CHAPTER 7

Groundwater Fundamentals and

One-Dimensional Flow
SOLUTIONS TO QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE PROBLEMS

Section 7.1 Hydrology

7.1 How does groundwater get into the ground?

Solution
Groundwater gets into the ground via infiltration of surface water. The surface water
percolates from its source through the vadose zone to the groundwater table. The most
common sources of this infiltrating surface water are rain or melting snowpack. In some
cases rivers and lakes are perched above the natural groundwater table and are sources of
infiltration. More recently engineers have designed infiltration systems (basins, ponds,
trenches, and wells) to artificially recharge ground water with stormwater runoff or
treated wastewater.

7.2 Explain the difference between an aquifer, an aquiclude, and an aquitard.

Solution
An aquifer is a soil stratum that can transmit large quantities of groundwater, such as a
sand. An aquiclude is a soil stratum that transmits water very slowly, such as a clay. An
aquitard is a soil stratum with intermediate water-transmission capabilities.

7.3 Explain the difference between confined flow and unconfined groundwater flow.

Solution
Confined flow, which occurs in a confined aquifer, is that in which both the upper and
lower flow boundaries are defined by aquicludes. Unconfined flow, which occurs in
unconfined aquifers, is that in which the bottom flow boundary is defined by an
aquiclude and the upper flow boundary (the groundwater) is free to reach its own natural
level.

Section 7.2 Principles of Fluid Mechanics

7.4 Explain the difference between steady state and unsteady state (transient) flow.

Solution
Steady-state flow means a system has reached equilibrium and the flow rate and direction
at any point on constant over time. Unsteady state (transient) flow means that the flow
7-1

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 7-2 Groundwater Fundamentals and One-Dimensional Flow Chap. 7

rate or direction at any point is changing over time. This occurs when the pore water
pressures, groundwater table location or other characteristics are changing. Simply put,
steady state flow does not vary with time, while unsteady state flow does.

7.5 In most fluid flow application the total head is the sum of the elevation head, pressure
head and velocity head. In groundwater flow we generally assume the velocity is zero.
Why is this a safe assumption?

Solution
In soils, flow rate are very low and the velocity head is much less than either the pressure
head or the elevation head. In general, it is safe to assume velocity head is zero in
groundwater flow, and the kinetic energy loss is negligible.

7.6 The water in a soil flows from Point K to Point L, a distance of 250 ft. Point K is at
elevation 543 ft and Point L is at elevation 461 ft. Piezometers have been installed at
both points, and their water levels are 23 ft and 74 ft, respectively, above the points.
Compute the average hydraulic gradient between these two points.

Solution

i=
dh
=
(543 + 23) (461 74) = 0.12
dl 250

7.7 Compute the pore water pressures at Points K and L in Problem 7.6.

Solution

At Point K:

( )
u = w h p = 62.4 lb/ft 3 (23 ft ) = 1435 lb/ft 3

At Point L:

( )
u = w h p = 62.4 lb/ft 3 (74 ft ) = 4618 lb/ft 3

7.8 The groundwater table in an unconfined aquifer is at a depth of 9.3 m below the ground
surface. Assuming hydrostatic conditions are present, and the groundwater is virtually
stationary, compute the pore water pressure at depths of 15.0 and 20.0 m below the
ground surface.

Solution

At 15.0 m:

( )
u = w z w = 9.8 kN/m 3 (15.0 m - 9.3 m ) = 55.9 kPa

At 20.0 m:

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 Chap. 7 Groundwater Fundamentals and One-Dimensional Flow 7-3

( )
u = w z w = 9.8 kN/m 3 (20.0 m - 9.3 m ) = 104.9 kPa

7.9 An exploratory boring is being drilled. The soil encountered between the ground surface
and a depth of 10 m has been dry sand, with no visible signs of groundwater. Then, at a
depth of 10 m the soil changes to a moist clay which becomes very wet at a depth of 12 m.
At 12 m the soil changes back to a silty sand which is very wet. The boring continues to a
depth of 15 m. A piezometer is then installed in the lower silty sand layer. Within 2 days,
the water in the piezometer had risen to a depth of only 8 m below the ground surface.
Explain the groundwater conditions that have been encountered.

