Bio

119 1st Lab exam

EXERCISE 1: EXTERNAL ANATOMY
Body regions
1. Head
- Head and trunk is separated by gill openings covered by operculum
- Includes: snout, operculum, cheek, branchiostegal membrane, chin, interorbital,
lachrymal region
- Mouth:
o Lower jaw/ mandibles, premaxillae, maxillae and supramaxillae
o Lips or jaws are bound to the snot by a continuous bridge of skin frenum
- Barbels may be present sensory structures which carry tactile anc chemical
receptors
- Spines found on the preopercle or opercle
- Nostrils no internal openings except for lung fishes and some specialized bony
fishes
- Spiracle found in rays, sharks remnant of the gill slit that has been lost. In rays,
respiratory water is brought to the gills through the spiracles.
2. Trunk
- Posterior limit is marked by ventral, anal and urogenital openings
3. Tail

Body form
Form fishs way of life
a. Fusiform
- Ultra-streamlined, with an elliptical cross-section
b. Compressiform
- Not constantly moving but capable of quick bursts of speed and compressed
laterally
c. Depressiform
- Flattened dorsoventrally
- Suits for bottom dwellers
d. Anguilliform
- Eel-shaped fishes
e. Filiform
- Thread-shaped
f. Taeniform
- Ribbon-like shaped
g. Sagittiform
- Arrow-like shape
h. Globiform
- Round fishes
i. Chimaeriform
- Large head and forebody with a tapering afterbody and tail

Topography of the body
Nuchal region
- Dorsal surface just behing the occiput
Istmus
- Anterior ventral part
Lateral line
- Sensory canals
Vent or anus
- Opening of the gut
Cloaca
- Sharks, rays and lungfishes
- Receives the openings of the gut and the urinary and genital systems
Urogenital opening
- Behing the anus
- Often a urogenital papilla developed
- Clupeidae have an opening from the air bladder posterior to the anus

Fins
Supported by the appendicular skeleton
Unpaired fins
o Dorsal
o Caudal
o Anal
Paired fins
o Pectorals
o Pelvics / ventrals
Stiffened by rays
o Ceratorichia
Sharks and rays
o Lepidotrichia
Bony fishes
Evolved from scales and are bony in nature
True fin spines
o Derived from soft rays
o Occur in the dorsal, anal and pelvic fins of higher fishes
Pectoral fins
o Composed of soft rays only
o Used for minor locomotion
o Important for stabilization and changing direction
Mesocoracoid
o Middle and higher fishes have lost this bone from the pectoral girdle
o Aids in holding the pectoral fins of the lower fishes in the low, oblique position
 o Pectorals of higher fishes can then be moved upward to the lateral aspect of the
body
o More versatile than in the more primitive fishes
Pelvic fins
o Smaller than the pectorals, more restricted in function, and subject to greater
variation of placement
o Abdominal pelvics
Sharks
o Thoracic pelvics
Higher bony fishes
Placed below or a little behind the pectorals
o No internal connection with other skeletal elements
o Stabilizing and braking but very little use in locomotion
Median fins
o Dorsal fin
Stabilization and helping to achieve quick changes in direction
Used in conjunction with the caudal and anal fins in braking
Modifications:
Sucking disk Echneidae : allows them to cling to sharks or other
large fishes and be carried along as hitchhikers
Mackerel-like fishes finlets posterior to the dorsal fin : consist of
detached soft rays
o Caudal or tail fin
Appear in variety of shapes, sizes and kids that reflects evolutionary
levels and relationships more than the other fins
Lunate
o And those with a narrow caudal peduncle
o Speediest of fishes are capable of rapid, sustained
motion
Forked
o Constantly on the move
Truncate, rounded or emarginate
o Strong swimmers but somewhat slower
Fishes with small caudals or continuous with the dorsal and anal tend to
be weak swimmers may be bottom wrigglers
Vary in external shape and internal anatomy
Homocercal
o Externally appears symmetrical but is actually
asymmetrical internally
Heterocercal
o Sharks and sturgeons
 o Where the body axis obviously turns upwards and almost
all of the caudal is borne on the lower side of the end of
the tail
o Intermediate can be seen in gars Lepisosteidae, and
bowfins amia
Isocercal
o Symmetrical plate at the and of a tepring series of
vertebrae
Leptocercal
o Long, tapering or whil-like
Diphycercal
o Abrupt point
Gephyrocercal
o Dorsal and anal fins bridge over the posterior terminus of
the body
o Anal fin
Short-based but there are many species with anals exceeding the dorsal
in length
Finless behind the anal are present in tunas, mackerels and allied fishes
Scombroidei
Lacking in chimaeras, skates and rays
Liverbearers poeciliidae gonopodium

