Alternating Current Technology

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering / Electronics
Alternating
Current Technology
4th Edition V 0102

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering / Electronics
hps SystemTechnik
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Code: 0.3.6
Alternating Current Technology
Preface
Preface
This manual
Alternating Current Technology
is designed for use in conjunction with hps training equipment,

to provide information through experimentation on the proper-
ties of the most important standard circuits.
The individual topics are divided into the following sections:
General
Experiments, consisting of the set tasks (experiments) and

the procedures to be used.
The section General contains a short introduction to the re-

spective experiments. Because of the intensive subject matter
involved, a detailed theoretical description has been purposely
dispensed with.
We recommend you to read the commercially available text-
books for more profound theoretical knowledge and as back-
ground reading to the experiments.
All tables and diagrams required in the experiments are pro-
vided, in order to simplify procedures.
The Appendix to this manual contains a detailed section of so-
lutions to the tasks and questions set in the experiments and
enables you to check your own results.
hps SystemTechnik offers several training systems for con-
ducting the experiments. These systems are geared to individ-
ual requirements.
www.hps-systemtechnik.com
Alternating Current Technology I
Contents
Contents
1 Establishing and Displaying Characteristics in AC Technology ....................................................5

1.1 General...................................................................................................................................................5
1.2 Characteristics of the Sine-Wave Voltage .............................................................................................5
1.3 Active Power with Sine-Wave Voltage ...................................................................................................9
1.4 Characteristics of Square-Wave AC Voltage .......................................................................................13
2 Three-Phase Alternating Current..................................................................................................... 13

2.1 General................................................................................................................................................ 13
2.2 Potential Gradient in Three-Phase Current Systems.......................................................................... 15
2.3 Loads in Star Circuit ............................................................................................................................ 19
2.4 Loads in Delta Circuit .......................................................................................................................... 23
2.5 Measurements on a Defective Star Circuit ......................................................................................... 27
2.6 Measurements on a Defective Delta Circuit........................................................................................ 31
3 Capacitor in the AC Circuit .............................................................................................................. 35

3.1 General................................................................................................................................................ 35
3.2 Charging and Discharging Process of a Capacitor ............................................................................. 37
3.3 Phase Shift between Current and Voltage on the Capacitor .............................................................. 41
3.4 Capacitive Reactance of a Capacitor.................................................................................................. 43
3.5 Series Circuiting of Capacitors............................................................................................................ 45
3.6 Parallel Circuiting of Capacitors .......................................................................................................... 47
3.7 Reactive Power of a Capacitor............................................................................................................ 49
4 Coil in the AC Circuit ........................................................................................................................ 53

4.1 General................................................................................................................................................ 53
4.2 Switch-On and Switch-Off Process of a Coil....................................................................................... 55
4.3 Phase Shift between Current and Voltage on a Coil........................................................................... 59
4.4 Inductive Reactance of a Coil ............................................................................................................. 61
4.5 Series Circuiting of Coils ......................................................................................................................63
4.6 Parallel Circuiting of Coils ....................................................................................................................65
4.7 Reactive Power of a Coil......................................................................................................................67
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II Alternating Current Technology
Contents
5 Interconnecting Resistor, Capacitor and Coil .................................................................................71

5.1 General .................................................................................................................................................71
5.2 Series Circuiting of Resistor and Capacitor..........................................................................................71
5.3 Parallel Circuiting of Resistor and Capacitor........................................................................................75
5.4 Series Circuiting of Resistor and Coil...................................................................................................79
5.5 Parallel Circuiting of Resistor and Coil .................................................................................................83
5.6 Series Circuiting of Capacitor and Coil.................................................................................................87
5.7 Parallel Circuiting of Capacitor and Coil...............................................................................................91
5.8 Series Circuiting of Resistor, Capacitor and Coil .................................................................................95
5.9 Parallel Circuiting of Resistor, Capacitor and Coil ...............................................................................99
5.10 Active, Reactive and Apparent Power................................................................................................103
6 Transformers ....................................................................................................................................107
6.1 General ...............................................................................................................................................107
6.2 Coupling Factor ..................................................................................................................................107
6.3 Transformation Ratio ..........................................................................................................................109
6.4 Resistance Transformation ................................................................................................................111
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Alternating Current Technology 7
Establishing and Displaying Characteristics in AC Technology
1 Establishing and Displaying Characteristics in AC

Technology
1.1 Fundamentals
+U sinusoidal voltage Alternating current changes its direction of

0
t
flow continuously, in contrast to direct cur-
-U rent which always flows in the same directi-
+U square-wave voltage on. The wave (function) of the current or re-
0 quired voltage respectively may adopt diffe-
t
-U rent shapes. Figure 1.1.1 shows some of the
+U delta voltage common functions in electrical and electro-
0
nics engineering. In AC technology a distinc-
t
-U
tion is made additionally between single-
phase and multiphase AC voltages and cur-
+U sawtooth voltage
rents. The public power supply, for example,
0
t
supplies a three-phase alternating current as
-U
a rule.
+U trapezoidal voltage
0
The following experiments are restricted to
t
the sine-wave and square-wave voltages
-U
which are the most frequently occuring forms
Figure 1.1.1
in electrical and electronic engineering.
They deal with the characteristics frequency, root mean square value, peak value, peak-to-peak value, phase
shift and power.
Experiments in three-phase alternating current are conducted separately in the next chapter.
1.2 Characteristics of the Sine-Wave Voltage
1.2.1 General
If a sine-wave AC voltage is applied to an ohmic resistor, it generates an AC current in it with the same function.
Explanation of variables:
ip = peak value of current (positive or negative) in A
ipp = peak-to-peak value of current in A
Irms = root mean square value of current in A
8 Alternating Current Technology
+U T = period duration in s
up = peak value of voltage in V, amplitude,
peak value (positive or negative)
+ up u pp upp = peak-to-peak value of voltage in V
U rms
Urms= root mean square value of voltage in V
0
t
-up
T
-U
Figure 1.2.1.1
Figure 1.2.1.1 shows the function in time of a sinewave AC voltage. During one period the sine-wave voltage
reaches its positive maximum value after every quarter period, crosses the zero point, reaches its negative
maximum value and then returns to zero.
Other characteristic values and the formulae for calculating them are specified below.
Frequency f in Hz
The frequency f gives the number of periods per second.
1 1
f = 1 Hz =
T 1s
Radian frequency in 1/s
The radian frequency is the product of 2 . and the frequency.
= 2 . . f
Momentary values u, i
u = up . sin ( t) i = ip . sin ( t)
Wavelength in m (km)
The wavelength results from the propagation speed (v in m/s) and the frequency f.
v
=
f
Root mean square values Urms, Irms

This is the root mean square value of a sinusoidal shaped voltage or current.
1 1
U rms = u p I rms = i p
2 2
1.2.2 Experiments
Experiment
Display the sine-wave voltage on an ohmic resistor with an oscilloscope and establish the following values
from the screen image.
A Y1 up = peak voltage
ip = peak current
R
G U upp = peak-to-peak voltage
1 k
Urms= root mean square voltage
B Irms = root mean square current
0V
T = period duration
oscilloscope
f = frequency
Figure 1.2.2.1 = radian frequency
= wavelength
u = momentary value (after a third of a period)
Experiment procedure
Set up the experiment according to circuit (figure 1.2.2.1), connect the function generator and connect the
oscilloscope to test points A and B.
Set the oscilloscope according to the specifications made in the grid (figure 1.2.2.2).
Then the sine-wave AC voltage shown in the grid should be set on the function generator and the values
specified under experiment determined.
Settings:
X = 0.1 ms / division
Y1 = 1 V / division
- 0 (Y 1 )
Figure 1.2.2.2
Peak voltage up Period duration T
up = T=
Peak current ip Frequency f

up 1
ip = = f = =
R T
Peak-to-peak voltage upp Radian frequency
u pp = 2 u p = 2 f
Root mean square voltage Urms Wavelength

6
(at a propagation speed of 300 10 m/s)
1
U rms = u p
2 v
= =
f
Root mean square current Irms Momentary voltage u

after a third of a period
U rms
I rms = = Note of solution: t is the angle with the unit rad
R
u = up . sin ( t) =
1.3 Active Power with Sine-Wave Voltage
1.3.1 General
U
I u
i
0
t
Figure 1.3.1.1
If a sine-wave voltage is applied to a purely ohmic load a sinusoidal current flows through the load.
AC current and AC voltage are in phase, i. e. they both achieve their positive and negative maximum value at
the same time.
The power which is converted in the purely ohmic load is known as the active power. It results from the
product of current and voltage.
The power curve can be displayed by multiplying the momentary values of voltage and current in a line
diagram.
P=U.I p = u . i (momentary values)
P = I2 R
U2
P=
R
(root mean square values)
P; p = active power in W
U; u = voltage in V
I; i = current in A
R = ohmic resistance in
1.3.2 Experiments
Experiment
Scan the voltage and current on an ohmic resistor with an oscilloscope, transcribe the curves onto the given
diagram and construct the power curve by multiplying the momentary values.
Set up the experiment according to circuit (figure 1.3.2.1), connect the function generator and set the fol-
lowing voltage with the oscilloscope: up = 7 V (sinusoidal); f = 1 kHz
Connect the oscilloscope:

A Y1
- test point A to channel 1 (Y1)
U test point B to channel 2 (Y2), inverse
R
1 k - test point C to ground
Settings on the oscilloscope:
up = 7 V
G (sinusoidal)
C - Sweep X: 0,1 ms / division
- channel 1 (Y1): 2 V / division (voltage U)
UM RM - channel 2 (Y2): 0.5 V / division (invert)
100 (measuring voltage UM current IA)
- Center the zero line of channels 1 and 2.

B Y2
0V - Triggering: Y1
oscilloscope
Figure 1.3.2.1
Draw the scanned voltages U and UM in the given diagram (figure 1.3.2.2).
Determine the momentary values u, uM, i and p at the times specified in table 1.3.2.2 and then construct
the power curve in the diagram (figure 1.3.2.2).
Attention:
Make sure that the test point C is not connected to test points B or A through the ground of the devices used
(function generator, oscilloscope). Use an isolating transformer if necessary.The 100 resistor in the circuit ser-
ves as a measuring resistor. The voltage UM at this resistor is proportional to the current flowing through both re-
sistors. The current is calculated with the following formula:
UM U
I= = M (Ohms Law)
RM 100
The reference point of the two voltages has been put between the resistors 1 k and 100 for simultaneous
representation of the voltage U and the measuring voltage UM. It must be taken into account that the two vol-
tages are displayed with a 180 phase shift. The correct representation of the voltage curves is achieved by
inverting one of the two voltages with the oscilloscope (in the experiment voltage UM; channel 2; Y2).
Time t [ms] Voltage u [V] Voltage uM [V] Current i [mA] Active power p [mW]
0.1
0.15
0.25
0.35
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.65
0.75
0.85
0.9
1.0
Table 1.3.2.1
P [ mW ] I [ mA] U [V]
40 20 8
30 6
20 10 4
10 2
0 0 0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
t [ ms]
-10 -2
-20 -10 -4
-30 -6
-40 -20 -8
-50 -10
-60 -30 -12
Figure 1.3.2.2
Question 1: What does the power curve tell us?

Answer:
Question 2: What is the root mean square value of the power?

