Electrical Sensing Elements

Resistive
V = IR Capacitive
Q Inductive
V= Electromagnetic
C
Thermoelectric
Elastic -Mechanical
Piezoelectric
Hall Effect
MEMS - Mechanical
Electro-chemical
Photoelectric - Optical
 Resistive Sensing Mechanism
The measurand directly or indirectly alters the electrical
resistance of a resistive element.
Electrical resistance is a parameter that we use to relate voltage
and current. V= IR
Sensing takes advantage of changes in resistance to infer
changes in other physical quantities.

Resistance changes because of

material or geometry changes
 C
Potentiometer
A Resistive material is placed on the former so that the
Vs dt resistance/unit length is constant. Thus resistance is
proportional to the distance d travelled by the wiper.
d ETh
ETh/Vs = Voltage across AB / Voltage across BC
B
= Resistance across AB / Resistance across
BC

If resistance across BC is Rp the total resistance of

potentiometer, then the Resistance across AB is Rp x
where x is the fractional resistance = d/dt
d
ETh = Vs x = Vs
Thevenin Voltage dt

For angular sensing ETh = Vs
t
Thevenin Resistance r = R p x (1 x )
1
E L = Vs x
( R p / RL ) x (1 x ) + 1
 Selection of Potentiometer
Note: The Thevenin resistance of a potentiometer is RTh = Rp x (1-x).
The relation between voltage across an external load RL and
fractional displacement (x) is non-linear Rp << RL
Maximum travel - depends on range of displacement to be
measured.
Supply Voltage - set by required output voltage for a range of 0-
5V dc we need Vs = 5 Volts
Resistance Rp - For a given load resistance RL, choose Rp to be
sufficiently small so as to make non-linearity in acceptable range
Power Rating Wmax should be greater than actual power (Vs2/Rp)
Potentiometers are cheap and fairly accurate, but wear out
eventually due to the physical contact at the slider.
The contact point can be electrically noisy, which is undesirable
 Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTD)
Principle: Resistance of metals increases linearly with
temperature in the range from -100 to +800 oC
RT = R0 (1 + AT + BT 2 + ......)
R0 is the resistance at 0 oC which is typically 100, 500 or 1000
and A,B are coefficients depending on material, purity, form and
follows international standards.
They are related to the temperature co-efficient of the material ()
which is defined as the average resistance change per C over the
range 0C to 100C divided by R at 0C
 Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTD)
RT = R0 (1 + AT + BT 2 + ......) The most popular thin-film RTD is
manufactured using platinum with
R0 typically 100, 500 or 1000
and A = 3.9083 x 10-3 , B = -5.775
x 10-7

Vo R2 R3 R1 R2 R3 R4

2
+
Vs ( R2 + R3 ) R1 R2 R3 R4

Tables related voltage changes to

temperatures
 Issues
RTDs and self-heating
An RTD is a passive device and requires a measuring current to produce a useful signal.
Because of I2R heating, this current can raise the temperature of the RTD sensing
element above that of the ambient temperature unless the extra heat can be dissipated.
The amount of self-heat that will be generated is dependent upon the measuring
current as well as the ability of the sensor assembly to dissipate that heat.
The ability of the sensor to dissipate heat is defined by its dissipation factor, , which
has units of mW/C. The definition for is the amount of power that it takes to the
raise the body temperature of the sensing element 1C. The ability of the sensor to
dissipate power is a function of the size and construction of the sensing element as well
as the materials that surround it in the assembly and the environment that the sensor is
used in.
The higher the A, the less amount of self-heating that will occur. The amount of self-
heating is more for higher resistance elements used in constant current circuits, as well
as in constructions where the sensing element cannot shed heat to its
outside environment.
Also, self-heating is more in air than in a liquid and in still air rather than moving air

Effects of lead wire resistance Use 3 or 4 wire system to eliminate or reduce this
 Thermistors
Thermistors are generally made from semi-conductor materials
In this case the resistance of material decreases with temperature.

R = K exp K and are constants
T
Ri is the resistance at
1 1
R = R exp reference temperature Ti =
T Ti 25oC
i

Typical thermistor sensors can measure

temperatures across the range of -40 ~
150 0.35 C (-40 ~ 302 0.63 F).
Materials are sulphides and oxides of Ni,
Mn, Cu
The shape of the thermistor probe can
take the form of a bead, washer, disk, or
rod.
 Thermistors
Pros:
High accuracy, ~0.02 C (0.36F), better than RTDs, much better than
thermocouples.
High sensitivity, ~10 times better than RTDs, much better than
thermocouples. As a result, lead wire and self-heating errors are negligible.
Small in size compared to thermocouples.
Response time shorter than RTDs, about the same as thermocouples.
Reasonable long term stability and repeatability.