Solution
The silty sand encountered at a depth of 12m is an a confined aquifer in an artesian
condition (total head greater than level of the groundwater table). The piezometer is
measuring the total head in this aquifer, which is why the water level in the observation
well is at a higher elevation than the top of the aquifer.

7.10 Compute the pore water pressures at the bottom of the piezometer in Problem 7.9.

Solution

( )
u = w z w = 9.8 kN/m 3 (15.0 m - 8 m ) = 68.6 kPa

7.11 Two small commercial buildings have been constructed at a site underlain by a sandy silt
(ML) that has D10 = 0.03 mm. The groundwater table is at a depth of 6 ft. Both buildings
have concrete slab-on-grade floors. In Building A, the slab was placed directly onto the
natural soils, while Building B has a 4-inch layer of poorly- graded coarse gravel between
the slab and the natural soils. Both buildings have vinyl floor coverings similar to those
typically used in residential kitchens. Both buildings are now three years old.

Unfortunately, the tenant in Building A is having continual problems with the

vinyl floors peeling up from the concrete slab. When the peeled sections are examined,
moisture is always evident between the vinyl and the concrete. Curiously, the tenant in
Building B has had no such problems, even though both buildings have the same floor
covering. Could the problem in Building A be due to capillary action in the underlying
soil? Explain why or why not. Also explain why Building B is not having any such
problems.

Solution
The potential height of capillary rise in this soil is approximately

0.15/D10 = 0.15/0.03 mm = 5 m =16 ft.

Since the groundwater table is at a depth of only 6 ft, the slab is easily within the
capillary zone. Thus, the moisture problem in Building A appears to be due to this
capillary moisture that has risen from the groundwater table. However, the 4-inch thick
layer of poorly-graded gravel beneath the slab in Building B appears to break the
movement of capillary water, and thus is protecting this building from moisture problems.

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 7-4 Groundwater Fundamentals and One-Dimensional Flow Chap. 7

7.12 A certain clayey zone has a zone of capillary rise of 4.5 m above the groundwater table.
What is the pressure head and the pore pressure at a point 2 m above the groundwater
table?

Solution
By definition the pore pressure and pressure head at the elevation of the
groundwater table are both zero. In the saturated zone above the groundwater table the
pore pressure and pressure head must be negative.

Pressure Head:

h p = -2m

Pore Pressure:

( )
u = w z w = 9.8 kN/m 3 (- 2 m ) = 19.6 kPa

Section 7.3 One-Dimensional Flow Through Soil

7.13 A constant-head hydraulic conductivity test has been conducted on a 110 mm diameter,
270 mm tall fine sand specimen in a permeameter similar to the one shown in Figure 7.18.
The upper and lower reservoir elevations were 2010 mm and 1671 mm above the lab
floor. The piezometers, whose tips are spaced 200 mm apart, had readings of 1809 and
1578 mm, and the graduated cylinder collected 910 ml of water in 25 min 15 s. Using the
best available data, compute the hydraulic conductivity. Does the result seem
reasonable? Why or why not?

Solution
The piezometers provide more accurate measurements of i, than do the elevations of the
two reservoirs. Therefore computations using the piezometer measurements are preferred.

d2 (11.0 cm )2
A= = = 95.0 cm 2
4 4

dh 1809 1578
i= = = 1.16
dl 200

V 910 ml
Q= = = 0.601 cm 3 /s
t (25 min )(60 s/min ) + 15 s

Q = kiA
0.601 = k (1.16)(95.0) k = 5 x 10 3 cm/s

The hydraulic conductivity seems within rage for a fine sand according to table 7.1. The
results, therefore, seem reasonable.

