Waste Management 24 (2004) 563569

www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman

Properties of concrete containing scrap-tire rubber an overview

Rafat Siddique, Tarun R. Naik *

Department of Civil Engineering and Mechanics, College of Engineering and Applied Science, UWM Center for By-Products Utilization,
University of WisconsinMilwaukee, P.O. Box 784, Milwaukee, WI 53201, USA
Accepted 2 January 2004

Abstract

Solid waste management is one of the major environmental concerns in the United States. Over 5 billion tons of non-hazardous
solid waste materials are generated in USA each year. Of these, more than 270 million scrap-tires (approximately 3.6 million tons)
are generated each year. In addition to this, about 300 million scrap-tires have been stockpiled. Several studies have been carried out
to reuse scrap-tires in a variety of rubber and plastic products, incineration for production of electricity, or as fuel for cement kilns,
as well as in asphalt concrete.
Studies show that workable rubberized concrete mixtures can be made with scrap-tire rubber. This paper presents an overview of
some of the research published regarding the use of scrap-tires in portland cement concrete. The benets of using magnesium
oxychloride cement as a binder for rubberized concrete mixtures are also presented. The paper details the likely uses of rubberized
concrete.
2004 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

1. Introduction meet the challenge of tire disposal problem have long

More than 270 million scrap-tires are produced in
United States each year (Rubber Manufacturers As-
sociation, 2000). In addition to this, more than 300
million tires are currently stockpiled throughout the
United States (Rubber Manufacturers Association,
2000). These stockpiles are dangerous not only due to
potential environmental threat, but also from re haz-
ards and provide breeding grounds for rats, mice, ver-
mines and mosquitoes (Naik and Singh, 1991; Singh,
1993). Over the years, disposal of tires has become one
of the serious problems in environments. Landlling is
becoming unacceptable because of the rapid depletion
of available sites for waste disposal. For example
France, which produces over 10 million scrap-tires per
year, will have a dwindling supply of landlls starting
from July 2002, due to a new law that forbids any new
landll in the country. Used tires are required to be
shredded before landlling. Innovative solutions to
*
Corresponding author. Fax: +1-414-229-6958.
E-mail address: tarun@uwm.edu (T.R. Naik).
been in development. The promising options are:
(1) use of tire rubber in asphaltic concrete mixtures;
(2) incineration of tires for the production of steam and
(3) reuse of ground tire rubber in a number of plastic
and rubber products. In addition, scrap-tires have been
used as a fuel for cement kiln, as feedstock for making
carbon black, and as articial reefs in marine envi-
ronment (Paul, 1985). Because of high capital invest-
ment involved in it, using tires as a fuel is technically
feasible but economically not very attractive. The use of
rubber-tires in making carbon black eliminates shred-
ding and grinding costs, but carbon black from tire
pyrolysis is more expensive and has lower quality than
that from petroleum oils (Paul, 1985). Table 1 shows
some of the facts and gures published in 2000, as re-
ported by the Rubber Manufacturers Association
(2000).
A tire is a composite of complex elastomer formula-
tions, bers and steel/ber cord. Tires are made of plies
of reinforcing cords extending transversely from bead to
bead, on top of which is a belt located below the thread.
Table 2 lists typical types of materials used to manu-
facture tires.

0956-053X/$ - see front matter 2004 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2004.01.006
564 R. Siddique, T.R. Naik / Waste Management 24 (2004) 563569

