28 Mobile 2006 System Simulation Bosch Rexroth AG Bosch Rexroth AG System Simulation Mobile 2006 29

Costs Simulation in Mobile Hydraulics

The use of simulation leads to a considerable rationalization of the deve-
lopment process. By reducing actual driving tests, costs can be lowered
and development times reduced. As a result, both the suppliers of com-
ponents and systems as well as the machine manufacturer are able to
realize competitive advantages.
Function
Simulation-based development methods form the basis of the develop-
ment of new machine functions which meet the high requirements placed
on complexity, safety and transparency. As a result, optimal machine effi-
ciency and safety are ensured already in the development phase.
Computer-supported numerical simulation has quickly found its way into the
development of mobile hydraulics. A description of the fundamental principle
of simulation will be followed here by an overview of the methods and tools
used by Rexroth in simulations performed during the development process.
In addition to a description of the model libraries which are essential to an
efficient simulation, concrete application cases will illustrate how simulati-
ons are used to solve a variety of problems.
Martin Behm
Elchingen (D)

Co-author:

Dr. Sorn Stoll

Elchingen (D)
30 Mobile 2006 System Simulation Bosch Rexroth AG

1 Introduction
Compared to industrial hydraulics or
the automotive industry, simulation
has only recently found acceptance
in the field of mobile hydraulics.
The strong resonance echoed by the
manufacturers of mobile machines
with regard to the simulation activi-
ties performed by Rexroth leads one
to expect that the simulation of com-
ponents and systems will soon be part
of daily life in mobile hydraulics as
well. Simulation models are certain to
form the foundation of development
with the same matter-of-factness that
a 2D-CAD drawing formed yesterday
and a 3D model forms today. During
this evolution process, customers
frequently pose similar questions to
Rexroth. These questions have been
compiled and the objective of this ar-
ticle is to answer these questions.
The development and spread of sim-
ulations is inseparably linked to the
triumph of computational technol-
ogy. If one considers the fundamental
functional principle of simulation, it
quickly becomes apparent why this
is the case. For this purpose, we will
first consider a very simple system,
such as that shown in Figure 1. This is
a spring-mass-damper system which
can be completely described by the
differential equation
mx dx
or, in standardized form as
T 2 xa 2Tx a
The formulation of the mathematical
equations which describe the physical
xe Ke
they are of very little use in practical
applications. For comparison, con-
sider the simple, real system shown
in Figure 2. The input variable in this
case is a voltage which is applied to
the solenoids of the pump control;
the speed of the motor shaft is viewed
as the output variable. The relevant
physical phenomena which must be
taken into account here include:
the inductivity of the solenoids:
1
I Udt
cx Ke L
the response characteristic of the
xa K P xe pump control:
mVg dVg Vg ( t ) K I ( t Tt )
the capacity of the hydraulic lines:
2
p P Vg ,P V ,P p, nP ,Vg ,P
V0
M Vg ,M / V ,M p, nM ,Vg ,M dt

2 Basics of simulation and the dynamics of the load:

xa x
animation
Vg ,M p mh ,M p, nM ,Vg ,M
2.1 Method of function of Fig. 1: Trivial System. J 
2
simulation
Simulation is a method for represent-
phenomenon is the first step of the
ing and analyzing real, and usually
simulation. The next step is solving
dynamic, systems. The simulation
these equations. The objective is to
model is used to represent abstrac-
find the function xa(t) which satis-
tion of the real system with regard to
fies the above equation. In this case,
structure, function and behavior. Sim-
a linear differential equation with
ulations are used in nearly all areas
constant coefficients, a closed ana-
of science and have many faces, from
lytical solution is entirely possible.
crash tests in automotive development
With an impulse as the input func-
to the simulation of meteorological
tion for the weakly damped case with
processes or roll-playing in pedagogy.
< 1, a solution may be, for example:
This article concentrates on the com-
t / T 1 2 1 2
e
puter-supported simulation of techni- xa ( t ) KP 1
2
sin
T
t arctan