Cons:
Limited temperature range, typically -100 ~ 150 C (-148 ~ 302 F).
Nonlinear resistance-temperature relationship, unlike RTDs which have a very
linear relationship.

Thermistor tables
 Thick Film Polymers
Polymers such as epoxy, silicone are filled with metallic particles such
as silver or copper to have properties similar to RTD
If carbon particles are used as filler properties similar to
thermistors.
By using solvents, the polymers can be screen printed onto a
substrate such as Alumina.

RT = R25 [1 + (T 25)]
= 3.732 x 10-3 /oC
If carbon is used then equation for thermistors have to be
used with = 136K
Carbon polymers are sensitive to humidity as it causes the
polymer to swell which increases the resistivity of the material
 Resistive Strain Gauge
Basic concepts

Stress () = Force / Area

Normal Strain () = Change in length / Original Length
Shear strain () = Change in angle from initial 90o
Elastic Modulus (E) = Stress / Strain
Poisson's Ratio () = -transverse strain(t)/longitudanal strain(l)

Principle:
A strain gauge is a metal or semi-conductor material whose
resistance changes with strain
Strain gages exhibit piezo-resistive behavior
 Resistive Strain Gauge
The resistance of a wire with length (l) and cross section area A is
l
R=
A
R R R
R = ( ) l + ( ) A + ( )
l A Define Gauge Factor G as
R l A
= + R
R l A G= R

R
= (1 + 2 ) L + G = (1 + 2 ) +
1
R

For most metals , =0.3 and strain induced change in resistivity

is 0.4 so that G = 2.0
 Material for Resistive Strain Gauge
Advance/ Constantan Alloy of Copper (55%) Nickel (44%) and
Manganese (1%)

Gauge Factor / Strain Sensitivity Is linear over large range of

strain (G= 2.1)
Temperature co-efficient of resistance is small (2 x 10-5 / oC)

Semi-conductor
The piezo-resistive term can be large and hence have large
gauge factors (G= 70 to 135)
However the range of linearity is small
 Gauge Sensitivity and Gauge Factor
R R
Ro = Sl l + St t
G= R

R
1 = Sl ( l + K t )
G = (1 + 2 ) + R

Where Sl is the longitudinal
strain sensitivity and St is the
However due to gauge construction the gauge transverse strain sensitivity
is sensitive to longitudinal strain and and K is the cross-sensitivity
transverse strain. factor

So gauge factor is obtained through a calibration experiment by mounting the strain

gauge on a specimen with known strain and measuring change in resistance.

R
= G l
R
What sort of error would this calibration have when doing a real experiment.
(Hint: Effect of material, strain state etc)
 Gauge types
Unbonded wire
Foil
Semiconductor
 R Strain Detection
= G l
R
Consider a situation where the strain is on the order of 1 .
For a metallic foil strain gage with G = 2, R = 120 ohm,

R = GlR = 2*1*10-6*120 = 0.0024

You need to measure a 0.002% change in R!

How would you detect such a change?

Why can you not use a potentiometer (voltage divider) circuit

 Wheatstone Bridge
The bridge is balanced (output voltage = 0) when the ratio of
resistances of any two adjacent arms is equal to the ratio of
resistances of the remaining two arms (taken in the same sense)

Output
Input
Null detector circuit
 Standard Bridge Configuration
R1R3 R2 R4
Vg = Vin
( R1 + R2 )( R3 + R4 )
Circuit is balanced when Vg= 0

Vg r R1 R2 R3 R4
2
+
Vin (1 + r ) R1 R2 R3 R4

Where r = R2/R1
Usually only one resistance is changing the one corresponding to
the strain gauge. Hence if R3 is the strain gauge, then we have
Vg r R3 r
= 2 = G l
Vin (1 + r ) R3 (1 + r ) 2
 Bridge circuits
Single Strain Gauge
lG
Vg = Vin
4
R4

Temperature Compensated
Strain Gauge

Vg 1 R3 R2
=
Vin 4 R3 R2
R4
Vg 1
= [G ( + T T ]
Vin 4
Strain Rosette
Moment Sensor Vg
Vin
=
r R1 R2 R3 R4
2
(1 + r ) R1