Table 1 Table 3
Some facts and gure concerning tires in USA (Rubber Manufac- Typical composition of manufactured tires by weight (Rubber Man-
turers Association, 2000) ufacturers Association, 2000)
Facts Figures Composition (wt%) Automobile Truck
tire tire
Number of scrap-tires generated annually 270 million
Approximate weight of scrap-tires 3.6 million tons Natural rubber 14 27
Number of scrap-tires in stock piles 300 million Synthetic rubber 27 14
Number of tires processing facilities 498 Carbon black 28 28
Scrap-tires used in civil engineering applications 30 million Steel 1415 1415
Scrap-tires processed into ground rubber 18 million Fabric, ller, accelerators and 1617 1617
Scrap-tires used for fuel 125 million antiozonants
Number of states with scrap-tires legislation/ 48
regulations
Number of states that ban whole tires from 33
landlls
2.3. Shredded/chipped tires
Number of states that ban all scrap-tires from 12
landlls Tire shreds or chips involve primary, secondary or
Number of states with no landll restrictions 5 both shredding operations. The size of the tire shreds
produced in the primary shredding process can vary
from as large as 300 to 460 mm (1218 in.) long by 100
Table 2 230 mm (49 in.) wide, down to as small as 100150 mm
Typical materials used in manufacturing tire (Rubber Manufacturers (46 in.) in length, depending on the manufacturers
Association, 2000) shredder model and the condition of the cutting edges.
1. Synthetic rubber Production of tire chips, normally sized from 76 (3 in.)
2. Natural rubber to 13 mm (0.5 in.), requires both primary and secondary
3. Sulfur and sulfur compounds shredding to achieve adequate volume (quantity) re-
4. Phenolic resin
5. Oil
duction (Read et al., 1991).
(i) Aromatic
(ii) Naphthenic 2.4. Ground rubber
(iii) Paranic
6. Fabric Ground rubber for commercial applications may be
(i) Polyester
(ii) Nylon
nominally sized as large as 19 mm (or 3/4 in.) to as small
7. Petroleum waxes as 0.15 mm (No. 100 sieve). It depends upon the type of
8. Pigments size reduction equipment and intended applications. The
(i) Zinc oxide processed used tires in ground rubber applications are
(ii) Titanium dioxide typically subjected to two stages of magnetic separation
9. Carbon black
10. Fatty acids
and to screening. Various size fractions of rubber are
11. Inert materials recovered (Heitzman, 1992). Some processes/markets
12. Steel wires term 30 mesh rubber as crumb rubber.

