 0.1)

K33 = 1 or 5

Keeping in view the available values we get

K31 = 4 K32 = 0.7 K33 = 1 (first set this one)

Z3 = (K31 + K32) K33 x Z ph

Z 3 / Z ph = (K31 + K32) K33

4.48 / 0.96 = 4.66

K31 = 1 to 9 (in steps of 1)

K32 = 0 t0 0.9 (Steps of 0.1)

K33 = 1 or 5

Keeping in view the available values we get

K31 = 4 K32 = 0.7 K33 = 1 (first set this one)

Z3 = 25 % of zone 1 reach

So, Z 3 = 0.25 x 2.93= 0.73

The formula for Z3 is

Z 3 = (K35 + K36) K33 x K 37 x Z ph

Z 3 / Z ph = (K35 + K36) K33 x K 37

62
 0.73 / 0.96 = 0.76

K35 = 1 to 9 (in steps of 1)

K36 = 0 t0 0.9 (Steps of 0.1)

K33 = 1 Already set.

K 37= 0.25, 0.5, 1.0

The infinity positions for K11, K15, and K21 are used for on load directional checks.

Keeping in view the available values we get

K35 = 1 K36 = 0.5 K33 = 1 (first set this one) and K37= 0.5

At this stage zone settings are completed and next we will set angle. (This will be setting the angle on replica
impedance M and in this relay angle for phase to phase faults and phase to ground faults are given separately).

, = 750

G, = 700

This means that the mho circle for phase to ground will be slightly shifted towards the R axis. This
helps in giving better coverage for arcing faults. And since arcs in phase to ground are of greater resistance so
we shift to give compensation.

Timings for zones are such that zone time is inherent and that of zone 2 and zone 3 are set on
switches.

Schemes will be selected by using OPTION SELECT digits. This includes selection of single and
three pole tripping.

For detection of power swing two circles of the same shape as zone 3, are used. Although details are
in the chapter of schemes but here a brief idea is given that the circles are called zone 5 and zone 6- that
these have no settings rather are automatically set by the relay itself by setting zone 5 = zone 3 and zone 6 at
120 % of zone 3.

Testing is made very easy by use of test plugs GEC make for these relays. ZFB test set, omicron and
even freja can be used for testing of these relays.

CHAPTER 5

63
 DISTANCE RELAY PYTS

5.1) INTRODUCTION (MAIN FEATURES)

The main features of this relay are:-

- Mho characteristic, fully cross polarized, switched relay- so maximum accuracy

in arcing faults.

- As static circuits are used, so they have low burden on Cts and Pts.

- K 0 compensation available.

- RCA (relay characteristic angle) from 30 to 850 available.

- Three directional zones Z 1, Z 2, Z 3 and the fourth zone is starter, which is non
directional but option is available to make it directional too.

- Two types of starters are available

i) under impedance starters and

ii) Over-current starters.

- Single and three phase tripping available.

- SOTF, PSB, and distance relay schemes can be used.

- Minimum operating current required is 25 % of I n.

5.2) SETTING CALCULATIONS

Consider the following system

Conductor: Zigolo/ lynx Z = 0.689 750 ohms/ km

Pt ratio: 132 Kv/ 110 V

Ct ratio: 600/5

K0: 0.7

64
Zone 1 = 85% of the first section i.e. AB

Z 1 Primary= 0.85 x 50 x 0.689 750

Z 1 Primary= 29.2 750 ohms

Z 2 Primary= AB complete + 50 % of BC

Z 2 Primary= 50 x 0.689 + 0.5 x 30 x 0.689

Z 2 Primary= 44.78 750 ohms

Z 3 Primary = AB complete + BC complete + 50 % of CD.

Very important to note that in zone 2, zone 3 and in zone 4, flexibility is allowed in settings.

Z 3 Primary= 50 x 0.689 + 30 x 0.689 + 0.5 x 45 x 0.689

Z 3 Primary = 70.64 750 ohms

Next Zone 4

Z 4 Primary = 110 % of Z 3

Z4 Primary = 1.1 x 70.64 = 77 ohms. (Angle does not apply as it is direction less)

Secondary values

UZ = (Pt ratio) / (Ct ratio) = (132000 / 110) / (600/5) = 10

Z1 secondary = Z1 Primary / U Z = 29.2 / 10 = 2.92 750 ohms

Z2 secondary = Z2 Primary / U Z = 44.78 / 10 = 4.478 750 ohms

Z3 secondary = Z3 Primary / U Z = 70.64 / 10 = 7.064 750 ohms

Z4 secondary = Z4 Primary / U Z = 77 / 10 = 7.7 ohms (angle does not apply)

Formula for the implementation of these values is as under:

Z1 = K1 x K Z x K D

65
 K1 = 0.25, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0 (in some it has a
continuous adjustment).

KZ = has tapings of 0,1,2,3,5,10,20 ohms for 1 A

relay and 0,0.2,0.4,0.6,1.0,2.0 and 4.0 for 5 A relay.

KD = Are range multipliers and are

0.1x,1 x,2 x, and .

Z2 = K2 x K1x KZ x KD or Z2 = K 2 x Z1

K2 = 1, 1.2, 1.5, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10

Z3 = K3 x K1x KZ x KD or Z3 = K 3 x Z1

First we will set zone 1 such that

KZ x KD >= Z1

Hence we must have

KZ x KD >= 2.92

By checking the values for both K s in above we see that we will have

KZ = 3 (it may not be available in some relays- they will have 4-so we will take 4)

and KD = 1

Thus 3 x 1>= 2.92

Or K1 x 3 x 1 = 2.92

K1 = 2.92 / 3 = 0.97

So zone 1 settings are KZ = 3, KD = 1 and K1 = 0.97

Zone 2 settings are

Z2 = K 2 x Z1

4.478 = K 2 x 2.92

K2 = 4.478 / 2.92 = 1.53

Zone 3 settings are

Z3 = K 3 x Z1

7.064 = K 3 x 2.92

K3 = 7.064 / 2.92 = 2.41.

66
Zone 4 settings are

Z= K/ I

7.7 = K/ 5

7.7 * 5 = K

38.5 = K

All these settings of knobs on the relay will be set to achieve the desired settings. It is very important to note
that if a setting can not be implemented on a knob it is better to take the next higher so that the protection
zone is extended but care must be taken in zone 1, such that after extension zone 1 reach does not extend
beyond 90 % of the first section.

Other settings that are to be carried out are of K0 :

(Z L0-Z L1)/ (3ZL1) x Zone 1 settings = K1N x K ZN

K 0 x Zone 1 settings = K1N x K ZN

0.7 x 2.92 = 2.04

Therefore, select K1N and K ZN such that we get this value, and

K1N = 0.5 to 1.5 and

K ZN =

5.3) ADDITIONAL SETTINGS ON PYTS

:- module nos. 3

Link position A = Impedance starter.

B = When C.V.T is used with schemes

C = Over current starter.

:- module nos. 5

Link 2 to make Z 4 directional or non directional

Link 6 Blocking/ un-blocking starter tripping.

:- module nos. 6

Link 1 Blocking/ un-blocking SOTF

Link 2 Monitors SOTF through voltage and starters.

In PYTS relays there is another module for power swing settings. Although details of power swing
are to be explained in coming chapters but for the time being the settings are detailed below.

The outer reach of power swing circle is set on the left most module, while the inner circle will be that of Z 4.

67
To set Z PS the formula is the same as that for Z 4. Just select reach in ohms as for Z and than apply the
following formula.

Z PS = K / I

There are some additional settings on the knob P

These are:-

K C knob is used for zone 1 extension scheme.

Knob P has the following settings

a Trip all zones.

b Power swing blocking in all zones.

c Trip in 1 and PSB in 2, 3, and 4

d Trip in 1 and 2 and PSB in 3 and 4.

e Trip in 1, 2, and 3 and PSB in 4

68
 CHAPTER 6

MICRO MHO DISTANCE RELAY

6.1) INTRODUCTION (MAIN FEATURES)

The main features of this relay are:-

- Mho characteristic, partially cross polarized, completely non-switched relay and

so we have separate measuring units for all types of faults. The characteristic is
such that it expands along the x-axis for earth faults and so provides a very fine
coverage for earth faults or resistive faults. If greater expansion is required for
zone 1 faults fully cross polarized characteristic is available as an option.

- Unique synchronous polarizing circuit ensures relay operation down to 0 volts.

(Memory circuit is used).

- As static circuits are used so they have low burden on Cts and Pts and
negligible over reach in case of c.v.t transients.

- Extremely high relay accuracy.

- K 0 compensation available with angle adjustment.

- RCA (relay characteristic angle) from 30 to 850 available.

- Three directional zones Z 1, Z 2, Z 3. There are no starters as the relay is

completely non- switched for all types of faults. It has 18 measuring units giving
coverage to all phase-phase faults and phase to ground faults

- Single and three phase tripping available.

- SOTF, PSB, and distance relay schemes are available.

- Minimum operating current required is 20 % of I n.

- Relay has two kinds of tripping contacts.

1) Normal electro-mechanical contacts.

2) Thyristor contacts.

- Load encroachment arrangement in the form of lenticular characteristic available.

6.2) SETTING CALCULATIONS

Consider the following system

Conductor: Rail Z = 0.46 840 ohms/ km

Pt ratio: 500 Kv/ 110 V

Ct ratio: 1500/1

K0: 0.8

69
 Zone 1 = 85% of the first section i.e. AB

Z 1 Primary= 0.85 x 150 x 0.46 840

Z 1 Primary= 58.65 840 ohms

Z 2 Primary= AB complete + 50 % of BC

Z 2 Primary= 150 x 0.46 + 0.5 x 120 x 0.46

Z 2 Primary= 96.6 840 ohms

Z 3 Primary = Let us take it in another manner as against the previous settings by taking it as 120 %
of zone 2.

Very important to note that in zone 2 and zone 3 flexibility is allowed in settings.

Z 3 Primary= 120% of 96.6 = 1.2 * 96.6 = 115.92 840

Secondary values

UZ = (Pt ratio) / (Ct ratio) = (500000 / 110) / (1500/1) = 3.03

Z1 secondary = Z1 Primary / U Z = 58.65 / 3.03 = 19.35 840 ohms

Z2 secondary = Z2 Primary / U Z = 96.6 / 3.03 = 31.88 840 ohms

Z3 secondary = Z3 Primary / U Z = 115.92 / 3.03 = 38.25 840 ohms

The formula for the implementation of these values is almost the same as in quadra mho relay and we
will proceed in the same manner, as under:

Formula for the implementation of these values is such that we have to carry out coarse setting and
fine setting. Coarse setting once set will be common to all zones while fine setting is applied independently to
each zone. Thus:

Z ph = (K1 + K2) / In K1 = 0- 4 (in steps of 1)

K2 = 0- 0.8 (in steps of 0.2)

We know that In is 1A. We will select the two Ks in such a way that we get maximum value for Z ph but at
the same time, taking care, that zone 1 secondary is not in decimal points. Actually by doing so we will be
requiring little adjustment in the fine setting knobs- but the greater advantage is that zone 3 fine settings
possible and the required setting do not cross the limit of the relay itself.

70
When these limits are considered then we can safely have

K1 = 4 and K2= 0.8

Z ph= (4+ 0.8)/ 1 = 4.8 ohms/ phase.

These settings are carried on the first module.

Other settings that are to be carried out on this module are :

K0 = (Z L0-Z L1)/ (3ZL1) = ZN / Z ph

We are given the value of K 0 and we have found out Z ph , so we have

Z N = K0 x Z ph = 0.8 x 4.8= 3.84

ZN is implemented with the help of the following formula:

ZN = (K3 + K4 + K5) / I n

Where K3 = 0- 5 (in steps of 1)

K4 = 0 0.6 (in steps of 0.1)

K5 = 0 0.08 (in steps of 0.02)

Thus: Z N x I n= (K3 + K4 + K5) = 3.84 x 1= 3.84

As I = 1 A so,

K 3 = 3, K4 = 0.8 and K5 = 0.04

Zone settings are now calculated as under.

Z1= (K11 + K12 + K13) K14 x Z ph

Using the values of Z1 and Z ph

Z 1 / Z ph = (K11 + K12 + K13) K14

19.35 / 4.8 = 4.03 = (K11 + K12 + K13) K14

The values of the different K knobs are

K11 = 1 to 9 (in steps of 1 and )

K12 = 0 to 0.9 (Steps of 0.1)

K13 = 0 to 0.08 (steps of 0.02)

K14 = 1 and 5

71
Keeping in view the available values we get

K11 = 4 K12 = 0 K13= 0.03 (as we dont have 0.03 we select one step higher or lower so we
take 0.04) K14 = 1

Zone 2 setting calculations

Z2 = (K21 + K22) K24 x Z ph

Z 2 / Z ph = (K21 + K22) K24

31.88 / 4.8 = 6.64

Again the values of the K knobs for zone 2 are as under:

K21 = 1 to 9 (in steps of 1 and )

K22 = 0 to 0.9 (Steps of 0.1)

K24 = 1 or 5 (it may be noted that in quadra mho we repeat K14 but here it

is replaced by K24 .).

Keeping in view the available values we get

K21 = 6 K22 = 0.7 K24 = 1

Zone 3 settings calculations

Z3 = (K31 + K32) K33 x Z ph

Z 3 / Z ph = (K31 + K32) K33

38.25 / 4.8 = 7.96

The values of different K knobs for zone 3 are

K31 = 1 to 9 (in steps of 1 and )

K32 = 0 to 0.9 (Steps of 0.1)

K33 = 1 or 5

Keeping in view the available values we can readjust the total value to 8.0, so we get,

K31 = 8 K32 = 0. K33 = 1

Zone 3 reverse settings

We will always try to keep Zone 3at 25 % of zone 1. Whether you take Z 1primary or Z 1secondary it is one
and the same thing. If we take primary than we will have to convert to secondary by using UZ . By using Z1sec
directly it will be simpler. Therefore,

Z 3 = 0.25 x Z1sec = 0.25 X 19.35 = 4.83 (with no angle)

Z 3 is implemented by the relay with the help of following formula.

72
 Z 3 = (K33 x K 34) x Z ph

4.83 / 4.8 = 1.01

The values of the above K knobs are

K33 = 1 and 5

K 34 = 0, 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2

As K33 has already been set at 1 so

1.01 = (1 x K 34)

Thus

K 34 = 1.

The infinity positions for K11, K21, and K31 are used for on load directional checks.

At this stage zone settings are completed.

Next we will set angle. (This will be setting the angle on replica impedance M and in this relay angle
for phase to phase faults and phase to ground faults are given separately).

, = 850

G, = 800

This means that the mho circle for phase to ground will be slightly shifted towards the R- axis. This
helps in giving better coverage for arcing faults. And since arcs in phase to ground are of greater resistance so
we shift to give compensation. (Same treatment as quadra mho).

This relay has further improvement on zone timings. In this relay phase to phase and phase to ground
time settings for zone 2 and 3 have been separated. Zone 1 being inherent it has no such provision.

Schemes will be selected by using OPTION SELECT knobs. This includes selection of single and
three pole tripping.

For detection of power swing two circles of the same shape as zone 3 are used. The details are that
the circles are called zone 5 and zone 6- that these are to be set on the relay using formulae i.e. these settings
have to be carried out and are not set automatically- as in case of quadra mho relay. But the principle remains
the same that zone 5 = zone 3 and zone 6 at 120 % of

zone 3. And similarly the reverse reaches of Z 5 will be equated to reverse reach of Z 3 and likewise Z
6 will be equated to 120 % of Z 3 .

Z 6 + Z 6 = 1.3 x (Z 5 + Z 5 )

As already stated zone 5 will be equal to zone 3, so,

Z 5 = 38.25 Z 5 = 4.83

Z 6 + Z 6 = 1.3 (38.25 + 4.83)

73
Z 6 + Z 6 = 56.

The formulae are:

K54 = Z5 / (Z 5 + Z 5) = 4.83 / 43.04 = 0.112

Z 5 = 2(1- K54) K50

Or 38.25/ {2 (1- 0.112)} = K50 = 21.53 or

Z 5 = 2 (K54 x K50 )

This gives Z 5 as 2 x 0.112 x 21.53 = 4.82

For zone 6 settings

Z 6 = K50 (0.3 + 2(1- K54)) = 21.53 {0.3 + 2 (1- 0.112)} = 44.69

Z 6 = K 50 (0.3 + 2K 54) = 21.53 (0.3 + 2x 0.112) = 11.28

After carrying out these settings testing will be carried out.

Testing is made very easy by use of test plugs GEC make for these relays.