R2
+
R3

R4
Vg r R3 R2
= 2

Vin (1 + r ) R3 R2
Vg
=
r
[G1 G 2 ]
R4 Vin (1 + r ) 2

Mc
1 = + T
EI
Mc
2 = + T
EI

Vg 1 [2GMc ]
=
Vin 4 EI
Vg 2 EI
M=
Vin Gc
 Load Sensor

Vg r R1 R2 R3 R4
= +
Vin (1 + r ) 2 R1 R2 R3 R4
Show that this load cell is independent
of bending and torsional loads
P P
l = + T t = + T Vg
AE AE AE
P= = KVg
Vin (1 + )
Vg 1 2GP P
= (1 + ) = (1 + )
Vin 4 AE AE

For G = 2.0
 Capacitive Sensors
Parallel plate capacitor
0A
Capacitance is given as C=
d
Where 0 is the permittivity of free space
And is the relative permittivity of the
material between plates.
Hence C can be changed by changing d, A or

Variable Separation Variable Area Displacement Variable Dielectric

Displacement Sensors Sensor Displacement Sensor

0A C=
0 ( A Wx ) 01 A1 0 2 A2
C= C= +
d+x d d d
x x
x d 1
2
d
 Differential or push-pull sensor
The variable displacement sensor has a disadvantage that it is non-
linear. To overcome this a three plate differential sensor is used. A
moving plate is placed between the two fixed plates forming to
capacitances C1 and C2

Vs
ETh = x
d-x 2d
d+x

0 A
C1 =
d+x When the capacitances are connected to
0 A the ac deflection bridge, the output
C2 =
dx voltage is linearly proportional to x

Position Sensing
Automation requiring
precise location
Semiconductor processing
Final assembly of precision
equipment such as disk
drives
Precision stage positioning
Applications
C (1 2 )a 4
= P
Capacitive Pressure Sensor C 16 Edt 3
Dynamic Motion Thickness Measurement Thickness Measurement
Precision capacitive Si-Wafer thickness For non-conductive
sensors have high Brake Rotor Thickness materials
frequency response (15 Disk drive thickness Glue thickness
kHz). measurement
Precision machine tool
spindles
Disk drive spindles
High-speed drill spindles
 Applications
Liquid level sensor Humidity Sensor

The porous gel will absorb water and

result in change of dielectric constant
2 0h 2 0 (l h ) and thus a change in capacitance.
Ch = +
b b
log log
a a
2 0
Ch = [l + ( 1)h]
b
log
a
C = A+ B(RH)
 Inductive Sensors
To understand inductive sensor principles, consider the concept of a magnetic circuit
In electrical circuit EMF= current * resistance (V= I*R)
Analogous to this we have a magnetomotive force (mmf) which drives a flux through
the magnetic circuit.
MMF = flux * reluctance = *R = F
Magnetomotive force (MMF) (SI Unit: Ampere) is any physical driving (motive) force
that produces magnetic flux.
Notes:
Remember units for
magnetic circuit
terminology
Reluctance follow
resistance law (or
amperes current law)
series and parallel
Flux from Gauss law
sum of flux into any
node is zero.
 Magnetic Circuit N n2
Self Inductance is defined as L= =
Total flux per unit current
I

For this example

l
MMF = n*I Reluctance is given as =
And the flux is o A
= n*I/R
This is the flux for single coil. Hence total flux Where is the relative permeability of circuit medium
N = n = n2*I/R and o is permeability of free space. A is the area of
flux path

Electric currents represent the flow of particles (electrons) and carry power, which is
dissipated as heat in resistances. Magnetic fields don't represent the "flow" of anything,
and no power is dissipated in reluctances.

The current in typical electric circuits is confined to the circuit, with very little "leakage".
In typical magnetic circuits not all of the magnetic field is confined to the magnetic
circuit; there is significant "leakage flux" in the space outside the magnetic cores, which
must be taken into account but is difficult to calculate.

Magnetic circuits are nonlinear; the reluctance in a magnetic circuit is not constant, as
resistance is, but varies depending on the magnetic field.
 l
Inductive displacement sensor
=
o A
Suppose the core is separated into two parts with an air gap.
Total Reluctance is the reluctance of the two parts. Since = 1
for air and ~1000 for core material, the presence of air-gap
causes large change in reluctance and corresponding decrease
in flux and inductance

total = core + gap + armature

R R
core = =
or 2 or 2
2d
gap =
or 2
2R
armature =
A 2rt
total = o + kd Where Ro is reluctance at zero air gap
The inductance of a reluctance displacement sensor has the following non-linear relation
n2 n2 L0
L= = =
total o + kd 1 + d
 Differential or push pull sensor
To overcome non-linearity
connect to a.c. deflection bridge so
voltage linear with displacement