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 Chap. 7 Groundwater Fundamentals and One-Dimensional Flow 7-5

7.14 A falling-head hydraulic conductivity test has been conducted on a clay specimen in a
permeameter similar to the one in Figure 7.19. The soil specimen was 97 mm in diameter
and 20 mm tall. The standpipe had an inside diameter of 6.0 mm. The water level in the
bath surrounding the specimen was 120 mm above the laboratory counter top and the
water level in the standpipe fell from a height of 510 mm to 261 mm above the counter
top in 46 hours 35 minutes. Compute the hydraulic conductivity. Does the result seem
reasonable? Why or why not?

Solution

d2 (0.60 cm )2
a= = = 0.283 cm 2
4 4

d2 (9.7 cm )2
A= = = 73.9 cm 2
4 4

t = 46 (3600 s/hr ) + 35 (60 s/min ) = 1.68 x 10 5 s

h0 = 51.0 12.0 = 39.0 cm

h1 = 26.1 12.0 = 14.1 cm

k=
aL h0
ln =
(0.283)(2.0) ln 39.0 = 5x10 8 cm/s

(
At h1 (73.9 ) 1.68x10 5 14.1 )
The hydraulic conductivity seems within rage for a clay according to table 7.1

7.15 A falling-head hydraulic conductivity test has been conducted on a clay specimen in a
permeameter similar to the one in Figure 7.19. The soil specimen was 4 in. in diameter
and 1 in. tall. The standpipe had an inside diameter of 0.25 in. The water level in the bath
surrounding the specimen was 5 in. above the laboratory counter top and the water level
in the standpipe fill from a height of 20 in. to 10 in. above the counter top in 38 hours 12
minutes. Compute the hydraulic conductivity in ft/s. Does the result seem reasonable?
Why or why not?

Solution
2
.25
ft
d2 12
a= = = 3.4 x10 4 ft 2
4 4
2
4
ft
d2
=
12
A= = 0.09 ft 2
4 4

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 7-6 Groundwater Fundamentals and One-Dimensional Flow Chap. 7

t = 38 (3600 s/hr ) + 12 (60 s/min ) = 1.4x 10 5 s

20 5
h0 = ft ft = 1.25 ft
12 12

10 5
h1 = ft ft = 0.42 ft
12 12

aL h0
(3.4x10 )
1
-4

k= ln = 12 ln 1.25 = 2 x 10 9

(0.09) (1.4x10 ) 0.42
ft/s
At h1 5

The hydraulic conductivity seems within rage for a clay according to table 7.1

7.16 A certain 20 m thick sandy confined aquifer has a hydraulic conductivity of 2.4 x 10-2
cm/s and a void ratio of 0.91. Groundwater is flowing through this aquifer with a
hydraulic gradient of 0.0065. How much time would be required for water to travel 1 km
through this aquifer?

Solution

e 0.91
n= = = 48%
1 + e 1 + 0.91

ki 2.4 10 2 cm/s (0.0065) km 86,400 s

vs = = = 2.8 x 10 -4 km/day
ne 0.48 100000 cm day
distance 1 km
time = = = 3561 days 9.75 yrs
vs 2.8 x 10 -4 km/day

7.17 A tracer dye is injected into a 55 foot thick sandy gravel confined aquifer which has a
hydraulic conductivity of 1.2 x 10-3 ft/s. The dye appears 14 days later in an observation
well 75 feet away from the injection point. Compute the seepage velocity and estimate
the hydraulic gradient in the aquifer if the porosity of the soil is 42%?

Solution

D 75 ft day
vs = = = 6.2 10 5 ft/s
t 14 day 86,400 s

v s ne 6.2 10 5 ft/s (0.43)

i= = = 0.022
k 1.2 10 3 ft/s

7.18 The laboratory apparatus shown in Figure 7.22 maintains a constant head in both the
upper and lower reservoirs. The soil sample is a silty sand (SM) with k = 510-3 cm/s

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 Chap. 7 Groundwater Fundamentals and One-Dimensional Flow 7-7

and w = 18.5%. Assume a reasonable value for Gs, then determine the time required for
the plug of colored water to pass through the soil or absorption (i.e., from when the
leading edge first enters the soil to when it begins to exit). Assume the colored water
travels only through advection and it has the same unit weight and viscosity as plain
water.

Figure 7.22 Laboratory apparatus for Problem 7.18.