Answer:
P=U.I
P=
or
up ip
P= =
2
1
U = up =
2
1
I = ip =
2
1.4 Characteristics of the Square-Wave AC Voltage
1.4.1 General
Figure 1.4.1.1 shows the function in time of a square-wave AC voltage. If such a voltage is applied to an oh-
mic load a DC current flows through it which changes its direction at certain intervals.
T = period duration in s
+U
up = peak voltage in V (positive or negative)
upp = peak-to-peak voltagein V
u pp +u p
Correspondingly for the current:
0
ip = peak currentin A (positive or negative)
t ipp = peak-to-peak current in A
-u p
-U T
Figure 1.4.1.1
If the time intervals of the change in direction are equal and if the voltages acting in both directions are also
equal one refers to a symmetrical square-wave voltage. Other characteristic values and the formulas for their
calculation are specified below.
Root mean square values Urms und Irms

In a symmetrical square-wave voltage or current respectively the root mean square value for the voltage and
current is equal to the peak values.
Urms = up Irms = ip
Power P in W
(only on ohmic loads)
This is calculated using the rms values of the voltage and current.
2
2 U rms
P = U rms I rms P = I rms R P=
R
Frequency f in Hz
The frequency f gives the number of periods per second.
1 1
f = 1 Hz =
T s
1.4.2 Experiments
Experiment
Display the square-wave AC voltage on an ohmic resistor with the oscilloscope and establish the following va-
lues from the screen image.
A Y1 up = peak voltage
ip = peak current
R Urms, Irms = root mean square voltage and current
G U
(square wave) 1 k P = power
T = period duration
B f = frequency
0V
oscilloscope
Figure 1.4.2.1
Set up the experiment according to circuit (figure 1.4.2.1), connect the function generator and connect the
oscilloscope to test points A and B.
Set the oscilloscope according to the specifications made in the grid (figure 1.4.2.2).
Then the square-wave AC voltage shown in the grid (figure 1.4.2.2) should be set on the function genera-
tor in connection with the oscilloscope and the values of the characteristics specified under experiment de-
termined.
Settings:
Y1 = 1 V / division
- 0 (Y 1 )
Figure 1.4.2.2
Peak voltage up Peak-to-peak voltage upp
up = upp = 2 . up =
Peak current ip Power P

up
ip = = P = Urms . Irms =
R
p = up . ip =
Root mean square voltage Urms Period duration T
Urms = up = T=
Root mean square current Irms Frequency f

1
Irms = ip = f = =
T
Notes:
Three-Phase Alternating Current
2 Three-Phase Alternating Current
2.1 Fundamentals
U1 U2 U3 U1
0
t
12
0
12
0
120
120 U3 U2
Figure 2.1.1 Figure 2.1.2
Three-phase current systems result when several phase-shifted voltages are connected together.
Generation of the phase-shifted, sinusoidal AC voltages is achieved by an appropriate arrangement of coils in

the three-phase current generator.
The most common three-phase generator which is usually used in the public power supply network supplies
three sinusoidal AC voltages which are linked to each other and phase-shifted by 120.
Figure 2.1.1 shows the three voltages as a line diagram and figure 2.1.2 shows them as a pointer diagram.
Two basic circuit types are common in the coils of the three-phase current generator and on the load side
when connecting motors, for example; the star circuit and the delta circuit (see also figure 2.1.3 and figure
2.1.4).
L1
L1
phase
star point
UL1, L3
U L1, L2
U L3, L1
U L1, L2
L2
rotation direction
U L2, L3
U L2, N
U L1, N
L2
L3
U L2, L3
U L3, N
N L3
Figure 2.1.3 Star circuit of the generator coils Figure 2.1.4 Delta circuit of the generator coils
L1, L2, L3 = conductor (phase)

N = zero conductor (neutral wire)
UL1,L2 / UL2,L3 / UL3,L1 = conductor voltages between the conductors specified in the index (in V)
The conductor voltages in the delta circuit are also known as the delta voltage.
UL1,N / UL2,N / UL3,N = phase voltages (star voltages) between the lines specified in the index (in V)
In the star circuit three conductor voltages (400 V) are available between the conductors L1, L2 and L3 as
well as three phase voltages (230 V) between the conductors L1, L2 and L3 and the zero conductor (N).
In the delta circuit three voltages are available between the conductors L1, L2 and L3 with 400 V each.
The specified voltages are rms values. The frequency of the sinusoidal AC voltages is 50 Hz.
In the following experiments the behaviour of voltages, currents and powers in star and delta circuits is in-
vestigated.
The three necessary sinusoidal AC voltages are not taken directly from the mains, they are generated e-
lectronically by phase shifters. For riskless experimentation the voltage 230 V is limited to 7 V and the voltage
400 V is limited to 12 V.
2.2 Potential Gradient in Three-Phase Current Systems
2.2.1 General
L1
U L1, N
U L1
,L
1
,L
2
L3
U
12
0
12
U
N L2
U L3, 120 ,N
L3 U L2, L3 L2
Figure 12.2.1.1 Voltage pointer diagram for the three-phase current system
The three sinusoidal, 120 phase-shifted AC voltages generated by a three-phase current generator are inter-
linked in such a way that three conductor voltages and three phase voltages can be taken off at conductors
L1, L2, L3 and N in starcircuited coils.
The voltage pointer diagram (figure 2.2.1.1) shows the relationships between the conductor voltages and the
phase voltages with respect to the phase relation and the voltage ratios.
The conductor voltage UL and the phase voltage Uphase are linked with factor, also called the linkage factor.
In the public power supply network therefore, at a phase voltage of 230 V there is a conductor voltage of:
U L = 3 U phase = 1.73 230 V = 400 V
2.2.2 Experiments
Experiment
Display the phase voltages of a three-phase current system on the oscilloscope, draw the displayed voltage
curves in a diagram (figure 2.2.2.2) and determine the angle of phase shift between the individual voltages.
Then measure the phase and conductor voltages with a multimeter and establish the linkage factor. What is
the peak value of the phase and conductor voltages?
L1 Experiment procedure
channel 1 (Y1)
L2
channel 2 (Y2) - Center zero conductor of channel 1 and channel 2
G - Sweep X: 2 ms / division
L3
3 - Channel 1 (Y1): 5 V / division
N - Channel 2 (Y2): 5 V / division
ground
- Triggering: Channel 1
oscilloscope
7 V / 12 V
Figure 2.2.2.1
Apply voltage UL1,N to channel 1 and voltage UL2,N to channel 2 of the oscilloscope. Draw the displayed vol-
tage curves in the provided (figure 2.2.2.2). Apply voltage UL3,N to channel 2 and draw this curve in the dia-
gram, too.
12
U [V]
10
0
5 10 15 20
t [ms]
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
Figure 12.2.2.2
-12
Angle of phase shift Linkage factor
Period duration T = 20 ms = 360 The linkage factor results from the ratio of the con-
Time shift of individual voltages according to the dia- ductor voltage UL to the phase voltage Uphase.
gram (figure 2.2.2.2) UL
=
U phase
t =
Frequency f
=
1
f = =
T
Phase voltages Uphase Peak value of the phase voltage us
UL1,N = u p = U phase 2 =
UL2,N =
UL3,N =
Conductor voltages UL Peak value of the conductor voltage us
UL1,L2 = up =UL 2 =
UL2,L3 =
UL3,L1 =
Notes:
2.3 Loads in Star Circuit
2.3.1 General
If loads are connected in star circuit to a three-phase current network as shown in figure 2.3.1.1, the same
current flows in lines L1, L2 and L3 at symmetrical load (R1 = R2 = R3), the zero line is currentless.
L1 I L1 L1, L2, L3 = conductor (phase)

N = zero conductor
R1
IL1, IL2, IL3 = conductor currents in A
IN = zero conductor current in A
N IN
R1, R2, R3 = loads
R3 R2
L2 I L2
L3 I L3
Figure 2.3.1.1
Conductor current IL
The individual conductor currents IL which are also referred to as phase currents (Iphase) are calculated accor-
ding to Ohm's Law with the formula:
UR U phase
IL = I phase =
R R
On an unsymmetrical load a compensation current IN flows through the zero conductor.
Power Ptot
The power consumption Ptot on a load in star circuit consists of the individual phase powers. In the experi-
ment the individual phase powers are designated PR1, PR2 and PR3 corresponding to the ohmic resistors.
Ptot = PR1 + PR2 + PR3
A symmetrical load gives the following relationships:
Ptot = 3 . Pphase Pphase = Uphase . Iphase
On inductive and capacitive load:
Active power Ptot
Ptot = 3 U phase I phase cos
Ptot = 3 U L I L cos
Apparent power Stot

S tot = 3 U phase I phase
S tot = 3 U L I L
Reactive power Qtot

Qtot = 3 U phase I phase sin
Qtot = 3 U L I L sin
2.3.2 Experiments
Experiment
Measure the currents IL and IN and the voltages UL and Uphase (rms values) with a multimeter in a three-phase
AC current network on a star circuited, symmetrical and unsymmetrical ohmic load and then calculate the
powers Pphase and Ptot.
L1
R1 = R2 = R3 = 1 k
G L2
(symmetrical load)
3 L3
R1 = 1 k
N
R2 = 680
I L3 I L1 IN I L2
7 V / 12 V
R3 = 330
(unsymmetrical load)
R1
R3 R2
Figure 2.3.2.1
Connect symmetrical load according to the circuit in figure 2.3.2.1.
Measure voltages and currents according to the following table 2.3.2.1 with the multimeter and calculate
the powers.
Then repeat these measurements and calculations on an unsymmetrical load.
Enter all the measured values in the table.
Star circuit Symmetrical load Unsymmetrical load

IL1
IL2
Conductor currents IL, IN (Iphase)
IL3
IN
UL1, L2
Conductor voltages UL UL2, L3
UL3, L1
UL1, N
Phase voltages Uphase UL2, N
UL3, N
PR1
Phase powers Pphase PR2
PR3
Total power Ptot Ptot
Table 2.3.2.1
Calculating the phase power and total power:

The phase powers correspond to the powers PR 1, PR 2 and PR 3.
Symmetrical load
PR1 = UL1,N . IL1 =
PR2 = UL2,N . IL2 =
PR3 = UL3,N . IL3 =
Ptot = 3 . Pphase =
Unsymmetrical load
PR1 = UL1,N . IL1 =
PR2 = UL2,N . IL2 =
PR3 = UL3,N . IL3 =
Ptot = PR1 + PR2 + PR3 =
2.4 Loads in Delta Circuit
2.4.1 General
If loads are connected in delta circuit to three-phase AC mains (figure 2.4.1.1) every load is applied directly to
the conductor voltage.
The conductor voltage is equal to the phase voltage:
UL = Uphase
The conductor currents IL1, IL2 and IL3 are divided in the branching points into the phase currents IR1; IR2; IR3.
I L1
L1 L1, L2, L3 = conductor (phase)
N = zero conductor
I R1 IL1, IL2, IL3 = conductor currents in A
R3 R1 R1, R2, R3 = loads

N IR1, IR2, IR3 = phase currents Iphase in A
I R3
R2
I L2 I R2
L2
L3 I L3
generator loads
Figure 2.4.1.1
Phase current Iphase

On symmetrical load (R1 = R2 = R3) the phase currents are 3 smaller than the conductor currents:
IL
I phase =
3
Power Ptot
The power consumption of a load in delta circuit consists of the individual phase powers Pphase. In the experi-
ment the individual phase powers are designated PR1, PR2 and PR3 corresponding to the ohmic resistors:
Ptot = PR1 + PR2 + PR3

A symmetrical load gives the following relationships:
Ptot = 3 . Pphase
Phase power Pphase

The phase power Pphase results respectively from the phase current Iphase and the phase voltage Uphase:
Pphase = Iphase . Uphase
Below are some more formulae which are used for calculating the powers on an inductive and capacitive
symmetrical load.
Active power Ptot

Ptot = 3 . Uphase . Iphase . cos Ptot = 3 . UL . IL . cos
Apparent power Stot
Stot = 3 . Uphase . Iphase Stot = 3 . UL . IL
Reactive power Qtot

Qtot = 3 . Uphase . Iphase . sin Qtot = 3 . UL . IL . sin
2.4.2 Experiments
Experiment
Measure the phase currents and conductor currents as well as the conductor voltages in a three-phase AC
mains on a delta circuited symmetrical and unsymmetrical load and then calculate the phase power and total
power.
L1
R1 = R2 = R3 = 1 k
G L2
(symmetrical load)
3 L3
R1 = 1 k
N
R2 = 680
I L3 I L1 I L2 R3 = 330
7 V / 12 V (unsymmetrical load)
I R1
R3 R1
I R3
R2 I R2
Figure 2.4.2.1
Connect symmetrical load according to the circuit in figure 2.4.2.1.
Measure voltages and currents according to the following table 2.4.2.1 with the multimeter and calculate
the powers. Then repeat these measurements and calculations on an unsymmetrical load.
Enter all the measured values in the table.
Delta circuit Symmetrical load Unsymmetrical load