Scales
Dermal in origin
Kinds of scales
o Placoid
Most primitive
Consists of a basal plate which is buried in the skin
Similar to that of the tooth in structure
Pulp cavity and tubules leading into the dentine homologous structure
Denticles with hard outer layer of vitrodentine rough skin of sharks
o Cosmoid
Crossopterygians and fossil lungfishes
Similar to placoid scales and probably arose from fusion of it
Composed of 2 basal layers
Isopedine
o Basal layer of dense lamellar bone
Cancellous (or spongy bone)
o Supplied with canals for blood vessels
Over the layer is a layer of cosmine a noncellular dentinelike substance
Over the cosmoid layer is a thin superficial layer of vitrodentine
 Growth addition of new lamellar bond under neath not over the upper
surface
o Ganoid
Bichers, gars, sturgeon and paddlefishes
Rhomboid shape
Outer layer is acellular ganoin with a cosmine like layer beneath it
Perforated by tubules
Cosmine and tubules are reduced in gars, sturgeons and paddlefishes
o Cycloid
Ovoid to subcircular in shape and lack of spines or projections
o Ctenoid scales
Higher bony fishes
Minute spines on the exposed portions of the scales
o Elasmoid
Outer layer of bone and a thin layer of connective tissue
Bony layer characterized by concentric ridges growth increments during
thte life of the fish
Spacking and other characteristics of the ridges (circuli)
Innermost plate of the scale focus

EXERCISE 2: SKELETAL SYSTEM
Skeletal system
Consist of axial and appendicular parts
o Axial
Skull encloses and protects the barin and most sense organs
Neurocranium
o Chondrocranium
Original cartilaginous brain case
Ossify during ontogeny
o Dermatocranium
Dermal bones
Eveolved from scales that became attached to the
chondrocranium
Branchiocranium
o Formed as gill arch supports
o Also known as splanchnocranium because it is derived
from splanchnic mesoderm
o Appendicular
Pectoral girdle
Pelvic girdle

Neurocranium
Skulls differ among three basic group of fishes
o Hagfishes and lamprey (Agnatha)
 Lack true biting jones
Tootlike structures are present but are horny raps (not true teeth)
Round mouth has internal cartilaginous support
o Chondrichthyes
Single cartilagionous structure
Jaws and branchial arches consists of a series of cartilages
o Bony fishes
Derived from cartilaginous capsules that froemd around the sense organs
4 major ossification centers
o Ethmoid
Variably cartilaginous and binny
2 cartilage bones
Paired lateral ethmoids
o From the posterolateral wall of the ethoid region and
anterior wall of orbit
Median ethmoid
o Most anterodorsal
o May have dermal element fused
2 dermal bones
Vomer
o Dentigerous
o Lies ventral to the ethmoid
Paired nasals
o Lateral to the ethmoid region associated with the nasal
capsule
o Orbital
Region that surrounds the orbit
3 sets of cartilage bones
Pterosphenoid (alisphenoids)
o Meet along the ventral median line of the skull
Basisphenoid
o Median
o Extends from the pterosphenoids down to the
parasphenoid
o May divide the orbit into left and right halves
Sclerotic cartilage
o Protect and support the eye
2 sets of dermal bones
Frontals
o Cover most of the dorsal surface of the cranium
Infraorbitals
o Circumorbital or suborbital bones
o Form a ring around the eye
 Infraorbital 1 lachrymal/preorbital
Infraorbital 2 jugal
IO3 true suborbital
May bear a suborbital shelf that supports
the eye
IO4 dermosphenotic bones or postorbitals
Bear the infraorbital or suborbital lateral
canal
o Otic
5 cartilage bones that enclose each bilateral otic chamber inside the skull
Sphenotics
o Most posterior dorsolateral part of the orbit roof
Pterotics
o Paired
o Form the posterior outer corners of the neurocranium
o Enclose the horizontal semicircular canal
Prootics
o Paired
o Form the floow of the neurocranium
o Enclose the utriculus of the inner ear
Epiotics
o Paired
o Posterior to the parietals and lateral to the supraoccipital
o Contain the posterior vertical semicircular canal
Intercalars/ opisthotics
o Articulate with the lateral surface of the postemporal
1 dermal bone
Parietals
o Paired
o Roof part of the otic region
o Articulate with the frontals anteriorly
o Supracoccipital medially
o Epiotics posteriorly
o Basicranial
3 sets of cartilage bones (1 pair plus 2 median bones
Exoccipitals
o Paired
o Sides of the foramen magnum passage way for the spinal
cord
Basioccipital
o Median
o Articulates with the first vertebra
Supraoccipital
 o Bears a supraoccipital crest
1 dermal bone
Parasphenoid
o Articulates with the vomer anteriorly and forms the
posteroventral base of the skull