Solution
Assume Gs=2.70 (from suggested values in Chapter 4, pg 128)

wGs (0.185)(2.70)
e= = = 0.500
S 1.00

e 0.500
n= 100% = 100% = 33%
1+ e 1 + 0.503

dh 185
i= = = 0.841
dl 220

vs =
ki
=
( )
5 x 10 3 cm / s (0.841)
= 0.0127cm/s
ne 0.33

distance 22.0 cm 1 min

time = = = 29 min
vs 0.0127 cm/s 60 s

7.19 What are the pros and cons of using Hazens equation versus the Kozeny-Carman
equation for estimating hydraulic conductivity of a coarse grained soil?

Solution
Hazens equation is simpler because it requires knowing only one soil parameter, D10.
However, it is limited to very uniform soils (Cu < 5) over a limited range of sizes

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 7-8 Groundwater Fundamentals and One-Dimensional Flow Chap. 7

(D10 = 0.1 to 3 mm). Kozeny-Carman is valid for a much broader range of soils but
requires a full grain size distribution to compute the hydraulic conductivity. Neither
equation is applicable to soils with significant amounts of fine grained material.

7.20 Which of the following methods would be the better way to determine k for a clean sand?
Why?

(a) Place a soil sample in a constant-head permeameter, conduct a hydraulic

conductivity test, and compute k using Equation 7.10.
(b) Conduct a sieve analysis and compute k using Equation 7.20.

Solution
It is nearly always better to use direct methods to measure an engineering property, such
as k. Methods based on empirical correlations, such as Kozeny-Carman or Hazens
correlation, are nearly always less reliable. Therefore Method A is better

7.21 May we use the Hazen correlation to estimate the hydraulic conductivity for soil C in
Figure 4.13? Why or why not? If so, compute k.

Figure 4.13 Particle size distribution curves for five soils (Soil A through Soil E)

Solution
D10=0.75mm, which is between 0.1 and 3.0 mm, and Cu=1.2/0.75 = 1.6, which is less
than 5. Therefore, we may use Hazens correlation.

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 Chap. 7 Groundwater Fundamentals and One-Dimensional Flow 7-9

k = CD10 = 1.0 (0.75) = 6 x 10 1 cm/s

2 2

7.22 Compute the hydraulic conductivity for subrounded poorly graded soil C in Figure 4.13
using the Kozeny-Carmen equation (Eq 7.20). Assume a void ratio of 46%

Solution
Since this soil is very uniform and we dont have data giving percent passing specific
sieve sizes, well arbitrarily divide the distribution shown into 4 segments: 100 80%
passing, 80 50% passing, 50 20% passing and 20 0% passing.
Note that the grain size must be specified in cm in Equation 7.20

1: From 100 80% passing

f 1 2 100% 80%
= = 102%
D 0.404
l1 Ds10.595
0.32 0.404 0.14 0.595

2: From 80 50% passing

f 2 3 80% 50%
= = 254%
D 0.404
l2 Ds 2
0.595
0.14 0.404 0.105 0.595

3: From 50 20% passing

f 3 4 50% 20%
= = 313%
D 0.404
l3 Ds 3
0.595
0.105 0.404 0.09 0.595

4: From 20 0% passing

f 4 5 20% 0%
= = 323%
Dl 4 Ds 5
0.404 0.595
0.09 0.404
0.048 0.595

fi
D 0.404
Dsi0.595
= 992%
li

For subrounded soil SF = 6.6, Table 7.2

2

2
100% 1 e3
k = 1.99 10
[ ( )]
4
f D 0.404 D 0.595
SF 1+ e
i li si

0.46 3
2 2
100% 1
k = 1.99 10 4
992% 6.6 1 + 0.46

k = 3.10 x 10 1 cm/s

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 7-10 Groundwater Fundamentals and One-Dimensional Flow Chap. 7

7.23 Compute the hydraulic conductivity for subangular coarse grained soil B in Figure 4.13
using both Hazens correlation the Kozeny-Carmen equation (Eq 7.20). Assume a void
ratio of 48%