1
cal systems, which are becoming an
increasingly important tool to every The problem with such systems is
engineer. that, outside of didactical purposes,
Bosch Rexroth AG
xa
P const . xe U x(1 )
Fig. 2: Real System.
Although only the essential physical
effects are taken into account in the
very simple system described here,
and other effects such as the induc-
tivity of the hydraulic lines and the
fluid friction have been neglected,
the resulting differential equation is
of the 6th order. This also includes a
deadtime as well as dominant non-
linearities in the form of tabulated ef-
ficiencies. Such a system of equations
cannot be solved analytically. In sum-
mary, it can be said for nearly all real
systems: It is usually possible to for-
mulate the descriptive equations with
an adequate degree of detail without
much difficulty. Practically, however,
it is not possible to find an analytical
solution to these equations.
This is where numerical simulation
begins. The spring-mass-damper
system mentioned above can be used
to illustrate the principle. First, the
known initial conditions can be used
to define a starting point for the simu-
lation. For reasons of simplification,
acceleration, speed and the path at
time t(0) are all equal to zero:
x( 0 ) x ( 0 ) x( 0 )
The decisive step occurs at this point:
Although it is known that the accel-
eration does not remain constant, it
is possible to perform the calculation
using a constant value for a very short
M
period of time which
1
[ Fe dx ( 0 )
m
keeps the error from becoming too
large. The generalized principle is
shown in Figure 3. Here, it becomes
apparent that the size of the error
decreases with decreasing step size t.
Using the acceleration value for t(1)
calculated in this way, it is now pos-
sible to determine the speed:
x (1 ) x ( 0 ) x(1 ) t
as well as the distance:
x(1 ) x( 0 ) x (1 ) t
for t(1). In the next iteration, the val-
ues for t(1) are used to calculate the
acceleration and the other variables
for time t(2) and so on. There is no
reason why this simple algorithm can-
not be automated for the incremental
calculation. The result is shown in
Figure 4. The transient phenomenon
of the spring-mass-damper system
following a step-like excitation is in
0
Fig. 4: Numerical Simulation in Excel.
System Simulation Mobile 2006 31
cx ( 0 )] x(1)
x(0)
t
t0 t1
Fig. 3: Calculating in small Increments.
agreement with the analytical solution
when a suitably small t is used. With
this, we have completed a numerical
simulation. This example shows that
the numerical simulation replaces
the solution of a complex differential
equation system through the calcula-
tion of a large number of relatively
simple algebraic equations. This also
explains why simulations did not be-
come part of an engineers everyday
life until high computational power
became widely available. A detailed
discussion of this topic can be found
in reference [1].
32 Mobile 2006 System Simulation
Prediction accuracy
In full-fledged simulation programs,
the simple basic principle described
above is considerably more developed.
The first approach for refinement
relates to the prediction accuracy of
each subsequent step. In the example
shown above, only the target value at
the current time t(0) is carried over
to the next time t(1). By performing a
more detailed analysis of the curve, it
is possible to greatly improve accuracy
of the subsequent value. Among the
variety of possibilities which exist,
the 4th order Runge-Kutta method
is presented here as a representative
example in Figure 5. Following a spe-
cific rule, points P1 to P3 and slopes
m1 to m4 between these points are
calculated. Using the weighted aver-
age of these four slopes, a prediction
is made for the subsequent time based
on the current time. The increased
computational demands associated
with this method are generally more
than compensated for by the im-
proved accuracy.
Computational step sizes
Another approach for refining the
numerical simulation applies to the
computational step size. As already
mentioned above, t must be selected