IL1
Conductor currents IL IL2
IL3
IR1
Phase currents Iphase IR2
IR3
UL1, L2
Conductor voltages UL (Uphase) UL2, L3
UL3, L1
PR1
Phase powers Pphase PR2
PR3
Total power Ptot Ptot
Table 2.4.2.1
Calculating the phase power and total power:
Symmetrical load
PR1 = IR1 . UL1,L2 =
PR2 = IR2 . UL2,L3 =
PR3 = IR3 . UL3,L1 =
Ptot = 3 . Pphase =
Unsymmetrical load
PR1 = IR1 . UL1,L2 =
PR2 = IR2 . UL2,L3 =
PR3 = IR3 . UL3,L1 =
Notes:
2.5 Measurements on a Defective Star Circuit
2.5.1 General
If an outer conductor (L1, L2 or L3) fails in a star circuit connected to the three-phase AC mains, the originally
consumed power on symmetrical load is reduced by a third. If the zero conductor also fails, the power consump-
tion is reduced by half as a result of two loads in series being applied to the remaining conductor voltage.
If two outer conductors are broken in a star circuit with symmetrical load, the power consumed is only a third
of the original power consumption.
2.5.2 Experiments
Experiment
Measure the conductor currents, the conductor voltages and the phase voltages on a defective star circuit
and then calculate the phase and total powers.
L1 I L1
R1 = R2 = R3 = 1 k
L2 I L2
G L3 I L3
3
N IN
7 V / 12 V A
R1
R3 R2
D
C B
Figure 2.5.2.1
Connect load according to the circuit (figure 2.5.2.1).
Make the respective break in the conductor at the generator output in accordance with table 2.5.2.1 and make
the necessary measurements. Measure the phase and conductor voltages directly at test points A ... D.
Enter all the measured values in the table 2.5.2.1.
Use the following formulae to calculate the powers:
Phase powers Pphase
Pphase = Uphase . Iphase (e.g. PR 1 = UL1,N . IL1)
Total power Ptot

Ptot = PR 1 + PR 2 + PR 3
Conductor breaks
Star circuit
none L1 L1 / L2 L1 / N
IL1 7.0
IL2 7.0
Conductor currents IL (Iphase) in mA
IL3 7.0
IN 0
UL1, L2 12.1
Conductor voltages UL in V UL2, L3 12.1
UL3, L1 12.1
UL1, N 7.0
Phase voltages Uphase in V UL2, N 7.0
UL3, N 7.0
PR 1 49.0
Phase powers Pphase in mW PR 2 49.0
PR 3 49.0
Total power Ptot in mW Ptot 147.0
Table 2.5.2.1
Calculation of the phase and total powers:
Conductor break L1
PR1 = UL1,N . IL1 =
PR2 = UL2,N . IL2 =
PR3 = UL3,N . IL3 =
Conductor breaks L1 and L2
PR1 = UL1,N . IL1 =
PR2 = UL2,N . IL2 =
PR3 = UL3,N . IL3 =
Conductor breaks L1 and N
PR1 = UL1,N . IL1 =
PR2 = UL2,N . IL2 =
PR3 = UL3,N . IL3 =
Notes:
2.6 Measurements on a Defective Delta Circuit
2.6.1 General
If outer conductors or phases are broken in the case of a delta circuited load connected to the three-phase
AC mains, the consumed power can be at the worst only a sixth of the maximum power. The following table
2.6.1.1 lists the power consumptions in different defective delta circuits.
Break
one phase two phases one outer conductor one phase and one outer conductor
P = 2 Pmax P = 1 Pmax P = 1 Pmax

3 3 2
P = 1 Pmax P = 1 Pmax
3 6
Table 2.6.1.1
2.6.2 Experiments
Experiment
Measure the conductor currents, the phase currents and the conductor voltages (phase voltages) on a
defective delta circuit and then calculate the phase and total powers.
L1
Connect load according to the circuit (figure
G L2
2.6.2.1). Make the respective break in the
L3
3 conductor and phase in accordance with
N table 2.6.2.1 and make the necessary mea-
surements.
7 V / 12 V
A Make the breaks in the phase by pulling out
I R1
the appropriate resistors (R1, R2, R3). Measu-
R3 R1
re the conductor voltages (phase voltages) at
I R3
test points A ... C.
C B Enter all the measured values in the table
R2 I R2
2.6.2.1.
Figure 2.6.2.1
Use the following formulas to calculate the powers:
Phase powers Pphase
Pphase = Uphase . Iphase (e.g. PR 1 = UL1,L2 . IR 1)
Total power Ptot

Ptot = PR 1 + PR 2 + PR 3
Conductor and phase breaks

Delta circuit
none R2 L1 R1 / R3 L2 / R2 L1 / R2
IL1 21.3
Conductor currents IL in mA IL2 21.3
IL3 21.3
IR 1 12.3
Phase currents Iphase in mA IR 2 12.3
IR 3 12.3
UL1, L2 12.1
Conductor voltages UL (Uphase) in V UL2, L3 12.1
UL3, L1 12.1
PR 1 148.8
Phase powers Pphase in mW PR 2 148.8
PR 3 148.8
Total power Ptot in mW Ptot 446.4
Table 2.6.2.1
Calculation of the phase and total powers:
Phase breaks R2 Phase breaks R1 and R3

PR1 = UL1,L2 . IR1 = PR1 = UL1,L2 . IR1 =
PR2 = UL2,L3 . IR2 = PR2 = UL2,L3 . IR2 =
PR3 = UL3,L1 . IR3 = PR3 = UL3,L1 . IR3 =
Ptot = PR1 + PR2 + PR3 = Ptot = PR1 + PR2 + PR3 =
Conductor break L1 Conductor and phase breaks L2 and R2
PR1 = UL1,L2 . IR1 = PR1 = UL1,L2 . IR1 =
PR2 = UL2,L3 . IR2 = PR2 = UL2,L3 . IR2 =
PR3 = UL3,L1 . IR3 = PR3 = UL3,L1 . IR3 =
Ptot = PR1 + PR2 + PR3 = Ptot = PR1 + PR2 + PR3 =
Conductor and phase breaks L1 and R2
PR1 = UL1,L2 . IR1 =
PR2 = UL2,L3 . IR2 =
PR3 = UL3,L1 . IR3 =
Notes:
Capacitor in the AC Circuit
3 Capacitor in the AC Circuit
3.1 Fundamentals
Next to the resistors capacitors are the most frequently used components in electronic
circuits. Their applications are very versatile: Symbol
isolation of DC and AC current
phase shifting of current and voltage

Figure 3.1.1
short-circuiting of AC voltages
as reactive resistor, timing delay element and
energy store
smoothing of DC voltages
setting up filters and resonant circuits etc.
Capacitors have a variety of different designs, the major ones are:

- wirewound capacitors
- ceramic capacitors
- electrolytic capacitors
- variable capacitors
The most important characteristics of these components are:
Capacitance C
This is the capacity for the load factor Q and is given by the dielectric constant (0 . r) and the effective plate
surface divided by the distance apart of the plates.
A
C= 0 r
d
C = capacitance, unit: farad (F) or As / V
0 = electric field constant (8.85 . 10

-12
As / Vm)
r = dielectric constant
2
A = plate surface in m
d = distance between plates in m
Rated voltage
The rated voltage is the highest permissible continuous voltage which may be applied to the capacitor.
Peak voltage
The peak voltage is the briefly permissible maximum voltage (peak value or peak-to-peak value)
Insulating resistance Rp
The insulating resistance is the specific resistance of the insulator used. The insulating resistance should be
as large as possible ( > 1 G ) so that the residual current flowing through the charged capacitor remains as
small as possible.
Capacitive reactance XC
The capacitive reactance is determined by the value of capacitance and the frequency of the applied AC voltage.
1
XC =
C
XC = capacitive reactancein
= radian frequency in Hz (2 . . f )
Dielectric loss factor tan

The dielectric loss factor gives the ratio between the capacitive reactance XC and the effective resistance (in-
sulating resistance) RP of a capacitor.
XC
tan =
RP
tan = dielectric loss factor

Rp = insulating resistance in
Charge Q
The charge Q stored in a capacitor is dependent on the charging current and the charging time.
Q=I.t
Q = charge in As = C (Coulomb)
t = time in s
I = charging current in A (constant)
In a loaded capacitor:
Q=C.U
C = capacitance in F
U = maximum charging voltage in V
3.2 Charging and Discharging Process of a Capacitor
3.2.1 General
When charging and discharging a capacitor on DC voltage, current and voltage run according to an e-func-
tion whereby the voltage has risen to 63 % of the final voltage after 1 during charging and has sunk to 37 %
of the initial voltage during discharging. is the time constant given by resistance x capacitance.
During charging or discharging, the current sinks to 37 % of its initial value after 1 . After about 5 the char-
ging or discharging process is ended.
=R.C = time constant in s

C = capacitance in F
R = resistance to current limiting in
The momentary current and the momentary voltage when charging and discharging a capacitor are calcula-
ted with the following formulas:
Momentary voltage value uC when charging
(
uC = U 1 e t / )
U = charging voltage
e = base number 2.718
t = charging time in s
Momentary voltage value uC when discharging
u C = U e t /
U = voltage on the charged capacitor

t = charging time in s
Momentary current value iC when charging

U
iC = e t /
R
R = resistance to the current limiting in
Momentary current value iC when discharging

U
iC = e t /
R
3.2.2 Experiments
Experiment
Display the charge and discharge curve of voltage and current of a capacitor on the oscilloscope and deter-
mine the following values from the curve:
- time constant
- capacitance C
- momentary voltage uC after a charging time of 2 ms
- momentary current iC at a discharging time of 2.5 ms
- Then check the values determined from the curves by calculation.
- How great is the charge Q after a charging time of 5 ms?
Set up the experiment according to circuit (figure 3.2.2.1) and connect the function generator with a
positive square-wave voltage: U = 6 V; f = 100 Hz; V=2
A Y1
4.7 k
G up = 6 V B Y2
f = 100 Hz
0.22 F
C
0V
oscilloscope
Figure 3.2.2.1
- Test point A to channel 1 (Y1), for recording the input voltage

- Test point C to ground
- Test point B to channel 2 (Y2), for recording the capacitor voltage or displaying the capacitor currents
To display the capacitor current switch over the resistor
4.7 k and the capacitor 0.22 F in the circuit; the voltage applied to the resistor, which is proportional to
the capacitor current, is then displayed on the oscilloscope. Make other settings on the oscilloscope in ac-
cordance with the specifications below the grids (figure 3.2.2.2 and figure 3.2.2.3).
Draw the displayed voltage curves into the grids (figure 3.2.2.2 and figure 3.2.2.3) respectively.
Determine the values specified in the experiment from the recorded voltage curves.
Settings:
X = 1 ms / division
Y1 = 2 V / division
Y2 = 2 V / division
Triggering: Y1
- 0 (Y 1 )
Remarks:
Y1: Input voltage
Y2: Capacitor voltage
- 0 (Y 2 )
Figure 3.2.2.2
Settings:
X = 1 ms / division
Y1 = 2 V / division
Y2 = 2 V / division
Triggering: Y1
- 0 (Y1 )
- 0 (Y2 )
Remarks:
Y1: Input voltage
Y2: Voltage on the resistor
(proportional to the capacitor current)
Figure 3.2.2.3
Time constant
From screen image:
Calculated:
Capacitance C
From screen image:
Calculated:
Momentary voltage value uC

after a charging time of 2 ms
From screen image:
Calculated:
Momentary current value iC

after a discharging time of 2.5 ms
From screen image:
Calculated:
Charge Q
after a charging time of 5 ms
Only calculated:
3.3 Phase Shift between Current and Voltage on the Capacitor
3.3.1 General
If a sinusoidal AC voltage is applied to a capacitor,

UC UC
IC
it is periodically charged and discharged.
IC
Because of the AC voltage the polarity of the ca-
pacitors charge also changes periodically.
0
t The current IC reaches its maximum value every
time the voltage UC crosses zero.
90
The current IC in a capacitor and the voltage UC
have a 90 phase shift.
Figure 3.3.1.1
3.3.2 Experiments
Experiment
Display the current and voltage curves of a capacitor on the oscilloscope and determine the phase shift bet-
ween the current IC and the voltage UC from the screen image.
A Y1 Experiment procedure
Set up the experiment according to the cir-
1 k
cuit (figure 3.3.2.1) and connect the functi-
on generator:
u pp = 3 V
G C upp = 3 V (sinusoidal); f = 1 kHz
(sinusoidal)
Attention:
0.22 F
Make sure that test point C is not connected
with test points A or B through ground of the
B Y2
0V equipment used (function generator,
oscilloscope oscilloscope). Use an isolating transformer if
Figure 3.3.2.1
necessary.
The resistor (1 k) in the circuit serves as a measuring resistor. The voltage UR applied to it is proportional to
the capacitor current IC. For simultaneously displaying the capacitor voltage UC and the capacitor current IC
(UR) the reference point of the voltages to be measured has been placed between the capacitor and the
measuring resistor (1 k) (test point C).
It must be taken into account that the two voltages are displayed with a 180 shift to each other. The actual
display of the voltage curves is made by inverting one of the two voltages with the oscilloscope (in the expe-
riment UC, channel 2, Y2).