Solution

Hazens correlation:

k = CD10 = 1.0 (0.28) = 8 x 10 2 cm/s

2 2

Kozeny-Carmen Correlation:
Using equation 7.20 and standard sieve sizes Note that the grain size must be
specified in cm in Equation 7.20

Percent between 3 and 1.5

f
3"1.5" 100% 94%
= = 1.19
D 0.404
3" D 0.595
1.5" 7.62 0.404 3.810.595

Percent between 1.5 and 0.75

f 1.5"0.75" 94% 86%

= = 3.18
D1.5" D0.75" 3.810.404 1.90 0.595
0.404 0.595

Percent between 0.75 and #4

f# 4 #10 86% 62%

= = 28.80
D 0.404
#4 D 0.595
#10 1.90 0.404 0.475 0.595

Percent between #4 and #10

f# 4 #10 62% 45%

= = 59.90
D 0.404
#4 D 0.595
#10 0.475 0.404 0.2 0.595

Percent between #10 and #20

f 45% 24%
#10 # 20
= = 174.40
D 0.404
#10 D 0.595
# 20 0.2 0.404. 0085 0.595

Percent between #20 and #40

f # 20 # 40 24% 15%
= = 159.7
D 0.404
# 20 D 0.595
# 40 0.085 0.404 0.0425 0.595

Percent between #40 and #60

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 Chap. 7 Groundwater Fundamentals and One-Dimensional Flow 7-11

f # 40 #60 15% 8%
= = 225.3
D# 40 D#60
0.404 0.595
0.0425 0.404 0.025 0.595

Percent between #60 and #200

f # 60 #100 8% 0%
= = 653.5
D 0.404
# 60 D 0.595
#100 0.025 0.0075 0.595
0.404

fi
D 0.404
Dsi0.595
= 1306%
li

2

2
100% 1 e3
k = 1.99 10 4
i li [ (
f D 0.404 D 0.595
si )]
SF 1+ e

For subangular soil SF = 7.4, from Table 7.2

2
100% 1 0.48 3
2

k = 1.99 10 4

[1306] 7.4 1 + 0.48

k = 1.6 x 10 1 cm/s

Section 7.4 Flow Through Anisotropic Soils

7.24 Derive Equations 7.23 and 7.26.

Solution
Hint: For Equation 7.23, write Darcys law for horizontal flow using the real soil
(k=k1, k2, etc), the write it again using the equivalent soil (k=kx). Since Q is the same for
both, you can then solve for kx.

Equation 7.23:
Consider a width L measured perpendicular to the direction of flow. For each
layer, i

Ai = LH i

The total flow, Q, must be equal to the sum of the flow in each layer

Q = kiA = ki iLH i = iL ki H i
The total flow must also be equal to the flow in the equivalent soil:

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 7-12 Groundwater Fundamentals and One-Dimensional Flow Chap. 7

Q = kiA = k x iL Hi
Combining the last two equations gives:

kx =
k H i i

H i

Equation 7.26:
Let hi = the head loss through one of the layer:

Q QH i
Q = kiA i = hi =
kA ki A

Noting that Q and A are the same for each layer, the total head loss in the system
is:

Q H
h = A kii
Using the equivalent soil, the total head loss in the system is:

Q H
h = A
i

kz

Combining the last two equations:

H Hi
kii = kz

kz =
H i

Hi
k
i

7.25 A sandy soil with k = 310-2 cm/s contains a series of 5 mm thick horizontal silt layers
spaced 300 mm on center. The silt layers have k = 510-6 cm/s. Compute kx and kz and
the ratio kx /kz.

Solution

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 Chap. 7 Groundwater Fundamentals and One-Dimensional Flow 7-13

kx =
k H i i

H i

=
(3 10 ) (
cm/s (29.5 cm ) + 5 10 6 cm/s (0.5 cm )
2
)
30.0 cm
2
= 3 x 10 cm/s

kz =
H i

Hi
k
i
30.0 cm
=
29.5 cm 0.5 cm
+
3 x 10 cm/s 5 x 10 6 cm/s
2

= 3 x 10 4 cm/s

k x 3 x 10 2 cm/s
= = 100
k z 3 x 10 4 cm/s

7.26 When drilling an exploratory boring through the soil described in Problem 7.25, how
easy would it be to miss the silt layers? If we did miss them, how much effect would our
ignorance have on computations of Q for water flowing vertically? Explain.