suitably small in order to keep the
error from becoming too large. In
the Excel simulation, it can easily be
shown that the simulation becomes
unstable if the step size is increased
above a specific value. As a result,
the simulation result has nothing
in common with the actual physical
values. In practical work, the dan-
ger also exists that such instabilities
could be overlooked in more complex
systems, resulting in misinterpreta-
Bosch Rexroth AG
Sublibraries
In addition, commercial simulation
tools offer complete collections of
subsystems, for example a hydraulic
library with models of pumps and
motors. Finally, modern simulation
tools are equipped with a comfort-
able graphical user interface which
can be used by the system designer
to efficiently create models of entire
systems.
Fig. 5: 4th order Runge-Kutta method.
tions of reality. At the same time, it
makes little sense to always work with
the smallest-possible step size as this
would place a disproportionately high
demand on computational resources.
Thus, a wise approach is to use a larg-
er step size for relatively flat curves,
while a smaller step size should be
selected for steeper slopes in order
to keep the prediction error low. The
objective of the broad range of proce-
dures for step-size control is to con-
stantly optimize the step size based on
the analysis of the curve progression.
A detailed description of numerical
integration procedures as well as on
procedures for step-size control can
be found in reference [3].
Bosch Rexroth AG
Fig. 6: Animation.
2.2 Difference between simula-
tion and animation
The concept of simulation is often as-
sociated with seemingly realistic mov-
ing images (Fig. 6). For this reason,
it is important to note the difference
between the terms simulation and
animation.
Simulation as a description by
means of numerical series
The primary objective of a simula-
tion is the correct and sufficiently
detailed description of a real system
and the solution of the resulting equa-
tions. The immediate results are the
numerical series. These represent the
behavior of physical variables such as
distances, speeds, flows, temperatures
etc. In practical use, results displayed
in diagram form are often all the
engineer needs. For some, this is the
preferred format for evaluating the
results. Generally, the system designer,
for example, already has an idea of
the systems fundamental behavior
and primarily uses the simulation for
quantitative analysis.
System Simulation
Animation for creating moving
images
Animation, on the other hand, ini-
tially involves only the creation of
moving images. There are a multitude
of reasons for creating animations,
ranging from pure entertainment to
facilitating a deeper understanding of
a system.
In technical areas, didactics as well as
product presentations are important
application areas for animations. The
viewer of the animated pump control
in Figure 7 is primarily interested in
the underlying function. The exact
Fig.7: Animation in Didactics.
Mobile 2006 33
flow quantities or piston strokes are
not yet important to him at this stage.
Hence, the data for controlling the
animation can be set freely. Inten-
tional distortion of the real conditions
is often useful for maximizing the
didactic effect.
Animation as a display form of simu-
lation results
Another technical application is the
animation of simulation results. In
this case, simulation and animation
actually come together: here, simula-
tion results are used to control the
animation. An animation in this form
is useful, for example, for examining
the simulation of a complex system
with multiple movement axes (e.g. for
an operating wheel loader) for opti-
cal plausibility or to obtain a better
idea of quantitative changes.
Simulation and animation are fre-
quently permanently linked to one
another, particularly for simulation
systems which are specialized in
multi-body mechanics, due to the fact
that the simulation models are cre-
ated in a graphical 3D environment
anyway.
34 Mobile 2006 System Simulation Bosch Rexroth AG