2.5. Crumb rubber

2. Classication of scrap-tires
2.1. Scrap-tires
They can be managed as a whole tire, as slit tire, as
shredded or chopped tire, as ground rubber or as a
crumb rubber product. A typical automobile tire weighs
20 lb, whereas a truck tire weighs about 100 lb. Table 3
gives the major materials used to manufacture tires by
percentage of total weight of the nished tire that each
material represents.
2.2. Slit-tires
These are produced in tire cutting machines. These
machines can slit the tire into two halves or can separate
the sidewalls from the thread of the tires.
Crumb rubber consists of particles ranging in size
from 4.75 (No. 4 Sieve) to less than 0.075 mm (No. 200
Sieve). Generally, the following methods are used to
convert scrap-tires into crumb rubber. These methods
are: (i) cracker mill process, (ii) granular process and
(iii) micro-mill process. The cracker mill process tears
apart or reduces the size of tire rubber by passing the
material between rotating corrugated steel drums. This
process produces an irregularly shaped torn particles
having large surface area. The size of these particles
varies from 5 to 0.5 mm (No. 4No. 40 Sieve) and is
commonly known as crumb rubber.
Granular process shears apart the rubber with re-
volving steel plates, producing granulated crumb rubber
particles, ranging in size from 9.5 (3/8 in.) to 0.5 mm
(No. 40 Sieve) (Heitzman, 1992).
 R. Siddique, T.R. Naik / Waste Management 24 (2004) 563569
3. Management option
3.1. Disposal
Disposing of scrap-tires in landlls is becoming un-
acceptable because of rapid depletion of available sites
for waste disposal. Approximately 45% of 270 million
tires are disposed o in landlls, stockpiles or illegal
dumps. As of the year 2000, 48 states of the 50 United
States have legislation/regulations related to landlling.
Thirty three states ban whole tires from disposal in
landlls. Twelve states ban all forms of scrap-tires from
being disposed o in landlls. Five states have no
landll restrictions on disposal of tires. Thirty states
charge for landlling tires, whereas seven states allow
monolls (Rubber Manufacturers Association, 2000).
3.2. Recycling
According to the data available for the year 2000,
about 15 million of the 270 million scrap-tires generated
yearly are exported, 10 million are recycled into new
products, 20 million are processed into ground rubber,
125 million are used as tired-derived fuel and 30 million
in civil engineering applications (Rubber Manufac-
turers Association, 2000). Ground rubber is used in
making rubber products such as oor mats, carpet
padding, vehicles mudguards, plastic products and as a
ne aggregate addition (dry process) in asphalt courses.
Crumb rubber is also used as an asphalt binder modier
(wet process) in hot mix asphalt pavements (Naik et al.,
1995; Naik and Singh, 1995). Over 30 million tires go to
the retreaders, who retread about one-third of the tires
received (Scrap Tire Management Council, 1998).
4. Research ndings
Early investigations on the use of discarded tires in
asphalt mixtures have been very encouraging. Results
showed that rubberized asphalt had better skid resis-
tance, reduced fatigue cracking and longer pavement life
than conventional asphalt (Khosla and Trogdon, 1990;
Raghvan et al., 1998; Khatib and Bayomy, 1999;
Fedro et al., 1996).
4.1. Fresh concrete properties
4.1.1. Slump
Raghvan et al. (1998) have reported that mortars
incorporating rubber shreds achieved workability (de-
ned as the ease with which mortar/concrete can be
mixed, transported and placed) comparable to or better
than a control mortar without rubber particles.
Khatib and Bayomy (1999) investigated the work-
ability of rubcrete and reported that there is a decrease
565
in slump with increase in rubber content as a percentage
of total aggregate volume. They further noted that at
rubber contents of 40%, slump was almost zero and
concrete was not workable manually. It was also ob-
served that mixtures made with ne crumb rubber were
more workable than those with coarse tire chips or a
combination of tire chips and crumb rubber.
4.1.2. Air content
Fedro et al. (1996) have reported higher air content
in rubcrete mixtures than control mixtures even without
the use of air-entraining admixture (AEA). Similar ob-
servations were also made by Khatib and Bayomy
(1999). This may be due to the non-polar nature of
rubber particles and their tendency to entrap air in their
rough surfaces. Also when rubber is added to a concrete
mixture, it may attract air as it has the tendency to repel
water, and then air may adhere to the rubber particles.
Therefore, increasing the rubber content results in
higher air contents in rubcrete mixtures, thereby de-
creasing the unit weight of the mixtures.
4.1.3. Unit weight
Because of low specic gravity of rubber particles,
unit weight of mixtures containing rubber decreases with
the increase in the percentage of rubber content.
Moreover, increase in rubber content increases the air
content, which in turn reduces the unit weight of the
mixtures. The decrease in unit weight of rubcrete is
negligible when rubber content is lower than 1020% of
the total aggregate volume (Khatib and Bayomy, 1999).
4.2. Hardened properties
4.2.1. Compressive and tensile strength properties
Several authors (Ali et al., 1993; Rostami et al., 1993;
Eldin and Senouci, 1993; Topcu, 1995) reported the
compressive strength results of rubberized concrete.
Results of various studies indicate that the size, pro-
portions and surface texture of rubber particles notice-
ably aect compressive strength of rubcrete mixtures.
Eldin and Senouci (1993) reported that concrete mix-
tures with tire chips and crumb rubber aggregates ex-