Branchiocranium
Mandibular
o Forms the upper jaw palatoquadrate cartilage in chondrichthyes
o Dermal bones in bony fishes
o 3 sets of bones
Premaxillae
Dentigerous
Anterior most
Maxillae
Dentigerous in some soft-rayed fishes
Supramaxilla
Posterodorsal margin of the maxilla
o Lower jaw consists of Meckels cartilage in chondrichthyes
o Dentary bone
Dermal and dentigerous
In bony fishes, covers Meckels cartilage
o Angular
Large posterior bone that fits into the V of the Dentary
o Retroarticular
Small bone attached to the posteroventral corner of the angular
o May bear teeth
Canine
Large conical teeth
Villiform
Small fine teeth
Molariform
Pavementlike crushing teeth
Cardiform
Fine pointed teeth
Incisor
Large teeth with flattened cutting surfaces adapted for feeding on
mollusks and crustaceans
Teeth fused into beaks for scraping algae off corals parrot fishes
(Scaridae), or for biting crustaceans or echinoderms, as in blowfishes
(Tetraodontiformes)
Flattened triangular cutting teeth sharks and piranhas
Pharyngeal teeth
 Palatine
o 4 pairs of bones in the roof of the mouth
Palatines
Cartilage bones that are frequently dentigerous
Ectopterygoid
Dermal
Narrow bones, sometimes T-shaped
Sometimes dentigerous
Entopterygoid/ mesopterygoid
Dermal
Thin bones that roof the mouth
Metapterygoid
Cartilage bones
Quadrangular-shaped
Articulates with the quadrate and hyomandibula
Hyoid/ suspensorium
o Cartilage bones that attach the lower jaw and opercular apparatus to the skull
Hymandibula
Inverted L- shaped bones
Connects the lower jaw and opercular bones to the neurocranium
Symplectic
Fits into the groove of the quadrate
Quadrate
Triangular bone with a groove for the symplectic
Has an articulating face to which the lower jaw is attached
o Hyoid complex
5 pairs of bones
Basihyal
o Anteriormost
Ceratohyal
o Interdigitates with the epihyal posteriorly
o Which some of the branchiostegal rays attach
Epihyal
o Triangular bone which some of the branchiostegal rays
attach
Interhyal
o Small rod-shaped bone that attaches the hyoid complex to
the neurocranium and opercular apparatus
Glossohyal
o Unpaird spatulate bone
o Supports the tongue
Dermal bones
Branchiostegal rays
 o Attach to the ceratohyal and epihyal
o Important in respiration bottom dwelling species
Median urohyal bone
o Lies insde the rami of the lower jaw
o Jaw types
Amphystylic
Sharks
Upper jaw attached to the cranium by ligaments at orbital and
otic processes of the palatoquadrate
Attached to the chondrocranium
Lower jaw is involved in suspension of both jaws
Hyostylic
Most chondricthyes and all atinopterygian
Otic contact of the palatogquadrate has been lost
Jaws araw suspended from the chondrocranium by way of
ligamentous attachements to the hyomandibula attached to the
otic region of the neurocranium
Autostylic
Present in most non-fish vertebrates, lungfishes and tetrapods
Processes of the palatoquadrate articulate to or fuse with the
chondrocranium
Hyoid arch no longer involved with jaw suspension
Hyomandibula becomes columella of the inner ear in tetrapods
Holostylic
Holocephali and chimaeras
Palatoquadrate is fused to the chondrocranium and supports the
lower jaw in the quadrate region
Holocephali means whole head upper jaw being part of the
cranium
Opercular
o 4 parts of flat dermal bones that fform the gill covers
Opercle
Largest and heaviest of the opercular bones
Anterior articulation facet connecting with the hyomandibula
Subopercle
Innermost and most posterior
Preopercle
Anteriormost element
Overlies parts of the 3 opercular bones
Interopercle
Most ventral bone
Branchial
 o 4 pairs of cartilaginous gill arches, gill rakers, pharyngeal tooth patches and
supporting bones
Basibranchial
3
First basibranchial is covered by the glossohyal
Second and third serve as attachements for the hypobranchials
and ceratobranchials
Hypobranchials
Connect the basibrnchials with the ceratobranchials
Ceratobranchials
Longest bones
Support most of the gill filaments and gill rakers
Anterior 3 unmodified and connect with their hypobranchials
4 is more irregular
5 bears a tooth plate and is sometimes called the lower
pharyngeal bone
Epibranchial
4 pairs
Attach to the ceratobranchials
Pharyngobranchials
4 pairs
Attach to the epibranchial
3 and 4 may have dermal tooth patches attached to them upper
pharyngeal bones

