Power System Studies

Power system planning, design and operations require careful studies in order to evaluate the
system performance, safety, efficiency, reliability and economics. Such studies help to identify the
potential deficiencies of the proposed system. In the existing system, the cause of the
equipment failure and malfunction can be determined through a system study. The modern
interconnected power systems are complex, with several thousand buses and components. The
manual calculation of the performance indices is time consuming. The computational efforts
are very much simplified in the present day calculations due to the availability of efficient
programs and powerful microcomputers. The following study tools are used for power system
analysis.

Digital computer - The main frame computers are used in power system calculations such
as power flow, stability, short circuit and similar studies. The introduction of cheaper personal
computers with the graphics capabilities has reduced the computational costs. However, the
results produced by the programs are sophisticated and require careful analysis.
Transient Network Analyzer (TNA) - The TNA is a very useful tool to perform transient
overvoltage studies. The TNAs are small-scale power system models with computer control and
graphic capabilities. The TNA allows the use of statistical run on the switching studies using
circuit breakers. With the introduction of transient programs such TNA studies can be efficiently
performed with personal computers.
Microcomputer applications - With the advent of cheaper microcomputers practically
anybody can be provided with the necessary equipment. Data entry, calculations, graphics and
storage of the program-related documents are made very simple. Many of the software programs
from main frame are converted to microcomputer applications. Also, the programs become
more user-friendly and very fast to execute with the larger memories available in the
microcomputers. The following microcomputer configurations are commonly used:
A stand-alone workstation operated by a single user or a number of users at
different times. The programs and the data are stored in the microcomputer
memory.

A workstation, which is part of a local area network, is another version of the

microcomputer application. In this arrangement sometimes the main software
is installed at the server and various users perform the calculations at the
workstation.
Workstation connected to a central computer. This is similar to the local area
network, but the central computer may be a main frame or super computer.
Large file transfer between various computer resources is achieved by e-mail
or through other Internet activities.
In all the microcomputer configurations, the printing or plotting devices is available locally or at a
centralized location.

1.1 POWER SYSTEM STUDIES

There are several power system studies performed to evaluate the efficient operation of the
power delivery [1,2]. Some of the important studies are:
Impedance modeling.
Power flow analysis.
Short circuit studies.
Transient stability analysis.
Motor starting studies.
Power factor correction studies.
Harmonic analysis.
Flicker analysis.
Insulation coordination.
Cable ampacity analysis.
Ground grid analysis.
Lightning surge analysis.
EMF studies.
Data acquisition systems.
Relay coordination studies.
In this book, the nature of the study, a brief theory involved, practical examples, criteria for the
evaluation and typical computer software used in the evaluation are described in a step-by-step
manner for easy understanding.
Line Constants (Chapter 2) - The overhead transmission lines are supporting the current
carrying conductors. The conductor diameter, the resistance, the distance between conductors,
the distance of the conductors from the earth, the skin effect factor, the soil resistivity and the
frequency of the currents are some factors related to the line parameters. Accurate value of the
line constants are required for the power flow, stability, voltage drop calculations, protection
coordination studies and other power system studies. The approach to the computer-aided
calculations is presented in this Chapter.
The underground cables are more complex than the overhead lines and the parameter
calculations involve the thickness of the insulation, shield and the various materials involved in
the construction. The approach to parameter evaluation and examples are presented. The cable
parameters are used in all kinds of power system analysis. The calculated impedance values are
presented in tables related to the line or cable location. Sometimes there may be many line or
cables involved in a system and the parameters are presented in the impedance diagrams. Such
diagrams will be very useful in the system analysis.
Power Flow Analysis (Chapter 3) - Power flow studies are used to determine the voltage,
current, active and reactive power flow in a given power system. A number of operating
conditions can be analyzed including contingencies such as loss of generator, loss of a
transmission line, loss of a transformer or a load. These conditions may cause equipment
overloads or unacceptable voltage levels. The study results can be used to determine the
optimum size and location of the capacitors for power factor improvement. Further, the results
of the power flow analysis are the staring point for the stability analysis. Digital computers are
used extensively in the power flow study because of the large-scale nature of the problem and the
complexities involved. For the power flow analysis, the acceptable voltage levels are derived
from the industry standards. The line and transformer loadings are evaluated according to the
normal, short-term emergency and long term-emergency ratings.
Short Circuit Studies (Chapter 4) - The short circuit studies are performed to determine the
magnitude of the current flowing throughout the power system at various time intervals after a
fault. The magnitude of the current flowing through the power system after a fault varies with
time until it reaches a steady state condition. During the fault, the power system is called on to
detect, interrupt and isolate these faults. The duty impressed on the equipment is dependent on the
magnitude of the current, which is a function of the time of fault initiation. Such calculations are
performed for various types of fault such as three-phase, single line to ground fault, double line to
ground fault and at different location of the system. The data is used to select fuses, circuit
breakers and surge protective relays. The symmetrical component model is used in the analysis
of the unsymmetrical faults and mutual coupling.
Transient Stability Analysis (Chapter 5) - The ability of the power system consisting of two
or more generators to continue to operate after a change occurs on the system is a measure of the
stability. The steady state stability is defined as the ability of the power system to remain in
synchronism following relatively slow load changes in the power system. Transient stability of
the system is defined as the ability of the power system to remain in synchronism under
transient conditions such as fault and switching operations. In a power system, the stability
depends on the power flow pattern, generator characteristics, system loading level, the line
parameters and many other details. Typical stability runs and the example results showing the
acceptable and not acceptable results are presented in this Chapter.
Motor Starting Studies (Chapter 6) - The majority of the load in the industrial power system
consists of three-phase induction and synchronous motors. These motors draw five to seven
times the rated current during energization and this causes significant voltage drop in the
distribution system. If the terminal voltage drop is excessive, the motor may not produce
enough starting torque to accelerate up to rated running speed. Also, the running motors may
stall from excessive voltage drops or under voltage relays may operate. Further, if the motors are
started frequently, the voltage dip at the source may cause objectionable flicker in the residential
lighting system. By performing the motor-starting study, the voltage-drop-related issues can be
predicted. If a starting device is needed, the required characteristics and rating can be determined.
Using a computer program, the voltage profile at various locations of the system during motor
staring can be determined. The study results can be used to select suitable starting device,
proper motor selection or required system design for minimizing the impact of the motor
starting.
Power Factor Correction Studies (Chapter 7) - Usually, the power factor of various power
plants is low and there are several advantages in improving them. The power factor capacitors
provide an economical means of improving the power factor. When the power factor
improvement capacitor banks are installed in both high voltage and low voltage levels, then
there are several factors that require careful consideration. Some of the important items are:
Sustained overvoltages.
Resonance frequencies of both high and low voltage capacitor banks.
Voltage magnification at low voltage capacitor banks.
Back-to-back capacitor switching.