- Test point A to channel 1 (Y1)
- Test point B to channel (Y2), inverse
Make other settings on the oscilloscope in accordance with the specifications below the grid (figure
3.3.2.2).
Draw the displayed voltage curves into the grid (figure 3.3.2.2) and determine the phase shift between the
capacitor voltage UC and the capacitor current IC (UR).
Settings:
- 0 (Y 1 )
Y1 = 1 V / division
Y2 = 1 V / division (inverse)
Triggering: Y1
Remarks:
Y1: Voltage UR (capacitor current IC)
Y2: Capacitor voltage UC
- 0 (Y 2 )
Figure 3.3.2.2
Phase shift between the capacitor current and the capacitor voltage:
Period duration T
T=
Phase shift
=
3.4 Capacitive Reactance of a Capacitor
3.4.1 General
A capacitor has a current limiting effect in the AC circuit which results from the countervoltage during charge
reversal. This current limiting effect is referred to as the capacitive reactance XC. The value of the capacitive
reactance depends on the capacitance of a capacitor and the frequency of the applied AC voltage. The capa-
citive reactance is calculated on a sinusoidal AC voltage with the following formula:
1
XC = XC = capacitive reactance of the capacitor in
2 f C
2 f = radian frequency in 1/s C = capacitance in F
UC If capacitor current and capacitor voltage are known the capacitive reactance can be cal-
XC =
IC culated with Ohm's Law:
3.4.2 Experiments
Experiment
Display the current and voltage curve of different capacitors at different frequencies on the oscilloscope. The
respective capacitive reactance XC is to be determined from the screen image by means of the peak-to-peak
values and then checked by calculation.
A Y1
cuit (figure 3.4.2.1), set a voltage upp = 8 V
1 k
(sinusoidal); f = 0.1 kHz on the function ge-
nerator and connect it with the circuit.
u pp = 8 V
G C
(sinusoidal) Connect the oscilloscope:
C
- Test point B to channel 2 (Y2)
B Y2
0V Read off the peak-to-peak values of UR and
oscilloscope
UC for the frequencies and capacitors
Figure 3.4.2.1 C = 0.22 / 0.47 / 1 F
specified in table 3.4.2.1 and enter them in
the table.
Calculate values IC and XC and enter these in table 3.4.2.1 also.
Transfer the XC values to diagram (figure 3.4.2.2) for constructing the characteristic curve XC = f (f).
Attention: Make sure that test point C is not connected with test points A or B through ground of the equipment
used (function generator, oscilloscope). Use an isolating transformer if necessary. The resistor (1 k) in the cir-
cuit serves as a measuring resistor. The voltage UR applied to it is proportional to the capacitor current IC.
The respective capacitor current is calculated with the formula IC = UR / R.
f [kHz] 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
1.0 F
UC [V] 0.47 F
0.22 F
1.0 F
UR [V] 0.47 F
0.22 F
1.0 F
IC [mA] 0.47 F
0.22 F
1.0 F
XC [k] 0.47 F
0.22 F
Table 3.4.2.1
Figure 3.4.2.2
Question: What do the curves tell us?

Answer:
Check the capacitive reactance XC of the capacitor C = 0.47 F at f = 600 Hz by calculation.

1
XC = =
2 f C
3.5 Series Circuiting of Capacitors
3.5.1 General
C1 C2 C3 When capacitors are circuited in series the total

I
+ capacitance is less than the smallest individual
capacitance. It is calculated with the following
UC 1 UC 2 UC 3
formula:
1
U C tot Ctot =
U 1 1 1
+ +
C1 C 2 C 3
-
When only two capacitors are circuited in series
Figure 3.5.1.1 the following results:
C1 C 2
Ctot =
C1 + C 2
The partial voltages on the individual capacitors behave inversely proportional to the respective capacitance,
their sum gives the total voltage UC tot. The capacitor current in a series circuit of capacitors is the same at all
points. The same applies to the electrical charge shift.
3.5.2 Experiments
Experiment
Prove, by measuring the current and voltage and on the assumption that the capacitive reactance of a capa-
citor is XC = 1/ . C, that in a series circuit of capacitors the total capacitance is less than the smallest indivi-
dual capacitance.
R1 C1 C2 C3 Experiment procedure
A B C D E
Set up the experiment according to the circuit
(figure 3.5.2.1) and connect the function ge-
1 k 0.22 F 0.47 F 1F
nerator:
Urms = 3 V
G (sinusoidal) Urms = 3 V (sinusoidal); f = 1 kHz
f = 1kHz
Measure the voltages at test points A ... E
with a multimeter and enter the values in the
0V table 3.5.2.1.
Figure 3.5.2.1 The voltage at the measuring resistor R1
(1 k) is proportional to the capacitor current
IC and is used for its calculation.
Partial and total voltage [V]
Test points
A-B (UR 1) B-C (UC 1) C-D (UC 2) D-E (UC 3) B-E (UC tot)
Table 3.5.2.1
Calculate the capacitor current, capacitive reactances and capacitances.
Check the total capacitance Ctot by calculation.
Calculation of the capacitor current across the measuring resistor 1 k:
U R1
IC = =
RM
Calculation of the capacitive reactances Calculation of capacitances

U C1 1
X C1 = = C1 = =
IC X C1
UC2 1
XC2 = = C2 = =
IC X C2
UC3 1
X C3 = = C3 = =
IC X C3
U C tot 1
X C tot = = Ctot = =
IC X C tot
Checking the total capacitance by calculation
1
Ctot = =
1 1 1
+ +
C1 C 2 C 3
3.6 Parallel Circuiting of Capacitors
3.6.1 General
I C tot
+ In a parallel circuit of capacitors the total capacitance is
IC 1 IC 2 IC 3 equal to the sum of the individual capacitances.
Ctot = C1 + C2 + C3 ...
C1 C2 C3
U
The partial currents behave proportionally to the respective
- capacitance, their sum gives the total current
IC tot.
Figure 3.6.2.1
The voltage UC is the same in a parallel circuit of all
capacitors.
3.6.2 Experiments
Experiment
Prove, by measuring the current and voltage and on the assumption that the capacitive reactance of a capa-
citor is XC = 1 / . C, that the total capacitance in a parallel circuit of capacitors is equal to the sum of the in-
dividual capacitances.
A I C tot B
C E G Set up the experiment according to the circuit
IC 1 IC 2 IC 3 (figure 3.6.2.1), connect the function generator
U rms = 3 V
G (sinusoidal) D F H and set the following voltage:
f = 1 kHz C1 C2 C3 Urms = 3 V (sinusoidal); f = 1 kHz
0.22 F 0.47 F 1F
I
0V Measure the total current IC tot and the partial
Figure 3.6.2.1 currents IC 1, IC 2, IC 3 with a multimeter and enter
the values in the table 3.6.2.1.
Calculate the capacitive reactances XC tot, XC 1, XC 2, XC 3 with the formula XC = UC / IC.
Establish the individual capacitances and total capacitance with the formula C = 1 / . XC.
Check the total capacitance Ctot established in the experiment by calculation.
Partial and total voltage [mA] Capacitor voltage [V]
Test points Test points
A-B (IC tot) C-D (IC 1) E-F (IC 2) G-H (IC 3) D-I (UC 1) F-I (UC 2) H-I (UC 3)
Table 3.6.2.1
Calculation of the capacitive reactances Calculation of capacitances
U C1 1
X C1 = = C1 = =
IC1 X C1
UC2 1
X C2 = = C2 = =
IC 2 X C2
UC3 1
X C3 = = C3 = =
IC3 X C3
U C tot 1
X C tot = = C tot = =
I C tot X C tot
Checking the total capacitance by calculation
Ctot = C1 + C2 + C3 =
3.7 Reactive Power of a Capacitor
3.7.1 General
If a capacitor is applied to a sinusoidal AC voltage a phase shift results between the current and the voltage
caused by the capacitive reactance. The reactive power Q which occurs in the capacitor can be represented
in the line diagram (figure 3.7.1.1) by multiplication of the current and voltage values.
Energy is fed to the capacitor during the positive half-wave. During the negative half-wave the capacitor radia-
tes this stored energy.
Q
U I
U
I
Q
0
t
Figure 3.7.1.1
No active power is converted in the ideal capacitor.
The following definitions are valid:
QC = UC . IC (rms values)
qC = uC . iC (momentary values)
QC; qC = capacitive reactancein var

UC; uC = capacitor voltagein V
IC; iC = capacitor currentin A
3.7.2 Experiments
Experiment
Display the current and voltage curves of a capacitor on the oscilloscope, transfer the curves to a diagram
and construct the power curve by multiplication of the momentary values of current and voltage.
A Y1
Set up the experiment according to the circuit (fi-
UR gure 3.7.2.1), connect the function generator and
1 k
up= 4 V set the following voltage:
G (sinusoidal) C
up = 4 V (sinusoidal); f = 1 kHz
f = 1 kHz
UC 0.22 F Connect the oscilloscope:
B Y2 - Test point B to channel 2 (Y2), inverse
0V
oscilloscope - Test point C to ground
Figure 3.7.2.1

- Sweep: X = 0.1 ms / division
- Channel 1: Y1 = 1 V / division (voltage UR ~ capacitor current IC)
- Channel 2: Y2 = 1 V / division (capacitor voltage UC)
- Center zero line of Y1 and Y2
- Triggering: Y1
Draw the screen image on the diagram (figure 3.7.2.2) and establish the values for construction of the po-
wer curve by multiplication of the voltage and current values (e. g. every 0.1 ms).
Attention:
Make sure that test point C is not connected with test points A or B through ground of the equipment used
(function generator, oscilloscope). Use an isolating transformer if necessary.
the capacitor current IC (in mA).
For simultaneously displaying the capacitor voltage UC and the capacitor current IC (UR) the reference point of
the voltages to be measured has been placed between the capacitor and the measuring resistor (1 k) (test
point C). It must be taken into account that the two voltages are displayed with a 180 shift to each other.
The actual display of the voltage curves is made by inverting one of the two voltages with the oscilloscope (in
the experiment UC, channel 2, Y2).
Time t [ms] Current iC [mA] Voltage uC [V] Reactive power qC [mvar]
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Table 3.7.2.1
5
I C [mA]
U C [V] 4
QC [mvar]
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
t [ms]
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Figiure 3.7.2.2
Notes:
Coil in the AC Circuit
4 Coil in the AC Circuit
4.1 Fundamentals
Coils are generally wirewound (usually copper) whereby the number of windings and
the gauge of the wire can be extremely varied. Coils are widely used in electrical en- Symbol
gineering and electronics, e. g.:
- generating induction voltages (transformer) Figure 4.1.1
- generating magnetic forces (electric motor, relay, contactors)
- filtering out AC currents
- storing magnetic energy
- function as reactance
Coils are manufactured in a variety of designs and sizes depending on their applications. The two major ca-
tegories are air coils and coils with a magnetic core.
The choice of the magnetic core material and the design of the core are greatly influential in determining the
characteristics of a coil.
The most important characteristics of a coil are:
Inductance L
The inductance specifies how great the generated countervoltage is at a predefined change in current.
The inductance depends on the number of windings and the coil constant.
L = N 2 AL
L = inductance, unit: Henry (H)

N = number of windings
AL = coil constant in Henry (H)
Coil constant AL
A
AL = 0 r
d
0 = magnetic field constant (1.257 . 10 Vs / Am)

-6
r = relative permeability
2
A = core cross section in m
d = length of coil in m
Inductive reactance XL
The inductive reactance is determined by the value of inductance and the frequency of the applied AC voltage.
XL = . L
XL = inductive reactance in
= radian frequency in Hz (2 . . f )
Loss factor tan

The loss factor tan gives the ratio between the equivalent resistance of a coil and the inductive reactance XL.
R
tan = V
XL
= loss angle
tan = loss factor
RV = equivalent resistance in
The equivalent resistance consists mainly of the ohmic resistance of the coil, hysteresis and capacitance los-
ses as well as losses due to eddy currents.
Coil quality Q
The coil quality, as the name implies, specifies the quality of a coil and is equal to the reciprocal of the loss
factor tan .
XL
Q=
RV
Q = coil quality
4.2 Switch-On and Switch-Off Process of a Coil
4.2.1 General
Current and voltage run according to an e-function when switching the DC voltage of a coil on and off.
If a DC voltage is applied, the current increases to 63 % of its final value within 1 and sinks to 37 % of its ini-
tial value when switching off. After 5 the current reaches approximately its final value or zero.
is the time constant. It results from the inductance of the coil and the ohmic resistance effective in the circuit.
L = time constant in s
=
R L = inductance in H
R = ohmic resistance in (coil, line, internal resistance of the source)
The voltage on the coil is reduced to 37 % of its maximum value (on applying the C voltage) after 1 and
reaches its smallest value, which is dependent on the ohmic coil resistance, after about 5 .
If the DC voltage on the coil is switched off the self-induction voltage is active in the circuit. This has reverse
polarity to the originally applied DC voltage and reaches zero after about 5 .
The momentary current value iL and the momentary voltage value uL when switching on and off a DC voltage
are calculated for the coil according to the following formulas:
Momentary value of current iL in the Momentary value of voltage uL in

switch-on process the switch-on process
iL =
U
R
(
1 et / ) (
i L = I max 1 e t / ) u L = U e t /
U = applied DC voltage in V U = maximum coil voltage