2.3 Separating simulation from

CAx
other related technologies
Computer-supported technolo-
gies penetrate all phases of product ... CAD CAE CAM ...
creation, from the design phase to
series production. Simulation tech-
nologies are grouped under the term
behaviour- geometry
CAE (Computer Aided Engineering) oriented -oriented
(Fig. 8). The similarity of the behav-
ior-oriented technologies which are
- Hydraulic Simulation - FEM
available for system simulation and - Mechanical Simulation - CFD
on which the discussion here is es- - Controls
- Real-Time Simulation
sentially focused, is that, as a rule, - Software
they function using concentrated pa- - MBS Simulation

rameters. Thus, a system here consists Fig. 8: CAx-Technologies.

of spatially separated, concentrated
elements, such as e.g. hydraulic lines,
springs or mass elements. Such sys-
tems are mathematically described
using differential equations.
Geometry-oriented simulations, on
the other hand, are a closely related
CAx technology and handle systems
with so-called distributed parameters.
Such a system consists of many indi-
vidual elements. It can be mathemati-
cally described using partial differen-
tial equations. Finite-element method
and numerical fluid mechanics fall
under this heading.

2.4 Field of application of real-

time simulations
As long as the developer is simulating
on a computer, the actual computing
times may be either greater than or
less than actual duration of the simu-
lated procedure. However, as soon as
a simulation and a real system are to
work together, it is necessary to simu-
late in real time. Real-time simulation
is necessary, for example, if a function
developed with the aid of a control
simulation is to be tested on the real
Fig. 9: Rapid Control Prototyping.
system. In this case, the rapid control
prototyping (RCP) method is used as
a variant of real-time simulation. The
basic principle is illustrated in Figure
9. The starting point is a function
which is to be tested which exists in
a simulation language such as MAT-
LAB/Simulink. The series controller
of the vehicle is, however, not able to
directly evaluate this language. Nev-
ertheless, the function developer does
not want to reformulate his new func-
tion in the C code of the controller for
each test. The solution lies in the use
of a special development controller,
in this case an Autobox from dSpace.
This is a universal, very powerful
controller which can be programmed
directly from within Simulink.
Bosch Rexroth AG System Simulation Mobile 2006 35

Another application of a real-time

Real-Time Controller/
simulation is the hardware-in-the-
Simulated Vehicle
loop method (HIL). In this case, the
developer would like to first test a
newly developed electronic control in
a simulated vehicle in order to keep
testing costs low. Only then, in the
final stage of development, is testing
performed in the real vehicle. The
same development controller is used.
Only in this one, a simulation model Programming/
of the vehicle runs in real time. As a Visualization Real Controller
result, the electronic control being Fig. 10: Hardware-in-the-Loop.
tested sees the same interface as in
the real vehicle (Fig. 10).

3 System simulation at
Rexroth
3.1 Use of various simulation
tools at Rexroth
Figure 11 shows the fundamental pro-
grams and devices used at Rexroth for
system engineering. Detailed models
of hydraulic components are created
in AMESim. Hydraulic systems are
critical with respect to simulations
due to the fact that both extremely
soft transitions, such as e.g. the ac- Detailed Simulation Function Development Rapid Prototyping
celeration of a vehicle, as well as high
stiffnesses, such as those which take Fig. 11: System Simulation Toolchain.

place while shifting, occur in the

same system. The numerical solvers
of AMESim are specially optimized
for handling such systems. The fo-
cal point of the supplied standard
libraries lies in the area of hydraulics.
System simulations for travel drives
and operating functions of mobile
machine are performed preferably in
AMESim.
Closed loop controls and algorithms
are simulated in MATLAB as well as
in the additional programs Simulink make this de-facto standard for simu-
and Stateflow. MATLAB specializes in lation the first choice.
the numerical solution of problems.
For real-time simulation, the previ-
It includes its own, proprietary pro-
ously mentioned AutoBox, produced
gramming language, an interface for
by dSpace, has established itself as the
C code as well as an extensive library
leader. A compact design for use in
for signal processing. Simulink makes
vehicles is available under the name
available an environment for time-
MicroAutoBox.
controlled simulation. Stateflow is
used for event-controlled simulation.
In addition, its high level of accep-
tance and the maturity of MATLAB
36 Mobile 2006 System Simulation Bosch Rexroth AG