In this Chapter, these aspects of the power factor correction are discussed.

Harmonic Analysis (Chapter 8) - Nonlinear power system loads such as converters, arc
furnaces and vapor lamps draw non-sinusoidal currents from the source. The voltage distortion
produced in the system depends on the system impedance and the magnitudes of the harmonic
currents injected. If the system impedance is low, the voltage distortion is low in the absence
of harmonic resonance. In the presence of harmonic resonance, the voltage distortion is
responsible for interference in the computer system, additional heating effects in the rotating
machinery, overheating and failure of power factor correction capacitors, additional line voltage
drop and additional transformer losses. Also, the harmonic frequencies induce voltage in the
communication circuits. The harmonic analysis is performed using frequency sensitive power
system models.
Flicker Analysis (Chapter 9) - There are several industrial loads such as arc furnace, traction
load, a particle accelerator and motor-starting condition. If the process of applying and
releasing a load on a power system is carried out at a frequency at which the human eye is
susceptible and if the resulting voltage drop great enough, a modulation of the light level of
incandescent lamps will be detected. This phenomenon is known as flicker. This Chapter evaluates
the techniques for the calculation of the voltage drop and using the frequency data in a graph to
assess the voltage flicker level. Also, certain measures to control the flicker in the power
system are discussed in this Chapter.
Insulation Coordination (Chapter 10) - The power system transients are disturbances
produced due to switching, faults, trapped energy, induced voltages, inrush currents, ferro-
resonance, loss of load, neutral instability and lightning. The transients produce overvoltages,
overcurrents and oscillatory behavior. The overvoltages may damage the power system
equipment due to flashover through insulation breakdown. Usually a flashover will cause a
temporary tripping and reclosing operation. Permanent insulation damage will cause a
sustained power outage. Overcurrents can cause excessive heating and hence possible equipment
damage/tripping. The oscillatory type of transient may produce power quality problems such as
nuisance tripping, voltage notching, swings and sags. The power system transients are modeled
using the transients program and are analyzed in the time domain. In this Chapter, the approach to
the transient modeling of the power system and solution approaches is presented with suitable
examples. The transients due to energization, de-energization, fault clearing, back up fault
clearing and reclosing are demonstrated with suitable examples. Approaches to minimize the
transients are also discussed in this Chapter.
Cable Ampacity Analysis (Chapter 11) - Cable installation in the underground or in the
cable trays are commonly used to transmit power within the generating station. Also, the cables
are used to transmit power at distribution level in the urban areas. The current carrying capability
of the cable is determined by the maximum conductor temperature rise. This in turn depends on
the conductor characteristics, losses in the dielectric and shield and cooling arrangements. The
analysis involves the application of thermal equivalent circuits at the maximum loading
conditions.
Grounding Grid Analysis (Chapter 12) - In the substations and generating stations part of
the fault currents are diverted through the grounding grids. During the ground fault conditions
the fault currents through ground grid causes the grid voltage drop and hence the neutral voltage
rise. The purpose of the safety analysis is to evaluate the following:
Grid potential rise.
Maximum mesh voltage rise.
Touch potential rise.
Step potential rise.
Allowable touch voltage and allowable step voltage.
Safety performance analysis.
In order to calculate the above quantities, data for the soil resistivity, fault current magnitude and
duration and the geometry of the ground grid are required.
Lightning Surge Analysis (Chapter 13) - The lightning surge is one of the major sources
of external disturbance to the power system. The lightning surge can strike the power system as a
direct stroke or as a back flashover strike. The surge current through the system depends on
several factors such as the tower and conductor configuration and the tower footing resistance.
The system performance is analyzed for the overvoltages without and with lightning arresters.
The benefit of having lightning arresters in the system to control the adverse effects of lightning
surges is demonstrated.
EMF Studies (Chapter 14) - Electric and magnetic fields exist wherever there is electric power.
Field calculation approaches are discussed both for the overhead lines and underground cable
circuits. The acceptable levels of radiated fields are presented from various industry standards.
This type of study can identify the levels of field exposure and compare the existing levels with
the industry standard values. Some mitigation measures are also identified.
Data Acquisition Systems (Chapter 15) - The data acquisition techniques are used to
evaluate the power system performance under various conditions. When there are several
parameters to be measured in a system, a simple data acquisition system can perform this
function. When fast transients are to be measured, data acquisition systems are used along with
very small time step. There are several types of data acquisition system software available for
various applications. Also, there are different communication protocols available to perform the
data transfer. In this Chapter, the following important data acquisition systems will be analyzed:

Steady state analysis.

Transient analysis.
These analyses include examples of performance analysis, graphical representation and the
approach for effective report preparation.
Relay Coordination Studies (Chapter 16) - The main objective of protection coordination
analysis is to minimize the hazards to personnel and equipment during fault conditions. The
studies are performed to select the fault-clearing characteristics of devices such as fuses,
circuit breakers and relays used in the power system. The short circuit results provide the
minimum and maximum current levels at which the coordination must be achieved in order to
protect the system. Traditionally, the coordination calculations were performed in graphical
sheets using the time current characteristics. With the cheaper and faster microcomputers
available at the design and consulting offices, the time current characteristics of various
protective devices can readily be presented in graphical form. The necessary settings can be
calculated and presented along with the protective device characteristics in order to verify the
coordination.
Example 1.1 - A 160 MW cogeneration project is being planned for development at a river
bank. The plant will have one steam turbine driven generator unit of 90 MW 13.8 kV, 60 Hz,
three-phase and a steam turbine driven unit of 70 MW, 13.8 kV, 60 Hz, three-phase. The
generators will have individual circuit breakers and a three-winding transformer, 13.8 kV/13.8
kV/138 kV. There will be one 138 kV circuit breaker and a tie line to the other end of the river,
which is 2 miles. Prepare a simple one-line diagram of the proposed scheme and list the
required system studies.
Solution - The one line diagram of the proposed system is shown in Figure 1.1. The required
system studies are:
Load flow analysis - To make sure that the line and transformer loadings are
within acceptable limits.
Short circuit studies - To make sure that the circuit breaker ratings and relay
settings are performed to meet the new load flow conditions.
Transient stability studies - To ensure that the system is stable under desired
 operating and some contingency conditions.
Cable ampacity studies - To select the 138 kV cable.
Ground grid analysis - Ground grid for the substation and generating station
and related safety performance.
Protection coordination studies - To get all the relay settings.
Switching surge analysis - For insulation coordination.

PROBLEMS
1. A 520 MW cogeneration plant is to be developed at 13.8 kV level. The plant will consist of
six gas turbine units each 70 MW, 13.8 kV and two steam turbine units with a rating of
50 MW, 13.8 kV each. The voltage is to be stepped up to 345 kV at the local substation
and the power is to be delivered through a three-phase overhead line of 3 miles. Draw a one-
line diagram of the system and identify the ratings of the circuit breakers and step up
transformer units. What are the system planning studies required for this project? Refer to
Figure 1.1.
2. Is it necessary for the above developer (Problem 1) to perform harmonic analysis? Explain.
3. There is a political form opposing the electric distribution system in a school district. This is
a health-related issue due to an overhead line. The electric utility planners want you to look
into this subject and recommend to them suitable studies to be performed. What will be the
recommendation?
4. A 230 kV transmission line is being installed between two substations at a distance of 35
miles apart. There is a 340 feet river crossing involved in this project and it was planned to
install one tall tower at each end of the riverbank. There will be one dead end tower
following the tall tower for mechanical considerations. Is there a need to perform special
studies to reduce any risk associated with this installation?

Figure 1.1 One-Line Diagram of the Power Plant for Problem 1

5. A generating plant is proposed with four 200 MW generators as shown in Figure 1.2. There
are two step-up transformers and a ring bus arrangement to connect the generators to the
utility system. In order to proceed with the project, what power system studies are required?
 Figure 1.2 One-Line Diagram of the Proposed Generating Plant and Ring Bus

REFERENCES
1. ANSI/IEEE Standard: 141, IEEE Recommended Practice for Electrical Distribution for
Industrial Plants, 1993 (Red Book).
2. ANSI/IEEE Standard: 399, IEEE Recommended Practice for Power System Analysis,
1990 (Brown Book).
3. Ramasamy Natarajan, Computer-Aided Power System Analysis, 2002, Marcel Dekker Inc.,
ISBN: 0-8247-0699-4, 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016