hibited lower compressive and splitting tensile strengths
than regular portland cement concrete. There was ap-
proximately 85% reduction in compressive strength and
50% reduction in splitting tensile strength when coarse
aggregate was fully replaced by coarse crumb rubber
chips. However, a reduction of about 65% in compres-
sive strength and up to 50% in splitting tensile strength
was observed when ne aggregate was fully replaced by
ne crumb rubber. Both of these mixtures demonstrated
a ductile failure and had the ability to absorb a large
amount of energy under compressive and tensile loads.
Khatib and Bayomy (1999) and Topcu (1995) also
showed that the addition of coarse rubber-chips in
566 R. Siddique, T.R. Naik / Waste Management 24 (2004) 563569
concrete lowered the compressive strength more than
the addition of ne crumb rubber. However, results re-
ported by Ali et al. (1993) and Fattuhi and Clark (1996)
indicate the opposite trend.
Studies have indicated that if the rubber particles
have rougher surface or given a pretreatment, then
better and improved bonding may develop with the
surrounding matrix, and, therefore, that may result in
higher compressive strength. Pretreatments may vary
from washing rubber particles with water to acid etch-
ing, plasma pretreatment and various coupling agents
(Naik and Singh, 1991). In acid pretreatment, rubber
particles are soaked in an alkaline solution (NaOH) for
5 min and then rinsed with water. This treatment en-
hances the strength of concrete containing rubber par-
ticles through a microscopic (a very small) increase in
the surface texture of the rubber particles. Eldin and
Senouci (1993) soaked and thoroughly washed rubber
aggregates with water to remove contaminants, while
Rostami et al. (1993) used water, water and carbon
tetrachloride solvent, and water and a latex admixture
cleaner. Results showed that concrete containing water-
washed rubber particles achieved about 16% higher
compressive strength than concrete containing untreated
rubber aggregates, whereas this improvement in com-
pressive strength was 57% when rubber aggregates
treated with carbon tetrachloride were used.
Segre and Joekes (2000) have worked on the use of
tire rubber particles as addition to cement paste. In their
work, the surface of powdered tire rubber (particles of
maximum size 35 mesh, 500 lm) was modied to in-
crease its adhesion to cement paste. Low-cost proce-
dures and reagents were used in the surface treatment to
minimize the nal cost of the modied material.
Among the surface treatments tested to enhance the
hydrophilicity of the rubber surface, a sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) solution gave the best result. The particles were
surface-treated with NaOH saturated aqueous solutions
for 20 min before using them in concrete. Then, scan-
ning electron microscopy (SEM) and measurements of
water absorption, density, exural strength, compressive
strength, abrasion resistance, modulus of elasticity and
fracture energy were performed using test specimens (W/
Cm, water-to-cementitious materials ratio as 0.36) con-
taining 10% of powdered rubber or rubber treated with
10% NaOH. The test results showed that the NaOH
treatment enhances the adhesion of tire rubber particles
to cement paste, and mechanical properties such as
exural strength and fracture energy were improved
with the use of tire rubber particles as addition instead
of substitution for aggregate. The reduction in the
compressive strength (33%) was observed, which is
lower than that reported in the literature.
Lee et al. (1998) developed tire-added latex con-
crete to incorporate recycled tire rubber as a part of
concrete. Crumb rubber from used tires was used in
TALC (tire-added latex concrete) as a substitute for ne
aggregates or styrenebutadiene rubber (SBR) latex
while maintaining the same watercementitious materi-
als ratio. TALC showed higher exural and impact
strengths than those of portland cement, latex modied
concrete and rubber-added concrete. Pictures taken us-
ing the SEM seem to support that there was better
bonding between crumb rubber and portland cement
paste due to latex. TALC showed potential as a viable
construction material that is less brittle than other types
of concrete.
Biel and Lee (1996) reported that the type of cement
noticeably aects the compressive strength of rubcrete.
They used two types of cement, magnesium oxychloride
cement and portland cement, in making rubcrete. The
percentage of ne aggregate substitution varied from 0%
to 90% by weight. It was observed that 90% loss in
compressive strength occurred for both portland cement
rubber concrete (PCRC) and magnesium oxychloride
cement rubber concrete (MOCRC) when aggregates
(90% of ne aggregate and 25% of total aggregate) were
replaced by untreated rubber. Magnesium oxychloride
cement concrete exhibited approximately 2.5 times the
compressive strength of portland cement concrete for
both inclusion of rubber and without inclusion of rub-
ber in the concrete. In terms of splitting tensile strength,
portland cement concrete specimens made with 25% of
rubber by total aggregate volume retained 20% of their
splitting tensile strength after initial failure, whereas the
magnesium oxychloride cement concrete specimens with
the same rubber content retained 34% of their splitting
tensile strength. They further noted that use of magne-
sium oxychloride cement may provide high strength and
better bonding characteristics to rubber concrete, and
rubber concrete made with magnesium oxychloride ce-
ment could possibly be used in structural applications if
rubber content is limited to 17% of the total volume of
