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MALAYSIAN INSTITUTE OF MARINE ENGINEERING

& TECHNOLOGY
SEAPORT & TERMINAL OPERATIONS
(LGB11303)

ASSIGNMENT 2:
Factors and Port Operation That Lead to Bulk Ports
Inefficiency.

GROUP 1. RARVIN PHARASAD A/L NALLUSWAMY 56212215033

MEMBERS 2. MOHAMAD SHAFIQ BIN HUSAIN 56212215038
3. TENGKU MOHAMAD FAIZ BIN TENGKU 56212215041
RAZALI
CLASS L01-T01
SUBMISSION 20/10/2017
DATE
COURSE Mr Parid Bin Abdul
LECTURER
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Table of Contents

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1 Introduction 1

2 Bulk port are typically slower than container port. Discuss the factors
and port operation that lead to bulk ports inefficiency
3 Conclusion 1-8
4 References 9
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Introduction

Ports are bound by the need to serve ships, and so access to navigable water has been historically
the most important site consideration. Before the industrial revolution, ships were the most
efficient means of transporting goods, and thus port sites were frequently chosen at the head of
water navigation, the most upstream site. Many major cities owed their early pre-eminence to this
fact, such as London on the Thames, Montreal on the St. Lawrence River or Guangzhou on the
Pearl River. Ship draft was small, so many sites were suitable. Sites on tidal waterways created a
particular problem for shipping because of the twice-daily rise and fall of water levels at the berths,
and by the 18th the technology of enclosed docks, with lock gates was developed to mitigate this
problem. Because ship transfers were slow, and vessels typically spent weeks in ports, a large
number of berths were required. This frequently gave rise to the construction of piers and jetties,
often called finger piers, to increase the number of berths per given length of shoreline.

Bulk port are typically slower than container port. Discuss the factors and port operation
that lead to bulk ports inefficiency

As terminals, ports handle the largest amounts of freight, more than any other types of terminals
combined. To handle this freight, port infrastructures jointly have to accommodate transshipment
activities both on ships and inland and thus facilitate convergence between land transport and
maritime systems. In many parts of the world, ports are the points of convergence from which
inland transport systems, particularly rail, were laid. Considering the operational characteristics of
maritime transportation, the location of ports is constrained to a limited array of sites, mostly
defined by geography. Most ports, especially those that are ancient, owe their initial emergence to
their site as the great majority of harbors are taking advantage of a natural coastline or a natural
site along a river. Many port sites are constrained by:

Maritime access
Which refers to the physical capacity of the site to accommodate ship operations. It includes the
tidal range, which is the difference between the high and low tide, as normal ship operations cannot
handle variations of more than 3 meters. Channel and berth depths are also very important to
accommodate modern cargo ships. A standard Panamax ship of 65,000 deadweight tons requires
more than 12 meters (40 feet) of depth. However, about 70% of world ports have depths of less
than 10 meters and are unable to accommodate ships of more than 200 meters in length. In view
of the construction of larger ships, namely tankers and containerships, many port sites found
themselves unable to provide maritime access to modern cargo operations. Since container
terminals were constructed much more recently, they have a better nautical profile as depth and
available space were fundamental factors in site selection. There is thus a pressure in increase
channel depth where possible, but this is a costly and environmentally controversial endeavor.
Berths and channel depth have become important constraints for maritime operations in light of
growing ship size. Many ports are also impacted by sedimentation, particularly ports in river deltas.
This requires continuous dredging, which adds to the costs of port operations. Some river ports
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may be impacted by periods of flooding and drought while other ports may be impeded or closed
during winter because of ice conditions.

Maritime interface
Indicates the amount of space that is available to support maritime access, namely the amount of
shoreline that has good maritime access. This attribute is very important since ports are linear
entities. Even if a port site has an excellent maritime access, namely deep water waterways, there
may not be enough land available to guarantee its future development and expansion.
Containerization has expanded the land consumption requirements of many ports. It is therefore
not surprising to see that modern port expansion projects involve significant capital investments
to create artificial port facilities.