3.2 Simulations models for stan-

dard components from Rexroth
A well-maintained library with the
frequently used standard components
is the prerequisite for an efficient
system simulation. The creation and
maintenance of such a library requires
a considerable amount of time. The
Rexroth functional development al-
ready has at its disposal models of the
most important axial piston pumps
and motors as well as models of cou-
plings, gearboxes, combustion engines
and simple vehicle models. Figure 12
illustrates the available axial piston
units as well as the dialog field for se- Fig. 12: Bosch Rexroth Model Library.
lecting the modeling depth. For each
component there are, in general, four
These models are used primarily in provide the customer with the exact
sub-models with varying levels of de-
component design. product specified in the specification
tail. It is very important to select the
book.
appropriate modeling depth depend-
3.3 Development methodology in
ing on the purpose of the simulation.
mobile hydraulics
On the one hand, to represent all of
The basic procedure in the develop-
the physical phenomena relevant to
ment of new functions is shown in
the function and, on the other, to
Figure 13. The requirements for new
keep from generating unnecessary
functions are developed through close
computations. The simplest so-called
cooperation with the customer in the
one-star models operate using mea-
respective application centers and
surements from known efficiency
supplied to functional development in
tables. They do not, however, contain
the form of a specification book. New
any dynamic elements and are, thus,
platforms are designed here using,
suited for stationary simulations and
among other tools, simulation. The
qualitative analyses. Two-star models
requirements for the system compo-
can represent the dominant dynam-
nents can be derived from the func-
ics, i.e. those of the movable primary
tional analysis. Thus, specification
components as well as of the control
books may result for new or modified
mechanisms. Such models are typi-
components. These are processed on
cally used for functional development.
the component development level.
Three-star models contain physical
Detailed simulations are utilized dur-
models of subcomponents and are
ing this process. Testing is performed
used in application projects. Four-star
at each level of development to ensure
models represent the highest level of
that the requirements of the specifica-
detail and are generated by modeling
tion books are met. The objective is to
all essential individual components.
Bosch Rexroth AG System Simulation Mobile 2006 37

3.4 Cooperation between cus-

tomers and Rexroth in simulation
projects
Rexroth supports customers in simu- Customer: Formal Specification
lations with MATLAB/Simulink and BRH-DR : Own Platforms and Libraries

Devel

l
& Tria
AMESim. Even existing models of
components or systems can be made
available or developed on the basis opme

Tests
of customer requirements. To ensure System
nt

optimal and individual support, bi-

lateral projects are necessary in order
for models to be made available. More
general forms of cooperation, for Components
example via the Internet, are not suit-
able. The relatively simple one- and Fig. 13: Methodology in Function Development.

two-star models can be supplied with

open structure. More detailed models
can be made available as encapsulated
parameterizable modules. B 6

6
4. Model-based devel- A
5
opment on behalf of the
customer
30 4
The following four examples of prac- Pressure
Swivel Angle [degree]

Measurement
100bar Simulation
tical work with varying levels of detail
20
illustrate how simulations are used 1
3
during the development of concrete 10 T
customer projects.
2 S
0
4.1 Component simulation of an
0 1 2 3 4
A4VG
Time [s]
The objective of this project was the
optimization of geometries as well as Fig. 14: A4VG Component Simulation.
the development of new functions for
a model A4VG hydraulic pump. For comparisons with measurements.
the simulation, this meant the use of Figure 14 illustrates the course of the
a four-star model. Figure 14 shows a swivel angle for an out and back swiv-
rough representation of the models eling motion and shows the excellent
level of detail. All components impor- agreement between the model and
tant to function such as rotary group, reality.
control mechanism or pilot valve were
modeled with their component parts.
The model was then verified through
38 Mobile 2006 System Simulation Bosch Rexroth AG

4.2 Power split gearbox

Hydrostat
For the torque division gearbox sche-
matically shown in Figure 15, Rexroth
supplied the hydraulic components,
pump and motor. The objective of the
simulation was to improve the oscil-
latory behavior of the hydrostatic part
and, thus, the entire gearbox at low
temperatures by optimizing the elec-
tric control of the pump. A three-star
simulation was selected due to the fact Fig. 15: Power-Split Transmission.
that a higher level of detail was neces-
sary for individual components such
as the pump control device. For the
Control Piston Stroke [mm]

rotary group, on the other hand, rep-

resentation by means of characteristic
diagrams was sufficient. The results
of one of the optimization measures Underlap
is shown in Figure 16. The optimal
dimensions for the metering edge un- 0.09 0.14
(Series)
derlap of the pump control pilot valve
was determined in the simulation and 0.23 0.24
the reduced tendency to oscillate veri-
fied in testing. t [s]
0.27 0.30