ZFB test set, omicron or freja can be used for testing of these relays.

74
 CHAPTER 7

L 8b DISTANCE RELAY

7.1) INTRODUCTION (MAIN FEATURES)

The main features of this relay are:-

- It uses mho characteristic, a partially switched relay.

- The reference voltage is a complicated one E.g. for S-G fault the reference is
taken as combination of voltage VTR and V RS in such a manner that the later is
rotated by an angle of 600 by a circuit comprising CX6, RX6, and X 6. The
manufacturer adjusts the circuit in such a manner that VTR a2 V RS is the final
reference. (No need to go into further details as we know the function of
reference and why it is taken- as for how- let the manufacturer worry. Our job
was to inform that the reference is not fully cross polarized or partially or self
rather it is a complicated one). As we know the idea for reference voltage is such
that the reference voltage is not affected by any fault condition and it must not
drop to zero during faults the above arrangement achieves this objective.

- Four measuring units, three for phase to ground faults and one for all kinds of
phase to phase faults not involving ground. The characteristic is such that it
provides a very fine coverage for earth faults or resistive faults.

- Unique synchronous polarizing circuit ensures relay operation down to 0 volts.

(Memory circuit is used by using an R C circuit.).

- As it is an electromechanical relay so high burden on Cts and Pts, but despite

this it is a one cycle relay and has negligible over reach in case of c.v.t transients.

- Extremely accurate if one considers its electro mechanical nature.

- K 0 compensation available with no angle adjustment.

- RCA (relay characteristic angle) available on the replica impedance M by using

cos . Total of 5 replicas.

- It is a two zone relay both directional zones I.e. Z 1 and Z 2. However a third
zone can be added by using an extension unit separately.

- The relay has under voltage starters. Their settings are in V2, as the rotating
torque is obtained by two voltages- with typical settings all over the world are
402.

- It is using over current elements too. (function described at the end of chapter)

- Single and three phase tripping available.

- Distance relay schemes can be used.

- Minimum operating current required is 40 % of I n.

75
 - When the fault current passes through replica impedance it will cause rotation of
the replica voltage. This rotation may not be as accurate as the actual line angle;
therefore, a correction factor K is taken into account.

- Load encroachment arrangement is carried with the help of additional component

called as compounding chokes.

- Facility for connecting power swing blocking relay. (usually this facility is not
available in other electro mechanical relays.

7.2) SETTING CALCULATIONS

Consider the following system

Conductor: Rail Z = 0.45 840 ohms/ km

Pt ratio: 220 Kv/ 110 V

Ct ratio: 1200/1

K0: 0.7

Setting calculations for relay at station A, looking towards B

Zone 1 = 85% of the first section i.e. AB

Z 1 Primary= 0.85 x 120 x 0.45 840

Z 1 Primary= 46 840 ohms

Z 2 Primary= AB complete + 50 % of BC

Z 2 Primary= 120 x 0.45 + 0.5 x 100 x 0.45

Z 2 Primary= 76.7 840 ohms

Note that in zone 2, flexibility is allowed in settings.

Secondary values

UZ = (Pt ratio) / (Ct ratio) = (220000 / 110) / (1200/1) = 1.67

Z1 secondary = Z1 Primary / U Z = 46 / 1.67 = 27.54 840 ohms

Z2 secondary = Z2 Primary / U Z = 76.7 / 1.67 = 45.9 840 ohms

76
 To implement these settings we will proceeds as follows:

Step 1

We have stated in start of this chapter in the introduction that a factor K is to be

applied. So the first step in this case is to consult graph ESS 400033 and find out K . It comes out to be 0.92.

Step 2

The next requirement is to find Z 1sec (corrected) which is

Z 1sec (corrected) = Z 1sec (actual) / K and

Z 2sec (corrected) = Z 2sec (actual) / K

Hence,

Z 1sec (corrected) = 27.54 / 0.92 = 29.9

Z 1sec (corrected) = 45.9 / 0.92 =49.9

Step 3 (Phase to ground calculations)

Using Z 1sec (corrected) , consult the following table.

Z1s / K ohms/phase Settings on S 31 Settings c= f (F)

on HG
32

fn 50 Hz 60 Hz / ph K F c CM3 c CM4

In 5A 1A 5A 1A 50 Hz 60 Hz

5A 1A 5A 1A

0.4-0.8 2-4 0.48- 2.4- 0.4 2 0.48 2.4 1 F1 (50 %) 1 2

0.96 4.8

0.8-1.0 4-5 0.96- 4.8- 0.4 2 0.48 2.4 1 F2 0.5 1

1.2 6.0 (100%)

1.0-2.0 5-10 1.2- 6.0- 1.0 5 1.2 6 1 F1 (50 %) 1 2

2.4 12

2.0-4.0 10- 2.4- 12- 1.0 5 1.2 6 1 F2 0.5 1

20 4.8 24 (100%)

4.0-8.0 20- 4.8- 24- 1.0 5 1.2 8 2 F1 0.5 1

40 9.6 48 (100 %)

Table for PT voltage= 100/110. (For 220V PT all values of reactances will be doubled)

77
 We now require that zone 1 secondary and corrected values be compared with the table given above.

As our value is 29.9. Hence we will take the last row in the above table.

Thus,

K = 2,

/ phase = 5

C cm3 = 0.5

C cm4 = 1 and

F 2 = 100%

Note we are using Z sec and not X sec. However it does not make much difference.

Step 4

To implement zone settings on the relay, the manufacturer has provided 3 HG transformers,
and the settings are carried out with the help of leads marked A for phase to ground and B for phase to phase.
Zone 1 phase to ground settings are designated by AI, zone 2 phase to ground by AII.

Similarly, Zone 1 phase to phase is designated BI and Zone 2 phase to phase by BII.

All of these are calculated with the help of formulas and in phase to phase with the help of graphs too.

As we are first carrying out phase to ground so the formulae are as under.

AI % = { / x K x K x 100} / {C cm3 x Z 1 sec} Note: the value of Z 1sec is not corrected.

AII % = { / x K x K x 100} / {C cm3 x Z 2 sec}

We have already found the required unknown values, so now using them.

AI % = {5 x 2 x 0.92 x 100} / {0.5 x 27.54} = 71 %

A II %= {5 x 2 x 0.92 x 100} / {0.5 x 45.9} = 40 %

The manufacturer implements these results with the help of 5 leads marked as -A, +AI, +AII, AI and
A II. The details of these leads are such that AI and A II, are for the decade selection of taps on the HG
transformers. Whereas, +AI, +AII are for the single digit selection i.e. for unit taps. We have another lead A
which will also be used for tap settings.

All are adjusted as per the following details.

We now to this point have

AI % = 71 % and AII % = 40 %.

When the HG transformer is examined on the relay- decade taps are from 10 to 90 with steps of 10.
Whereas, the tens are marked from 0 and than odd numbers only till the digit 9. Since, we are to select odd
number 71, therefore, the decade lead A I to 70, the unit lead +AI to 1, A lead will be fixed to 0. All of
these selections should add up to 71.

78
 It is important to note that A once set is common to both zones. In other words we can have either
only odd % or even %.

Since priority is for zone 1 to be accurate and- since we have selected it as odd (by placing A on)-
so we will have to make zone 2 odd too.

Thus, for zone 2 phase to ground we either have to set at 39 % or 41 %. It will not make a big
difference in the reach of zone 2 but still it is advisable to have it at 41 % instead of 39 %. This is done
simply because we would like to have an extended back up.

So, now we will set A II at 40 and + A II on 1.

Step 5 (phase to phase settings)

For phase to phase settings the manufacturer uses the same formula but with slight
adjustment.

BI%= { / x K x K x 100} / {C cm4 x Z 1sec} and

B II %= { / x K x K x 100} / {C cm4 x Z 2sec}

The values of / and K are set on another unit i.e. other than the phase to ground one. In
other words- the values of / and K will be different in this case from the earlier set for phase to
ground.

For this purpose we will consult the graph E SS 400031 (for 110 V PT and 50 Hz).

79
80
81
 (i) On the x-axis we have two rows of X sec / K y in / . One row is for a rela of rating 5 A
and the other row is for rela of rating 1 A. Since the rela in our lab is of 1 A -we will select that
row.

Principle is that we will take zone impedances (corrected) and than mark this impedance on
X-axis.

Next we will move up from this marked point along the vertical. We see that while moving
up we first encounter slanted line named 6. Place a ver light dot with a lead pencil over here. When
this point is checked with the Y-axis we see that it gives a value of around 24. This 24 is N - but
since this value have been obtained with the help of zone 1 settings so it will be called N 1 .

The manufacturer has set the rule that this N should be between 80 % and 110 %( we will
know for practical reason as to wh when we will be setting N2 ).

This means we cannot select the point selected in the paragraph stated above.

Going b the rule we will have to select slanted line number 12 or 13 to have N 1 on the Y-
axis greater then 80 % and less than 110 %.

Here, we select line nos.12.

( ii) At the bottom of the graph we have the following table.

Graph nos. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

/ In=5A 0.39 0.52 0.65 0.39 0.52 0.65 0.39 0.52 0.65 0.78 0.91 1.17 1.56

In=!A 1.95 2.60 3.25 1.95 2.60 3.25 1.95 2.60 3.25 3.90 4.55 5.85 7.80

K 1 1 1 2 2 2 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

B consulting the above table using column for graph nos 12 we see that,

/= 5.85

K = 4

(These settings of / are at the inside of the rela . Also two leads per settings are used and there are a total
of four places where we have to set it. The two leads are marked + and -. We have to set both in such a wa
that we get 5.85.

Here, we will set the + lead on 5.85 and the lead on 0).

(iii) The tapings B are set b two methods

a) N%= N % / C cm4.

Or B I % = N 1 % / C cm4

And similarl B II % = N 2 % / C cm4

82
 From graph nos.12 we have

N 1 % = 78 % =BI%

And N 2 % = 52 % = B II %

b) B using the formula

BI%= { / x K x K y x 100} / {C cm4 x Z 1sec}

B II % = { / x K x K y x 100} / {C cm4 x Z 2sec}

Using the various values

BI%= {5.85 x 4 x 0.92 x 100} / {1 x 27.54} = 78.2 %

If this value is compared with the one from the graph we see that the are
almost the same. (This later method is advised)

Similarl ,

B II % = {5.85 x 4 x 0.92 x 100} / {1 x 45.9} = 47.8 %

After calculation of B I % and B II % we now proceed to set both on the HG transformer.

It will be better to round of B I and B II to odd or even nos.- giving priorit to B I.

It will be better and advised to set B I % to 78 %. This small decrease will have ver little affect reach of zone
1. Likewise, we will set zone 2 to 48 %.i.e. both are even.

Next,

We will set B lead to 1.

B I lead to 70

+ B I lead to 9 and we will get 70 + 9 1 = 78

Also,

Now B remains at 1 and we proceed to connect

B II to 40

+ B II to 9

And we will finall get 40 + 9 1= 48 %

7.3) `Additional settings on the relay

On the HG transformer we have settings of C cm3 and C cm4 which have alread been found and will
be connected as such.

83
 7.3.1) K 0 settings

We now know that this is for earth fault compensation settings. This setting is done
on a single transformer at the right hand side at the front. But the setting of K 0 on L 8 b is a bit complicated
as we have three leads instead of 1.

These leads are marked as P 0 , + P and S

a) For 0.1 <= K 0 <= 0.4

Set S to 0-1

P 0 to 0.5 and then connect +P to such a value that it gives a

value that summation gives a value 0.5 greater than the actual value.

Thus if we are to set 0.3 for K 0 , than we will set S to 0-1, P 0 to 0.5 and +P to (0.3+0.5=0.8).

b) For 1 < = K 0 < = 1.65

Set P 0 to 0

+ P to 0-1

And S to the required value directl e.g. 1.65

c) For 0.5 < = K 0 < = 1

Set S to 0-1

P 0 to 0

+P to the required value i.e. if the required value is 0.7 then + P will
be directl connected to this value.

7.3.2) Angle settings

Usuall the angle for phase to ground is set a little lower then phase to phase
to give greater coverage for arcing faults. Here the angle for phase to phase will be taken as 850 and
phase to ground as 800. These angles are set on the replicas b using cos of 850 and cos of 800. These
will be ver near to each other. Nevertheless, keep a slight difference.

7.3.3) Zone 2 time settings

This will be set on zone 2 timer at 350 msec.

7.3.3) Under voltage relay settings

The manufacturer advises to set these at 40 2 V.

7.4) Testing

These electromechanical rela s should never be tested with new digital test sets because of
their high burden. In our lab it will be tested with a ZFB test set, primaril to give the idea that all
electromechanical rela s can be tested with ZFB test set.

84
 CHAPTER 8

Distance relay features and schemes

8.1) Introduction

In this chapter we will be discussing various additional features of distance rela s

and different inter trip schemes.

8.2) SOTF Feature

SOTF means Switch On To Fault. That means a condition when we will have circuit breaker
switching on to a fault that is alread present. To understand in detail we see that:-

In normal condition when the system is running and a fault occurs, we have circuit breaker tripping
caused b rela . When we anal ze this statement carefull , we see that s stem was alread energized and
fault occurred on a live s stem.

The concept of SOTF is different. We simpl sa that we have a dead line and a fault develops on a
dead line. Thus when we proceed to switch on the CB, then the fault is alread there. This means that we had
no load; no suppl ; and fault was there; and we switched on the circuit breaker on a fault alread existing.
Thus we have a situation of Switch On To Fault.

But a question is as to when such a situation will arise.

Supposing line staff is to avail a PTW. What the control center will do is that the will switch off the
line completel from both ends i.e. de-energize the line completel , and will than proceed to connect earth
switches on both sides of the line inside grid stations.

When the line staff is to start work, a safet precaution is that the connect temporar earths at the
site of work, and on both sides of the place where work is being carried out.

Supposing the finish of work and forget to remove one of the temporar earths.

Now, when PTW is cancelled and reverse operation to energize the line is to be carried out- we are
having an energization of line on an alread existing fault. This is one condition of SOTF.

Another example is that suppose we have a running s stem, and a conductor or shield wire gets
broken and it falls on the other phases- causing a short circuit- and hence a fault. Under this situation rela s at
grid stations will cause tripping as per nature of fault. After resetting of indications the operator at the grid
station will make an attempt to close the CB under the instructions of NPCC or RCC. But now the fault is
alread there and so we have a situation of SOTF.

Such t pes of switching are ver dangerous, as these are bolted faults- not arcing faults and the need
to be cleared quickl . It requires ver fast clearance and so SOTF will alwa s be instantaneous.

Question arises- how will the rela know when to trip under normal condition and when to trip under
SOTF. This means that we have to tell the rela to get read for SOTF.

85
 This is done b two methods.

1) Normall close contact of CB.

2) Use of voltage level detector.

1) Normally close contact of CB

SOTF is a feature in built in the rela . Our requirement is to enable the feature as and when we
want. But it must be kept in mind that it has a dela ed pick up and when input is removed it has a
dela ed drop off.

The input is simpl DC (whatever be the rating of the rela , that DC is applied).

The negative of batter will be directl connected to the designated terminal, while the positive
of batter will be given through normall close contact of the circuit breaker auxiliar contacts. The
circuit will be as such

SOTF

Thus when circuit breaker is opened SOTF feature will get DC suppl but will pick up/ enabled after
some dela (in msecs onl ). This dela is to let the auto reclosure cause closing, and if the fault is
permanent, the rela should cause repeat tripping through normal operation- that is to sa we do not
want SOTF under these circumstances. It is ver important to note and understand that SOTF is
alwa s on a permanent fault so if we have alread decided that we have a permanent fault- than
wh have auto reclosing.

Therefore, NO AUTO RECLOSING- on SOTF.

After some time dela SOTF will be enabled. If now, there is a case of broken conductor and a
tr is to be given, we will have instantaneous tripping with the help of SOTF feature.

Another important thing to note is that distance rela operates on under impedance. If we have a
fault in zone 1 and the severit of fault is such that we have less dip in voltage; and fault current is
low too; than it ma happen that zone 1 fault will be read b the distance rela in zone 2 or even in
some cases zone 3, or ma be the zone comparators are silent altogether and so the rela ma not trip.

86
 Now, if we have such a situation that the s stem conditions ma result in the above scenario and
we close under the conditions where SOTF should appl but we have no provision of SOTF, then
obviousl we will have serious consequences of rela being silent on a bolted fault (irrespective of
the fact that fault level is low).

Under such a condition if SOTF feature is enabled, we will avoid time dela in tripping and even
avoid silence of rela .

There is an option in rela s where we want to use the zone comparators or not.