Infrastructures and equipment

The site, to be efficiently used, must have infrastructures such as piers, basins, stacking or storage
areas, warehouses, and equipment such as cranes, all of which involving high levels of capital
investment. In turn, these infrastructures consume land which must be available to insure port
expansion. Keeping up with the investment requirements of modern port operations has become a
challenge for many ports, particularly in light of containerization which requires substantial
amounts of terminal space to operate. Many terminals are also becoming increasingly automated,
particularly for stacking areas that can be serviced by automated cranes and vehicles.

Land access
Access from the port to industrial complexes and markets insure its growth and importance. This
requires efficient inland distribution systems, such as fluvial, rail (mainly for containers) and road
transportation. The land access to ports located in densely populated areas is facing increasing
congestion. For instance, the ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach have invested massively to
develop the Alameda rail corridor in an attempt to promote inland access and reduce truck
congestion. A similar trend has taken place in Europe where ports such as Rotterdam and Antwerp
have been involved in the setting on inland barge and rail shuttle services.

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CARGO-HANDLING EQUIPMENT ON BOARD AND IN PORT

Basic terms
cargo-handling equipment front/side loader van carrier
cargo gear handling transtainer container crane
facilities lifting gear / portainer transit shed
conveyor belt warehouse cranes: dockside
elevator pumping crane, quay crane,
equipment derrick container crane gantry
fork lift truck crane, deck crane
mobile crane (ships) cargo gear
straddle carrier
tractor tug-master
The form of cargo-handling equipment employed is basically determined by the nature of the
actual cargo and the type of packing used. The subject of handling facilities raises the important
question of mechanization.

BULK CARGO HANDLING EQUIPMENT

So far as dry bulk cargoes are concerned, handling facilities may be in the form of power-propelled
conveyor belts, usually fed at the landward end by a hopper (a very large container on legs) or
grabs, which may be magnetic for handling ores, fixed to a high capacity travel1ing crane or
travel1ing gantries. These gantries move not only parallel to the quay, but also run back for
considerable distances, and so cover a large stacking area, and are able to plumb the ship's hold.
These two types of equipment are suitable for handling coal and ores. In the case of bulk sugar or
when the grab is also used, the sugar would be discharged into a hopper, feeding by gravity a
railway wagon or road vehicle below.

SHIP UPLOADER FOR BULK

The unloading of different types of cargo from bulk vessel will require different methods and
equipment and it will be needing the agreement between the vessel and the port operators for the

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mode of unloading to be used. These procedure if not been organized properly, it will contribute
in the inefficiency of the bulk terminal. In complying with the procedure, the terminal
representative should follow the agreed unloading plan and should consult with the ships officer
if there is a need to amend the plan. Unloading from holds should be such as to minimize undue
listing, twisting, stressing as a result of cargo handling. The ship is to be kept upright or, if a list is
required for operational reasons, it is to be kept as small as possible.

The cargo should be removed in a methodical pattern across the hold so that any listing to one side
and then the other is kept small and is constantly being corrected. The unloading of the port side
closely matches that of the starboard side in the same hold, to avoid twisting the ship. Where grab
operations are carried out in automatic or semi-automatic mode the unloader operator should:

i. Ensure the limits are set correctly for every hold.

ii. That both ship and unloader are monitored constantly for any deviation from these
limits.
iii. That the pattern followed by the grab is systematic and even across the hold.

Unloading rates and sequences should not be altered by the terminal unless by prior consultation
and agreement between the ship and the terminal representative. When there is significant and
unavoidable delays to the unloading, or a reduction in the expected rates due to breakdowns or
problems with the terminal materials handling system, the master should be informed and the plan
amended as necessary. The terminal representative should advise the ship when unloading is
considered to be completed from each hold.