L0
L1 =
1 + (a x )
L0
L2 =
1 + (a + x )
Vsx
ETh =
2(1 + a )
 Variable Reluctance Tachogenerator
Major application to find angular velocity of rotating shafts.
Also can measure flow speeds and flow volume of liquids.
Target gear has to be ferromagnetic material
Sensor consists of a coil wound around a
permanent magnet. The gear moves close to
the sensor causing the flux linked by the coil
to change with time thus generating an EMF
which is detected. The magnetic circuit
comprises of the permanent magnet, air gap
and wheel. Change in air gap results in
change in reluctance which causes change in
flux.
N ( ) = a + b cos m
dN d
E= = bmr sin m = bmr sin mr t
d dt
 Microsyn

In this arrangement, the coils are connected in such a manner that at the null
position of the rotary element, the voltages induced in coils 1 and 3 are
balanced by voltages induced in coils 2 and 4. The motion of the rotor in the
clockwise direction increases the reluctance of coils 1 and 3 while decreasing
the reluctance of coils 2 and 4, thus giving a net output voltage The
movement in the counterclockwise direction causes a similar effect in coils 2
and 4 with a 180 phase shift.
Microsyn transducers are used extensively in applications involving gyroscopes
and can measure changes in angle as low as 0.010
 Electromagnetic Sensors
Principle: Faradays law of electro-magnetic induction which states that if the
flux N linked to a conductor is changing with time, then a back EMF is induced
in the conductor with a magnitude equal to the rate of change of flux

dN N = n = nBA
E=
dt
Transformer - number of coils in the
primary or secondary coil steps up or
down the voltage.

Motional EMF Speed with which coil

moves into magnetic field is
proportional to EMF (A is changing)

AC Generator where the coil is rotated

in the magnetic field (A is changing).

Move magnet towards or away from

coil. (B is changing)
Linear Variable Differential Transformer(LVDT)
The Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT) is a type of
electrical transformer used for measuring linear
(i.e. translational) displacement. A counterpart to
this device that is used for measuring rotary
displacement is called a Rotary Variable
Differential Transformer (RVDT).

The linear variable differential transformer has

three solenoids placed end-to-end around a tube.
The center coil is the primary, and the two outer
coils are the secondary's. A cylindrical
ferromagnetic core, attached to the object whose
position is to be measured, slides along the axis of
the tube
Primary coil given an input voltage at a certain
frequency. Output voltage is the difference of
voltages in the secondary coils. Ferromagnetic
core moves inside to change mutual inductance
between primary and secondary coils.
 LVDT Principles

Note that E1-E2 have the same magnitude at either ends but with a phase
difference. Use a so-called phase sensitive detector (Demodulator) which
gives a negative DC voltage when phase is opposite.
 Thermoelectric Sensors
Thermocouples
A thermocouple is a device consisting of two different conductors (usually metal
alloys) that produce a voltage proportional to the temperature difference
between either end of the pair of conductors. Seebeck Effect
mV E
K-Type + Platinum T/Cs

60 Base Metal T/Cs

- K
J N
40
E1 Th
20 T RS
TC circuit deg C
0 500 1000 2000
All have Seebeck coefficients in Microvolts/deg.C
Letters correspond to British Standards
 Making a thermocouple
Since two materials are used, the Seebeck co-efficient
measured by a thermocouple is Ps= PA-PB
Tb

B Tx
V
@ 200 0C
A
Ta Fe +3.5 mV 17.7(V/K)

V = (PA-PB)T Cu 1.83 9.15

Ideally a thermocouple should have one Pt 0 0

arm made of high emf material and the Pd -1.23 -6.5
other of low emf. Eg. Fe+Ni which gives a
Ni -3.1 -15.5
thermo-power of 33.2 V/K or for a 2000C
temperature gradient emf is 6.64 mV
 Common Thermocouples
Seebeck
Coeff: V/C
Type Metals

J Fe-Const 50 Microvolt output is a tough measurement

K Ni-Cr- Ni-Al 40
T Cu-Const 38 Type "N" is fairly new.. more rugged and
S Pt/Rh-Pt 10 higher temp. than type K, but still cheap
E Ni/Cr-Cu-Ni 59
N Ni/Cr/Si-Ni/Si 39

Thinner the thermocouple wire, lower the thermal mass and

therefore faster the response (5 ms). Thin film/foil thermocouples
can be built using micromachining techniques.
Sometimes the output voltage of a single thermocouple is too small.
Then thermocouples are connected in series to form a thermopile.
 Semiconductor Thermocouples
Semi-conductors, in general, show a larger thermoelectric effect than metals. (mV
instead of microvolts)
The Seebeck effect can be explained in terms of semiconductor physics for both n-
type and p-type semiconductors.
For practical applications, the Seebeck co-efficient can be related to the electrical
resistivity as

ln(
mk m = constant 2.6
Ps =
o ) o = constant 5x10-6 -cm
= resistivity

Thermocouple Figure of Merit: Z=Ps2/

= electrical conductivity = thermal conductivity
High (/) conductivity ratio is important as it permits higher
temperature gradients with low power consumption.
 Now try to measure it:
a
Fe Theoretical :
Fe -> Va = SFe (Tx-Ta)
Tx Vab= f{Tx, Ta, Tb}
b Con -> Vb = SCon (Tx-Tb)
Con
But, try to measure it with a Voltmeter