In the case where we are using them, than SOTF feature will have the range of zone 3. An thing
outside is zone 3 will not be read b the feature.

In the event of not using zone comparators rela s ma use other logics such as under volts.

It must be remembered that in new numerical rela s, there is a separate zone for SOTF operation.
How much coverage do we want to give to this SOTF is than open to our choice.

Normall , this NC arrangement will be used for bus bar Pts scheme.

If we are to use it for one and a half breaker scheme than we will be having two CBs and so two
NC contacts. These two NC contacts will be required to form an AND gate and the output of this
AND gate will be given to the SOTF feature.

That means- the two NC contacts will be taken in series and this series combination will pass + v
e to the SOTF feature when both CBs are open. Even if one is closed then it means that the line is
running and under this condition we do not require SOTF.

2) Voltage comparator system

In all rela s, whether electromechanical or digital, there is a threshold set for current and
voltage. If the current is above that threshold than the rela will operate when fault occurs, otherwise it will
be silent. We have alread defined it as minimum operating current of rela s. In digital rela s we use current
level detectors for this purpose.

Similarl , we will have voltage level detectors, such that information about low voltage is
collected b rela and used.

Now, when the line is de-energized, this low voltage level detector will be receiving no Pt
volts and so will be reading zero volts. When this happens it will enable the SOTF feature, which again will
pick up after some time dela , (Alread discussed).

Now whenever the concerned CB is to closed- this feature will be active Thus, if a fault occurs
during this time, than tripping will be b the SOTF feature and instant, i.e. b passing the normal channel of
timer. When the s stem voltage rises, so will Pt voltage and so the rela voltage level detector falls back from
reading zero volts. Thus, SOTF will also get disable, but essentiall after some minute time dela .

Similarl , if the fault is alread there, as per dead s stem- than again there will be SOTF
operation, because the voltage level detector will be reading zero volts and the SOTF feature will be enabled.

This voltage comparator s stem for the detection of SOTF is normall used in one and a half
breaker scheme.

87
 There is a problem in this feature.

In a heavil loaded line- and when the s stem voltage is low, as in Pakistan. The PT voltage
falls below the low voltage level detector, and this level detector instead of reading it as low volts, directl
tells the rela that it is reading 0 volts. When this happens, the low voltage level detector enables the SOTF
feature.

Now, if, the current is above the minimum operating level of the rela (meaning there is no
fault but the load current is high)- the rela reads it as an SOTF fault and so there will be undesired tripping.
E.g. 50V phase to neutral is read instead of 63.5 V. The rela will take it as 0 volts and will enable the SOTF
feature. If now the minimum operating current of the rela is 0.2 A and the load is above this current- rela
will trip using SOTF feature and the tripping will be instantaneous.

SOTF feature is tested in lab b enabling the input to it with the rated DC of rela and fault
applied.

Or using the level detectors set pre-fault time equal to zero and appl fault. There will be instant
operation, even if the fault was of zone 3.

8.3) V FAIL FEATURE

We know that Cts should never be open-circuited, as high voltages are developed in
the secondar and the Ct will get damaged. We also know that Ct will alwa s be terminated after its burden -
of ver ver low impedance, such that, this impedance is approaching zero- and burden is connected in such a
wa that all kinds of currents get a closed loop i.e. currents flow under all conditions.

Our emphasis on the above point is that we have to avoid open circuiting of Ct at all costs-
even that of a spare core.

But we also know that a PT behaves opposite to that of a CT. It acts (almost) exactl like a
power transformer, except the load draws minimal current. We also know that short circuiting of PT has to be
avoided at all costs.

This means we provide protection against short circuiting- such as fuses or miniature circuit breakers
(MCBs).

To conclude- we have to avoid open circuiting of CT and short circuiting of PTs.

We know that an impedance rela acts on the ver basic idea of Z = V/I.

It means that if for some reason the PT fuse is blown or MCB operates (trips), we have 0 volts and so Z = 0.

Under such a condition distance rela is bound to operate.

Supposing, we have heavil loaded 500 KV, or 220 KV, or even 132 Kv line, and Pt fail occurs due
to fuse or MCB opening, than there will be tripping not because of the s stem but because of a fault in the PT
circuit!

We mean to sa that it is absolutel absurd to cause such heav outage that ma lead to s stem
collapse, just because of a PT fuse.

Thus, to avoid such kind of un-desirable tripping, we need to have some protection against PT fuse
blowing or MCB tripping.

88
 A B C

0 0 Dont care

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 Dont care

Now, whenever we have PT failure, we require two things.

i) Rela should be told that the dip in voltage to zero is because of PT failure
and not because of a fault.

ii) The action after step 1 should be that distance rela should not operate once
fuse failure is detected.

This means that we have to first detect fuse failure and than necessar step is taken.

Basicall , fuse failure is detected b two methods.

a) Exclusive OR gate method

b) Balance beam method.

a) Exclusive OR gate method

In this method an exclusive OR gate is used. The figure for exclusive OR gate for inputs A
and B and the truth table are as under.

For the above gate the truth table will be

89
 When the above exclusive OR gate is used for PT supervision i.e. PT fail we use

A= V0 as input and

B= I0 as the second input and

C= Output of the gate.

The circuit remains the same.

But question is from where we get these two quantities.

V0 is obtained from open delta connections of PT. Such as

This V0 = V A + V B + V C

Whenever there is an unbalance, V 0 will appear.

But V 0 is not used alone. It is used in conjunction with I 0.

I 0 is obtained from a current coil placed in the neutral of CT circuit (just like an over current earth
fault rela ).

Actuall the above exclusive OR gate can be simulated with mechanical arrangement as

90
 And the truth table will be modified. Also, what happens in the s stem with different conditions of V
0 and I 0 is also written in the table.

V0 I0 Output (V-fail)

0 0 Under this condition, PT is reading balanced voltages or we can sa that PT is indicating

that the power s stem is balanced. Similarl , CT is reading 0 amps i.e. CT is also
indicating that the power s stem is balanced. When both agree with each other that the
power s stem is balanced, than the rela understands it as no abnormalit on the s stem-
or an of its PT -or CT circuits, and hence the output is 0. Or dont care and no action is
taken b the PT fail unit. When neither the s stem has fault, nor there is PT fail, nor there
is an unbalance in CT so there will be no action, and it should be as such.

0 1 This means that the power s stem- as indicated b PT- is balanced but here the CT is
sa ing that the power s stem is unbalanced. But we know that for an neutral current to
flow we must have pressure behind it i.e. voltage. Here we have a condition that the PT is
sa ing no fault and the Ct is sa ing ground fault. So how can we even think of a
current without voltage behind it. This means that we can safel sa that this situation is
practicall not possible and so we can ignore it.

1 0 Here PT is stating that it is reading unbalanced conditions but at the same time CT is
reading that the power s stem is balanced. Now this is PT fail. And as we will see that the
output will be 1 and V-fail will operate. On operation, PT fail will block the distance
rela b either cutting of DC (as in quadra mho or block rela b logic as in micro mho
rela ).

Note:- In new numerical rela s this condition is utilized to monitor problems in CT

circuit.

1 1 We see that PT is sa ing there is a fault and Ct is sa ing there is fault too. So both agree
that there is a fault and, we sa that it is an actual power s stem fault i.e. we have pressure
as well as flow of current. Under such a condition V-fail s stem should remain silent. And
we

see that being an ex OR gate it goes into dont care condition i.e. no operation. This
should

be such because we dont want V-fail to block rela under this condition.

b) Balance beam method

This method requires a two protection windings Pt or two protection cores PT.

The arrangement is as under

91
 Whereas, VR1 is the red phase PT voltage of one winding / core and V R 2 is the Pt voltage of the
other winding / core.

Under normal condition, both PTs will be available, and so the beam will be balanced. But when one
of Pt fuses blow or its MCB trips than one Pt will disappear and the beam will tilt to one side.

Supposing, red 1 is used for Pt suppl of a distance rela and this fuse blows. Then the beam will tilt
in the clockwise direction. As the right hand side moves up, it will make contacts, which are than used for
PT fail logic as well as alarm. Similarl , when red 2 blows it will rotate anti clockwise direction and so the
other contacts will make. And we can get and use Pt fail of the other core too.

Similar arrangement is used for the other phases also. And the same explanation applies.

In some old grids of Pakistan the are using RXBA rela of ABB. It has been used in 500 Kv Rawat
and 500 Kv Peshawar for PT fail function of RAZFE rela as it has no such inbuilt function

Note:- The ex OR gate logic is now used such as in quadra mho and micro mho and it is inbuilt.

8.4) ASPECT RATIO

Supposing, we have a ver long s stem of transmission lines. Than, obviousl , the circle
formed b zone 1 mho characteristic will be ver large. Since zone 2 and 3 will be covering the next sections
so we will see that those circles are even of larger size.

Keeping in view this picture we now move ahead to see what does a distance rela do to load.

What we mean here is that load on the s stem is a current, and this current is picked up b CT and is
consequentl supplied to the current coil of a distance rela .

Similarl , a voltage is acting on the s stem for this load. This voltage is picked b PT and supplied to
the potential coil of distance rela .

Actuall , the point being cleared is that when load is running, Pt will be suppl ing a voltage to the
rela as per s stem voltage and the Ct will be suppl ing current to the rela as per s stem load.

This means that the distance rela will be forming V /I = Z, or in other words the distance rela will
be seeing a certain impedance corresponding to load. Since this impedance seen is because of the connected
load onl , so we can safel call it as load impedance.

This impedance will be having an angle too- depending on the power factor angle. Thus, when we
place this impedance on the R-X diagram we ma have such a figure as under.

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 The load represented will move along the power factor angle as changes occur in its magnitude, or
angle or the suppl voltage.

That means when load increases the load dot will move towards the outer circle at the power factor
angle because V/I seen b the rela reduces.

Next when load reduces it will move outwards.

But, as we have alread stated that when lines are ver long and we will have condition of light loads
the load dot will be ver close to the boundar of the outer most circle i.e. zone 3. Now, if the load is
increased there are 100 % chances that the load dot will move inside the zone three circle and hence will
cause tripping in zone 3.

Thus, we are having tripping under full load condition or under load less then full load; and that here
is no fault. Obviousl this situation is to be avoided.

To avoid this, we will have to run the transmission line under load, less than it is designed for. So, we
have under utilization of transmission line and s stem efficienc is reduced. Additionall , our hands will be
tied up for maximum power s stem not because of the actual s stem but onl

Because of a rela ! This is highl undesirable.

In this situation we sa that the load has encroached upon zone 3. The phenomenon is called as
load encroachment.

All efforts will be made to avoid load encroachment and we have to make arrangements inside the
rela to overcome this short coming.

Here, the logic aspect ratio is introduced. This is represented b the factor a / b.

The arrangement is such that a lens is formed at the same angle as the line angle. Very important to
not that the lens lies at the line angle.

Its major axis equal to the line length = b.

It means the reach along the line angle will not be affected.

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 While the minor axis will be = a

The lens is as under.

Actuall , we will have an ellipse. Thus, when the above shape is formed, we will have a shrunken
characteristic at the places where load is to approach and so we can have an additional cushion for the load at
the place where it is moving.

This ellipse is formed b using two circles, such that the intersection of the two circles forms the
ellipse, with major axis as b and minor as a.

So, if we have a / b = 1

Then we will be having a normal circle for mho characteristic.

The other settings are a / b less than 1. (Please verif on rela s).

It must be remembered that aspect ratio is applicable to zone 3 onl and not to zone 1 and 2. Also it
ma happen that when a / b is set to a ver low value, the lens ma shrink below zone 2 at the power factor
angle. In such a situation we ma have load encroaching into zone 2 and we will have zone 2 tripping. But
there is normall no aspect ratio for zone 2. So, it is advised that such a scenario is not reached.

8.5) COMPOUNDING CHOKES

In electro mechanical rela s the logic circuit is not available to compensate for load
encroachment. Rather compounding chokes are used.

The idea is to reduce the size of the mho circle drawn.

Also, there is another function and a ver important one. This is explained as below.

Consider the following figure.

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 V = Voltage of the s stem

V rela = Voltage supplied b Pt to the potential coil of the distance rela . i.e. the actual voltage
seen b the rela .

When the line is a ver long one, and we have a far off fault, than we have several things happening.

1) The fault current is low- as there is a lot of impedance between the source and the
fault point.

2) We have alread stated that it is a far off fault and so there will be less dip in voltage.
The voltage profile is as shown above and so the voltage received b the rela will
be V-rela .

Thus keeping in view the above, we can sa that the rela potential coil is receiving a voltage that is
high. Actuall , the purpose of this statement is to make ou understand that when this voltage is high,
the restraining force as per distance rela will be more. Now, it is crucial to note that on the one hand
we have a high restraining force and on the other hand and at the same time we have less current. It
means that operating quantit is low too.

Now, there is ever chance that if the fault was in zone 1 it ma be read in zone 2 or 3, and if
it was zone 2 it ma be read in zon3 or 4 or ma be not at all. This is undesirable and we have to
maintain accurac of the distance rela .

To solve this problem compounding chokes are used in electro mechanical rela s.

These are actuall pure reactances or we can have them in the form of impedance with some
high angle.

Whatever the case be our aim will be to make the distance rela see a voltage equal to a
voltage somewhere along the line.

This means that the rela will not be seeing V-rela but a voltage somewhere along the line
and the profile shows us that this voltage will be far less.

But which point should be selected on the line, whose voltage on the voltage profile is to be
given and how it is given to the PT coil.

Supposing we want to make the rela see voltage of mid point of the line.

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 What we will do is that we will find out the impedance of till the mid point, from the rela
point. Use the proper factor U z and find the secondar impedance and this impedance will be set on
the compounding choke.

Next, whenever a fault occurs, this fault current will be passed through the compounding
choke. And so the result is that we get a drop that replicates the drop in 50 % of the line.

Let this drop is U Choke. Now, this drop will be subtracted from the voltage V to get V- rela .
It will be this new V-rela that will be applied to the potential coil.

In phase to phase the impedances add up to give double the drop with a high current, but in
phase to ground current is low, so we have to compensate for the low current.

8.6) DISTANCE RELAY SCHEMES

Distance rela uses different schemes for fast clearance of faults and for fast auto
reclosing, in addition to the original scheme. But the question is wh needing these schemes in the
first place.

A power s stem is considered to be efficient, provided it ensures continuit of suppl - that is

to sa least outages plus and ver important- that the duration of outage be as minimum as possible.

Another important point to be made here is that s stem studies reveal that most of the faults
are single phase to ground, i.e. about 80 % of the faults are such. And of these 80 % faults 80 % are
temporar faults. Rests of the faults are permanent and multi phase.

These temporar faults are usuall flashes and the do not sustain themselves, because of
their nature. And if the are sustained for a bit more time it is primaril because the line remains
energized for that time. We mean to sa is that; the energized line acts as

Source (fuel to the fire). If we remove this source altogether, the flash will disappear
relativel quickl .

Our aim will be to de-energize the line as quickl as possible.

With this point in mind, we move further.

We know that when there is a temporar fault and the rela trips, the flash is removed
automaticall b tripping of CB. The source will be cut off; at the same time the fault or the flash
disappears. And all of this will happen in ma be sa 100 msec.

When this happens the operated will follow instructions of NPCC and will re-close the
breaker. This reclosing ma take more then 15 minutes as NPCC is involved; messages are given;
indication noted and reset; and onl than tr is given to the CB.

What we see here is that the fault itself took 100 msec to clear and the closing of the breaker
took a ver long time. This causes dis-continuit of suppl for more time than required and results in
revenue loss too.

In another scenario, if the line was being used as a link between two power sources with load
sharing than as the line is disrupted; the tie line is broken; we have loss of s nchronism and so at the
end complete s stem collapse.

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 All this happened onl because reclosing took a long time.

So, wh not automaticall close the circuit breaker- using auto reclosures.

This will reduce the time to such a level that successful closing will take place within a sec,
and all the problems will be solved.

Does it mean we will be reclosing for permanent faults also? The answer is a big NO.

For all permanent faults there will be no auto reclosing.

But how will the rela know whether the fault is temporar or permanent.

All faults of zone 2 and zone 3 are declared as permanent -as the fault took so much time or
was sustained for 350 msec or 750 msec.

In fact we will have a timer in rela s, such that, if a fault takes more than that time it will be
considered as permanent and the distance rela will block auto reclosure. The timer on L 3 w s
rela and L Z 31 is T IV. It is usuall set to 120 msec.

Even if a fault is of zone 1- but stretches a bit in time- and the time to get it cleared is greater
then 120 msec -than under such a condition T IV will operate- blocking auto reclosure.