the aggregate.
4.2.2. Shrinkage
A limited amount of literature is available concerning
the plastic shrinkage of concrete containing rubber
particles. Preliminary results reported by Raghvan et al.
(1998) suggest that incorporation of rubber shreds (two
dierent shapes of rubber particles as constituents of
mortar: (i) granules about 2 mm in diameter and (ii)
shreds having two sizes which were, nominally, 5.5
mm  1.2 mm and 10.8 mm  1.8 mm (length  diame-
ter)) to mortar help in reducing plastic shrinkage
cracking in comparison to control mortar. They further
reported that control specimens developed cracks hav-
ing an average width of about 0.9 mm, while the average
crack width for specimens with a mass fraction of 5%
rubber shreds was about 0.40.6 mm. It was also re-
ported that onset time of cracking was delayed by the
addition of 5% rubber shreds. Mortar without rubber
 R. Siddique, T.R. Naik / Waste Management 24 (2004) 563569
shreds cracked within 30 min, while mortar with 15%
fraction by mass cracked after 1 h. It was further indi-
cated that the higher the content of rubber shreds, the
smaller the crack length and width, and the onset time of
cracking was more delayed.
4.2.3. Toughness and impact resistance
Tantala et al. (1996) investigated the toughness
(toughness is also known as energy absorption capacity
and is generally dened as the area under loaddeec-
tion curve of a exural specimen) of a control concrete
mixture and rubcrete mixtures with 5% and 10% bu
rubber by volume of coarse aggregate. They reported
that toughness of both rubcrete mixtures was higher
than the control concrete mixture. However, the
toughness of rubcrete mixture with 10% bu rubber (26
mm) was lower than that of rubcrete with 5% bu
rubber because of the decrease in compressive strength.
Based on their investigations on use of rubber shreds
(having two sizes which were, nominally, 5.5 mm  1.2
mm and 10.8 mm  1.8 mm) and granular (about 2 mm
in diameter) rubber in mortar, Raghvan et al. (1998)
reported that mortar specimens with rubber shreds were
able to withstand additional load after peak load. The
specimens were not separated into two pieces under the
failure exural load because of bridging of cracks by
rubber shreds, but specimens made with granular rubber
particles broke into two pieces at the failure load. This
indicates that post-crack strength seemed to be en-
hanced when rubber shreds are used instead of granular
rubber.
Khatib and Bayomy (1999) reported that as the
rubber content is increased, rubcrete specimens tend to
fail gradually and failure mode shape of the test speci-
men is either a conical or columnar (conical failure is
gradual, whereas columnar is more of shreds having two
sizes which were, nominally, 5.5 mm  1.2 mm and 10.8
mm  1.8 mm (length  diameter) sudden failure). At a
rubber content of 60%, by total aggregate volume, the
specimens exhibited elastic deformations, which the
specimens retained after unloading.
Eldin and Senouci (1993) demonstrated that the
failure mode of specimens containing rubber particles
was gradual as opposed to brittle. Biel and Lee (1996)
reported that failure of concrete specimens with 30%,
45% and 60% replacement of ne aggregate with rubber
particles occurred as a gradual shear that resulted in a
diagonal failure, whereas failure of plain (control) con-
crete specimens was explosive, leaving specimens in
several pieces.
Goulias and Ali (1997) found that the dynamic
modulus of elasticity and rigidity decreased with an in-
crease in the rubber content, indicating a less sti and
less brittle material. They further reported that damp-
ening capacity of concrete (a measure of the ability of
the material to decrease the amplitude of free vibrations
567
in its body) seemed to decrease with an increase in
rubber content. However, Topcu and Avcular (1997a,b)
have recommended the use of rubberized concrete in
circumstances where vibration damping is required.
Similar observations were also made by Fattuhi and
Clark (1996).
Topcu and Avcular (1997a,b) reported that the im-
pact resistance of concrete increased when rubber ag-
gregates were incorporated into the concrete mixtures.
The increase in resistance was derived from the en-
hanced ability of the material to absorb energy. Eldin
and Senouci (1993) and Topcu (1995) also reported
similar results.
Hernandez-Olivares et al. (2002) have reported that
addition of crumb tire rubber volume fractions up to 5%
in a cement matrix does not yield a signicant variation
of the concrete mechanical features, either maximum
stress or elastic modulus.
4.2.4. Freezing and thawing resistance
Savas et al. (1996) carried out investigations to study
the rapid freezing and thawing (ASTM C 666, Proce-
dure A) durability of rubber concrete. Various mixtures
were made by incorporating 10%, 15%, 20% and 30%
ground rubber by weight of cement used for the control
mixture. Based on their studies, they concluded that:
(i) rubcrete mixtures with 10% and 15% ground rubber
(26 mm in size) exhibited durability factors higher than
60% after 300 freezing and thawing cycles, but mixtures
with 20% and 30% ground rubber by weight of cement
could not meet the ASTM standards (durability factor);
(ii) air-entrainment did not provide improvements in
freezing and thawing durability for concrete mixtures
with 10%, 20% and 30% ground tire rubber and (iii)
increase in scaling (scaling gives an evaluation of the
surface exposed to freezing and thawing cycles as mea-
sured by the loss of weight) increased with the increase
in freezing and thawing cycles.
Benazzouk and Queneudec (2002) studied the freeze
thaw durability of cementrubber composites through