4.3 Antiblock system for a hydro-

Test Results
static travel drive
The simulation shown in Figure 17 Fig. 16: Optimized Control Geometry in Simulation and Test.
is a two-star model of a field sprayer
with hydraulic individual wheel drives
Engine speed [Umin]

for functional development on a

system level. Characteristic diagrams
with the volumetric and mechani-
cal-hydraulic efficiencies are stored
for hydraulic pumps (1) and motors
(2). The dynamics of the electro-pro- Time [s]
Simulation
Closed loop pressure [bar]

portional control was represented by Test

transfer functions. The diesel engine
model supplies the torque/speed char-
acteristic in in driving as well as in
driven mode taking into account the
Time [s]
inertia of the combustion engine as
well as its flywheel mass. The vehicle Fig. 17: Simulation Model of Crop Sprayer and Verification.

model (4) takes into account mass,

Bosch Rexroth AG System Simulation Mobile 2006 39

grade and dynamic axial load shifting.

Wheel Speed [U/min]

Test
Through appropriate parameteriza-
tion of the wheel model (5), it is then
possible to select slippage character-
istics for various tire/ground surface
Time [s]
pairings. Verification of the model,
Simulation

Wheel speed [U/min]

which involved recording control
signals for pumps and motors during
the drive test and then feeding these

Front left
Rear left
data to the model, shows agreement
which is suitable for the intended ap-
plication.
Based on this model, the electronic Fig. 18: Anti-Lock System for Hydrostatic All-Wheel Drive.
control was developed for the re-
alization of the antiblock system.
can be traced back to the fact that the 4.4 Hydraulic circuits for traction
Figure 18 shows the control schema
mechanical structure of the vehicle control
as well as the behavior of the wheel
was not represented in the simulation. The simulation shown in Figure 19
speeds during full braking with ABS
The wheel-ground contact could also was to be used in the design phase of
in a simulation and drive test. The
only be approximately represented. a hydrostatically driven vehicle to de-
simulation shows the general trend of
termine how various circuits of one or
the behavior. The deviations between
two pumps as well as simple- or dou-
the simulation and the measurement
ble-chamber radial piston motors be-
have with respect to the residual drive
torque if one or more wheels spin.
Because only the relative total tractive
force in the static operating condition
was of interest, a one-star model was

Fig. 19: Simulation of Hydraulic Circuit Variations.

40 Mobile 2006 System Simulation Bosch Rexroth AG

sufficient. With this simple model

structure, the result table (Fig. 20)
was created in a very short time.

5 Conclusion
The examples listed above show that
simulation in mobile hydraulics has
already reached a high level of matu-
rity at Rexroth. Simulation has already
led to a considerable increase in ef-
ficiency and quality in development
work in numerous practical applica-
tions. Building on the preparatory
work in the design and introduction
of tools and methods as well as in the
creation of model libraries, the practi-
cal embodiment of the cooperative Fig. 20: Summary of Simulation Results.

work with customers in the area of

simulation is advanced with each con-
crete project. [3] Engeln-Mllges, G., Reutter F.:
Numerik-Algorithmen, VDI-Verlag,
Literature Dsseldorf 1996 (Numerical Algo-
[1] Anders, P.: Auswirkungen der Mi- rithms)
kroelektronik auf die Regelungskonz- [4] Levine, W. S.: The Control Hand-
epte fluidtechnischer Systeme und der book, CRC Press, Inc. 1996
Einsatz von Personal Computern als
Auslegungswerkzeug, Dissertation
RWTH Aachen 1986 (Effects of Mi-
croelectronics on the Control Concept
of Fluid Mechanical Systems and the
Use of Personal Computers as a De-
sign Tool)
[2] Zurmhl, R.: Praktische Math-
ematik fr Ingenieure und Physiker,
Springer-Verlag, Berlin 1984 (Practi-
cal Mathematics for Engineers and
Physicists)
Bosch Rexroth AG System Simulation Mobile 2006 41