R = ohmic resistance active in the circuit in
t = switch-on duration in s
e = base number 2.718
Momentary value of current iL in the Momentary value of voltage uL in the

switch-off process switch-off process
iL = (
U t /
R
e ) (
i L = I max e t / ) (
u L = U e t / )
U = max. self-induction voltage of the coil
4.2.2 Experiments
Experiment
Display the current and voltage curve on the oscilloscope when switching a DC voltage on and off on the coil
and establish the following values from the curves:
- time constant
- inductance L
- momentary current iL at a switch-on duration of 0.2 ms.
Set up the experiment according to the circuit (figure 4.2.2.1) and connect the function generator with a posi-
tive square-wave voltage:
U = 6 V; f = 1 kHz; V=2
A Y1
1 k
G up = 6 V B Y2
f = 1kHz
100 mH
C
0V
oscilloscope
Figure 4.2.2.1

- Test point A to channel 1 (Y1), for oscilloscoping the input voltage
- Test point B to channel 2 (Y2), for oscilloscoping the coil voltage or displaying the coil current
To display the coil current, switch over the resistor 1 k and the coil 100 mH in the circuit; the voltage at
the resistor is then displayed on the oscilloscope. This voltage is proportional to the coil current.
Make other settings on the oscilloscope in accordance with the specifications below the grids (figure
4.2.2.2 and figure 4.2.2.3).
Establish the values specified in the experiment from the recorded voltage curves.
The values established from the curves should then be checked by calculation.
Settings:
Y1 = 2 V / division
Y2 = 2 V / division
Triggering: Y1
- 0 (Y1 )
Remarks:
- 0 (Y2 )
Y1: Input voltage
Y2: Coil voltage
Figure 4.2.2.2
Settings:
Y1 = 2 V / division
Y2 = 2 V / division
Triggering: Y1
- 0 (Y 1 )
Remarks:
Y1: Input voltage
Y2: Voltage on the resistor
(proportional to the coil current)
- 0 (Y 2 )
Figure 4.2.2.3
Time constant Momentary value iL

From screen image: at a switch-on duration of 0.2 ms
From screen image:
Calculated:
Calculated:
Inductance L
From screen image:
Calculated:
Notes:
4.3 Phase Shift between Current and Voltage on a Coil
4.3.1 General
If an AC voltage is applied to a coil, the coil current

UL IL cannot follow the rapid voltage changes on account
UL
IL of the inductance. The current IL in a coil follows
the voltage UL by 90.
0 In the case of a sinusoidal AC voltage, for example,
t
the current IL reaches the negative peak value a
90 quarter of a period (90) later than the voltage UL
(figure 4.3.1.1).
Figure 4.3.1.1 The equivalent resistance of the coil is ignored in
this consideration.
4.3.2 Experiments
Experiment
Display the current and voltage curves of a coil on the oscilloscope and determine the phase shift between
the current IL and the voltage UL from the screen image.
1 k (figure 4.3.2.1), connect the function generator
and set the following voltage:
u pp = 3 V
G C upp = 3 V (sinusoidal); f = 1 kHz
(sinusoidal)
100 mH
Attention:
Make sure that test point C is not connected with
B Y2 test points A or B through ground of the
0V
oscilloscope equipment used (function generator,
oscilloscope). Use an isolating transformer if
Figure 4.3.2.1
necessary.
the capacitor current IL.
For simultaneously displaying the coil voltage UL and the coil current IL (UR) the reference point of the
voltages to be measured has been placed between the coil and the measuring resistor (1 k) (test point C).
It must be taken into account that the two voltages are displayed with a 180 shift to each other.The actual
display of the voltage curves is made by inverting one of the two voltages with the oscilloscope (in the
experiment UL, channel 2, Y2).
Settings:
Y1 = 1 V / division
- 0 (Y1 )
Y2 = 1 V / division (inverse)
Triggering: Y1
Remarks:
Y1: Voltage UR (coil current IL)
Y2: Coil voltage UL
- 0 (Y2 )
Figure 4.3.2.2

- Test point B to channel 2 (Y2), inverse
Make other settings on the oscilloscope in accordance with the specifications below the grid (figure
4.3.2.2).
Draw the displayed voltage curves into the grid (figure 4.3.2.2) and determine the phase shift between the
coil voltage UL and the capacitor current IL (UR).
Phase shift between the coil current IL and the coil voltage UL:
Period duration T
T=
Phase shift
4.4 Inductive Reactance of a Coil
4.4.1 General
A coil has a current limiting effect in the AC circuit which results from the counter voltage generated in it. This
current limiting effect is referred to as the inductive reactance XL.
The value of the inductive reactance depends on the inductance of a coil and the frequency of the applied AC
voltage. The inductive reactance is calculated on a sinusoidal AC voltage with the following formula:
XL = 2 . . f . L If coil current and coil voltage are known the inductive

reactance can be calculated with the formula::
XL = inductive reactance of the capacitor in UL
XL =
2..f = radian frequency in 1/s IL
L = inductance in H
4.4.2 Experiments
Experiment
Display the current and voltage curves of different coils at different frequencies on the oscilloscope and re-
cord the curve XL = f (f). The respective inductive reactance is determined from the screen image by means
of the peak-to-peak values.
A Y1
cuit (figure 4.4.2.1), set a voltage upp = 8 V
470
(sinusoidal); f = 1 kHz on the function ge-
u pp = 8 V nerator and connect it with the circuit.
G 16 kHz C
L
B Y2
0V Read off the peak-to-peak values of UR and
oscilloscope UL for the frequencies and capacitors
Figure 4.4.2.1 L = 8 mH / 100 mH
specified in table 4.4.2.1 and enter them in
8 mH = transformer coil N = 900
the table.
Calculate values IL and XL and enter these in table 4.4.2.1 also.
Transfer the XL values to diagram 4.4.2.2 for constructing the characteristic curve XL = f (f).
Attention: Make sure that test point C is not connected with test points A or B through ground of the equip-
ment used (function generator, oscilloscope). Use an isolating transformer if necessary.
The resistor (470 ) in the circuit serves as a measuring resistor. The voltage UR applied to it is proportional
to the coil current IL. The respective coil current IL is calculated with the formula: IL = UR / R
f [kHz] 1 2 3 4 5 6
UL [V] 8 mH
100 mH
UR [V] 8 mH
100 mH
IL [mA] 8 mH
100 mH
XL [k] 8 mH
100 mH
Table 4.4.2.1
XL / k
2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
f / kHz
Figure 4.4.2.2
Question: What do the curves tell us?

Answer:
Calculate the inductive reactance XL of the coil 100 mH with the formula XL = . L (at f = 2kHz) and compare
it with the value established in the experiment.
XL = . L =
Value established in the experiment:
4.5 Series Circuiting of Coils
4.5.1 General
L1 L2 L3 When coils are circuited in series the total

IL
+ inductance is equal to the sum of the individual
inductances.
UL1 UL 2 UL 3
Ltot = L1 + L2 + L3 ...
The partial voltages on the individual coils

U U L tot
behave proportionally to the respective
inductance, their sum gives the total voltage
- UL tot.
Figure 4.5.1.1 The coil current in a series circuit of coils is the
same at all points.
4.5.2 Experiments
Experiment
Prove, by measuring the current and voltage, that in a series circuit of coils the total inductance is equal to the
sum of the individual inductances.
Between the inductive reactance and the inductance of a coil there is a relationship:
XL = . L
L1 L2 L3 Experiment procedure
A I1 B C D E
100 mH 8 mH 8 mH gure 4.5.2.1) and set a voltage of
U rms = 5 V
G Urms = 5 V (sinusoidal); f = 1 kHz
f = 1kHz
(sinusoidal) on the function generator and connect it with the
circuit.
0V
Figiure 4.5.2.1 L = 8 mH / 100 mH
Measure the current IL between test points A and B as well as the voltages at the test points B ... E with the
multimeter and enter the values in table 4.5.2.1.
Calculate the individual inductive reactances, inductances and the total inductance in that order from the
measured values.
Coil current [mA] Partial and total voltage [V]
A-B (IL) B-C (UL 1) C-D (UL 2) D-E (UL 3) B-E (UL tot)
Table 4.5.2.1
Calculation of the inductive reactances Calculation of inductances
U L1 X L1
X L1 = = L1 = =
IL
U L2 X L2
X L2 = = L2 = =
IL
U L3 X L3
X L3 = = L3 = =
IL
U L tot X L tot
X L tot = = Ltot = =
IL
4.6 Parallel Circuiting of Coils
4.6.1 General
I L tot In a parallel circuit of coils the total inductance is less

+ than the smallest individual inductance. It is calculated
IL 1 IL 2 IL 3 with the following formula:
1
L1 L2 L3 Ltot =
1 1 1
U + +
L1 L2 L3
-
With only two parallel-circuited coils the following
Figure 4.6.1.1 formula is used:
L1 L2
Ltot =
L1 + L2
The current through the individual coils behaves inversely proportional to the respective inductance. The vol-
tage UL is the same in a parallel circuit on all coils.
4.6.2 Experiments
Experiment
Prove, by measuring the current and voltage, that the total inductance in a parallel circuit of coils is less than
the smallest individual inductance. Between the measured inductive reactances and the inductance there is a
relationship: XL = . L
A B
I L tot
C E G
IL 1 IL 2 IL 3
U rms = 5 V
G f = 5 kHz D F H
(sinusoidal) L1 L2 L3
100 mH 8 mH 8 mH
I
0V
Figure 4.6.2.1 8 mH = transformer coil N = 900
Set up the experiment according to the circuit (figure 4.6.2.1), connect the function generator and set the
following voltage:
Urms = 5 V (sinusoidal); f = 5 kHz
Measure the total current IL tot and the partial currents IL 1, IL 2, IL 3 with a multimeter and enter the values in
the table 4.6.2.1.
Partial and total current [mA] Partial voltage UL [V]
A-B (IL tot) C-D (IL 1) E-F (IL 2) G-H (IL 3) D-I (UL 1) F-I (UL 2) H-I (UL 3)
Table 4.6.2.1
Calculate the inductive reactances XL tot, XL 1, XL 2 and XL 3 with the formula XL = UL / IL.
Calculate the individual inductances and the total inductance with the formula L = XL / .
Check the value of total inductances Ltot established in the experiment by calculation.
Calculation of the inductive reactances Calculation of inductances
UL1 X L1
X L1 = = L1 = =
I L1
UL2 XL2
XL2 = = L2 = =
IL2
UL3 X L3
XL3 = = L3 = =
IL3
U L tot X L tot
X L tot = = Ltot = =
I L tot
Checking the total inductance by calculation
1
Ltot = =
1 1 1
+ +
L1 L2 L3
4.7 Reactive Power of a Coil
4.7.1 General
If a coil is applied to a sinusoidal AC voltage a phase shift of 90 results between the current and the voltage
caused by the inductive reactance.
The reactive power Q which occurs in the coil can be represented in the line diagram (figure 4.7.1.1) by mul-
tiplication of the current and voltage values.
Energy is fed to the coil during the positive half-wave. During the negative half-wave the coil radiates this sto-
red energy.
No active power is converted in the ideal coil (no ohmic resistance).
U U I
I
Q
Figure 4.7.1.1
The following definitions are valid:

QL = UL . IL (rms values)
qL = uL . iL (momentary values)
QL; qL = inductive reactance in var
UL; uL = coil voltage in V
IL; iL = coil current in A
4.7.2 Experiments
Experiment
Display the current and voltage curves of a coil on the oscilloscope, transfer the curves to a diagram and
construct the power curve by multiplication of the momentary values of current and voltage.
UR cuit (figure 4.7.2.1), connect the function

1 k
generator and set the following voltage:
up = 4 V
G
C up = 4 V (sinusoidal); f = 1 kHz
f = 1 kHz
UL
100 mH
B Y2
0V
Figure 4.7.2.1 oscilloscope
- Sweep X: 0,1 ms / division