Storage in Stockyards

The storage of bulk cargo in stockyard also contribute to the effectiveness of a bulk terminal where
any error that happens will affect the overall process in a stockyard. In contributing the complex
process of a stockyard storage, it is influenced by 3 major aspect which are:

i. The interarrival time distribution

The required storage area to store all materials is the product of the unbalance between the
arrivals and departures at the dry bulk terminal. Bulk materials are transported between
terminals by deep-sea bulk carriers. These ships do not generally arrive at their scheduled
times because of bad weather conditions, swells and other natural phenomena during the
sea journey as well as unexpected failures or stoppages.
A study showed that the interarrival time distribution relates to the terminal type. At
stevedoring import terminals, operators are not the owners of the bulk materials and have
therefore less influence on the exact arrival time of the bulk carriers. For these terminals,
the interarrival time distribution can best be modeled with a negative exponential
distribution. For a single-user import terminal (terminal which imports bulk materials for
its own steel factory or power plant) an Erlang-2 distribution can be used to represent the

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arrivals of the bulk carriers. In an Erlang-2 distribution, the arrivals are more regular
compared to the negative exponential distribution.
ii. The carrier tonnage distribution
Studies showed that even also that especially stevedores are faced with a large variation of
carrier tonnages, because these terminal operators unload ships for several clients. At
single-user terminals, terminal operators plan the sizes of incoming ships more or less,
which results in less variation in carrier tonnages.
iii. The average storage time
For an import terminal, piles are formed from incoming bulk materials. A pile is reclaimed
in smaller portions, which means that the occupied storage area for this pile decreases in
time. The time between the creation of the pile and the time that the last remaining part of
that pile is reclaimed, is called the storage time. When the terminals average storage time
(because each pile can have its specific storage time) increases more stockyard area is
needed to handle the same annual throughput.

LIQUID BULK CARGO HANDLING EQUIPMENT

The movement of liquid bulk cargo, crude oil and derivatives, from the tanker is undertaken by
means of pipelines connected to the shore-based storage tanks. Pumping equipment is provided in
the tanker storage plant or refinery ashore, but not on the quayside. In view of the dangerous nature
of such cargo, it is common practice to build the special berths a small distance from the main
dock system on the seaward side. Oil cargo is discharged from the ships tanks, via the cargo piping
system to the main ships manifold usually situated amidships, on either port or starboard side.
From there by means of shore-based loading arms oil is transferred to the shore manifold and is
then distributed to shore-based storage tanks on the oil terminal. The loading arm hose must be
flanged oil-tight to the ships manifold so that oil spills can be avoided.

SHIPS MANIFOLD TERMINAL MANIFOLD

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LOADING ARMS
Pipelines components must protected against damage. Only suitable equipment may be used for
loading and unloading. In the case of pipes made of unplasticized PVC, in particular, abrupt
stresses at temperatures below +5 degrees must be avoided because of the influence of temperature
on their resistance to impact. In the case of pipes with external protection, wide slings or other
devices, which do not damage the external protection, must be used. The use of chains or bare steel
wire is not permitted. Pipes with a bituminous coating must be handled is such a way that the
effects and influences of high and low temperatures do not give rise to damage. If wire or chain
hooks are used, they must be padded in order to prevent damage to the pipe ends.

Cargo discharging operation

Liquid bulk cargo (oil) discharge operation involves various safety factors to be taken into
consideration. Following are the most common elements and check items to be followed. The
procedures explained here are only indicative, not exhaustive in nature and one must always be
guided by the practices of good seamanship. This operation takes a long time since it is necessary
to comply with various procedures to avoid any damage that leads to higher losses.

Supply of I.G to cargo tanks being discharged:

Confirm that the oxygen level in the IG main supply is less than 5% and supplied to tanks. The
date, time, voyage number and description of operation should be entered on the IGS fixed pressure
and oxygen density recorder. Line up of the IGS:
i. Prior to starting of discharge, IGS must be set appropriately to maintain a Positive Gas
pressure in all tanks at all times.
ii. Cargo tanks IG inlet lines to the designated discharging tanks shall be re-checked and
confirmed in desired position.
iii. The control of the key to the locking arrangements for cargo tank IG inlet valves shall
be with the Chief Officer.
iv. For tanks which are required to be isolated by vapor (as per the Charterers
instructions), the individual I.G pressure shall be monitored Every 4 hrs.
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v. Preventing for Cargo Contamination including Vapor Contamination Standard Oil

Tankers except Product Oil Carriers are provided Single Main Inert Gas and Common
Vent Lines which is connected with all cargo oil tanks.
vi. In such vessels, IG Inlet (Cut-out) valves should be operated, if the charterer requests
to prevent Vapor contamination, which may be restricted to monitor the main line
pressure, so as to require to fit portable pressure gauges for cargo oil tanks which are
isolated.
vii. Also in a Product Oil Carrier, below precautions should be considered to prevent Cargo
contamination.
a) Vapor contamination at the exhaust end in a Slop tank of AUS Vacuum Pump.
b) Liquid contamination with leakage of valves of Manifold Vapor Equal Line.
c) Liquid contamination with leakage of Manifold Drain Line.