Cu Fe Cu Fe
Tx
V

Cu Con
Tx
= V

Cu Con
Result:3 unequal junctions, all at unknown temperatures
 Solution: Reference Thermocouple
Problems: a) 3 different thermocouples,
b) 3 unknown temperatures

Solutions: a) Add an opposing thermocouple

b) Use a known reference temp.
Isothermal
block
Cu Fe Cu Fe
Tx Add Tx
Con
V V Con
Tref
Tref =0C
o

Cu Fe Cu Fe
 The Classical Method
If both Cu junctions are at same T, the two
Cu Fe "batteries" cancel
Tref is an ice bath (sometimes an
Tx electronic ice bath)
All T/C tables are referenced to an ice
V Con
Tref bath
o V= f{Tx-Tref}
=0C
Cu Fe

Question: How can we eliminate the ice bath?

 Eliminating the ice bath

Don't force Tref to icepoint, just

Cu Fe measure it
Compensate for Tref :
Tx
V Con V = f{ Tx - Tref }
Tref Tice Tice
Cu Fe If we know Tref , we can
Tice
compute Tx.
 Eliminating the second T/C

Cu Fe
Extend the isothermal block
Tx If isothermal, V1-V2=0
V Con 2
Cu Fe
Tref Tx
Cu Fe V Tref Con
1 2

Cu
1
 Summary
E1
E1 EMF due to thermocouple at temperature Th
Th E2, E3, E4, E5 - EMF due to unknown junction
E2 E3 temperatures
Tr Reference Temperature

E4 E5 Em = E1+E2+E3+E4+E5
E1 = Em-E2-E3-E4-E5

Tr
Lead extension wires can be made of same material as Thermocouple but to
lower specifications to reduce cost. Thus E2=E3=0
Connection to voltage measuring instrument we use law of intermediate metals
which states that the emf generated between two materials (A and C) is equal to
the sum of emf generated between materials (A and B) and between (B and C).
Suppose E4 is iron-copper and E5 is constantan copper, then E4+E5 =
corresponds to iron-constantan. Thus effect of copper wires are canceled out
E1 = Em+Eref - Law of intermediate temperatures
Thermocouple tables use Eref as corresponding to ice bath at 0oC
 T/C Table
Chromel-Constantan (reference junction at 0oC

Note: Constantan Chromel junction would give reverse voltages.

 Examples
1. What is the hot junction temperature if the output measured is
13.421 mV with the reference junction at 0oC - 200oC

2. If the measured voltage is 9.26 mV (ref. = 0oC) then we need to

interpolate to get temperature (142.5oC)

3. Suppose the reference junction is at 65oC and output emf

measured is 13.421, what is hot junction temperature
Use law of intermediate temperatures:
E(Th ,To ) = E(Th ,TR ) + E(TR ,To )
Resultant E = 13.421+4.006 = 17.427 mV which corresponds to T=
253oC
(Note Add voltages and not temperatures 200+65 = 265 is thus
wrong)
 Example
A Chromel-Constantan (Type E) thermocouple is used to measure the fluid
temperature. If the output from the thermocouple is 9.081 mV, what is the
temperature of fluid if the reference temperature is 00C .
Using the law of intermediate temperatures, determine the fluid temperature if
the measured EMF is 9.081 mV at a reference temperature of 600C

From the table the temperature corresponding to an EMF of 9.081

mV is 140oC since the reference temperature is zero degree C.
If the reference temperature is at 60oC, then using the law of
intermediate temperatures.

E(Th,Tr) = 9.081 mV
From the tables E(Tr,0) = 4.985

Thus Em = (ETh,0) = E(Th, Tr) + E (Tr,0) = 9.081+3.685 = 12.766.

This corresponds to a temperature of slightly higher than 190oC
 Example 2
A chromel-alumel thermocouple with chromel-alumel extension
wires was to be used to measure the temperature of a fluid.
While connecting the extension wire, the engineer inadvertently
interchanged the wire such that the chromel wire was connected
to the alumel extension. The ends of the extension wires were
held at a reference temperature of 0oC and the output emf
measured was 12.1 mV. If the junction between the thermo-
couple and the extension wire is at 40oC, what temperature of
fluid is indicated and what is correct fluid temperature.