Postcranial Skeleton
Notochord
o Most primitive supporting structure in chordates
o Provide support for an elongate body while swimming
o Found during embryonic development in all chordates
o Intervertebrak disks are all that remain
o Present in adult lancelets, chondrichthyes, dipnoi, sturgeons, paddkefishes and
coelacanth
Vertebral column
o Araise and form around the notochord
o Formed from cartilaginous blocks called arcualia
o Monospondylous
Basidorsal, interdorsal, basiventral and interventral arcualia fuse together
to form a single vertebra
o Diplospondylous
Basidorsal fuses to the basiventral and the interdorsal fuses to the
interventral producing two vertebrae per body segment
 Present in the tail region of sharks and rays, lungfishes, and the caudal
vertebrae of the bowfin
Permits increased body flexibility
o Neural spine housing a neural arch
Where spinal cord passes
o Parapophysis
Where the ribs attach
o Haemal canal
Dorsal aorta
o Neural prezygapophyses and postzygapophyses
o Haemal prezygapophyses and postzygapophyses
Ribs and intermuscular bones
o Ribs
Frm in the peritoneal membrane
Attach to the vertebrae, usually from the 3rd vertebra to the precaudal
vertebra
o Intermuscular bones
Teleost
Segmental
Homologous ossifications in the myosepta
Caudal complex
o Hypurals
Support most of the branched principal caudal fin rays
o Epurals
Support the spinelike procurrent caudal fin rays s
o In many advanced teleost, number of hypurals has been reduced to 5
o Tunas, mackerels, flatfishes posterior vertebrae have been shortened and
some of the hypurals fuse to form a hypural plate