In view of the above discussion, now consider the following s stem

Fault occurs at the point shown such that the fault is in zone 2 of A I and zone 1 of B I.

We also have auto reclosures on both sides.

We take all in steps.

1) B I will trip instantl .

2) A I remains closed waiting for zone 2 time to operate.

At this stage the line remains energized from source 1 through A I and so the suppl to fault
is not removed. Thus, fault is sustained.

3) Next, B I auto reclosure operates to close its CB B I.

4) After 350 msec A I trips.

But we see that now, the line is energized from source 2 through B I

That means we are not cutting off suppl , so the source to the fault is not removed and so
fault is not extinguished. That is to sa , when one source side opens the line remains

97
energized from the other side and when this side opens it gets energized from the first. So,
the problem is that we are not getting de-energization of the line at all or the line does not get
the chance to go dead. First it is one side and then it is the other side. And our requirement
is to cut supplies totall ; to have the line dead and; the fuel to the fault is removed; and it
gets extinguished; is not fulfilled.

If we do not counter the process of closing one and opening the other to let the fault get
cleared- we will cause damages.

We also see that problem is created b the rela which has dela ed tripping i.e. zone 2 time.
Meaning we have to some how get rid of this dela .

This is achieved with the help of protection schemes. And the aim is to cause
simultaneous trippings at both ends and than simultaneous closing at both ends. Thus we
have to speed up the rela that is slow. This requires signaling between A I rela and B I
rela . And our aim will be to speed up the rela which is slow with the help of the signal.

It must be kept in mind that the signal will not work alone. As we have said that the
requirement of permissive schemes is to speed up the rela which is slow

i.e. we will have to b pass its timer.

But whatever the signal has to do, it has to ask permission from the rela that is to be
speeded up. We mean the rela that is slow has to somehow allow the signal to do the
needful. If it does not give permission than obviousl the signal should not do an thing. It is
for this reason that these schemes are called as permissive schemes.

These signals are carried out through communication s stem in power section
through HV lines.

The ma be

1) Using OPGW shield wires. (OPtical fiber Ground Wire- It passes

signals with the speed of light- Ver efficient)

2) PLC (Power Line Carrier)

3) Micro wave tower.

The distance rela schemes are of the following t pes.

1) Basic scheme.

2) Zone 1 extension scheme.

3) Permissive under reach scheme PUR, also called as

Permissive under reach transfer trip (PUTT).

4) Permissive over reach scheme POR, also called as

Permissive over reach transfer trip (POTT).

5) Blocking scheme.

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 8.6.1) BASIC SCHEME

When there is no signaling and we have just normal operation with or with out auto
reclosure- then we sa that it is basic scheme.

8.6.2) ZONE 1 EXTENSION

This scheme requires that auto reclosure should be in service. Without auto reclosure
this scheme cannot be implemented.

The arrangement can be better understood with the help of following figure.

In this scheme zone 1 is initiall set at 120 % of first section i.e. AB.

We will be discussing as to what happens to the rela A I.

It means that when the s stem is running and there is no fault, the rela A I, will be watching 120 % of the
first section AB. Thus we will be extending zone 1 into the next section, thereb , covering not onl AB
complete but 20 % of BC as well. In this wa the rela is covering its entire section in zone 1(as the figure
shows -see the red line that the original setting of Zone 1 is at 80-85 % of first section).

We will give both settings to the rela . i.e. the rela will have both Z1 settings and Z1X settings, And similar
arrangement for the rela at B I.

Zone 2, zone 3 for A I will have the same setting modus for calculations. And likewise for B I

Now, supposing fault occurs at the point shown -Flt1. The following things happen at the same time
and we will proceed step wise.

1st moment

B II Picks in zone 1

AI Picks in zone 1

BI is silent, as the fault is at its back.

CI ignore- as we are discussing section AB onl and behavior of rela A I.

2nd moment.

B II Trips in zone 1 and starts the dead time of auto reclosure for closing. Section BC
goes off from bus bar B.

AI Trips in zone 1X and as soon as the CB opens, the auxiliar contacts of the CB resets
Z1x to Z1 in the rela . This resetting stands fixed till the breaker is closed. Once the

99
 breaker closes, the input- aux contact of the breaker- opens, so that the reset is
removed, but there is a certain time dela in the drop off of the reset, so that the rela
continues to run with Z1 for some time.

But this action cuts off AB for a fault of BC.

At the same time the rela A I starts the dead time of its auto reclosure.

BI Remains silent. No action.

CI Ignore.

3rd moment

There are now two cases:-

a) The fault is removed during the dead time of the auto reclosure.

B II Will be closed b the auto reclosure and closing will be successful.

AI Will also be closed b the auto reclosure and closing will be successful.
And the reduction will be cancelled; with Z1 going back to Z1x after a
small time dela .

BI Remains silent.

b) The fault is still there after dead time.

B II Will trip again in zone1- as it should. Now there will be no auto reclosing.
Thus, isolating the fault section instantl .

AI It will reclose (at the same time as B II).

Now A I is not watching this fault in Z1x rather its reach is now set to Z1.
So, it will watch this fault in zone 2 and will have to wait for its time to
elapse, for tripping. But b this time B II has alread tripped in zone 1 time,
thereb , isolating the fault section instantl .

This means as the fault is no more there, the closing of A I will be

successful.

We see that A I is actuall acting as back up to B II. If B II fails to trip- first time or second
time after auto reclosing- onl then A I acts as back up. In the first case clearing in zone 1 and later will trip
in zone 2, but again, that too after auto reclosing. This means that we are giving a chance to B II, while A I
acts as back up.

Fault at Flt 2

In this case the fault is l ing in the extended zone of A I but in normal zone 2 of A I. The following
happens moment wise.

1st moment

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 AI Picks in zone 1 extension.

BI Picks in zone 1 extension.

B II Is silent as the fault is on its back side.

2nd moment

AI Trips in Z 1X, at the same time the auxiliar contact of the breaker resets to Z1. Also,
at the same time the dead time of the auto reclosure is started.

BI Trips in Z1X (but it must be noted that the fault is in Z1 too) and at the same time the
auxiliar contact of the breaker resets it to Z1. Also, at the same time the dead time
of the auto reclosure is started.

B II Is silent.

3rd moment

There are now two cases:-

a) The fault is removed during the dead time of the auto reclosure.

B II Remains silent.

AI Will be closed b the auto reclosure and closing will be successful. And the
reduction from Z1X to Z1 will be cancelled; i.e. Z1 going back to Z1X after
a small time dela .

BI It will be closed b the auto reclosure and closing will be successful. And
the reduction from Z1X to Z1 will be cancelled; i.e. Z1 going back to Z1X
after a small time dela . (All will be the same as A I)

b) The fault is still there after dead time.

B II Remains silent.

AI It will reclose (at the same time as B I).

Now A I is not watching this fault in Z1X rather its reach is now set to Z1.
So, it will watch this fault in zone 2 and will have to wait for its time to
elapse, for tripping. Thus, since the fault is permanent, it will trip again in
zone 2 time. So, moment 4 will be

4th moment

AI Trips in zone 2 time and the tripping is permanent.

BI After closing as per moment 3, it will again trip in zone Z 1. It will be noted that it
has now been reset from Z1X to Z1. Point is, the tripping will be instantaneous and the tripping will
be final i.e. there is no further auto reclosing.

This means that both A I and B I will have final three phase tripping and there will be no auto
reclosing.

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 We see that A I is actuall clearing the own section fault in zone 1 time when 1st tripping
occurs. This gives a great advantage that the small handicap which we had in basic zone, that some small
portion of 1st section (20 %) was being cleared in zone 2, is now being cleared in

zone 1. Thus we have a ver fast clearing of fault in own section. So, temporar faults are cleared quickl ,
and when the faults take a longer time the become permanent. Under this condition we have final tripping
whether fault falls in zone 2 or zone 1.

Thus, it is clear that- we have ver fast clearance for temporar faults in first section.

Hence we have speed of operation, minimal damages and so on and so forth.

Fault at Flt 3

In this case the fault is l ing in zone 1 of both A I and B I. The following happens moment wise.

1st moment

AI Picks in zone 1 extension.

BI Picks in zone 1 extension.

B II Is silent as the fault is on its back side.

2nd moment

AI Trips in Z 1X, (but it must be noted that the fault is in Z1 too)- at the same time the
auxiliar contact of the breaker resets to Z1. Also, at the same time the dead time of
the auto reclosure is started.

BI Trips in Z1X (but it must be noted that the fault is in Z1 too) and at the same time the
auxiliar contact of the breaker resets it to Z1. Also, at the same time the dead time
of the auto reclosure is started.

B II Is silent.

3rd moment

There are now two cases:-

a) The fault is removed during the dead time of the auto reclosure.

B II Remains silent.

AI Will be closed b the auto reclosure and closing will be successful. And the
reduction from Z1X to Z1 will be cancelled; after a small time dela i.e. Z1
going back to Z1X.

BI It will be closed b the auto reclosure and closing will be successful. And
the reduction from Z1X to Z1 will be cancelled; i.e. Z1 going back to Z1X
after a small time dela . (all will be the same as A I).

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 b) The fault is still there after dead time.

B II Remains silent.

AI It will reclose (at the same time as B I).

Now A I is not watching this fault in Z1X rather its reach is now set to Z1.
Since, the fault is permanent; it will trip again in zone 1.

So, moment 4 will be

4th moment

AI Trips in zone 1 time and the tripping is final. It will be noted that it has now been
reset from Z1X to Z1. But since the fault was originall in zone 1, the tripping will
be instantaneous and the tripping will be final i.e. there is no further auto reclosing.

BI After closing as per moment 3, it will again trip in zone Z 1. And the behavior is
exactl the same as A I.

This means that both A I and B I will have final three phase tripping and there will be no auto
reclosing.

We see that A I is actuall clearing the own section fault in zone 1 time when 1st tripping
occurs.

Thus we have a ver fast clearing of fault in own section. All the behavior of rela s will be
just like operating with basic scheme.

8.6.2) PERMISSIVE UNDER REACH SCHEME (PUR- ALSO CALLED AS PUTT)

This scheme essentiall requires

a) Auto-reclosure.

b) Means of transmitting signal from the distance rela to far end.

c) Signal itself, which has to be generated, to do the job of speeding up.

Without an of the above this scheme cannot be implemented.

The idea behind it has been explained in the start .i.e. we have to speed up the rela that is slow,
in such a manner that it trips instantaneousl , so that we can have instantaneous tripping and
same time auto reclosing at both ends.

The arrangement can be better understood with the help of following s stem.

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 Figure for system under discussion.

In this scheme, all zone settings are as per the basic so far studied.

The internal configuration for PUR ma be better understood with the help of the following
figure.

Timer T 2

Timer T3

Basic scheme at one station for PUR scheme

The characteristic of PUR scheme is clear from the above figure that two things will happen:-

i) An distance rela when selected for PUTT- will send signal to the other stations
whenever it picks up in zone1. Remember, we are using the term

Picks up, that is to sa , when the affect of fault -sensed b zone 1 comparator.

ii) Second feature pf PUTT or PUR is that it will use the received signal to b - pass
zone 2 time onl , using a feature like an AND gate.

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 iii) The point is that the signal is being used to b pass timer that is causing dela . So, we
can also have rela s that use this signal to b pass zone 3 timer.

An wa , basic is that the signal generation is in zone 1 (when zone 1 comparator senses impedance
less then its settings), and that the signal is used to b pass zone 2 time- to cause instantaneous
tripping.

We will be discussing as to what happens to the rela s A I and B I.

Let the s stem be running and there is no fault, the rela A I, will be watching 80-85% of
the first section AB from A towards B. Also, B I will be watching 80-85 % of the same section from the other
side, so its forward is from B to A. Alwa s, Tr to keep the reaches of A I and B I same in zone 1-see the
s stem figure.

Both rela s will be selected for PUTT with the help of the option select thumb wheel switches in quadra mho
and micro mho.

Zone 2, zone 3 for A I and B I will have the normal modus of settings calculations.

Now, supposing fault occurs at the point shown -Flt1. The following things happen at the same time.

We proceed step wise.

1st moment

B II Picks in zone 1(ignore what happens to it as we are discussing AB onl ).

AI Picks in zone 2 (No signal is sent towards B I, as it picks in zone 2 and we know that
our requirement is that the signal is sent in zone 1 onl ).

BI is silent, as the fault is at its back. So nothing happens.

CI Ignore- as we are discussing section AB onl and behavior of rela A I and B I onl .

2ndmoment.

B II Trips in zone 1 and does whatever it is supposed to do i.e. we have no concern.

AI Waits for the zone 2 time. If B II fails to trip, onl then it will cause tripping at its
end in zone 2. i.e. acts as back up to BII. Also, there will be no auto-

reclosing as it is a zone 2 fault. But this action cuts off AB for a fault of BC. i.e. indiscrimination will
occur.

BI Remains silent. No action.

CI Ignore.

Fault at Flt 2

In this case the fault is l ing in section AB itself, such that it is in zone 2 of A I and zone 1 of B I.

The following happen moment wise.

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1st moment

AI Comparator picks in zone 2.

BI Picks in zone 1 and at the same time will send signal to A I, Being in PUR scheme.

B II Is silent as the fault is on its back side.

2nd moment

First we take B I. It has picked up in zone 1, and three things will happen at the same time.

i) Instantaneous tripping of its breaker.

ii) Signal will be sent to A I.

iii) Will start the dead time of its auto re-closure.

AI Its zone 2 comparator will pick up and will combine with the signal received
from B I to b pass zone 2 timer.

Thus the result will be two things at the same time.

i) Instantaneous tripping of A I CB.

ii) Start of the dead time of its auto-reclosure.

B II Is silent.

What we see here is that B I has tripped instantaneousl and we have auto reclosure start.

Similarl , A I has instant tripping with the help of the signal and auto-reclosing start at the same time.

So, it is clear that, we have achieved instant tripping. And so whenever there is instant tripping we can have
auto reclosing.

It should also be kept in mind that we are using the word of instantaneous tripping for A I with the
help of signal. Here, we are assuming that the signal has traveled from B I to A I instantl . But
such speeds of signal ma not be achieved and there will be some time dela for the signal to
reach A I.

This time dela involves not onl the travel time of the signal but also involves the time taken b the
exchange to send the signal.

Fastest is OPGW, while the slowest is PLC. Slowest is in the range of around 50 msec.

3rd moment

After auto reclosing we have two cases,

a) The fault is removed during the dead time of the auto reclosure.

B II Remains silent.

AI Will be closed b the auto reclosure and closing will be successful.

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 BI It will be closed b the auto reclosure and closing will be successful. And
the signal will finish as soon as the rela drops off from zone 1. Here, it
happens with tripping of CB at B I.

b) The fault is still there after dead time.

All of the above process of signal generation and acceptance will be

repeated and there will be instantaneous tripping again.

But now there will be no auto reclosing for both ends and there will be three
phase final tripping for both A I and B I.

Fault at Flt 3

In this case the fault is l ing in section AB itself, such that it is in zone 1 of A I and zone 1 of B I.
The following happen moment wise.

1st moment

AI Comparator picks in zone 1 and at the same time sends signal to B I.( being PUR
scheme).

BI Picks in zone 1 and at the same time will send signal to A I, Being in PUR scheme.

B II Is silent as the fault is on its back side.

2nd moment

First we take B I. It has picked up in zone 1, and three things will happen at the same time.

i) Instantaneous tripping of its breaker.

ii) Signal will be sent to A I.

iii) Will start the dead time of its auto re-closure.

AI Its zone 1 comparator has picked up and again three things will happen. i.e.
exactl the same as for B I.

i) Instantaneous tripping of its breaker.

ii) Signal will be sent to B I.

iii) Will start the dead time of its auto reclosure.

B II Will remain silent as the fault is in reverse of B II.

We see that, both the CB will trip in zone 1 time and both will not wait for the signal from the other
station.

Meaning that, both rela s will trip instantl and will not wait for the signal from the other station. But
that does not mean that the signals will not travel or will not arrive. The will arrive at the far end, but, b
that time rela s would have caused tripping.

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And, whenever there is instant tripping we can have auto reclosing. Now, as both the auto reclosures have
started then we will have closing at both sides.

Actuall , we mean to emphasize, that there will be same time tripping and same time auto reclosing.

3rd moment

After auto reclosing we have two cases,

a) The fault is removed during the dead time of the auto reclosure.

B II Remains silent.

AI Will be closed b the auto reclosure and closing will be successful.

BI It will be closed b the auto reclosure and closing will be successful.