V = E1+E2+E3 or E1 = V-E2-E3
Noting that the tables quote emf going from
Chromel to Alumel as positive , then E2 and E3
are negative. Since these junctions are at 40oC E2=E3 = -1.611

V= 12.1+1.611+1.611 = 15.322 mV
Which corresponds to 374.5oC
 Hall Effect Devices
When an electron moves inside a metal, in
the presence of a magnetic flux (B) a
magnetic force acts on it .
This Lorentz force acts perpendicular to
current motion

F = e(v B )

The Lorentz force rotates the current flow lines through an angle H known as the Hall
angle. This deflection of electrons result in +ve charge on one side and ve charge on the
other of a conductor. The resultant Hall electric field opposes the Lorentz force and at
equilibrium
E hy = v x Bz
 Hall Effect Devices
BZ

Ix
F VH
d

The voltage across the plate is VH= vxBzw. Relating drift speed to
current gives the relationship between the detected voltage (the
Hall voltage VH), the magnetic field BZ and the current IX, as

VH = RH Ix BZ / d

Where d is the thickness of the plate. RH is the Hall Coefficient

and is inversely proportional to the carrier concentration i.e.
Electrons in metals or electrons in an n-type material or holes in a
p-type material.
 Hall Effect Devices
Hall angle is given as : tan H= RH BZ
Where is the electrical conductivity of the material

In metal Hall coefficient is small and negative.

For semiconductors depending on the doping the coefficient can
be negative (n type) or positive (p type)

Hall voltage has to be corrected to take into account geometry of

plate since the plate is not infinitely long. The geometrical factor
k depends upon the ratio L/W and the thickness d.

VH = k RH Ix BZ / d
Hall effect devices are best made from a thin plate( small d)
with low conductivity and careful choice of geometry k=0.7
 Hall Effect Devices
We wish to maximize the Hall effect sensitivity.
i.e, we should aim to maximize the Hall voltage for a given
magnetic field and applied bias.

The thickness, d, should be small and L/W chosen to give the

optimum value of k

Material should have high mobility carriers which means

optimum geometry and the use of n-type rather that p-type layers.

A typical Hall effect sensor operates in the range 0.1mT to 1Tesla.

One important point is that the hall sensor must be properly

aligned to the magnetic field it is trying to measure.
 Integrated Hall Sensor
N-type Hall plate magnetic sensor
Measures magnetic field vertical to the chip plane.
V
Vertical Hall Devices can also be fabricated.
CMOS and reactive ion etching techniques have also been
I used for this fabrication.

A Hall effect sensor is a transducer that varies its

output voltage in response to a magnetic field.
Hall effect sensors are used for proximity switching,
positioning, speed detection, and current sensing applications
 MEMS Sensors
Physical parameter to be measured (Measurand) is now converted to a
mechanical parameter such as displacement which can then be measured
using one of the electrical sensors usually resistance strain gauges.
We have alluded to this in earlier slide.

Torque (Moment) = Force x distance

Pressure (stress) = Force/Area
Acceleration = Force/mass

Elastic sensing elements have an associated mass (inertia) and damping

(resistance)
Mass-spring-damper can be represented by a second order transfer function

1
G( s) =
1 2 2
s + s +1
n
2
n
 Examples

(a) Linear Accelerometer

(b) Pressure Sensor
(c) Angular accelerometer
(d) Torque Sensor
 Consideration
The optimum value for damping ratio = 0.7 which results in minimum settling
time for step response and G near unity
Thus many force sensors incorporate liquids
However in pressure sensors air is preferred and the damping ratio is about 0.1.
Thus the natural frequency of the sensor must be much greater than highest
signal frequency.

Ex. To measure pressure fluctuations containing frequencies upto 10 Hz with dynamic error
with 2% with damping ratio = 0.1
Since is small we can use the following approximation for G
1
G ( j ) = 1.02
2
1
Which results in n greater than 450 for less than 62.8 (10 Hz) n2

n can be increased by increasing k/m resulting in a high stiffness low mass

sensor.
However steady state sensitivity will reduce since it is inversely proportional to k
Hence a compromise has to be reached.
 Piezoelectric Effect
When a force is applied to a crystal there is displacement (x) which
is proportional to the force. F = kx
In a piezoelectric crystal, the deformation of the crystal lattice
results in the crystal acquiring a net charge which is proportional to
(x). q= Kx

The direct piezoelectric effect is q = Fd were d = K/k (C/N) is the

charge sensitivity to force
Thus a piezoelectrical crystal gives a direct electrical output
proportional to the applied force.