Safety Confirmations and Clearance:

Once the Chief Officer is satisfied that all preparations have been made in accordance with the
cargo oil discharge plan and the shore facility representative has confirmed that the facility is ready
to receive cargo, he may order the designated manifold valve to be opened, the IG out put to the
discharging cargo tanks and the discharge operations to commence in accordance with the
discharge plan.

Commence discharging at reduced speed. Follow shore instructions & Increase the discharge rate
once it has been confirmed that there are no oil leaks and shore receiving at their end, until the
agreed cargo oil manifold pressure has been reached.

Starting of Discharge Operation pumps and adjusting Internal Pressure of Tanks

Starting of Cargo Pumps:

Open manifold valves, and start the first cargo pump at slow speed. After confirming normal
operation of each part, open delivery valves to start pumping oil. Then start other pumps. Only
after receiving reports of all safety checks confirmed from all stations of deck / pump room watch,
then follow the instruction of the terminal side to increase the manifold pressure to the prescribed
(agreed) pressure.

Close watch of the manifold pressure shall be maintained, until completion of setting down of
shore side / ships cargo pumps. When starting pumps flows, pressures and flow of cargoes are to
be maintained at minimum. Only on confirmation from the receiving terminal and completion of
results from safety check at each designated (manned location), should flow / pressure be increased
to max agreed. However, at some discharge ports, this requirement of initial flow rate may be
revised where line clearance / circulation techniques are employed.

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Crude Oil Washing, Ballasting and De-ballasting

Carry out crude oil washing as per Procedures for Crude Oil Operations when the tank to be
washed reaches the planned condition.

Fill tanks with ballast water according to the ballasting plan. Consider the precautions decided for
heated cargo discharge. Notify the terminal of the matter before the start of ballasting. As a
company standard, to avoid the possibility of ballast overflow when alongside, ballasting level of
any tanks (while alongside) shall not exceed 90% of the tanks capacity. Such levels shall be
marked near the ballast gauges and shall be conspicuously displayed in the control room.

Trim and Draft

Checking water depth as the operation progresses, make a stern trim so that ample trim which is
described in the COW manual may be obtained at the time when tank stripping starts.

Ensure the draft maintained, after allowing for tidal variation, is well within the limits of the height
limitation of manifold / loading arms. The vessel shall always be maintained well within the
operating limits (envelope) of the shore arms.

Stripping cargo

In the last stage of discharging, drop the number and speed of main cargo pumps and gradually
reduce opening of delivery valves to change over to stripping. Stripping is conducted by the Auto
Unloading System (AUS), Educators or Stripping pumps.

For further confirmation of effective stripping with remote suction pressure gauge, closed system
of manual sounding (dipping) of cargo tanks shall be done by the ships crew to ascertain the
sludge / oil condition of tank bottom.

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Conclusion

Ports as one of the main components of marine transportation systems are one of the important
rings of global supply chain. Marine services complexes - that based on the opinions of economists,
traders and producers are of the significant infrastructures of global trade - play an important role
in distribution of goods and optimization of the relevant costs of transportation. Taking into
consideration the importance of time and cost in the current competitive world, those companies
are successful in their job who can deliver their products to customers in time and at a lower cost.
Therefore the owners of goods wish to expedite the movement of their goods from ports and to
decrease the relevant tariffs and transportation costs. Thus the extent of efficiency of ports has a
significant impact on realization of their wishes. Efficiency of ports can create a remarkable
influence in decrement of the period of ship stay at port, the period of sedimentation of goods and
the decrement of freight payable to shipping companies. Finally, port efficiency also can cause
customer satisfaction, demand increase and profitability rising up.

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Reference

1. www.bulkcarrierguide.com
2. www.people.hofstra.edu

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