- Channel 1, Y1: 1 V / division ((voltage UR ~ coil current IL)
- Channel 2, Y2: 1 V / division (coil voltage UL)
- Center zero line of Y1 and Y2.
- Triggering: Y1
Draw the screen image on the diagram (figure 4.7.2.2) and establish the values for construction of the po-
wer curve by multiplication of the voltage and current values (e. g. every 0.1 ms). Enter the values into the
diagram (figure 4.7.2.2).
Attention:
Make sure that test point C is not connected with test points A or B through ground of the equipment used
(function generator, oscilloscope). Use an isolating transformer if necessary.
the coil current IL (in mA).
The actual display of the voltage curves is made by inverting one of the two voltages with the oscilloscope (in
the experiment UL, channel 2, Y2).
For simultaneously displaying the coil voltage UL and the coil current IL (UR) the reference point of the volta-
ges to be measured has been placed between the coil and the measuring resistor (1 k) (test point C). It
must be taken into account that the two voltages are displayed with a 180 shift to each other.
Time t [ms] Current iL [mA] Voltage uL [V] Reactive power qL [mvar]
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Table 4.7.2.1
5
I L [mA]
U L [V] 4
Q L [mvar]
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 t [ ms]
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Figure 4.7.2.2
Notes:
Interconnecting Resistor, Capacitor and Coil
5 Interconnecting Resistor, Capacitor and Coil
5.1 Fundamentals
The following experiments deal with the interaction of resistor, capacitor and coil on a sinusoidal AC voltage.
The aim is to measure and calculate the phase relation of current and voltage as well as the resulting values
in parallel and series circuits of resistor, capacitor and coil. The values in accordance with phase and amount
(rms values) can be shown either by a pointer diagram or with the oscilloscope.
The experiments should be carried out with a constant frequency of 1 kHz. Experiments dealing with the fre-
quency behaviour of resistor, capacitor and coil (e. g. high-pass, low-pass and band-pass) have not been ta-
ken into consideration here.
15.2 Series Circuiting of Resistor and Capacitor
5.2.1 General
If a sinusoidal AC voltage is applied to a series circuit of resistor and capacitor the same current flows
through both components.
R C
I
UR UC
U
Figure 5.2.1.1
Phase shifts occur between the voltages UR, UC and U due to the capacitive reactance XC of the capacitor.
These can be shown by a line diagram or pointer diagram (see figure 5.2.1.2).
The phase shift between the active voltage UR and the reactive voltage UC is constantly 90, the same applies
to the phase shift between the current and the reactive voltage UC.
The phase shift between the apparent voltage U and the voltages UR and UC is determined by the voltage ra-
tio UC to UR or the resistor ratio XC to R.
UR = active voltage in V
I = current in A
U = apparent voltage, total voltage in V
UC = reactive voltage, capacitor voltage in V
= phase angle in (degrees)
Figure 5.2.1.2 Pointer diagram for voltages
The resistances can be represented by a pointer diagram as follows:
R = active resistance in
XC = capacitive reactance in
Z = apparent resistance in
Figure 5.2.1.3 Pointer diagram for resistors
Due to the phase shift between current and voltage, a simple numeric addition of the partial voltages and par-
tial resistances in the series circuit of resistor and capacitor is not possible. They are calculated with the fol-
lowing formulas:
Apparent voltage U Capacitive reactance XC

XC = Z . sin
U = U R2 + U C2 U=Z.I
Apparent resistance Z Tangent of the phase angle

U UC X C
Z = R 2 + X C2 Z= tan = =
I UR R
Active resistance R
R = Z . cos
5.2.2 Experiments
Experiment
Measure and calculate the active voltage UR, the reactive voltage UC, the current I, the phase angle , the
apparent resistance Z and the capacitive reactance XC in a series circuit of resistor and capacitor.
Then draw the pointer diagrams for voltage and resistance from the measured values.
A B
C
1 k
U rms = 5 V
G (sinusoidal)
D
~ f = 1 kHz
0.22 F
0V E
Figure 5.2.2.1
following voltage in connection with the multimeter:: Urms = 5 V (sinusoidal); f = 1 kHz
Current I Active voltage UR

(test points A - B) (test points C - D)
I= UR =
Reactive voltage UC
(test points D - E)
UC =
Calculate the phase angle , apparent resistance Z and capacitive reactance XC.
Phase angle Apparent resistance Z

UC U
tan = = Z= =
UR I
Capacitive reactance XC
UC
XC = Z . sin (sin = = ) XC =
U
Draw pointer diagrams from the measured values.
0.5 V / division 100 / division
Figure 5.2.2.2 Pointer diagram for voltages Figure 5.2.2.3 Pointer diagram for resistances
5.3 Parallel Circuiting of Resistor and Capacitor
5.3.1 General
If a sinusoidal AC voltage is connected to the parallel circuit of resistor and capacitor, the same voltage is ap-
plied to both components.
The current I is divided into the capacitor current IC and the active current IR.
Phase shifts occur between the currents I, IC and IR due to the capacitive reactance XC of the capacitor.
These can be represented in a line diagram or a pointer diagram (see figure 5.3.1.2).
Figure 5.3.1.1
The voltage U is in phase with the active current IR whereas the reactive current IC of the capacitor, the volta-
ge U and the active current are constantly phase shifted by 90.
The phase shift between the apparent current I and the currents IR and IC is determined by the current ratio IC
to IR or the conductance ratio BC to G.
IR = active current in A
IC = reactive current, capacitor current in A
I = apparent current, total current in A
U = voltage in V
Figure 5.3.1.2 Pointer diagram for currents
The conductances can also be shown on a pointer diagram.
Y = apparent conductance in S (Siemens)

G = active conductance in S
BC = reactive conductance (capacitive) in S
Figure 5.3.1.3 Pointer diagram for conductances
Direct addition of the partial currents IC and IR and the conductances G and BC for determining the apparent
conductance Y is not possible on account of the phase shifts between current and voltage on the capacitor;
the following formulas must be used.
Apparent current I Cosine, sine and tan of the angle

IR G
I = I R2 + I C2 cos = =
I Y
U I C BC
I= sin = =
Z I Y
I C BC
tan = =
IR G
Apparent conductance Y
Y = G 2 + BC2
1
Y=
Z
Z = apparent resistance
5.3.2 Experiments
Experiment
Measure the apparent current I, the reactive current IC, the active current IR in a parallel circuit of resistor and
capacitor and calculate the reactive conductance Y, the apparent resistance Z and the phase angle from
the measured values.
Then draw the pointer diagrams for current and conductance from the measured values.
following voltage in connection with the multimeter: Urms = 5 V (sinusoidal); f = 1 kHz
I A B
IC IR
U rms = 5 V
C E
(sinusoidal)
G f = 1 kHz D F
~
0.22 F 1 k
0V
Figure 5.3.2.1
Apparent current I Reactive current IC Active current IR

(test points A - B) (test points C - D) (test points E - F)
I= IC = IR =
Calculate the reactive conductance Y, the apparent resistance Z and the phase angle .
Reactive conductance Y Apparent resistance Z
1
Y = G 2 + BC2 = Z= =
Y
1 Phase angle
G= =
R
IC
tan = =
1 1 IR
BC = = = C =
XC 1
C
Construct the pointer diagrams from the measured values.
1 mA / division 0.2 mS / division
Figure 5.3.2.2 Pointer diagram for currents Figure 5.3.2.3 Pointer diagram for conductances
5.4 Series Circuiting of Resistor and Coil
5.4.1 General
R L
I If a sinusoidal AC voltage is applied to a series circuit of
resistor and coil the same current flows through both
UR UL components.
Figure 5.4.1.1
Phase shifts occur between the voltages UR, UL and U due to the inductive reactance XL of the coil. These
can be shown by a line diagram or pointer diagram (figure 5.4.1.2).
The resistances can also be represented by a pointer diagram (figure 5.4.1.3) as follows:
Figure 5.4.1.2 Pointer diagram for voltages Figure 5.4.1.3 Pointer diagram for resistances
UR = active voltage in V R = active resistance in

I = current in A XL = inductive reactance in
U = apparent voltage, total voltage in V Z = apparent resistance in
UL = reactive voltage, capacitor voltage in V
Due to the phase shift between current and voltage, a simple numeric addition of the partial voltages and par-
tial in the series circuit of resistor and coil is not possible. They are calculated with the following formulas:
Apparent voltage U Inductive reactance XL

XL = Z . sin
U = U R2 + U L2
U=Z.I
Apparent resistance Z Tan and cosine of the phase angle

UL X L
Z = R 2 + X L2 tan = =
UR R
U UL XL
Z= cos = =
I U Z
Active resistance R
R = Z . cos
5.4.2 Experiments
Experiment
Measure the coil voltage UL, the active voltage UR, the current I and the phase shift between the apparent vol-
tage U and the active voltage UR with the oscilloscope on a series circuit of resistor and coil.
Calculate the inductive reactance XL of the coil, the apparent resistance Z and the phase shift between the
apparent voltage U and the coil voltage UL. The equivalent resistance of the coil can be ignored in the
calculations on account of its low value (13 ).
following voltage in connection with the multimeter: upp = 6 V (sinusoidal); f = 1 kHz
I
Measure the peak-to-peak voltage on the coil (test
A
points A - B) and the resistor (test points B - C) with
the oscilloscope.
100 mH
u pp = 6 V
G (sinusoidal) B Attention:
f = 1 kHz
When measuring, make sure that the oscilloscope and
1 k generator grounds are not connected through mains;
use an isolating transformer if necessary.
C
0V
Figure 5.4.2.1
Coil voltage uL
test points A - B
uL =
Active voltage uR
test points B - C
uR =
The current i can be calculated by way of the voltage drop across the 1 k resistor.
Current i
uR
i= =
R
Connect the oscilloscope as follows to determine the phase angle between the apparent voltage U and the
active voltage UR:
Test point A to channel 1 (Y1)
Test point B to channel 2 (Y2)
Test point C to ground
The other settings on the oscilloscope should be made according to the specifications below grid (figure
5.4.2.2).
Settings:
Y1 = 1 V / division
Y2 = 1 V / division
Triggering: Y1
- 0 (Y1 ,Y2 )
Remarks:
Y1: Apparent voltage U
Y2: Active voltage UR
Figure 5.4.2.2
Draw the displayed curves in the grid (figure 5.4.2.2) and determine the phase angle .
Period duration T Apparent resistance Z
T=
Z = R 2 + X L2 =
Phase angle Phase angle cos

= between the apparent voltage U and the coil voltage UL
UL
cos = =
U
Inductive reactance XL
XL = . L =
5.5 Parallel Circuiting of Resistor and Coil
5.5.1 General
I If a sinusoidal AC voltage is applied to a parallel circuit of resistor and

coil the same voltage is applied to both components. The current I is
divided into the coil current IL and the active current IR.
IL IR Phase shifts result between the currents I, IL and IR due to the inductive
reactance XL of the coil. These can be represented by a line diagram
L R or a pointer diagram (figure 5.5.1.2).
U
Figure 5.5.1.1
IR = active current in A
U = voltage in V
I = apparent current, total current in A
IL = reactive current, coil current in A
Figure 5.5.1.2 Pointer diagram for currents
The voltage U is in phase with the active current UR whereas the reactive current IL is constantly 90 later
than the voltage U and the active current IR.
The phase shift between the apparent current I and the currents IR and IC is determined by the current ratio IL
to IR or the conductance ratio BL to G.
The conductances can also be represented in a pointer diagram which has the following form:
Y = apparent conductance in S (Siemens)

G = active conductance in S
BL = reactive inductance in S
Figure 5.5.1.3 Pointer diagram for conductances
Direct addition of the partial currents IL and IR and the conductances G and BL for determining the apparent
current would lead to an incorrect result due to the phase shift between current and voltage.
They are calculated by way of a geometric addition with the following formulas:
Apparent current I
U
I = I R2 + I L2 I=
Z
1
Y = G 2 + BL2 Y=
Z
(Z = apparent resistance)
Cosine, sine and tan of the angle