This piezoelectric effect is reversible which means if we apply

external voltage to the crystal it will deform. i.e. x= Vd

This effect is important in making ultrasonic transmitters.

 Piezoelectric sensor
To measure the charge, metal electrodes are deposited on the
opposite faces of the crystal to form a capacitor with a capacitance
given as
oA
CN =
t
Transfer function for basic piezoelectric force measurement system


VL d s 1
( s ) =
F C N + CC s + 1 1 2
s 2
+ s + 1
n n
2

Two disadvantages
1. Steady State sensitivity (first term) depends on cable capacitance.
2. Dynamic part (last term) is characteristic of all elastic systems and is not a problem if
signal frequency is well below the natural frequency. The middle term suggests that
the system cannot be used for measuring d.c or slowly varying forces. Can use a
charge amplifier to overcome this.
 Piezoelectric Accelerometer
Materials either quartz or ceramics such as
barium titanate
Quartz longer lasting but ceramics are
cheaper and more sensitive.
V= GhF/A = Gh G= 0.055 Vm/N for quartz
0.22 Vm/N for PVDF
One side of the piezoelectric material is connected to a rigid post
at the sensor base. The so -called seismic mass is attached to the
other side. When the accelerometer is subjected to vibration, a
force is generated which acts on the piezoelectric element.
According to Newtons Law this force is equal to the product of
the acceleration and the seismic mass. By the piezoelectric effect
a charge output proportional to the applied force is generated.
Since the seismic mass is constant the charge output signal is
proportional to the acceleration of the mass.
 MEMS Accelerometer (ADXL2O2E)
Polysilicon springs suspend the MEMS structure above the
substrate such that the body of the sensor (also known as the
proof mass) can move in the X and Y axes. Acceleration causes
deflection of the proof mass from its centre position. Around
the four sides of the square proof mass are 32 sets of radial
fingers.

These fingers are positioned between plates that are fixed to

the substrate. Each finger and pair of fixed plates make up a
differential capacitor, and the deflection of the proof mass is
determined by measuring the differential capacitance.

The differential capacitance is measured using synchronous

modulation/demodulation techniques. After amplification, the
X and Y axis acceleration signals each go through a 32KOhm
resistor to an output pin (Cx and Cy) and a duty cycle. The
output signals are voltage proportional to acceleration and
pulse-width-modulation (PWM) proportional to acceleration.

MEMS sensors, like almost all electronic devices, do not exhibit ideal behaviour. While most designers
have learned how to handle the non-ideal behaviour of op-amps and transistors, few have learned the
design techniques used to compensate for non-ideal MEMS behaviour.
 Chemical Sensors

A (bio) Chemical Sensor is a device which converts a chemical

quantity into an electrical, mechanical or optical signals.
Chemicals are usually found in mixtures in Gaseous, Liquid of
Solid States.
Eg. Gas Sensor H2 in air
Humidity Sensor Water vapour in air
Complex molecules eg sugar or proteins can also be detected
Classification of Chemical Sensors
Chemical sensors are classified according to the sensing
principle by which they detect the chemical measurand
kf X Chemical Species
X + M ( X .M ) M Sensing Material
kf forward reaction rate
kb kb backward reaction rate

Electrical

Thermal
Chemical Microsensor

Mass

Optical
 Classification
Principle/class Affected Parameter Typical Sensor
conductometric resistance/conductance tin oxide gas sensor
Potentiometric voltage/e.m.f. ion selective FET for pH
capacitive capacitive/charge polymetric humidity sensor
amperometric current electrochemical cell
calorimetric heat/temperature pellistor gas sensor
gravimetric mass Piezoelectric / SAW sensors
optical path length/absorption infra-red gas detector
resonant frequency surface plasmon
fluorescent intensity fibre-optic gas sensor

All sensors are modulating type.