Solution
The 5 mm thick silt layers could easily be missed unless the samples were sufficiently
long, very high quality (i.e. Shelby tube samples) and were carefully examined. A failure
to recognize these layers would result in vertical flow computations being in error by a
factor of 100!

Comprehensive Questions

7.27 Apparatus A, shown in Figure 7.23, consists of a single 20 mm diameter pipe and is
subjected to a head difference of 60 mm. Apparatus B consists of four 10 mm diameter
pipes connected in parallel. How will the flow rate through A compare with that through
B? Explain.

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 7-14 Groundwater Fundamentals and One-Dimensional Flow Chap. 7

Figure 7.23 Pipe networks for Problem 7.27.

Solution
Both apparatuses have the same head loss (60mm) and the same total cross-sectional area
(100 mm2). Therefore, at first glance it might appear that the two flow rates would be
equal. However, the total contact area between the water and the pipe walls in apparatus
B (126 mm2/mm) is twice that in apparatus A (63 mm2/mm). Thus, if the two flow rates
were the same, there would be more friction and therefore more head loss in B. However,
external constraints have forced the lead loss in B to be the same as that in A. The only
way we can reconcile this problem is for the flow rate in B to be less than that in A, such
that the friction and head losses are the same in both apparatuses. Therefore, QB < QA.

7.28 On the Basis of your observations in Problem 7.27, explain why saturated clays have a
significantly lower hydraulic conductivity than saturated sands, even though the total
void areas per square foot of soil are about the same for both.

Solution
Clays are analogous to apparatus B, while sands are analogous to apparatus A. Although
the total void areas per square foot of soil are about the same (just as the total cross-
sectional areas of the pipes were the same), the voids in clays are much smaller, and thus
have much more surface area per unit volume of soil. Thus, there is much more potential
for friction in clays. This is why the hydraulic conductivity of clays is much less than that
of sands.

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 Chap. 7 Groundwater Fundamentals and One-Dimensional Flow 7-15

Note: The problem statement referred only to saturated soils. Therefore, any
references to clays absorbing more water than sands are irrelevant to this question.

7.29 An engineer is searching for a suitable soil to cap a sanitary landfill. This soil must have
a hydraulic conductivity no greater than 110-8 cm/s. A soil sample from a potential
borrow site has been tested in a falling head permeameter similar to the one in Figure
7.19. This sample was 120 mm in diameter and 32 mm tall. The standpipe had an inside
diameter of 8.0 mm. Initially, the water in the standpipe was 503 mm above the water in
the water bath surrounding the sample. Then, 8 hours 12 min later the water was 322 mm
above the water in the water bath. Compute k and determine if this soil meets the
specification.

Solution

d2 (0.8 cm )2
a= = = 0.503 cm 2
4 4

d2 (12.0 cm )2
A= = = 113 cm 2
4 4

t = 8 hr (3600 s/hr ) + 12 min (60 s/min ) = 30,000 s

aL h0 (0.503)(3.2 ) 503
k= ln = ln 7
= 2 x 10 cm/s
At h1 (113)(30,000 ) 322

This soil does not meet the specification.

7.30 An unlined irrigation canal is aligned parallel to a river, as shown in Figure 7.24. This
cross-section continues for 4.25 miles. The soils are generally clays, but a 6 inch thick
sand seam is present as shown. This sand has k = 910-2 cm/s. Compute the water loss
from the canal to the river due to seepage through this sand layer and express your
answer in acre-ft per month.

Note: One acre-foot is the amount of water that would cover one acre of ground to
a depth of one foot, and thus equals 43,560 ft3.

Figure 7.24 Cross-section for Problem 7.30. el. = elevation.