Appendicular skeleton
Pectoral and pelvic girdles are absent in agnathans
Sharks coracoscapular cartilage
Rays pectoral girdle is attached to the fuse anterior section of the vertebral column
Pectoral girdle
o No attachment to the vertebral column
o Attaches to the back of the skull by the posttemporal bone
o 3 dermal bones that are involved in the suspension of the pectoral girdle form
the skull
Posttemporal
2 anterior projections that attach to the epiotic and intercalary
bones on the back of the skull
Supratemporal
Very thin bone that bears part of the lateral line canal
 Lies rght under the skin dorsal to the posttemporal
Supracleithrum
Heavy bone that lies between the posttemporal and the pectoral
girdle
o 3 cartilage bones in acanthopterygians
Cleithrum
Largest, dorsalmost, and anteriormost element
Scapula
Usually with a round scapular foramen lying between the
cleithrum and the radials
Coracoid
Support some of the pectoral fin radials
Medocoracoid
Additional element found between the coracoid and cleithrum in
soft-rayed malacopterygian
o Radials
Hourglass shaped cartilage bones that support the pectoral fin rays
Typically 4 in teleosts attached to the coracoid and scapula
o Postcleithra
Dermal
Posterior and internal to the pectoral girdle
Soft-rayed teleosts typically have 3
2 elongate and scalelike
1 is rodlike
Spiny-rayed teleosts have 2
Scallike
Riblike
Pelvic girdle
o Usually not attached to the vertebral column
o Sharks ischipubic cartilages
o In primitive bony fishes basipterygium and radials to which the pelvic rays
attach
o In higher bony fishes both pelvic bone itself and the radials are lost or fused so
that the fin rays attach directly to the basipterygium
o Pelvic fin rays are frequently lost
o Eels, puffers no pelvic girdle
Median fins
o Agnatha
Median fins are supported by cartilaginous rod
o Chondrichthyes
Median fins supported by ceratotrichia. Composed of elastin and
supported by dermal cells
o Radials
 Below the ceratotrichia
Rodlike cartilages that support the fin rays and extend inward toward the
vertebral column
o Bony fishes
Lepidotrichia
Derived from scales
Present in lungfishes and larval bonyfishes
Bowfin have 3 radials supporting each median fin ray reduced to two and
then 1 in higher teleosts
Remaining element interneural bone- under the dorsal fins or
interhaemal bone if it is above the anal fin

EXERCISE 3: MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Skeletal
o Striated and comprises most of a fishs mass other than the skeleton
o Consists mainly of the large muscles of the trunk and tail
o Other muscles if found associated with the jaws, branchial arches and the fins
Smooth
o Nonskeletal, involuntary, and mostly associated with the gut
o Important in many organs in the circulatory system
Cardiac
o Nonskeletal but striated and if only found in the heart

Skeletal musculature of the trunk
Myomers
o Muscle blocks separated by myosepta
o Fibers are oriented more or less parallel with the body axis
Vertical septum
o Separates the muscles into the left and right halves
Horizontal septum
o Divides them further into epaxial and hypaxial muscles
o Missing in lampreys and hagfish
Lateral superficial muscles
o Usually dark in color
o Well-supplied with blood vessels, and high fat content
Supracarinales
o Anterior
Passes from the skul, usually from the supraoccipital to the first
pterygiophore
o Posterior
Connects the last pterygiophore of the dorsal with the posterior neural
spine
Infracarinales
 o Anterior
Stretch between the cleithrum and pelvic bone along the ventral midline
o Medius
Passes from the pelvic bone to the first basal pterygiophore of the anal
fin
o Posterior
Connects the anal and caudal fins
Carinal muscles serve as protractors and retractors for the dorsal and anal fins

Skeletal musculature of the head & Appendicular musculature
ORIGIN INSERTION ACTION
HEAD MUSCLES
Adductor mandibulae 1 Dorsal half of vertical Maxillo-mandibular Close the jaw
arm of preopercular ligament
bone
Adductor mandibulae 2 Ventral half of vertical
arm of preopercular
bone
Adductor mandibulae 3 Pterygoid bone
Adductor mandibulae 4 Maxillo-mandibular Dentary
ligament
Levator arcus palatini Parasphenoid Pterygoid Raise the roof of the
mouth
Dilator operculi Sphenotic Dorsal medial surface of
Levator operculi Pteriotic operculum Raises operculum???
Adductor operculi Pterioric Adducts operculum??
Anterior Geniohyoideus Basihyal Dentary symphysis Raise and lower hyoid
Posterior geniohyoidues Ceratohyal Tendon of origin of the
anterior geniohyoideus
Sternohyoideus Postcleithrum Urohyal Depresses hyoid
APPENDICULAR MUSCLE
Pelvic adductor Pelvic plates Fin radials (medial) Adducts pelvic fin
Pelvic fin abductores Pelvic plates Fin radials (outer) Abducts pelvic fin
Pectoral fin adductores Scapula, coracoid Radials, base of Adducts pectoral fin
lepidotrichia
Pectoral fin abductors Scapula and coracoid Medial surface of radials Abducts pectoral fin
CROSS SECTION
Ant. Supracarinales Skull 1st pterygiophore Protract/retract medial
Post. Supracarinales Last dorsal Posterior neural fins
pterygiophore spine/caudal fin support
Ant. Infracarinales Cleithrum Pelvic bone
Post. Infracarinales Anal fin Caudal fin
Medius infracarinales Pelvic bone 1st basal pterygiophore
of anal fin