the use of two types of rubber aggregates. The types of
the aggregates were: compact rubber aggregate (CRA)
and expanded rubber aggregates (ERA). Volume-ratio
of the aggregates ranged from 9% to 40%. The results
showed improvements in the durability of the composite
containing 30% and 40% rubber by volume. Improve-
ment in the durability of the composite containing ERA
type aggregates is better than composite made with
CRA aggregates. The nding is more distinct for ERA
type.
Paine et al. (2002) investigated the use of crumb
rubber as an alternative to air-entrainment for providing
freezethaw resisting concrete. Three sizes of crumb
rubber, 0.51.5, 28 and 525 mm, were used. Test re-
sults showed that there is potential for using crumb
rubber as a freezethaw resisting agent in concrete. The
568 R. Siddique, T.R. Naik / Waste Management 24 (2004) 563569
crumb rubber concrete performed signicantly better
under freezethaw conditions than plain concrete, and
the performance of crumb rubber concrete in terms of
scaling was similar to that of air-entrained concrete.
5. Uses of rubber concrete (rubcrete)
Fattuhi and Clark (1996) have suggested that rub-
crete could possibly be used in the following areas:
(i) where vibration damping is needed, such as in foun-
dation pad for rotating machinery and in railway
stations;
(ii) for trench lling and pipe bedding, pile heads, and
paving slabs and
(iii) where resistance to impact or blast is required such
as in railway buers, jersey barriers (a protective
concrete barrier used as a highway divider and a
means of preventing access to a prohibited area)
and bunkers.
Rubcrete because of its light unit weight (density
ranges from 900 to 1600 kg/m3 ) may also be suitable for
architectural applications such as: (i) nailing concrete;
(ii) false facades; (iii) stone backing and (iv) interior
construction.
Topcu and Avcular (1997a,b) have suggested that
rubber-concrete may be used in highway construction as
a (i) shock absorber, in sound barriers; (ii) sound
boaster (which controls the sound eectively) and (iii) in
buildings as an earthquake shock-wave absorber.
However, research is needed before denite recommen-
dations can be made.
6. Use of scrap-tire ash in mortar
Al-Akhras and Smadi (2002) studied the properties
of tire-rubber ash (TRA) mortar. Tire rubber chips were
obtained and burned at a controlled temperature of 850
C for 72 h. The residue of tire-rubber chips (ash) was
collected. TRA was utilized as partial replacement of
sand in ve percentages ranging from 0% to 10% with
an increment of 2.5% by weight of sand. Based on the
test results, they concluded that: (1) as the TRA content
increased, the workability of the fresh mortar decreased.
This behavior is due to the increase in the cementitious
materials in the mortar mix, due particularly to the
large surface area of the added TRA; (2) both initial
and nal setting time increased with the increase in
TRA content. The initial setting time increased from
145 min for the control paste mix to 220 min for 10%
TRA paste mix. The nal setting time increased from
270 min for control paste mix to 390 min for 10% TRA
paste mix; (3) The TRA specimens showed higher
compressive strengths at various curing periods up to 90
days compared with those of the control specimens.
Also, the tensile and exural strengths of the TRA
mortar specimens were higher than those of the control
specimens.
7. Use of scrap-tire rubber in owable ll
Pierce and Blackwell (2003) in their recently published
paper have highlighted the use of crumb rubber in
owable ll. In their investigation, they replaced sand
with crumb rubber to produce owable ll. Experimental
results indicate that crumb rubber can be successfully
used to produce a lightweight (1.21.6 g/cm3 ) owable ll
with excavatable 28-day compressive strengths ranging
from 0.02 to 0.09 MPa. Based on their investigation, they
have concluded that a crumb rubber-based owable ll
can be used in a substantial number of construction
applications, such as bridge abutment lls, trench lls
and foundation lls.
8. Conclusions and recommendations
1. The reduction in compressive strength of concrete
manufactured with rubber aggregates may limit its
use in some structural applications, but rubberized
concrete also has some desirable characteristics such
as lower density, higher impact and toughness resis-
tance, enhanced ductility and better sound insula-
tion. The properties cited in the prior sentence can
be advantageous for various construction applica-
tions (driveways and roadway applications, and
owable ll as subbase material). If tire-rubber could
be used in applications that demand concrete charac-
teristics associated with rubberized concrete, then
disposal of used tires could be reduced to a large
extent.
2. It is also possible to make high-strength rubber con-
crete using magnesium oxychloride cement, which
gives better bonding characteristics to rubber and sig-
nicantly improves the performance of rubcrete.
Moreover, adhesion between rubber particles and
other constituents materials can be improved by
pre-treating the rubber aggregates with magnesium
oxychloride.
3. More research is required to optimize the particle
size, percentage of rubber, type of cement, use of
chemical and mineral admixtures, and methods of
pretreatment of rubber particles on the characteristics
of concrete.
4. Ash from rubber obtained from combustion tires
could be used in mortar and concrete. However, sig-
nicant research is needed in this direction.
5. Scrap-tire rubber could be successfully used in ow-
able ll (Pierce and Blackwell, 2003).
 R. Siddique, T.R. Naik / Waste Management 24 (2004) 563569
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