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 7-16 Groundwater Fundamentals and One-Dimensional Flow Chap. 7

Solution

(
)
1 ft
k = 9 x 10 2 cm/s
30.5 cm
3
= 3 x 10 ft/s

187 121
i= = 0.132
500

A = (0.5 ft )(4.25 mi )(5280 ft/mi ) = 11,220 ft 2

Q = kiA
1 ac ft 2.56 x 10 6 s
( )
= 3 x 10 3 (0.132)(11,220)
2

43,560 ft mo
= 260 ac ft/mo

7.31 The constant head permeameter shown in Figure 7.25 contains three different soils as
shown. Their hydraulic conductivities are:

Soil 1 k = 9 cm/s
Soil 2 k = 610-2 cm/s
Soil 3 k = 810-3 cm/s

The four piezometer tips are spaced at 100 mm intervals, and the soil interfaces
are exactly aligned with piezometer tips B and C. The total heads in piezometers A and
D are 98.9 and 3.6 cm, respectively. Compute the total heads in piezometers B and C.

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 Chap. 7 Groundwater Fundamentals and One-Dimensional Flow 7-17

Figure 7.25 Constant-head permeameter for Problem 7.31.

Solution
Q and A are the same for all three soils, and i=h/l. Therefore, we can rewrite Darcys
Law as:

Qli
Q = kiA hi =
ki A

Q li
h = A k
i

Q 10.0 10.0 10.0 Q

98.9 3.6 = + 2
+ 3
= 0.0672
A 9 6 x 10 8 x 10 A

Q l 10.0
h1 = = 0.0672 = 0.1 cm
A k 9

Q l 10.0
h2 = = 0.0672 = 11.2 cm
A k 6 x 10 2

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 7-18 Groundwater Fundamentals and One-Dimensional Flow Chap. 7

Q l 10.0
h3 = = 0.0672 3
= 84.0 cm
A k 8 x 10

Piezometer A 98.9 cm

Piezometer B 98.9-0.1 = 98.8 cm

Piezometer C 98.8-11.2 = 87.6 cm

Piezometer D 87.6-84.0 = 3.6 cm

7.32 Landfills often use clay soils to control the flow of fluids in and out of the landfill. At the
sides and bottom of the land fill, compacted clay liners are used to contain the
accumulating fluid within the landfill (called leachate). At the top of the landfill, clay
cover systems keeps water from rain and snow from infiltrating into the landfill and
creating excess leachate. The fluid flow though these liner systems can generally be
approximated as one-dimensional flow.

Leachate containing trichloroethylene collects on the clay liner at the bottom of

landfill as shown in Figure 7.26. Below the clay liner is a gravel layer that collects the
leachate so it can be pumped out and treated. There is a second clay layer below the
gravel layer to prevent leachate from entering the groundwater below. For the hydraulic
conditions shown clay in Figure 7.26 and a typical effective porosity value of 0.10,
compute:

(a) The total amount of leachate that must be collected and treated each year.
Assume the total area of the landfill base is 5,000 m2
(b) The time it takes the leachate to penetrate through the top clay liner.

Figure 7.26 Cross-section of landfill liner for Problem 7.32.

Solution
(a)

Using Darcys equation

Q = kiA

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 Chap. 7 Groundwater Fundamentals and One-Dimensional Flow 7-19

1.5 m
i= = 1.5
1m

m 86,400 s
(
Q = 2.1x10 8 cm / s ) (
(1.5) 5,000m 2 = 0.14 m 3 /day )
100cm day

Q = 50 m 3 /yr

(b)

ne = 0.10

ki
vs =
ne

vs =
(2.1x10 8
)
cm/s (1.5) m 3600 s

(0.10) 100 cm hr
= 1.1 10 5 m/hr

l 1m day
t= =
vs 1.1 10 m/hr 24 hr
-5

= 3670 day
= 10 years

It would take 10 years for the lechate to travel through the 1 m thick clay layer

7.33 he cross section shown in Figure 7.27 consist of alternating layers of sand and silty sand.
Assume the soils have subangular grain shapes and the grain size distributions shown
below. Use the Kozeny-Carmen method to find k for each soil. The void ratio for the silty
sand is 0.63 and sand is 0.59. Then compute kx and kz for the layered system.