IR G
cos = =
I Y
I L BL
sin = =
I Y
I L BL
tan = =
IR G
5.5.2 Experiments
Experiment
Measure the apparent current I, the reactive current IL, the active current IR on a parallel circuit of resistor and
coil and calculate the active conductance G, the reactive conductance BL, the apparent conductance Y and
the phase angle . Then construct the pointer diagrams for current and conductance.
I A B
Set up the experiment according to circuit
(figure 5.5.2.1), connect the function genera-
IL IR
tor and set the following voltage in connecti-
U rms = 5 V on with the multimeter:
C E
(sinusoidal)
f = 1 kHz D F
~
100 mH 1 k
0V
Figure 5.5.2.1
Measuring with the multimeter:
Apparent current I
(test points A - B)
I=
Reactive current IL
(test points C - D)
IL =
Active current IR
(test points E - F)
IR =
Calculate the reactive conductance BL, apparent conductance Y, phase angle and active conductance G
and construct the pointer diagrams from the measured values.
Active conductance G Apparent conductance Y

1
G= = Y = G 2 + BC2 =
R
Reactive conductance BL Phase angle

1 I
BL = = sin = L =
L I
1 mA / division 0.2 mS / division
Figure 5.5.2.2 Pointer diagram for currents Fiure 5.5.2.3 Pointer diagram for conductances
5.6 Series Circuiting of Capacitor and Coil
5.6.1 General
C L
I If a sinusoidal AC voltage is applied to a series circuit of coil
and capacitor the partial voltage UC follows the current I by 90
UC UL and the partial voltage UL precedes the current I by 90, i. e.
both partial voltages (also called reactive voltages) are in
opposite phase (180).
U
Figure 5.6.1.1
If both voltages have the same value, they equalize each other
UL (resonance case). If one of the partial voltages is greater, the
total voltage U is either inductive or capacitive, i. e. the current I
90 is 90 later.
I The losses of the coil and the capacitor are ignored in this
90 consideration.
UC
Figure 5.6.1.2
Pointer diagram for voltages (UL = UC)
UL UC UL
I
UL - UC UC - U L
I
UC UC UL
Figure 5.6.1.3 Figure 5.6.1.4

Pointer diagram for voltages (UL > UC) Pointer diagram for voltages (UL < UC)
5.6.2 Experiments
Experiment
Measure the partial voltages UC and UL in the series circuits (coil / capacitor) and calculate whether the total
voltage U precedes or follows the current I.
Then construct the pointer diagrams.
A
gure 5.6.2.1), connect the function generator and
1 F
set the following voltage:
U rms = 3 V
G (sinusoidal) Urms = 3 V (sinusoidal); f = 1 kHz
B
~ f = 1 kHz
100 mH
(8 mH)
0V C
Figure 5.6.2.1 L = 8 mH / 100 mH

Measure voltages UC and UL. Then construct the pointer diagrams.
Series circuit of C = 1 F; L = 100 mH: Series circuit of C = 1 F; L = 8 mH:
Capacitor voltage UC Capacitor voltage UC

(test points A - B) (test points A - B)
UC = UC =
Coil voltage UL Coil voltage UL

(test points B - C) (test points B - C)
UL = UL =
Total voltage U Total voltage U
U = UL - UC = U = UC - UL =
1 V / division 1 V / division

Pointer diagram: Pointer diagram:
C = 1 F; L = 100 mH; f = 1 kHz C = 1 F; L = 8 mH; f = 1 kHz
Notes:
5.7 Parallel Circuiting of Capacitor and Coil
5.7.1 General
If capacitor and coil are circuited in parallel and supplied with a sinusoidal
I
AC voltage, the same voltage is applied to both components. The total cur-
rent I is divided into the coil current IL and the capacitor current IC, whereby
IL IC IL precedes the voltage U by 90.
L C The currents IL and IC are at opposite phase (180) and, depending on their
size, equalize each other wholly or partly (see pointer diagrams).
Figure 5.7.1.1
When IC = IL the total current I is zero (resonance case).

IC
90
U
90
IL
Figure 5.7.1.2 Pointer diagram for currents (IL = IC)
IC IC
IL
U
IC - IL IL - IC
U
IL IL IC
Figure 5.7.1.3 Pointer diagram for currents (IC > IL) Figure 5.7.1.4 Pointer diagram for currents (IC < IL)
When IC > IL a capacitive residual current is left over, i. e. the total current I is capacitive and precedes volta-
ge U by 90.
When IC < IL an inductive residual current is left over, i.e. the total current I is inductive and follows the voltage
U by 90.
Coil and capacitor losses have been ignored in these considerations.
5.7.2 Experiments
Experiment
Measure the total current I, the coil current IL and the capacitor current IC on two parallel circuits (coil / capa-
citor). Using the measured values, determine whether the total current I precedes or follows the voltage U.
Then draw the corresponding pointer diagrams.
I A B
IL IC
(figure 5.7.2.1), connect the function generator
U rms = 3 V and set the following voltage:
C E
(sinusoidal)
f = 1 kHz D F
~
L C
0V
Figure 5.7.2.1
L / C-Kombination: 100 mH / 0.47 F; 100 mH / 0.1 F
Measure the currents I, IL and IC Then construct the pointer diagrams.
Parallel of L = 100 mH; C = 0.47 F Parallel of L = 100 mH; C = 0.1 F
Capacitor current IC Capacitor current IC

(test points E - F) (test points E - F)
IC = IC =
Coil current IL Coil current IL

(test points C - D) (test points C - D)
IL = IL =
Total current I Total current I

(test points A - B) (test points A - B)
I= I=
2 mA / division 1 mA / division

Pointer diagram: Pointer diagram:
L = 100 mH; C = 0.47 F; f = 1 kHz L = 100 mH; C = 0.1 F; f = 1 kHz
Notes:
5.8 Series Circuiting of Resistor, Capacitor and Coil
5.8.1 General
When connecting a sinusoidal AC voltage to a

I R C L
series circuit of resistor, capacitor and coil, the
same current flows through all three components.
UR UC UL The voltage UR is phase equal with the current I.
The voltages UR, UC, UL and U are phase-shifted.
The resistances behave in accordance with the
voltages (see also pointer diagrams figure 5.8.1.2
U
Figure 15.8.1.1 and figure 5.8.1.3).
UL XL
UR R
I
UC - U L XC - X L
U Z
UC UL XC XL

Pointer diagram voltages (UC > UL) Pointer diagram resistances (XC > XL)
UR = active voltage in V XL = inductive reactance,

UL = reactive voltage (inductive), coil resistance in
coil voltage in V XC = capacitive reactance,
UC = reactive voltage (capacitive), capacitor resistance in
capacitor voltage in V R = active resistance in
U = phase voltage, total voltage in V Z = apparent resistance in
I = current in A
The pointer diagrams show the case in which the voltage UC or the resistance XC is greater than the voltage
UL or the resistance XL respectively, i. e. the capacitive part is superior.
The voltage U follows the active voltage UR. If the inductive part is superior (UL > UC) the relationships are ac-
cordingly reversed.
If the inductive and capacitive parts are equal they equalize each other due to the phase shift of 180; in this
case the voltage U is equal to the active voltage UR and the apparent resistance Z is equal to the active re-
sistance R.
Below are some formulas for calculating values in a series circuit of resistor, coil and capacitor.
Apparent voltage U
U = U R2 + (U L U C ) 2 U=Z.I
Apparent resistance Z
U
Z = R 2 + (X L X C ) 2 Z=
I
Tan of the phase angle

U L UC X L X C
tan = =
UR R
5.8.2 Experiments
Experiment
Measure the voltages UR, UC and UL in a series circuit of resistor, capacitor and coil, determine whether the
total voltage U precedes or follows the voltage UR and measure the phase angle with the oscilloscope.
A
L 100 mH Set up the experiment according to the
circuit (figure 5.8.2.1), connect the function
U rms = 3 V B
generator and set the following voltage:
G (sinusoidal) C 0.47 F
~ f = 1 kHz Urms = 3 V (sinusoidal); f = 1 kHz
C
R 470
0V D
Figure 5.8.2.1
Coil voltage UL
(test points A - B)
UL =
Capacitor voltage UC
(test points B - C)
UC =
Active voltage UR
(test points C - D)
UR =
Determination of phase relation of U to UR:
...............................................................................
...............................................................................
Connect the oscilloscope as follows to determine the phase angle between the total voltage U and the
active voltage UR:
Test point C to channel 1 (Y1)
Test point A to channel 2 (Y2)
Test point D to ground
Make the other settings on the oscilloscope according to the specifications below the grid (figure 5.8.2.2).
Draw the displayed voltage curves in the grid (figure 5.8.2.2) and determine the phase angle .
Settings:
Y1 = 2 V / division
Y2 = 2 V / division
- 0 (Y1) Triggering: Y1
Remarks:
- 0 (Y2)
Y1: Active voltage UR
Y2: Total voltage, apparent voltage U
Figure 5.8.2.2
Period duration T
T=
Phase angle
5.9 Parallel Circuiting of Resistor, Capacitor and Coil
5.9.1 General
If a sinusoidal AC voltage is connected to a parallel circuit of

I
resistor, capacitor and coil the voltage on all components is the
same.
The total current I is divided into active current IR, capacitor
IC IL
current IC and coil current IL. A phase shift occurs between the
IR
currents IL, IC, IR and I due to the reactances XL of the coil and
XC of the capacitor (see pointer diagram figure 5.9.1.2).
U C L R
Figure 5.9.1.1
I = total current, apparent current in A

IC
IC = reactive current (capacitive), capacitor current in A
IL
IL = reactive current (inductive), coil current in A
I IR = active current in A
IC - I L
U = voltage in V
U
IR
IL
Figure 5.9.1.2 Pointer diagram for currents (IC > IL)
The current IC precedes current IR constantly by 90, whilst the current IL follows the active current IR
constantly by 90. Currents IC and IL are therefore in opposite phase (180) and equalize each other wholly or
partly depending on their size.
When IC = IL the two currents equalize each other, the total current I is equal to the active current in phase
and value (resonance).
When IC > IL a capacitive residual current is left over, the total current I precedes the active current IR.
When IC < IL an inductive residual current is left over, the total current I follows the active current IR.
The pointer diagram figure 5.9.1.3 shows how the conductances BL, BC, G and Y behave in a parallel circuit
of resistor, capacitor and coil.
BC = reactive conductance (capacitive) in S

BC BL BL = reactive conductance (inductive) in S
Y = apparent conductance in S
Y G = active conductance in S
B C- B L

G
BL
Figure 5.9.1.3 Pointer diagram for conductances (BC > BL)
The pointer diagrams are prepared for the case IC > IL or BC > BL.
Formulas for calculating the values in a parallel circuit of R, L and C:
Apparent current I
I = I R2 + (I C I L ) 2
Y = G 2 + (BC BL ) 2
Tan of the phase angle

I IL
tan = C
IR
B BL
tan = C
G
5.9.2 Experiments
Experiment
Measure the current I, IL, IC and IR in a parallel circuit of resistor, capacitor and and calculate the phase angle .
Then construct the pointer diagrams for currents and conductances.
I A B
Set up the experiment according to the
circuit (figure 5.9.2.1), connect the func-
IR IL
tion generator and set the following vol-
IC tage:
C E G
Urms = 3 V Urms = 3 V (sinusoidal); f = 1 kHz
G (sinusoidal) D F H
~ f = 1 kHz
R C L
470 0.47 F 100 mH
0V
Figure 5.9.2.1
Total current I Coil current IL

(test points A - B) (test points G - H)
I= IL =
Active current IR Phase angle

(test points C - D) I IL
tan = C =
IR
IR =
Capacitor current IC
(test points E - F)
IC =
Calculations for constructing the pointer diagrams:
Reactive conductance (capacitive) BC Active conductance G

BC = . C = 1
G= =
R
Reactive conductance (inductive) BL Apparent conductance Y

1
BL = = Y = G 2 + (BC BL ) 2 =
L
2 mA / division 1 mS / division
Figure 5.9.2.2 Pointer diagram for currents Figure 5.9.2.3 Pointer diagram for conductances
5.10 Active, Reactive and Apparent Power
5.10.1 General
The previous experiments treated exclusively the behaviour

I
of voltage, current and resistance connecting capacitors,
coils and ohmic resistors. The object of the experiment are
the resulting powers.
IC IL IR
Like the voltages and currents the powers are also mutually
U UC UL UR phase-shifted due to the reactances.
(sinusoidal)
Figure 5.10.1.1
In figures 5.10.1.2 to 5.10.1.4 the power ratios in a parallel circuit of resistor, capacitor and coil (figure
5.10.1.1) are shown as pointer diagrams.
QC QL QC
P
S
QC - QL
Q L- Q C
S
P
QL QL QC
Figure 5.10.1.2 Figure 5.10.1.3