 Maxillo-mandibular ligament
o Attaches to the anguar bone near the quadrato-articular joint
o Deeper portion attaches to the coronoid processes of the dentary and angular
bones and then passes into the lower joaw
o 3rd portion serves as an origion for the fourth part of the adductor mandibulae

EXERCISE 4: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Consists of alimentary canal and its associated clands
Mouth
o Numerous bottom feeders have subterminal or inferior mouths
o Pipefishes (Syngathidae) & butterflyfishes (Chaetodontidae)
Mouths resemble elongated beaks
Protraction of hyomandibular bone rather than by lengthening of the
lower jaw
Suction like a syringe pipefish
Selective grazing action with sharp teeth butterflyfish
o Slipmouths (Leiognathidae)
Extends mouth half the resting length of the head to siphon in small pray
o Halfbeaks (Hemiramphidae)
Lower jaw projects into a beak third of the length of the fish, mouth
opening above it.
Surface-feeding fishes
o Teeth
Upper jaw premaxillary, maxillary in lower bony fishes, vomer and
palatines
Many species have teeth on pterygoids and parasphenoids
Lower jaw, dentaries are usually the main toothed bones teeth may be
present on the tongue (glossohyal) and basibranchials between the gills
Arisen from scales covering the lips
3 kinds
Jaw
o Maxillary and premaxillary and dentaries
Mouth
o In the roof of the oral cavity, median vomer and by the
palatine and ectopterygoid
o Tongue often has teeth
Pharyngeal
o Pads on various gill arch elements
Kinds of jaw-teeth
Cardiform
o Numerous, short, fine and pointed
Villiform
o Elongated cardiform
 Canine
o Dogtooth-like
o Elongated and subconical
o Straight or curves and are adapted for piercing and holding
Incisor
o Sharp edged cutting teeth
Molariform
o For crushing and grinding
o Flattened, and broadly occlusal surface
Are absent in plankton feeders
Present on increasing numbers of bones in the more and more
predacious fishes
Value in classification
Pharynx and gill rakers
o Gill rakers
Protects the gill filaments from abrasion by ingested materials that are
coarse in texture
Aid in food gathering
Elongated in plankton feeders
Esophagus, stomach and intestine
o Esophagus
In general, short in fishes
Distensible so that relatively large object can ba swallowed
In lower bony fish, it is the side of connection of the gas bladder with the
alimentary canal via the pneumatic duct
o Stomach
Lacking in lampreys, hagfish, chimaeras and other fishes
Shows various adaptations
Fish eating species
o Quite elongate
Omnivore
o Most often sac-shaped, similar to humans
Grinding organs
o Sturgeons and mullets
o Reduced in overall size but its wall is greatly thickened and
muscularized
o Lining is heavily strengthened with connective tissue, and
the lumen made very small.
o Intestine
Has many variations
Herbivorous
o Long
o Coiled or folded
 Carnivorous
o Short guts
Omnivorous
o Guts of intermediate length
Spiral
o Sturgeons, lungfishes, sharks
Cloaca present in sharks, rays and lungfishes

Pyloric caeca, Liver, pancreas
o Pyloric caeca
Fingerlike pouches that connect to the intestine near the pylorus
Absorption and digestion
Useful in classification like salmonidae
o Liver
Bilobed but in salmon 1 lobe, 3 lobes in mackerel
Bile secretion and glycogen storage
Gallbladder- storage organ for bile
Empties into the intestine near the pylorus
o Pancreas
Usually embedded or diffused around the liver spiny-rayed fishes
(hepatopancreas)
Sharks and rays compact organ usually bilobed
Secretes several enzyme that are active in digestion
Pancreatic islets produces insulin