And the signal of both the rela s will finish as soon as the rela s drops off from zone 1. Here, it happens with
tripping of CB both at A I and B I.

b) The fault is still there after dead time.

All of the above process of signal generation and acceptance will be

repeated and there will be instantaneous tripping again.

But now there will be no auto reclosing for both ends and there will be three
phase final tripping for both A I and B I.

Fault at flt 4

This fault is a special condition. It is at the same place as the former.

Here we suppose that this fault occurs at a time when the generation from power houses is at the
lowest.

First we suppose that onl the power house at A (source 1) is low. We will call this source as weak in
feed. The power house at B (source 2) is as before i.e. normal.

The term weak in feed can be better understood if we consider Tarbela h del power station in our
countr . The capacit of this station is 3750 MW in summer season, when the head is full and there is
maximum water out flow through the generation tunnels. Next consider the same power house in extreme
winter season when the water out flow is at its minimum and the generation goes as low as 200 MW. If we
compare the fault current contributed b this station in summer, with that in winter, than there will be a
tremendous difference.

Similarl , suppose in our figure the source 1 is of 200 MW while 2 is of 400 MW, than obviousl the
fault current contributed b each will be lot different and 2 contribution will be man times.

If fault currents are so much different, then obviousl V / I seen b 2 will be different from the V / I
seen b 1. And so under such a situation 2 will be seeing an impedance Z far less than the impedance seen b
1.

This in itself is a big problem. Because what will happen that even if the fault is ph sicall in zone 1
of both A I and B I, but, electricall B I will be seeing this fault in zone 1 while A I will be seeing it either in

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zone 2 or 3. When this happens we will be having the situation as in fault at flt 2. I.e. A I would have picked
in zone 2 and B I in zone 1. If we do not speed up A I then we have the same situation as when we are not
using schemes. Here, the signal generated b B I (PUR) will speed up A I, and b doing this we will get
instant tripping and auto reclosing at both ends.

But a great disadvantage is when the rela at A I picks in zone 3- where our rela is of such a model
that it does not implement PUR for zone 3. This means that even if the signal arrives it will have no use as the
permission to b pass A I timer is to be given b picking up of zone 2 and not zone 3. Under such a condition
there will be no accelerated tripping.

Similarl , what if we have a condition that the rela A I does not pick an thing. Than it is obvious
that there will be no tripping at all as there is no permission. This case is rarel seen. And happens onl when
there is no source at the far end and the source to the fault current is the grounded neutral of a star- star
transformer.

An how, the point is that the permission of rela is essential to let the signal do the acceleration
whether the rela gives this permission b picking of zone 2 or zone 3.

Fault at flt 5

We have seen above-the effect of weak in feed- that one side senses a fault which is ph sicall of
zone 1 and senses it in zone 2.

But, what if both sides are weak in feeds?

That means a fault that is ph sicall in zone 1 of both A 1 and B !, will be sensed b both sides in
zone 2 or 3. If that is the condition, and we are using PUR, than it is clear that there will be no signaling; and
so no b passing of timers; thus there will be no speeding up of rela s; and so a fault of own section of rela s
will be cleared in a much dela ed time such as zone 2 time or zone 3 time. Additionall , there will be no auto
reclosing as well.

This is an inherent disadvantage of PUR, which is covered b permissive over reach scheme.

Fault at flt 6

This is of the same situation as flt 2 but with the roles of A I and B I reversed.

8.6.3) PERMISSIVE OVER REACH SCHEME (POR- ALSO CALLED AS POTT)

This scheme essentiall requires

a) Auto-reclosure.

b) Means of transmitting signal from the distance rela to far end.

c) Signal itself, which has to be generated, to do the job of speeding up.

Without an of the above this scheme cannot be implemented.

The idea behind using schemes has been explained in the start .i.e. we have to speed up the rela
that is slow, in such a manner that it trips instantaneousl , so that we can have instantaneous
tripping and then cause same time auto reclosing at both ends.

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 But in PUR there was an inherent flaw that if both sides were fed from weak infeeds, then the
did not speed up- although the fault being in their own section. Here, in POR this flaw is removed,
provided permission is granted.

The arrangement can be better understood with the help of following s stem.

Figure for system under discussion.

In this scheme, all zone settings are as per the basic so far studied.

The internal configuration for POR ma be better understood with the help of the following figure.

Timer T 2

Timer T3

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 Basic scheme at one station for POR scheme

The characteristic of POR scheme is clear from the above figure that three things will happen:-

i) An distance rela when selected for POTT- will send signal to the other stations whenever it
picks up in zone2. Remember, we are using the term picks up, that is to sa , when there is
effect of fault -sensed b zone 2 comparator, before its time elapses.

ii) Second feature of POTT or POR is that it will use the received signal to b pass zone 2 time -
or as per model, zone 3 timer also- using a feature like the AND gate.

iii) The signal is used to b pass timer that is causing dela .

An wa , point is that signal generation is in zone 2 rather than in zone 1(as in PUTT) i.e. when zone
2 comparator senses impedance less then its settings, and that the signal is used to b pass zone 2 time
-or zone 3 timer as the case ma be- to cause instantaneous tripping.

We will be discussing as to what happens to the rela s A I and B I.

Let the s stem be running and there is no fault, the rela A I, will be watching 80-85% of the first
section AB from A towards B. Also, B I will be watching 80-85 % of the same section from the other side, so
its forward is from B to A. Alwa s tr to keep the reaches of A I and B I same in zone 1-see the s stem figure.

Both rela s are selected for POTT with the help for example with option select thumb wheel switches in
quadra mho and micro mho rela s.

Zone 2, zone 3 for A I and B I will have the normal modus of settings calculations.

Now, supposing fault occurs at the point shown -Flt1. The following things happen at the same time
and we will proceed step wise.

1st moment

B II Picks in zone 1. It must also be kept in mind that a zone 1 fault is common to zone 2 and 3
also, as zone 1 circle is within zone 2 and zone 3 circles. So all the comparators will be
affected i.e. all three comparators will sense the fault. But we ignore B II as we are concerned
with AB onl .

AI Picks in zone 2 and at the same time signal is sent towards B I (as it picks in zone 2
and as per the characteristic of POTT signal is sent).

BI is silent, because the fault is at its back. So nothing happens. Now, even though the
signal from A I arrives, the signal cannot do an thing, as this rela has not picked at
all. In other words B I is not giving permission to the signal to do an thing. We have
alread stated that permission from B I is essential otherwise nothing will happen viz
a viz the signal. And picking up of rela is the required permission.

CI Ignore- as we are discussing section AB and behavior of rela A I and B I onl .

2ndmoment.

B II Trips in zone 1 and does whatever it is supposed to do i.e. we have no concern.

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 AI Waits for the zone 2 time, because we know that B I was silent and did not send an
signal to A I. And so if, B II fails to trip, onl then A I will cause tripping at its end
in zone 2. i.e. acts as back up to BII. Also, there will be no auto reclosing as it is a
zone 2 fault. But this action cuts off AB for a fault of BC. i.e. indiscrimination will
occur.

It must be noted that till the zone 2 time elapses and tripping occurs at A I, the zone 2
comparator of A I is obviousl high and so continues to send signal. That means
signal will fall off onl when zone 2 comparator falls off, and this will happen onl
when fault is removed.

BI Remains silent. No action. Even though signal stands on the signal receive input.

CI Ignore.

Fault at Flt 2

In this case the fault is l ing in section AB itself, such that it is in zone 2 of A I and zone 1 of B I.
The following happen moment wise.

1st moment

AI Comparator picks in zone 2 and as soon as it picks up it sends a signal to B I.

BI Picks in zone 1. As we have alread stated that the zone 1 circle is within zone 2
circle, so even though this fault is in zone 1, at the same time it is in zone 2 and zone
3. So, it is clear that B I will also send a signal to A I as the fault is in the circle of
zone 2- (Being POR scheme).

B II Is silent as the fault is on its back side.

2nd moment

First we take B I. It has picked up in zone 1, and three things will happen at the same time.

i) Instantaneous tripping of its breaker.

ii) Signal will be sent to A I (again it is emphasized that this fault is at

the same time in zone2, so signal will be sent to A I)>

iii) Will start the dead time of its auto re-closure.

AI Its zone 2 comparator will pick up and will combine with the signal received
from B I to b pass zone 2 timer or zone 3 timer depending on the model of
the rela .

Thus the result will be two things at the same time.

i) Instantaneous tripping of A I CB.

ii) Start of the dead time of its auto-reclosure.

B II Is silent.

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 What we see here is that B I has tripped instantaneousl and we have auto reclosure start.

Similarl , A I has instant tripping with the help of the signal and auto-reclosing at the same time.

So, it is clear that, we have achieved instant tripping. And so whenever there is instant tripping we
can have auto reclosing.

If PUR is compared with POR, for the similar fault then we see that in the former A I is not sending
signal to B I, while in the later signal is being sent b A I too. It is another matter that B I has
picked in zone and will cause instant tripping, without waiting for the signal from A I.

It should also be kept in mind that we are using the word of instantaneous tripping for A I with the
help of signal. Here, we are assuming that the signal has traveled from B I to A I instantl . But
such speeds of signal ma not be achieved and there will be some time dela for the signal to
reach A I.

This time dela involves not onl the travel time of the signal but also involves the time taken b the
exchange to send the signal.

Fastest is OPGW, while the slowest is PLC. Slowest is in the range of around 50 msec.

3rd moment

After auto reclosing we have two cases,

a) The fault is removed during the dead time of the auto reclosure.

B II Remains silent.

AI Will be closed b the auto reclosure and closing will be successful.

BI It will be closed b the auto reclosure and closing will be successful.

And the signal will finish at both ends, as soon as these rela s drop off. Here, it happens with tripping of CB
at B I and A I both.

b) The fault is still there after dead time.

All of the above process of signal generation and acceptance will be

repeated and there will be instantaneous tripping again.

But now there will be no auto reclosing for both ends and there will be three
phase final tripping for both A I and B I.

Fault at Flt 3

In this case the fault is l ing in section AB itself, such that it is in zone 1 of A I and zone 1 of B I.
The following happen moment wise.

1st moment

AI Comparator picks in zone 1 and zone 2 too (alread explained), and at the same time
sends signal to B I.( being POR scheme).

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 BI Picks in zone 1 and at the same time will send signal to A I, Being in POR scheme.

B II Is silent as the fault is on its back side.

2nd moment

First we take B I. It has picked up in zone 1, and three things will happen at the same time.

i) Instantaneous tripping of its breaker.

ii) Signal will be sent to A I.

iii) Will start the dead time of its auto re-closure.

AI Its zone 1 comparator has picked up and again three things will happen. i.e.
exactl the same as for B I.

i) Instantaneous tripping of its breaker.

ii) Signal will be sent to B I.

iii) Will start the dead time of its auto reclosure.

B II Will remain silent as the fault is in reverse of B II.

We see that, both the CB will trip in zone 1 time and both will not wait for the signal from the other
station. Meaning that, both rela s will trip instantl and will not wait for the signal from the
other station. But that does not mean that the signals will not travel or will not arrive. The
will arrive at the far ends, but, b that time rela s would have caused tripping.

And, whenever there is instant tripping we can have auto reclosing.

Now, as both the auto reclosures have started then we will have closing at both sides.

Actuall , we mean to emphasize, that there will be same time tripping and same time auto reclosing, without
the aid of signals.

3rd moment

After auto reclosing we have two cases,

a) The fault is removed during the dead time of the auto reclosure.

B II Remains silent.

AI Will be closed b the auto reclosure and closing will be successful.

BI It will be closed b the auto reclosure and closing will be successful.

And the signal of both the rela s will finish as soon as the rela s drop off from zone 1. Here, it happens with
tripping of CB both at A I and B I.

b) The fault is still there after dead time.

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 All of the above process of signal generation and acceptance will be
repeated and there will be instantaneous tripping again.

But now there will be no auto reclosing for both ends and there will be three
phase final tripping for both A I and B I.

Fault at flt 4

This fault is a special condition. It is at the same place as the former.

Here we suppose that this fault occurs at a time when the generation from power houses is at the
lowest.

First we suppose that onl the power house at A (source 1) is low. We will call this source as weak in
feed. The power house at B (source 2) is as before i.e. normal.

The phenomenon of weak infeed has alread been explained, so there is no need to repeat.

And so under such a situation 2 will be seeing an impedance Z far less than the impedance seen b
1.

Now, what will happen that even if the fault is ph sicall in zone 1 of both A I and B I, but,
electricall B I will be seeing this fault in zone 1 while A I will be seeing it either in zone 2 or 3. When this
happens we will be having the situation as in fault at flt 2. I.e. A I would have picked in zone 2 and B I in
zone 1.

Here lies the difference between POR and PUR that the signal generated b both B I (as the fault is
sensed in zone 1) and A I (as the fault is sensed in zone 2- being POR, signal will be sent b A I also).

Thus, A I will receive signal from B I and it will speed up b b passing its timer. Whereas, at B I, we
will be having instantaneous tripping without the aid of the signal.

So we have, instant tripping and auto reclosing at both ends.

If the rela at A I is of such a model that it has POR in zone 2 onl , than there is a great disadvantage,
because, ma be the rela A I is affected in zone 3 and since our rela is of such a model that it does not
implement POR for zone 3. Then under such a situation even if the signal arrives it will be of no use as the
permission to b pass A I timer will not be given. Under such a condition there will be no accelerated tripping.

Similarl , what if we have a condition that the rela A I does not pick at all Than it is obvious that
there will be no tripping at A I. So even if the signal arrives, nothing will happen.

This case is rarel seen. And happens onl when there is no source at the far end or when the source
to the fault current at the far end is the grounded neutral of a star- star transformer.

An how, the point is that the permission of rela is essential to let the signal do the acceleration
whether the rela gives this permission b picking of zone 2 or zone 3.

Fault at flt 5

We have seen above-the effect of weak in feed- that one side senses a fault which is ph sicall of
zone 1 and senses it in zone 2.

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 But, what if both sides are weak in feeds?

We know that this condition was the main disadvantage or PUR scheme. Here, in POR the inherent flaw of
PUR has been removed, and we see how as under.

That means a fault that is ph sicall in zone 1 of both A 1 and B !, will be sensed b both sides in
zone 2 or 3. If that is the condition, and we are using POR, then it is clear that there will be signaling as
against PUR when there was no signaling so bypassing of timers will occur; thus there will be speeding up of
relays; and thus a fault of own section of rela s will be cleared instantaneousl as against PUR where own
fault was cleared in a much dela ed time such as zone 2 time or zone 3 time. Additionall , there will be no
auto reclosing, whereas, now we will be having auto re-closuring.

That is wh this scheme is called as accelerated scheme as well, because both sides speed each other.

Thus the disadvantage that was inherent in PUR is overcome.

This also means that, POR scheme is more powerful than PUR.

Additionall , if we peruse we see that the signal sent in POTT is in zone 2 while in PUTT it is in zone 1.
Obviousl , since zone 2 is larger than zone 1 so we can sa that POTT scope of operation is larger.

Fault at flt 6

This is of the same situation as flt 2 but with the roles of A I and B I reversed.

8.6.5) ADDITIONAL FEATURE OF POTT.

i) (ECHO FEATURE)

This is a special feature of POTT.

Supposing, we have the same s stem. Such that B I is open for some reason, while the line is
energized on no load from A I side.

Now, if a fault occurs on the line (irrespective of whether it is at flt 2, 3,4,5 or 6)- there cannot be
picking of rela B I- as the breaker is alread open and there is no flow of current.

This means that if the rela A I picks in zone 1 or 2 it will send signal to the far end i.e. B I. But there will be
no signal from B I rela . So it means we will have zone 2 time dela ed tripping at A I for a fault of own
section. Again- An inherent flaw.

This inherent disadvantage is overcome in POTT.

What is done in POTT scheme is that the signal generated b A I is allowed to fall on a normall close
auxiliar contact of the CB at B I. (or ma be use an such arrangement). And this signal is Returned to A I.
We can sa that it is bounced back or technicall echoed back towards AI. So, when this signal reaches its
own rela , it will be used to accelerate it.

Meaning that own signal of A I is being used to b pass timer.

And of course the time dela in tripping will be slightl more, as the signal has to cover twice the distance-
going and coming. But still the time will be far less then the zone 2 time. We can thus have auto reclosing
also.

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This phenomenon is called as the echo feature.

ii) tp and td

There are two timers on digital rela s that are called as tp and td. Their meanings are

Tp = time dela on pick up of current reversal guard.

Td = time dela on drop off of current reversal guard.

To understand what the current reversal guard signifies, we consider the following s stem.