Pointer diagram for powers (QC > QL) Pointer diagram for powers QL > QC
S = apparent power in VA
P = active power in W
QL = inductive reactive power in var
QC = capacitive reactive power in var
If the capacitive reactive power QC is greater than the inductive reactive power QL (QC > QL) the apparent
power S precedes the active power P (figure 5.10.1.2).
In the reverse case (QL > Q) the apparent power S follows the active power P (figure 5.10.1.3).
If both reactive powers are the same (QL = QC) they neutralize each
other and the apparent power S is equal to the active power P (figure
5.10.1.4).
QC
The representation of the power ratios in a series circuit of resistor, ca-
P (S) pacitor and coil are similar to those in a parallel circuit except that the
power pointers QC and QL are reversed.
QL
Figure 5.10.1.4
Pointer diagram for powers QL = QC
The individual powers are calculated with the following formulas:
Apparent power S
S = P 2 + (QL QC ) 2 S=U.I
Active power P
P = U . I . cos P = S . cos
Reactive power QL, QC

Q
Q = U . I . sin sin =
S
5.10.2 Experiments
Experiment
Measure the apparent power S, the active power P, the reactive powers QC and QL and calculate the phase
angle in a parallel circuit of resistor, capacitor and coil and then construct the corresponding pointer diagram.
I A B
Set up the experiment according to the
circuit (figure 5.10.2.1), connect the func-
IR IL
tion generator and set the following vol-
IC
tage:
C E G
Urms = 3 V Urms = 3 V (sinusoidal); f = 1 kHz
G (sinusoidal) D F H
~ f = 1 kHz
R C L
470 0.47 F 100 mH
0V
Figure 5.10.2.1
Measure the individual currents with the multimeter in order to calculate the powers.
Total current I
(test points A - B)
I=
Active current IR
(test points C - D)
IR =
Capacitor current IC
(test points E - F)
IC =
Coil current IL
(test points G - H)
IL =
Calculate the powers and the phase angle with the given formulae and then draw the pointer diagram.
Active power P Apparent power S

P =U . IR = S=U.I=
Reactive power (capacitive) QC Phase angle

QC =U . IC = P
cos = =
S
Reactive power (inductive) QL

QL =U . IL =
6 mW (mvar, mVA) / division
Figure 5.10.2.2
Pointer diagram for power
Transformers
6 Transformers
6.1 Fundamentals
Transformers consist of two or more windings (coils) which are magnetically coupled by a core. They are u-
sed for voltage, current and resistance matching and transformation as well as for isolation of electrical circu-
its (galvanic isolation).
In the ideal, i. e. lossless, transformer, the power consumed is equal to the power produced. In practice los-
ses occur in the winding and in the core of the transformer so that only a part of the consumed power is pas-
sed on to the load resistor RL.
The losses consist mainly of the copper losses (ohmic resistance of the coil windings), the core losses and
losses caused by introduction of an air gap into the cross section of the core to improve the transformation
properties.
softmagnetic core
I1 I2
input side G U1 U2 RL output side
primary coil secondary coil
Figure 6.1.1
6.2 Coupling Factor
6.2.1 General
To get a fixed magnetic coupling between the primary and secondary coils of a transformer, they are connec-
ted through a core. Depending on the coupling factor the magnetic flux in the core is greater or smaller and
an accordingly higher or lower voltage is induced in the secondary coil.
To avoid distortion of the signals to be transformed and premature magnetic saturation of the core material
by DC current, the coupling factor is reduced by a break in the core (air gap).
Transformers
6.2.2 Experiments
Experiment
Urms = 4 V
Determine the size of the magnetic coupling bet-
f = 1 kHz
ween two coils by doing voltage measurements for:
U1 N1 N2
G
~ 900 900
U2
- coils with core
- coils with core and air gap
- coils without core
0V
Figure 6.2.2.1 Put together a primary and secondary coil with
900 windings each with the split tape core as
Primary Secondary
coil coil shown in the diagram (figure 6.2.2.2).
Connect the function generator to the primary coil

as shown in the circuit diagram (figure 6.2.2.1) and
set a sinusoidal voltage Urms = 4 V ; f = 1 kHz.
Measure the secondary voltage U2 with the mul-

timeter and enter the value in the table 6.2.2.1
under Coils with core.
N1 N2
900 900 To measure the secondary voltage on coils with
core and air gap, place a piece of paper between
Figure 6.2.2.2
the upper and lower halves of the split tape core
to simulate the air gap.
To determine the secondary voltage in Coils
N1 N2 without core arrange the coils as shown in figure

900 900 6.2.2.3.
Figure 6.2.2.3
Question: Why do the secondary voltages differ?

Coupling factor
Answer:
U1 [rms] U2 [rms]
Coils with core 4V
Coils with core and air gap 4V
Coils without core 4V
Table 6.2.2.1
Transformers
6.3 Transformation Ratio
6.3.1 General
In a transformer the ratio of the number of windings on the primary side to the number of windings on the se-
condary side is referred to as the transformation ratio.
U1, I1 = primary voltage and current

I1 I2
U2, I2 = secondary voltage and current
N1, N2 = primary and secondary windings
N1 N2
U1 U2
Figure 6.3.1.1
This ratio corresponds to the ratio of primary voltage U1 to secondary voltage U2 when the transformer is on
no-load.
The transformation ratio of the current is inverse to the voltage or winding ratio.
N1 U 1 I 2
Transformation ratio r: r= = =
N2 U2 I1
6.3.2 Experiments
Experiment
Determine the transformation ratio on the primary and secondary sides of a transformer with different num-
bers of windings by measuring voltage and current.
I1 I2
A
Urms = 6 V N1 = N2 = Urms = 6 V N1 = N2 =
G 300 V G 300 A
~ f = 1 kHz U 1 900 U2 ~ f = 1 kHz 900
900 900
0V 0V
Put together a primary and secondary coil with 900 and 300 windings each with the split tape core as
shown in the diagram (figure 6.3.2.3).
Connect the function generator to the secondary coil as shown in the circuit diagram (figure 6.3.2.1) and
set a sinusoidal voltage Urms = 6 V; f = 1 kHz.
Transformers
Primary Secondary Measure the secondary voltage U2 at the secondary coil with 300
coil coil
and 900 windings and enter the values in the table 6.3.2.1.
Calculate the transformation ratio of the voltages with the formula

r = U1 / U2.
Then measure the primary and secondary currents on the secondary

coils with 300 and 900 windings as shown in the circuit (figure
6.3.2.2) and enter the values in table 6.3.2.2. The voltage U1 of
N1 N2 6 V (rms) should be kept constant.
900 300
900
Figure 6.3.2.3
Calculate the transformation ratio r of the currents with the formula:
I2
r= =
I1
N1 N2 U1 [V] U2[V] r N1 N2 I1 [mA] I2[mA] r
900 300 6 900 300
900 900 6 900 900
Table 6.3.2.1 Table 6.3.2.2
Transformation ratios of the voltages: Transformation ratios of the currents:

When N1 = 900; N2 = 300 When N1 = 900; N2 = 300
U1 I2
r= = r= =
U2 I1
When N1 = 900; N2 = 900 When N1 = 900; N2 = 900
U1 I2
r= = r= =
U2 I1
Transformers
6.4 Resistance Transformation
6.4.1 General
If a transformer is not loaded (no-load) the transformation ratio between primary and secondary voltages cor-
responds approximately to the ratio between the number of windings on the primary and secondary coils
(transformation ratio).
U1 N
r= = 1
U2 N2
When there is a load on the secondary coil, a current I2 flows through the load resistor RL. This current is ac-
tive, multiplied by the reciprocal of the transformation ratio, in the primary coil of the transformer.
1 I2
I1 = I 2 r=
r I1
Primary current and primary voltage together form the input resistance of the transformer.
U1
R1 =
I1
The output or load resistance is given by:

U2
R2 = R L =
I2
If both resistances are put in relationship, the following resistance transformation is achieved:
U1
R1 I U I
= 1 = 1 2 = r r = r2 or: R1 = R L r 2
RL U 2 U 2 I1
I2
This means the secondary load RL is transformed to the primary side of the transformer with the square of
the transformation ratio N1 / N2.
6.4.2 Experiments
Experiment
Establish the resistances R1 and R2 by measuring the current and voltage on the primary and secondary si-
des of a transformer. Do this for different transformation ratios of the number of primary windings to the num-
ber of secondary windings and for different loads RL.
Then form the ratio between R1 and R2 and compare with the square of the respective transformation ratio.
Transformers
I1 I2 Experiment procedure
mA mA Put together the transformer with the split tape core
and the coils (N1 = 900; N2 = 300) as shown in the
Urms = 6 V diagram (figure 6.4.2.2).
G N1 N2 U2 RL
~ f = 1 kHz
Connect the function generator as shown in the cir-
cuit diagram (figure 6.4.2.1) and set a sinusoidal
0V
voltage of
Figure 6.4.2.1 RL = 100 / 1 k, Urms = 6 V; f = 1 kHz (at RL = 10 ).
N1 = 900, N2 = 300 / 900
Measure current and voltage at the winding ratios
and loads RL specified in table 6.4.2.3.
Primary Secondary
coil coil Calculate the resistances R1 and R2 according to
Ohms Law with the formula R = U / I.
Then calculate the transformation ratios of the re-

sistances according to the specifications and com-
pare with the winding ratios.
N1 N2
300 300
900
Figure 6.4.2.2
N1 N2 r RL [] U1 [V] U2 [V] I1 [mA] I2 [mA] R1 [] R2 []
900 300 0.33 100
900 900 1 1000
Table 6.4.2.3
Ratio between the resistances:
When N1 = 900; N2 = 300; RL = 100 When N1 = 900; N2 = 900; RL = 1000
R1 R1
r2 = = r2 = =
R2 R2
r = r2 = = r = r2 = =

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Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering / Electronics

4th Edition V 0102

Order no.: V 0102

is designed for use in conjunction with hps training equipment,

Experiments, consisting of the set tasks (experiments) and

The section General contains a short introduction to the re-

1 Establishing and Displaying Characteristics in AC Technology ....................................................5

2 Three-Phase Alternating Current..................................................................................................... 13

3 Capacitor in the AC Circuit .............................................................................................................. 35

4 Coil in the AC Circuit ........................................................................................................................ 53

5 Interconnecting Resistor, Capacitor and Coil .................................................................................71

1 Establishing and Displaying Characteristics in AC

+U sinusoidal voltage Alternating current changes its direction of

1.2 Characteristics of the Sine-Wave Voltage

Radian frequency in 1/s

The radian frequency is the product of 2 . and the frequency.

Root mean square values Urms, Irms

Peak voltage up Period duration T

Peak current ip Frequency f

Peak-to-peak voltage upp Radian frequency

Root mean square voltage Urms Wavelength

Root mean square current Irms Momentary voltage u

1.3 Active Power with Sine-Wave Voltage

P=U.I p = u . i (momentary values)

(root mean square values)

Connect the oscilloscope:

- Center the zero line of channels 1 and 2.

-60 -30 -12

Question 1: What does the power curve tell us?

Question 2: What is the root mean square value of the power?

1.4 Characteristics of the Square-Wave AC Voltage

Root mean square values Urms und Irms

Peak voltage up Peak-to-peak voltage upp

Peak current ip Power P

Root mean square voltage Urms Period duration T

Root mean square current Irms Frequency f

2 Three-Phase Alternating Current

Figure 2.1.1 Figure 2.1.2

Generation of the phase-shifted, sinusoidal AC voltages is achieved by an appropriate arrangement of coils in

L1, L2, L3 = conductor (phase)

2.2 Potential Gradient in Three-Phase Current Systems

U L = 3 U phase = 1.73 230 V = 400 V

Angle of phase shift Linkage factor

Phase voltages Uphase Peak value of the phase voltage us

Conductor voltages UL Peak value of the conductor voltage us

2.3 Loads in Star Circuit

L1 I L1 L1, L2, L3 = conductor (phase)

On an unsymmetrical load a compensation current IN flows through the zero conductor.

Ptot = PR1 + PR2 + PR3

A symmetrical load gives the following relationships:

Ptot = 3 . Pphase Pphase = Uphase . Iphase

On inductive and capacitive load:

Active power Ptot

Ptot = 3 U phase I phase cos

Apparent power Stot

Reactive power Qtot

Star circuit Symmetrical load Unsymmetrical load

Calculating the phase power and total power:

PR2 = UL2,N . IL2 =

PR3 = UL3,N . IL3 =

PR1 = UL1,N . IL1 =

PR2 = UL2,N . IL2 =

PR3 = UL3,N . IL3 =

Ptot = PR1 + PR2 + PR3 =