The only self generating chemical sensor is the electrochemical cell.
 Electrochemistry
http://www.chem.vt.edu/chem-ed/echem/electroc.html
Electrochemistry encompasses chemical and physical processes that involve the
transfer of charge. Examples include electroplating, iron oxidation (rusting), solar-
energy conversion, energy storage (batteries), photosynthesis, and respiration.
Place a piece of copper wire in a solution of 2% AgNO3.
If you try this experiment, you will initially see that the copper is a shiny copper color
and the solution is clear. In less than one hour the solution is light blue and the wire is
covered with shiny silver needles.
What happened??
Copper metal became copper ions in solution and silver ions became silver metal.
The Cu(s) loses electrons to become Cu2+(aq) ions and the Ag+(aq) ions gain electrons to
become Ag(s).
Reactions that involve the exchange of electrons are called reduction and oxidation
(REDOX) reactions. When a chemical species loses electrons we say that it is oxidized,
and when a chemical species gains electrons we say that it is reduced.
What would you predict if you placed a piece of Ag metal in a solution of Cu2+?
 Electrochemical cell
There are two electrodes (one is a reference).
When an electrolyte is dissolved into solution, it
dissociates into ions. If an electric field is applied,
ions move and form an electric current in
solution. The electrodes are used to convert the
ionic current to electric current which can be
Nernst equation measured.
0.0591V Where E and E0 are the potential of the
E = E0 + ln(a A+ / a A ) electrolyte and metal, aA+ and aA are the
n
activities of the metal ion and metal
respectively. n is the number of moles of
electrons transferred in the balanced equation
for the reaction
The electrolyte concentration can be given in terms of the potential
(Potentiometric/ Voltaic cell) or the current flowing (Amperometric/ Galvanic
cell) between electrodes.
 Ion selective electrodes
Modifed Nernst equation
RT
E = E0 + ln(a x + K x / y a y )
F
Where ax is the activity of ion X in solution
ay is the activity of ion Y
Kx/y selectivity coefficient of X electrode to Y
Smaller K more selective to ion X

pH Sensor
RT
E = E0 + ln(aH + )
F
E = E0 0.0592 ( pH )
1
pH = ln(aH + )
2.303
 Chemical Sensors - Electrical
I. Chemoresistors :The resistance of the chemically sensitive
layer changes with the amount of absorbed chemical.

V
I

Active
Gas
material Example: metal
oxides, organic
Electrodes
crystals, conducting
SiO2
Si polymers
Inert substrate, AlO, SiO2 or Si

Performance depends on the geometry and microstructure

of the film. Both thin and thick films have been used
 Metal oxide gas sensors
It was observed (1953) that adsorption of a gas onto the surface of a semi-conducting
material produces a large change in its electrical resistivity.

ZnO, TiO2,
Gas In2O3 SnO2 Large Change in
Absorption Semiconducting Electrical Resistivity
material

Tin oxide is the most commonly used. This is based on the irreversible reaction of
atmospheric oxygen with the lattice gaps in tin oxide and the associated reduction in
electron concentration. The measurand reacts with this lattice oxygen to to increase
the charge carrier concentration. This leads to a proportional increase in the electrical
conductivity of the material

Problems with specificity and poor stability limited commercial application more
for gas alarms than gas sensing
 Chemocapacitors
Voltage

Permable gold Polymer

electrode
Electrode

Glass Substrate
R.H. (relative humidity)
Humidity sensor

The sensing element is the dielectric constant of the film (for example,
polyphenylacetylene) between the electrodes.
*These films are sensitive to CO, CO2, N2 and CH4
*They are sensitive to temperature, humidity and operating frequency.
*The capacitance changes in pF.
 Chemodiodes

Inorganic Schottky diodes:

A metal semiconductor diode is used.
The work function of the metal is modified by the presence of
the chemical species. Therefore the barrier at the metal-
semiconductor is modified. This changes the current, which is
measured.
Examples: Palladium and Platinum as metals; and TiO2 and ZnO
as semiconductors.
Poor specificity and stability
 Chemodiodes
Organic Schottky diodes:
Polymer (Poly-pyrrole)-metal Schottky diodes are used.
Again, the work function of the metal is modified with the
presence of the chemical species, thus changing the barrier
between the polymer and metal. The change in the diode
equation is, then indicative of the chemical that is detected.
Stability is a problem
Polymer

SiO2

Si
 Chemotransistors
Cross-section of a Metal-Oxide-Silicon Field-Effect-Transistor (MOSFET)
 Chemotransistors
MOSFET:

The gate of the MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field

Effect Transistor) is made of a chemical sensitive metal:
Palladium (Pd): for Hydrogen
Iridium (Ir) and Platinum (Pt): for NH3 and H2S and ethanol
The absorption of the chemical species by the metal changes
the work function of the metal and therefore the threshold
voltage of the transistor.
Reversibility and stability can be a problem.

http://jas.eng.buffalo.edu/education/fab/NMOS/nmos.html
 Chemotransistors
ISFET
This is a gateless FET (Ion
Selective Field Effect
Transistor). ISFET is operated
as pH sensor/threshold
voltage shift VT depends on
the concentration of hydrogen
in the electrolytes.

Gate electrode is separated from substrate and becomes the

reference electrode as in a electro-chemical cell
Used as a pH sensor (effective concentration of Hydrogen ions)