Figure for system under discussion.

The above s stem shows that we have two parallel lines that are linking two bus bars A and B. These
two bus bars- A and B- are connected to generating sources 1 and 2 respectivel . In addition to this we have
loads connected to these bus bars.

Let us suppose that the two sources are sharing their loads, such that the net current flow is as
shown b the red arrow i.e. from source number 1 to 2.

We have AI and B I circuit breakers for line number 1 at bus bar A and B respectivel .

Similarl we are having A II and B II for line II, linking the two bus bars.

All of the above are shown in the s stem given below, and we go step wise.

All the distance rela s are set to their settings as we have done so far. And most importantl all the rela s are
using POR scheme.

Supposing there is a fault somewhere on the line 2 such that all rela s which see the fault in forward
catches this fault in zone 1 or in zone 2. Let us see what happens moment wise and rela wise.

Moment Nos.1

A II This is the rela of the line under fault at bus bar A and it senses the fault in sa zone 1.

117
 If we consider for a moment this rela alone we see that the main source of fault current is
the source 1 and source 2 through line 1, with the net fault current flowing from A II towards
the fault.

BII This is the rela at bus bar B for the same line. Again this fault under consideration will be
fed from the source 2 and also from source 1 through the line1, and the net fault current will
be from B II towards the fault.

And this rela will be seeing this fault in zone 1 too.

As all the currents drain into the fault, so, we can sa that and ver important to note that the
current in B II relay will be reversed i.e. will now be reversed as per the original red arrow
of load.

And this reversal of current will cause the rela B II to see the fault in zone 1.

BI The net fault current will be- most probabl - be such that this rela will see this fault in its
reverse, and so will remain silent.

AI If the condition for B I is satisfied and remember that this is most probable, than we see that
this fault under consideration will be seen b A I not in zone 1 but definitel in zone 2.

Now, we have alread stated that all the rela s have been selected for POR scheme. So, what happens next?
i.e. second moment.

Moment Nos.2

A II has picked in zone 1, which is in zone 2 too, and so it will send a signal to B II.

BII Has picked in zone 1 does three things

i) Trips its own circuit breaker

ii) Sends signal to A II

ii) Starts its auto reclosures.

BI is silent so far

AI Has sensed the fault in zone 2 and will send a signal to B I.

At this stage we stop in time and see what is happening.

Moment Nos. 2

A II has sent a signal; B II has also sent a signal but has tripped itself; B I is silent; and A I has sent the signal.

Next, On tripping of BII- as above- the currents in line 1 reverses.

This means that, A I which was previousl seeing the fault in zone 2, has its currents reversed; now sees the
fault in reverse and so goes silent. But remember it has already sent a signal which now it cannot stop.

At this ver moment B I goes forward- because the path through bus bar B and B II is now broken and the
source 2 is feeding the fault through line 1 through this breaker and rela B I.

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This means that B I which was previousl silent will most probabl see this fault in zone 2 and will
immediatel send signal to A I.

Moment Nos. 3

In this moment we see that all the signals arrive at their corresponding rela s.

We see that B II has alread tripped and although the signal from A II will arrive but it will do nothing as it
has alread tripped.

The signal from B II now reaches A II and will combine with the A II zone 2 pick and will cause
instantaneous tripping of A II too.

At this ver moment the signal from A I- which was sent while it was forward- will reach B I. (despite the
fact that A I is now reversed but as we have said that the signal has been sent in the beginning and there is no
stopping it now).

Now when this signal from A I reaches B I it sees B I picked up in zone 2-as alread mentioned that with
the current reversal in B I it will pick in zone 2-and so causes tripping instantl .

This means that we will have A II and B I tripping instantl at the same time.

It is thus clear that with the tripping of the line under fault- also called as fault line- the health line trips as
well. This is highl undesirable.

To avoid this we have current reversal guard (CRG).

The function of the CRG is that as soon as current reverses it blocks the rela brain.

If CRG picks instantl , than obviousl , in the situation of flt 1, we will have B II blocked as well.
This we do not want.

So, there is a slight dela in its pick up to allow B II to trip instantl . This time dela is given b tp.

But this time dela should be such that it allows tripping of B II but blocks the rela B I before the
signal arrives from A I on line 1.i.e. it must be such that the rela concerned with the fault line is not
inhibited, while the rela of the health line is blocked to avoid tripping of that line. This means there is a sort
of a race between priorities. The setting of tp is thus ver delicate and alwa s better to follow the
manufacturer. But also depends on the speed of circuit breaker in cutting off fault current.

Once CRG has operated we cannot have it in the operated position all the time. It must fall back and
so we have td i.e. time dela on drop off of current reversal guard.

Td is essential, because what if the s stem power flow reverses, than CRG will operate for all rela s
after tp. Therefore, it is essential that CRG falls back.

What if a fault occurs during this transition?

All the rela s will be blocked and so we have to set td to such value that we do have tripping
preferabl in zone 1 or 2. But again this is something whose coincidence is highl unlikel .

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8.6.6) BLOCKING SCHEME

This scheme is ver much different from the previous two, and the basic difference is that
instead of aiding in tripping it uses the signal to block a relay. This scheme itself does not require an auto
reclosure. But this scheme will alwa s be used in combination with one of the previous two.

We have said that onl one scheme is possible at one time, then one must ask the sanctit of
the statement given above.

Actuall when this scheme is being used, we will be having two sets of distance rela s. One
rela will be in blocking scheme, while the second will be POTT or PUTT. (preferabl POTT).

And this is how it works.

Auto-reclosure is not required for the rela using blocking scheme but the other rela which is in POTT or
PUTT, will require auto reclosure.

a) Means of transmitting signal from the distance rela to far end.

b) Signal itself which will be used to either block corresponding rela

on the other side or both rela s at the far end. i.e. its function is not
of speeding up those rela s or b passing the timer, rather its function
is to block those rela s.

Without an of the above this scheme cannot be implemented.

The idea behind using this scheme is to avoid the tripping of rela for faults of adjacent sections
and limit their tripping to own section onl . So that, we have proper discrimination.

What will be done is that when blocking scheme is selected with the help of the option select
switches or through software, zone 3 will automaticall be reversed. It means if we have the
s stem as before, zone 3 for B I will be looking back i.e. towards BC rather then AB and
similarl for A I it will be looking towards the source 1 rather then AB section.

Remember, onl zone 3 is reversed. All the other zones will remain as the are. And also, onl
one rela at each station will have blocking scheme. i.e. zone 3 of onl one rela will be reversed.
The other rela at each station will have either POTT or PUTT.

The arrangement can be better understood with the help of following s stem.

Figure for system under discussion.

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In this scheme, all other zone settings are as per the basic so far studied, while zone 3 is reversed and it is
better to make look till the adjacent section onl .

The internal configuration for blocking scheme ma be better understood with the help of the following
figure.

Timer T 2

Timer T3

Basic diagram for Blocking scheme

The characteristic of blocking scheme is clear from the above figure and the following will happen:-

i) An distance rela when selected for blocking scheme- will send signal to the other stations
whenever it picks up in zone3. Remember, we are using the term picks up, that is to sa , when
there is effect of fault -sensed b zone 3 comparator. i.e. and before its time elapses. And ver
important to note is that since the third zone is looking towards the adjacent section, so
whenever there is a fault in the adjacent sections, onl than will the rela send signal to the
opposing end.

j) The far end will use this signal to block an of the zones that have picked up. At the far end
either both rela s are blocked or one of them. Actuall it depends on us, but it is preferable to
block both.

k) No timer is b passed with the help of this signal.

l) In all modern countries two sets of distance rela s are used. In our countr two sets are used on
EHV lines onl . So, when two sets are used one set will be either in POTT or PUTT, while the
other set will be in blocking scheme. And as per requirement the blocking signal received from

121
 far end can be used to block both rela s for an fault on adjacent lines i.e. for faults other than
own section fault.

An wa , point is that signal generation is in zone 3 -with zone 3 looking back-rather than in zone
1(as in PUTT) or zone 2 (as in POTT); Z will be set to zero; And signal will be used to block rela s
rather than aiding in tripping as was in PUTT or POTT.

We will be discussing as to what happens to the rela s A I and B I.

Let the s stem be running and there is no fault, the rela A I, will be watching 80-85% of the first
section AB from A towards B. Also, B I will be watching 80-85 % of the same section from the other side, so
its forward is from B to A and alwa s tr to keep the reaches of A I and B I same in zone 1-see the s stem
figure.

One set of rela s of preferabl same t pe is selected for POTT or PUTT and the other set is selected in
blocking scheme, all with the help for example with option select thumb wheel switches in quadra mho and
micro mho rela s.

Zone 2, for A I and B I will have the normal modus of settings calculations, while zone 3 forward should
cover the entire adjacent section- in the reverse direction. But zones 3 reverse i.e. Z 3 should be zero.

Now, supposing fault occurs at the point shown -Flt1. The following things happen at the same time
and we will proceed step wise, also we will now be taking each set of distance rela separatel at respective
grid stations. And let all set 1 be in POTT and all set 2 in blocking scheme.

1st moment

B II

SET 1 -Picks in zone 1. It must also be kept in mind that a zone 1 fault is common to zone 2
and 3 also, as this zone circle is within zone 2 and zone 3 circles. So all the comparators will
be affected i.e. all three comparators will sense the fault. But we ignore B II as we are
concerned with AB onl .

SET 2 - Also picks in zone 1 and, all happens as above, but we ignore this set also.

Before A I we like to talk about B I. So

BI

SET 1- Remains silent, as the rela is in POTT and this particular fault falls at its
back, so set 1 is silent.

SET 2- As set 2 is using blocking scheme, for which zone 3 is automaticall

reversed, so this fault will be sensed b set 2 in zone 3. And as the characteristic of blocking
scheme goes, it a signal will be generated and this signal will be sent to A I.

AI

SET 1- Will sense this fault in zone 2 or zone 3 and so zone 2 and 3 comparators
will pick up. But the blocking signal from B I will inhibit further operation of this rela .
Remember set 1 does send a signal to B I for acceleration but as B I is silent for all zones, the
signal does nothing.

122
 SET 2- Will also sense this fault in zone 2. Note zone 3 will remain silent as it is reversed
and looking towards the source I.e. zone 3 has nothing to do with this fault. Nevertheless,
zone 2 has picked and no signal is sent as we are using blocking scheme- but again it will be
inhibited from further operation with the help of the blocking signal generated b set 2 of B I.

CI Ignore- as we are discussing section AB and behavior of rela A I and B I onl .

2ndmoment.

B II Trips in zone 1 and does whatever it is supposed to do i.e. we have no concern.

AI We see that in all other schemes, A I was acting as back up for B II for fault flt 1, but
here, the operation of both set 1 and set 2 is blocked b the signal received from B I.
Thus, no tripping at all, b both sets of distance rela s at A I in zone 2.

But remember since set 1 at A I is in POTT so signal is sent b set 1 A I to B I, but is

of-course of no use.

If BII fails to trip, A I cannot act as back up, rather now B I will act as back up in
zone 3. (We have alread stated that set 2 B I is looking back).

So for A I- no tripping, and so, no auto reclosing.

It must be noted that; how rela is blocked? i.e. either before timer or after
timer; or whatever the method ma be- we have no concern; the fact is there will be
no tripping.

CI Ignore.

Fault at Flt 2

In this case the fault is l ing in section AB itself, such that it is in zone 2 of both set 1 and set 2.

This fault lies inside the circle of zone 3 too, but for set 1 onl . Whereas, set 2 has no zone 3 in this section
AB. So now no picking up of zone 3 for set 2.

The following happen moment wise.

1st moment

AI

SET 1- Comparator picks in zone 2 and zone 3 and as soon as it picks up it sends a
signal to B I (POTT).

SET 2- comparator picks in zone 2 and that is final as per picking up of zones is
concerned, but does not send a signal (blocking scheme).

BI

SET 1- Picks in zone 1. As we have alread stated that the zone 1 circle is within
zone 2 circle, so even though this fault is in zone 1, at the same time it is in zone 2
and zone 3 of set 1. So, it is clear that B I set 1 will also send a signal to A I as the
fault is in the circle of zone 2 (Being POR scheme).

123
 SET 2- Picks in zone 1, but does not sends signal.

When the above happens, set 1 of A I will collect the signal from B I and will b pass timer to cause instant
tripping, and consequentl cause auto reclosing.

On the other hand, set 1 of B I will trip instantl without waiting for the signal from A I, and so will start auto
reclosing.

As for set 2 of both A I and B I, these rela s have nothing to do with this signal. (Blocking scheme)

B II Senses this fault in zone 3 reverse and sends a blocking signal to the far end of BC i.e.
we have no concern.

Thus in the second moment we conclude as follows:-

2nd moment

B I. It has picked up in zone 1, and three things will happen at the same time.

i) Instantaneous tripping of its breaker.

ii) Signal will be sent b set 1 to A I (again it is emphasized that this

fault is at the same time in zone2, so signal will be sent to A I).

iii) Will start the dead time of the auto re-closure of set 1.

iv) Set 2 waits for the zone 2 time to elapse. This means that set 2 is
now acting as back up.

AI The zone 2 comparator of set 1 has picked up and will combine with the signal
received from B I set 1 to b pass zone 2 timer or zone 3 timer of set 1 but will also
send a signal to B I set 1. It will also start auto reclosure, but like in the former case
set 2 acts as back up.

Thus the result will be two things at the same time.

i) Instantaneous tripping of A I and B I CB.

j) Signals sent b set 1 of both A I and BI.

k) No blocking signal generated.

l) Auto reclosing at both ends.

B II No concern.

What we see here is that B I has tripped instantaneousl and we have auto reclosure start.

Similarl , A I has instant tripping due to set 1 and with the help of the signal and auto-reclosing at the
same time.

It should also be kept in mind that we are using the word of instantaneous tripping for A I with the
help of signal. Here, we are assuming that the signal has traveled from B I to A I instantl . But

124
 such speeds of signal ma not be achieved and there will be some time dela for the signal to
reach A I.

This time dela involves not onl the travel time of the signal but also involves the time taken b the
exchange to send the signal.

Fastest is OPGW, while the slowest is PLC. Slowest is in the range of around 50 msec.

3rd moment

After auto reclosing we have two cases,

a) The fault is removed during the dead time of the auto reclosure.

B II Remains silent.

AI Will be closed b the auto reclosure and closing will be successful.

BI It will be closed b the auto reclosure and closing will be successful.

And all signals will finish as soon as these rela s drop off. Here, it happens with tripping of CB at B I and A I
both.

b) The fault is still there after dead time.

All of the above process of signal generation and acceptance and blocking
signal for B II, will be repeated and there will be instantaneous tripping again.

But now there will be no auto reclosing for both ends and there will be three
phase final tripping for both A I and B I.

It must be remembered, that for this fault, set 2 of B I will also be tripping in zone 1 with nothing to
do with the signal.

If the fault is sensed by set 1of B I first, than the auto reclosure associated with this set will act and
will block the auto reclosure of set 2. But if the fault is first sensed by set 2 than the auto reclosure of set 2
will act and will block the other.

Thus if set 1 has failed to trip then set 2 will cause tripping and so vice versa.

On the other hand set 2 of A I will have picked in zone 2 (again nothing to do with signal). It will
cause tripping in zone 2 if instantaneous tripping of both set 1 and set 2 does not occur. But now there will be
no auto reclosing.

Fault at Flt 3

In this case the fault is l ing in section AB itself, such that it is in zone 1 of A I and zone 1 of B I.
The following happen moment wise.

1st moment

AI Set 1 and set 2 picks in zone 1 and zone 2(alread explained), and at the same time
set 1 sends signal to B I.( being POR scheme).

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 BI All happens as above.

2nd moment

First we take B I. Its set 1 has picked up in zone 1, as well as set 2 and three things will happen
at the same time.

i) Instantaneous tripping of its breaker.

ii) Signal will be sent to A I b set 1.

iii) Will start the dead time of its auto re-closure.

AI Set 1 and set 2, zone 1 comparator has picked up and again three things will
happen. i.e. exactl the same as for B I.

We see that, both the CB will trip in zone 1 time and both will not wait for the signal generated by set
1 of corresponding stations.

Set 2 also picks in zone 1 at both the stations.

Meaning that, all rela s will trip instantl and will not wait for the signal from the other station. But
that does not mean that the signals will not travel or will not arrive. The will arrive at the far
ends, but, b that time rela s would have caused tripping.

Now, as the auto reclosures at both ends will operating according to the logic explained. (Ma be in some
stations the are not blocking an of the auto reclosures- so both auto reclosures will give closing
pulse).