Sieve Percent Passing

Sieve Size
Opening (cm) Sand Silty Sand
0.475 #4 100 100
0.2 #10 86 92
0.085 #20 72 76
0.0425 #40 48 63
0.015 #100 8 23
0.0075 #200 4 14
Estimated D0 0.05 mm 0.01 mm

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 7-20 Groundwater Fundamentals and One-Dimensional Flow Chap. 7

Figure 7.27 Cross-section for Problem 7.33.

Solution

Silty Sand

Percent between #4 and #10

f 100% 92%
# 4 #10
= = 28.16
D 0.404
#4 D 0.595
#10 0.4750.404 0.2 0.595

Percent between #10 and #20

f 92% 76%
#10 # 20
= = 132.89
D 0.404
#10 D 0.595
# 20 0.2 0.0850.595
0.404

Percent between #20 and #40

f 76% 63%
# 20 # 40
= = 230.44
D 0.404
# 20 D 0.595
# 40 0.0850.404 0.04250.595

Percent between #40 and #100

f 63% 23%
# 40 #100
= = 1743.48
D 0.404
# 40 D 0.595
#100 0.04250.404 0.0150.595

Percent between #100 and #200

f 23% 14%
#100 # 200
= = 902.49
D 0.404
#100 D 0.595
# 200 0.0150.404 0.00750.595

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 Chap. 7 Groundwater Fundamentals and One-Dimensional Flow 7-21

Percent between #200 and 0% passing

f 14% 0%
# 200 0%
= = 6160.32
D 0.404
#100 D
0.595
# 200 0.0075 0.404 0.0010.595

fi
D 0.404
Dsi0.595
= 15,358
li

2

2
100% 1 e3
k = 1.99 10
[ ( )]
4
f D 0.404 D 0.595 +
i li si SF 1 e

2
100% 1 0.633
2

k = 1.99 10
4

[15,358] 7.4 1 + 0.63

k = 2.4 x 10 3 cm/s

Sand

Percent between #4 and #10

f 100% 86%
# 4 #10
= = 49.28
D 0.404
#4 D 0.595
#10 0.4750.404 0.2 0.595

Percent between #10 and #20

f 86% 72%
#10 # 20
= = 116.28
D 0.404
#10 D 0.595
# 20 0.2 0.0850.595
0.404

Percent between #20 and #40

f 72% 48%
# 20 # 40
= = 425.44
D 0.404
# 20 D 0.595
# 40 0.0850.404 0.04250.595

Percent between #40 and #100

f 48% 8%
# 40 #100
= = 1743.48
D 0.404
# 40 D 0.595
#100 0.04250.404 0.0150.595

Percent between #100 and #200

f 8% 4%
#100 # 200
= = 401.10
D 0.404
#100 D 0.595
# 200 0.015 0.00750.595
0.404

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 7-22 Groundwater Fundamentals and One-Dimensional Flow Chap. 7

Percent between #200 and 0% passing

f 4% 0%
# 200 0%
= = 675.53
D 0.404
#100 D 0.595
# 200 0.00750.404 0.0050.595

fi
D 0.404
Dsi0.595
= 3411
li

2

2
100% 1 e3
k = 1.99 10
[ ( )]
4
f D 0.404 D 0.595 +
i li si SF 1 e

2
100% 1 0.59 3
2

k = 1.99 10 4

[3411] 7.4 1 + 0.59

k = 4.0 x10 2 cm/s

kx =
k H i i

H i

kx =
(4.0 10 2
) ( ) (
cm/s (200 cm ) + 2.4 10 3 cm/s (100 cm ) + 4.0 10 2 cm/s (150 cm ) )
200 cm + 100 cm + 150 cm

k x = 3.2 10 2 cm/s

kz =
H i

Hi
k
i

200 cm + 100 cm + 150 cm

kz =
200 cm 100 cm 150 cm
+ +
4.0 10 cm/s 2.4 10 cm/s 4.0 10 2 cm/s
2 3

k z = 8.9 10 3 cm/s

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