Actuall , we mean to emphasize, that there will be same time tripping and same time auto reclosing, without
the aid of signals.

3rd moment

After auto reclosing we have two cases,

a) The fault is removed during the dead time of the auto reclosure.

B II Remains silent.

AI Will be closed b the auto reclosure and closing will be successful.

BI It will be closed b the auto reclosure and closing will be successful.

And the signal of both the rela s will finish as soon as the rela s drop off from zone 1. Here, it happens with
tripping of CB both at A I and B I.

b) The fault is still there after dead time.

All of the above process of signal generation and acceptance will be

repeated and there will be instantaneous tripping again.

But now there will be no auto reclosing for both ends and there will be three
phase final tripping for both A I and B I.

126
Fault at flt 4

This fault is a special condition (alread explained in PUTT and POTT).

Fact is set 2 will be behaving as if was in basic scheme and set 1 will be following POTT.

No need to explain again.

The onl difference being; that set 2 at both sides have no zone 3 in section AB.

An how, the point is that the permission of rela is essential to let the signal do the acceleration.

Fault at flt 5

We have seen above-the effect of weak in feed- that one side senses a fault which is ph sicall of
zone 1 and senses it in zone 2.

But, what if both sides are weak in feeds?

Set 2 at both sides behaves as per basic scheme and set 1 of both sides will follow POTT.

Fault at flt 6

This is of the same situation as flt 2 but with the roles of A I and B I reversed.

127
 CHAPTER 9

DISTANCE RELAYSIPROTEC 7 SA 6

9.1) INTRODUCTION (MAIN FEATURES)

Nowada s numerical rela s are used.

The have a great advantage that the incorporate man other protection functions in one rela in
addition to distance functions. It is good, but it has the disadvantage of placing all eggs in one basket.

The main features of this rela are:-

- It is possible to have quadrilateral and impedance characteristic in this rela .

Remember it is not using mho rather using directional impedance.

This means that an additional feature of directional element is to be used. In

older rela s it would have slowed the speed of rela , but, since it is numerical, speed
is not affected.

- Despite having the facilit of two t pes of characteristics, onl one can be used at
a time.

- There is reliable a software for differentiation between load encroachment and

fault condition.

- Resistance tolerance for arcing faults is adequatel provided.

- It is a non switched rela with six measuring units for each zone.

- The operation of the rela is ver unique.

For the rela to operate in an zone, each zone has to get an input from an under
impedance, or over current, or an under voltage element.

This is tantamount to saying that each zone is operated by a starter.

- It is basicall a 6 zone rela .

Zone 1, 2, 4, and 5 are for the forward measurement. An additional zone of Z1B
is used for zone 1 extension.

Zone 3 is alwa s kept in reverse, thus giving reverse reach as is given b Z in

quadra mho and micro mho.

Similarl , Zone 6 is used for power swing.

T pical zone 1 times are 17 msec. for 50 Hz.

Use of SOTF is optional and the option is available in each of the forward zones.
Thus, if a person wants, he can use SOTF in zone 1 onl or zone 1 and 2 and so
on.

128
 To know that the line is dead, this rela has the option of using the NC contact of
the CB -as in other digital rela s.

Or

Use the voltage level detector circuit.

But there is a third option also,

Current level detectors are used, for which the line load is taken as the
criteria for an energized line.

Whatever the option be SOTF is instantaneous (as the case should be).

- Load encroachment facilit is available. But concept of implementation is

different in both quadrilateral and impedance characteristics.

- This rela can be used for lines with series compensation.

- It uses an earth fault feature for high resistance faults and it could be
directional or non-directional.

- When a PT fail situation occurs, distance rela is blocked but the rela
automaticall switches to an over current rela . Also, under normal operation
this over current feature can be used in back up to distance. It ma be noted that
we do not need a separate over current rela , but s stem protection advises use
of a separate over current rela .

- The features of single pole and multi pole trippings are available as in other
rela s.

- Over voltage and under voltage protections are also provided.

- Power swing feature is used and the 6th zone is for the outer limit of power
swing detection. And as in digital rela s it uses the concept of dz / dt.

- Swings of up to +- 7 Hz are detectable.

- Thermal over load is provided.

- The rela uses DIGSI s stem. We can also use a MMI on the rela .

Binar outputs and inputs can be used for various functions. Also, the status
of the equipment being controlled can also be monitored b the rela .

- The primar equipment being controlled can be handled b proper selection of

the switching authorit i.e. local or remote.

- Interlocking is possible to implement but a password will be required to release

the interlocking.

- Power s stem data can be monitored continuousl .

- Inbuilt fault recorder and event recorder are available along with fault locator.

129
 - The rela inner clock is s nchronized with the countr clock.

- 4 groups of settings are available. But at one time onl one group is effective.
Switching from one group to another group is possible. The switching is either
clock controlled or with the help of a binar input. But

During a fault, switching from one group to the other is blocked so that there is no
confusion for the measuring s stem of the rela .

- It is a full cross polarized rela . And the polarization takes place according to
the following table.

Fault Currents involved Vf Reference voltage

L1-E I L1 V L1 - E V L2 V L3

L2-E I L2 V L2 - E V L3 V L1

L3-E I L3 V L3 - E V L1 V L2

L1-L2 I L1 I L2 V L1 V L2 V L2-L3 V L3-L1

L2-L3 I L2 I L3 V L2 V L3 V L3-L1 V L1-L2

L3-L1 I L2 I L1 V L3 V L1 V L1-L2 V L2-L3

The following vector diagram illustrates the reference voltage for L1-

130
And the following figure illustrates the reference for L2-L3 fault.

- Unique s nchronous polarizing circuit ensures rela operation down to 0 volts.

(Memor circuit is used b using a circuit analogous to an R C circuit.).

- Ver low burden on CTs and PTs and rela is not influenced b the transients
of a CVT. And Ct saturation does not affect rela performance.

- Suitable for lines with series compensation and parallel line compensation is
available.

- K 0 compensation available with angle adjustment. In addition we have separate

K 0 for R reach and X reach. R reach is RE/ RL and that of X reach it is XE/ XL.

- All distance rela schemes are adoptable with the additional feature of pilot wire
protection schemes.

- It can be ver effectivel used for a T-eed off line.

- An in built over current rela with both definite time and IDMT characteristic. It
has a second harmonic inrush restraint.

- An optional earth fault element with inverse characteristic sensitive to zero

sequence voltage or zero sequence power.

- Stub protection feature available to be used in 1-1/2 breaker schemes for

protection of zone between line isolator and CTs.

- It has an in built auto reclosure with all features of an auto reclosure.

131
 - S nchro-check rela included to check s nchronization before closing after 3
phase tripping. It also has the dead line live line features.

- Over voltage and under voltage protection.

- Under frequenc and over frequenc features available.

- Fault locator included.

- CB failure protection available using the same concept as that of an ordinar

Breaker fail rela s.

- The concept of weak infeed can be implemented.

9.2) SETTING CALCULATIONS

Since two t pes of characteristics are used so we include both calculations in our
chapter. Also, some additional information will be added as and when required.

Consider the following s stem

Conductor: Rail Z = 0.45 840 ohms/ km

Pt ratio: 220 Kv/ 110 V

Ct ratio: 1200/1

We will be carr ing out calculations for both quadrilateral and impedance characteristics.

9.2.1) Quadrilateral characteristic

First we have to input general line data.

All settings are entered at different addresses. Some of them have been included in this book but lots
of others will be done in field.

Address 1105 Line angle.

Tan = X L / R L or = arc tan X L / R L

132
X and R ma be of the entire line length or ma be taken per km or mile.

Setting calculations for relay at station A, looking towards B

Separate measuring s stem is used for phase to ground and phase to phase. The phase to ground
s stem gets active when rela senses a ground fault. In L 3 w s rela it was done b an over current
rela R l v in the neutral circuit of the CT secondar . But here in this rela additional arrangement is
also available.

E.g. we have the old s stem of I 0 detection. And it has a setting.

- On long and heav loaded lines, we ma get so much unbalance that I 0 ma get above the set
value as above. This means that the old s stem is not reliable.

- Also, for a ground faults on such a line as above, we ma get so low I 0 that it ma not be
readable. And so the rela will remain silent. For such situations the manufacturer has provided the
option of having a negative sequence element. On a single phase to ground fault negative phase
sequence has the same value as zero sequence so this element can be used for detection of ground
faults.

- Another method that is made available is that of detection of V 0 . And as in I 0 it als0 has a
setting.

- The current and voltage criteria supplement each other, or the ma be ANDed together. This
kind of arrangement will help in non operation of the earth element during CT saturation.

- But a single pole tripping ma cause mal-operation. In this rela features are provided to take
care of this situation as well b looking at the angles of V 0 and I 0 .

The shape of the characteristics used in quadrilateral is as under.

133
 In the quadrilateral characteristic X is set separatel for each zone and R is set separatel .

The line data shows that the line angle is ver near 90 0, so for the sake of simplicit we will take X
equal to Z.

Z 1 Primar = X 1 primar = 0.85 x 120 x 0.45 (same calculations as before)

Z 1 Primar = X 1 primar = 46

Z 2 Primar = X 2 primar = AB complete + 50 % of BC

Z 2 Primar = X 2 primar = 120 x 0.45 + 0.5 x 100 x 0.45

Z 2 Primar = X 2 primar = 76.7

For Z 3 or X 3 it is advised that it should be treated in the same manner as Z in quadra mho or micro
mho. But it is not a hard and fast rule, ou can adjust.

But it must be noted that when ou set Z 3- it will be automaticall set for the reverse zone.

134
 So,

Z 3 Primar = X 3 primar = 25% of zone 1 or first section. (Same calculations as before)

Z 3 Primar = X 3 primar = 0.25 x AB

Z 3 Primar = X 3 primar = 0.25 x 120 x 0.45

Z 3 Primar = X 3 primar = 13.5

Next is X 4 and X 5. We can treat it the same wa as Z 3 and Z4.

Z 4 Primar = X 4 primar = 120-130 % 0f X 2

Z 4 Primar = X 4 primar = 1.2 x 76.6

Z 4 Primar = X 4 primar = 91.92

And likewise we can take X 5

Z 5 Primar = X 5 primar = 120-130 % 0f X 4

Z 5 Primar = X 5 primar = 1.2 x 91.92

Z 5 Primar = X 5 primar = 110.34

Secondary values

UZ = (Pt ratio) / (Ct ratio) = (220000 / 110) / (1200/1) = 1.67

X 1 secondar = 46 / 1.67 = 27.54.

X 2 secondar = 76.6 / 1.67 = 45.86

X 3 secondar = 13.5 / 1.67 = 8.08

X 4 secondar = 91.92 / 1.67 = 55.04

X 5 secondar = 110.34 / 1.67 = 66.07

These are thus the X reaches of the rela in all zones.

These values of X are then set at different addresses simpl b going to that address and inserting the
required value.

It ma also be noted that we can deactivate an of the zones and we can also select whether it should
be directional or non directional.

Next we consider the R reach. (We have alread stated that X and R in quadrilateral will be set
separatel ).

We know that whenever a fault -like a flash- occurs there will be arcing. We also know that this arc is
purel resistive and this resistance adds up in the fault loop.

135
 Thus when we are to set the R reach we will have to compensate for the arc resistance. But this arc
resistance is not constant. Therefore, there is alwa s a margin of error and thus we will have to maintain a
safet margin.

For short lines the characteristic of the rela is not ver large and there is no chance of load
encroachment, but for ver long and heavil loaded lines we have to be careful lest load encroachment causes
tripping. This is avoided b the load trapezoid- as shown in the figure.

The resistance tolerance can be set separatel for phase to phase and phase to ground faults. As arc
resistance is greater in phase to ground faults, so in this rela facilit has been provided to set them separatel
and so a larger value of arc resistance can be selected.

The standard value of arc voltage i.e. V arc is approximatel 2.5 Kv per meter of arc length.

Also, when fault current is less than arc resistance will be more, that means severit of fault pla s an
important role in defining arc resistance.

During a fault, all sources drain into the fault and their currents also affect the arc resistance. So, the
effect of these currents has to be taken into account.

The formula is as under.

R arc = V arc / (I 1 I 2) = V arc / {I 1 (1 + I 2 / I 1)

Where,

I1 = the fault current flowing from the source where the rela whose setting is being carried out.

I2 = Fault current from the other side.

The arc resistance read b distance rela SIPROTEC is given b ,

R RE = R L1 + {1+ I2/I1} x {Rarc+ RTF}/ {1+ RE/RL}

RRE =Resistance measured b rela .

RL1=Resistance of line up to the fault point. It will be actuall the resistance as per zone calculations,
and so can be taken different for all zones. It ma also be noted that we can also have it same for all zones.

Rarc = Arc resistance as per the formula given above.

RE/RL= is actuall K 0 setting and can be found b the formula

K0= 1/3 {1- R0/RL}

And I2/I1= The ratio of fault currents contributed b the two sides of the fault.

Normall a ratio of 3 is taken. If there is no source from other side then we can safel take it as 0.

RTF= Tower footing resistance and it is normall advised to be taken as 3 ohms.

To simplif matters the manufacturer advises that the following formula should be used for zone 1

R1E = 1.2 x [{1+ I2/I1} x {Rarc + RTF}/ {1+ RE/RL}

136
 We have seen that the arc resistance depends on arc length. A safe wa of taking arc length is to take
the clearance between two phases and or phase to ground.

So,

R arc = V arc / I1x {1+ I2 /I1}

We have alread mentioned V arc to be 2.5 Kv per meter.

So let I 2/I 1=0

Then

R arc= 2.5 Kv / m x 4m / 3000{1+0} let us assume fault current be 3000A.

So,

R arc= 10 Kv/m / 3000 = 3.34 ohms.

Thus for zone 1 the resistive reach will be

R1E primar = 1.2 x {1+0} x {3.34+3} / {1 + RE / RL}

If RE / RL = 0.6

Then,

R1E primar = 1.2 x {1+0} x {3.34+3} / {1 + 0.6}

R1E primar = 1.2 x {6.64} / {1.6}

R1E primar = 4.98 ohms.

R1E secondar = 4.98 / U Z = 4.98/ 1.67 ohms= 2.98.

It seems that resistive reach is ver low as compared to the X reach. But it will be so because X is
ver large considering the line angle to be 84 0.

However, if ou want ou can increase it to give further safet margin, but not more then 20 %.

In practice, the ratio between resistive and reactance reaches are in the ratio given b the following table.

TYPE OF LINE R/X RATIO OF THE ZONE SETTINGS

Short underground cable 3 to 5
(0.5 to 3 km length)
Long underground cable 2 to 3
(> 3 km)
Short over head lines 2 to 5
(<10 Km)
Medium over head lines 1 to 2
(< 100 Km)
Long over head lines 0.5 to 1
(100 Km to 200 Km)
Long EHV lines > 200 Km <= 0.5

137
 We will take our line in the second last categor , where R / X will be 0.5. And we can directl use
secondar values.

Since,

X 1 secondar = 27.54 ohms

So

R1secondar = 0.5 x 27.54 = 13.77 ohms.

You would be confused as to which value to take, as the formula gives a far lesser value. But the use
of formula was just an example. We will take the table.

Similarl others,

X 2 secondar = 45.86 ohms

R 2 secondar = 0.5 x 45.86 = 22.93 ohms

(138)

X 3 secondar = 8.08 ohms

R 3secondar = 8.08 x 0.5 = 4.04 ohms

X 4 secondar = 55.04 ohms

R 4 secondar = 0.5 x 55.04 = 27.52 ohms

X 5 secondar = 66.07

R 5secondar = 0.5 x 66.07 = 33.035 ohms.

Again, these values can be set directl on the rela at their relevant addresses.

In addition to this as we set RE / RL = 0.6, likewise we will be setting the value of X E/ X L

It must be kept in mind that when lines are short arcing effect is more prominent and the fault tends
to be slightl off towards the R axis. This means that for ver short lines we ma have a situation that R reach
ma be greater then the X reach.

When this happens a fault which was supposed to be tripped in zone 2 ma be cleared in zone 1, and
there will be load encroachment problem too.

To off set this a grading factor of 85 % is used.

If grading factor is not being used there is an option of using zone reduction feature, to modif zone 1
reach.

It will be seen that we have not carried out settings for Z 1 B , because, it is zone 1 extension scheme,
and will be set as per that scheme- when that scheme is being used.

138
9.2.2) Impedance (circle) characteristic

There are 5 tripping zones, as before and there is another zone Z 1 B for zone extension.

Zone1, 2, 4 are forward looking. We know that a plain impedance characteristic is non directional, so
we will be having a directional unit as well, for these zones.

Zone 3 is reverse looking, with the help of another directional element. And

Zone 5 is non directional.

The circles their centers at the origin and the radii of the circles are as per the magnitudes if the zone
impedances.

The characteristic is shown below.

Load area Load area

The disadvantage if the plain impedance circle is that its arc coverage is limited and is thus not
suitable for short lines.

In this rela some arrangement is made in order to compensate for this, to some extent.

It so happens that the tripping characteristic can be extended in the R direction.

The basic idea is the same as in other digital rela s that about 5 0 compensation is provided b
shifting the line angle for phase to ground faults. In this rela we need not shift the circle rather an
input is given to the rela b the angle .

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 Another problem in all rela s is load encroachment and likewise this rela also has to compensate for
it.

There is a load trapezoid, and essentiall its function is to cut off the rela sensing within the load
trapezoid.

An additional effect is that resistance tolerance is increased- as can be seen in the diagram.

The start of the trapezoid is defined b R load. And the slant of the trapezoid is +- load.

Rest of the calculations is the same as a normal rela with all the calculations b considering Z onl .

Setting calculations for relay at station A, looking towards B

The phase to ground s stem gets active when rela senses a ground fault. In L 3 w s rela it was
done b an over current rela R l v in the neutral circuit of the CT secondar . But here in this rela
additional arrangement is also available, and has alread been discussed.

The line data shows that the line angle is 840 and so this will be set in the rela as L. Rest of the
calculations are simple.

Z 1 Primar = 85% of first section AB= 0.85 x 120 x 0.45 (same calculations as before)

Z 1 Primar = 46 ohms.

Z 2 Primar = AB complete + 50 % of BC

Z 2 Primar = 120 x 0.45 + 0.5 x 100 x 0.45

Z 2 Primar = 76.7

For Z 3 it is advised that it should be treated in the same manner as Z in quadra mho or micro mho.
But it is not a hard and fast rule, ou can adjust.

It must be noted that when ou set Z 3- it will be automaticall set for the reverse zone.

So,

Z 3 Primar = 25% of zone 1 or first section. (Same calculations as before)

Z 3 Primar = 0.25 x AB

Z 3 Primar = 0.25 x 120 x 0.45

Z 3 Primar = 13.5

Next is Z 4 and Z 5. We can treat it the same wa as Z 3 and Z4 of quadra mho or micro mho.

Z 4 Primar = 120-130 % 0f Z 2

Z 4 Primar = 1.2 x 76.6

Z 4 Primar = 91.92

And likewise we can take Z 5

140
 Z 5 Primar = 120-130 % 0f Z 4

Z 5 Primar = 1.2 x 91.92

Z 5 Primar = 110.34

Secondary value

UZ = (Pt ratio) / (Ct ratio) = (220000 / 110) / (1200/1) = 1.67

Z 1 secondar = 46 / 1.67 = 27.54.

Z 2 secondar = 76.6 / 1.67 = 45.86

Z 3 secondar = 13.5 / 1.67 = 8.08

Z 4 secondar = 91.92 / 1.67 = 55.04

Z 5 secondar = 110.34 / 1.67 = 66.07

These are thus the Z reaches of the rela in all zones.

These values of Z are then set at different addresses simpl b going to that address and inserting the
required value. It ma also be noted that we can deactivate an of the zones and we can also select whether it
should be directional or non directional.

Next we consider the R reach. (We have alread stated that X and R in quadrilateral will be set
separatel ).

We know that whenever a fault -like a flash- occurs there will be arcing. We also know that this arc is
purel resistive and this resistance adds up in the fault loop.

Consider the following figure.

141
Where,

Z r= Distance rela reach setting

ZL = that part of transmission line impedance that forms part of the short circuit impedance.

a= Line angle

b= the angle of approach of the short circuit

R L= Arc resistance.

Z sc = the short circuit impedance seen b the rela .

This shows that when a fault occurs at point f or when the fault enters the impedance circle at point
f the resistance tolerance will be R L.

Maximum resistance tolerance will be on the x-axis.

In this rela a feature has been included to give added compensation for resistance tolerance. This is
achieved b entering es at the address 1212 R-reserve.

The impedance circle in this case is extended in the R direction, as shown below.

142
 The angle c determines the transition form the impedance circle to the increased resistance
tolerance.

Inside the rela we have

c =

b = y SC

a =yL

Since now we have a curve. It ma happen that the top of the curve ma extend be ond the next bus
bar, but since we keep a tolerance of about 10-15 % in zone 1, so this excess reach is tolerated.

The higher is set the greater will be the chances of over reach but for an angle of 45, there is no
danger.

In order to keep all things in their limits, the manufacturer advises that this angle should never be
set greater then the line angle and should never exceed 750.

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Consider the following table.

ALPHA % Over each at the line angle given

setting

900 (line 850 800 750 700 650 600 550 500
angle )

750 10% 11% 12% 14% Line Line Line Line Line
angle < angle < angle < angle < angle <
alpha alpha alpha alpha alpha

700 3% 4% 5% 7% 10% Line Line Line Line

angle < angle < angle < angle <
alpha alpha alpha alpha

650 0% 0% 0% 0% 3% 7% Line Line Line

angle < angle < angle <
alpha alpha alpha

600 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 4% Line Line

angle < angle <
alpha alpha

550 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 2% Line
angle <
alpha

500 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1%

Note:- If instantaneous tripping is required in reverse direction than zone 3 time should be set to 0.

These are the basic settings of the rela SIPROTEC 7SA6.

9.3) POWER SWING DETECTION

For power swing detection two pol gons in case of the quadrilateral characteristics are used
or two circles when the impedance characteristic is used.

The method of detection is same in both cases, and is b the rate of change of impedance.

The two characteristics are PPOL and APOL.

APOL as usual is set equal to the last measuring zone, as we did in micro mho that we set Z5 equal to
Z 3. The difference between APOL and PPOL is kept at Z= 5 ohms fro In =1 A and 1 ohm for I n =5A.

Next, in which ever zone we want to block tripping is up to us.

9.4) DISTANCE RELAY SCHEMES

All distance rela schemes can be implemented. In addition some more schemes are introduced.

144
 9.4.1) Direct under reach transfer trip. This scheme is the same as the normal PUTT as far as signal
generation is concerned, but at the other end it does not require permission i.e. trips directly the opposite end
with the help of the signal.

The transmitted signal can be prolonged with the help of Ts, to compensate for the delayed pick up of
the far end relay. Also, a short security margin T v is to be provided so that noise interference may not cause
tripping.

Actually, this scheme cannot be implemented by software. You have to take the signal from the far
end to a binary input in the far end relay.

9.4.2) Directional comparison pick up When the fault is sensed in the own section of the relays,
then both ends relays- facing each other- will pick up and send signals to each other.

Supposing A sends signal to B, and vice versa. Then the relay at each end i.e. A and B will
behave such that the relay A will take input from its signal send logic and AND it with the signal received
from B and will cause tripping.

This is possible only if the opposite end also detects the fault in the line direction.

9.4.3) Pilot wire protection The pilot wire scheme that this relay uses is illustrated in a very
simplified form as follows.

Station A Station B

P/up P/up
&1
(A) 1 1 &1 (B)
(A)
(B)

Z1B Z1B
&2
(A) &2 2 2 (B)
(B)
(A)

Q/S
Q/S
R(B)
R(A)

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 In this scheme of pilot wire, Dc from one station A - is linked with station B, with the help of pilot
wire marked x (red), and the same Dc is then linked back through another pilot wire through the link marked
y (blue). The red marked x is for +v e of the battery and the blue marked y is for v e of the battery. Note that
battery nos. 2 is being used.

P/up indicates the zone comparator pick up of the respective distance relays.

Z1B is the zone extension of each relay.

Q/S R is basically a flip flop, with inputs of S and R and output of Q.

& are the AND gates used.

Supposing, we have the following section.

Also we are discussing section AB only.

Now, for a fault in section BC near B

B towards A will be silent

And Z1B of relay A will pick up the fault. At the same time zone 1 of the distance relay at A is silent.

The input from Pick/up to the AND gate 1 will be 0.

The input from Z1B will be 1 which after the NOT input to AND gate 1 will result in 0.

This means that the output of the AND 1 will be 0.

So, the contactor connected will not be energized and the NC contact remains closed. This means that
DC from station A will continue to be provided to B through the link x.

Next, we consider the second AND gate. i.e. 2

As Z1B of station A has picked up so its input to AND 2 will be 1.

The flip flop has one input from pick/up of zones at A, since there is no pick up so the input to the
flip flop is 0 and after NOT it is 1. This means that the flip flop will change state. Q will go 1. Now two of the
inputs to the AND gate 2 have gone 1. Note that since there is no signal received from the other station the
input S of the flip flop remains 0.

146
 Let us see what happens to the third input to AND 2.

As there is no signal from station B (because the relay is silent), so the out put of the signal receive
will be 0 but after the NOT it will be 1 and again before entering the AND gate 2 it goes to 0. So even if the
other inputs to the AND gate 2 are 1, the non receiving of the signal prevents tripping of the CB at station A.

147
 CHAPTER 10

DISTANCE RELAY REL 650

9.2) INTRODUCTION (MAIN FEATURES)

This relay is made by ABB. The main features incorporated in this relay are:

- It is possible to have quadrilateral and mho characteristic in this relay.

- Despite having the facility of two types of characteristics, only one can be used
at a time.

- 4 groups of settings are available. But at one time only one group is effective.
Switching from one group to another group is possible. The switching is either
clock controlled or with the help of a binary input. But during a fault, switching
from one group to the other is blocked so that there is no confusion within the
measuring system of the relay.

- Large HMI for visualization of single line diagrams and on-line measurements

- Ethernet interface for fast and easy communication with PC

- The features of single pole and multi pole trippings are available as in
other relays

- .5 zone full-scheme line distance protection Quadrilateral or mho characteristic,

or both

- All inter trip schemes are available.

- Load encroachment facility available.

- SOTF feature also available.

- Current reversal guard (CRG) and weak infeed logic incorporated.

- Power swing detection.

- Phase preference logic. i.e. when tripping occurs in an evolving fault , the relay
knows which phases are affected.

- In the protections functions- other than distance- over current protection

available with current coils in phases.

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- Both of the above have, instantaneous, definite time, and inverse time
features..And are four step over current protections. This feature can be
directional by giving polarization as one wishes. During CT saturation, 2nd
harmonics are produced. When this happens the over current relays may
malfunction. In such a case 2nd harmonic blocking is provided.

- Similarly, over current earth fault feature also available, with all of the above
features. and with voltage, current or dual polarization, based on zero sequence
or negative sequence quantities with 2nd harmonic blocking

- Two step negative sequence based directional over current protection.

- Directional residual over current protection with scheme communication logic.

- Broken conductor check

- Thermal overload protection

- Breaker failure protection.

- Stub protection

- Pole discordance protection

- Voltage Two step phase- and residual overvoltage protection with definite and
inverse time characteristics

- Two step under voltage protection with definite and inverse time characteristics

- Loss of voltage check

- Frequency protection Under- and over frequency protection

- Dead line detection included in fuse failure supervision and switch on to fault
logic

- Secondary system supervision Current circuit supervision

- Fuse failure supervision

149
 - Breaker close/trip circuit monitoring

- There is reliable a software for differentiation between load encroachment and

fault condition.

- Resistance tolerance for arcing faults is adequately provided.

- Selective single-phase and three-phase auto recloser

- Synchronizing, synchro check and energizing check

- Selectable operator place allocation

- Control of up to two circuit breakers from local/remote

- Disturbance recorder 100 disturbances

- Event list for 1000 events

- Fault locator presenting distance to fault in percentage/ kilometers/miles

- Station battery supervision

.
- Measurement of U, I, P, Q, S, f and cos j

- Energy metering function for energy statistics

- Pulse counting support for energy metering

- Communication

- IEC 61850-8-1 including GOOSE messaging

- DNP 3.0 slave protocol
- IEC 60870-5-103 serial communication
- Parallel Redundancy Protocol (PRP) according to IEC 62439-3 Ed.2

150
 In this relay each protection function is defined by a code, which we do not commonly use in
Pakistan. Therefore, to help those people who are new to this relay, some of these codes are
mentioned in the table below

MAIN PROTECTION FUNCTIONS

IEC ANSI Function description

Function
block
name
ZQMPDIS 21 Five zone distance protection, quadrilateral and mho characteristic

FDPSPDIS 21 Phase selection with load encroachment for quadrilateral

characteristic
FMPSPDIS 21 Phase selection with load encroachment for mho characteristic

ZDARDIR 21 Additional distance protection (directional) for earth faults

ZDNRDIR 21 Directional impedance for quadrilateral and mho

PPLPHIZ Phase preference logic

ZCVPSOF SOTF with voltage or current based

ZMRPSB 68 PSB

BACK UP FUNCTIONS

PHPIOC 50 Instantaneous over current protection- 3 phase tripping

SPTPIOC 50 Instantaneous over current, phase segregated output

OC4PTOC 51 4 step over current protection- 3 phase tripping

OC4SPTOC 51/67 4 step over current protection- phase segregated output

EFPIOC 50N Instant. o/c and e/f protection

EF4PTOC 51N/67N 4 step o/c and e/f protection.

SDEPSDE 67N Directional o/c e/f protection

151
UC2PTUC 37 Time delayed two step under current protection

LCPTTR 26 Thermal over load protection (Celsius) one time constant

LFPTTR 26 Thermal over load protection(Fahrenheit) one time constant

CCRBRF 50BF Breaker fail protection, 3 phase tripping

CSPRBRF 50BF Breaker fail protection phase segregated

STBTOC 50STB Stub protection

CCRPLD 52PD Pole discrepancy

BRCPTOC 46 Broken conductor check

GUPPDUP 37 Directional under power protection

GOPPDOP 32 Directional over power protection

DNSTOC 46 Negative sequence based over current function

Voltage
protection

UV2PTUV 27 Two step under voltage protection

OV2PTOV 59 Two step over voltage protection

ROV2PTOV 59N Two step over voltage earth fault protection

LOVPTUV Loss of voltage check

Frequency
protection

SAPTUF 81 Under frequency function

SAPTOF 81 Over frequency function

SAPFRC 81 Rate of change frequency protection

152
Control and
monitoring

153
154
- Push button navigation in the LHMI menu structure is presented by using the
- push button icons.
- To navigate between the options, use and .
- HMI menu paths are presented in bold.
- Select Main menu/Settings.
- LHMI messages are shown in Courier font.
- To save the changes in non-volatile memory, select Yes and press .
-
- It is a non switched relay with six measuring units for each zone.

- The operation of the relay is very unique.

Like the ABB relay REL 531, it requires the feature of phase selection logic to
be high for the operation of the relay. Although, manufacturers dont like to use
the term starters in numerical relays but this phase selection logic function is the
same as a starter.

- It is basically a 6 zone relay.

Zone 1, 2, 4, and 5 are for the forward measurement. An additional zone of Z1B
is used for zone 1 extension.

Zone 3 is always kept in reverse, thus giving reverse reach as is given by Z in

quadra mho and micro mho.

Similarly, Zone 6 is used for power swing.

Typical zone 1 times are 17 msec. for 50 Hz.

Use of SOTF is optional and the option is available in each of the forward zones.
Thus, if a person wants, he can use SOTF in zone 1 only or zone 1 and 2 and so
on.

To know that the line is dead, this relay has the option of using the NC contact of
the CB -as in other digital relays.

Or

Use the voltage level detector circuit.

But there is a third option also,

Current level detectors are used, for which the line load is taken as the
criteria for an energized line.

155
Whatever the option be SOTF is instantaneous (as the case should be).

- Load encroachment facility is available. But concept of implementation is

different in both quadrilateral and impedance characteristics.

- This relay can be used for lines with series compensation.

- It uses an earth fault feature for high resistance faults and it could be
directional or non-directional.

- When a PT fail situation occurs, distance relay is blocked but the relay
automatically switches to an over current relay. Also, under normal operation
this over current feature can be used in back up to distance. It may be noted that
we do not need a separate over current relay, but system protection advises use
of a separate over current relay.

- Over voltage and under voltage protections are also provided.

- Power swing feature is used and the 6th zone is for the outer limit of power
swing detection. And as in digital relays it uses the concept of dz / dt.

- Swings of up to +- 7 Hz are detectable.

- Thermal over load is provided.

- The relay uses DIGSI system. We can also use a MMI on the relay.

Binary outputs and inputs can be used for various functions. Also, the status
of the equipment being controlled can a

156
And the following figure illustrates the reference for L2-L3 fault.

157