Major film studio

A major film studio is a production and film distributor that releases a substantial number of films
annually and consistently commands a significant share of box office revenue in a given market. In
the North American, Western, and global markets, the major film studios, often simply known as the
majors, are commonly regarded as the six diversified media conglomerates whose various film
production and distribution subsidiaries collectively command approximately 80 to 85 percent of
U.S. and Canadian box office revenue.[1][2] The term may also be applied more specifically to the
primary motion picture business subsidiary of each respective conglomerate.
Walt Disney
Studios
The "Big Six" majors, whose operations are based in or around the Los Angeles neighborhood of
Warner Bros.
Hollywood, are all centered in film studios active during Hollywood's Golden Age of the 1930s and
Universal
1940s. In three cases20th Century Fox, Warner Bros., and Paramount Picturesthe studios were Studios
one of the "Big Five" majors during that era as well. In two casesColumbia Pictures and Universal
Picturesthe studios were also considered majors, but in the next tier down, part of the "Little Big Six studios in the San Fernando
Three". In the sixth case, Walt Disney Studios was an independent production company during the Valley
Golden Age; it was an important Hollywood entity, but not a major. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, United
Artists, and RKO were majors.

Today, Disney is the only member of the Big Six whose parent entity is still located near Los Ange
les
(actually, on Disney's studio lot and in the same building).[3][4] The five others report to Paramount
Pictures
conglomerates respectively headquartered in New York City, Philadelphia, and Tokyo. Of the Big
Six, Paramount is the only one still based in Hollywood proper; furthermore, Paramount and Fox are 20th Century
the only ones still located within the Los Angeles city limits, while Disney and Warner Bros. are Fox

located in Burbank, Columbia in Culver City, and Universal in the unincorporated area of Universal
Sony/Columbia
City. Pictures

Most of today's Big Six control subsidiaries with their own distribution networks that concentrate on
arthouse pictures (e.g. Fox Searchlight Pictures) or genre films (e.g. Sony's Screen Gems); several of
these specialty units were shut down or sold off between 2008 and 2010. The six major studios are
contrasted with smaller production and/or distribution companies, which are known as independents Big Six studios in Hollywood and the
or "indies". The leading independent producer/distributorsLionsgate Films, The Weinstein Westside

Company, and former major studio Metro-Goldwyn-Mayerare sometimes referred to as "mini-

majors". From 1998 through 2005, DreamWorks SKG commanded a large enough market share to
arguably qualify it as a seventh major, despite its relatively small output. In 2006, DreamWorks was acquired by Viacom, Paramount's corporate parent. In
late 2008, DreamWorks once again became an independent production company; its films were distributed by Disney's Touchstone Pictures until 2016, at
which point distribution switched to Universal.

The Big Six major studios are today primarily backers and distributors of films whose actual production is largely handled by independent companies
either long-running entities or ones created for and dedicated to the making of a specific film. The specialty divisions often simply acquire distribution
rights to pictures in which the studio has had no prior involvement. While the majors still do a modicum of true production, their activities are focused
more in the areas of development, financing, marketing, and merchandising. Those business functions are still usually performed in or near Los Angeles,
even though the runaway production phenomenon means that most films are now mostly or completely shoton location at places outside Los Angeles.

Since the dawn of filmmaking, the U.S. major film studios have dominated both American cinema and the global film industry. U.S. studios have
benefited from a strongfirst-mover advantage in that they were the first to industrialize filmmaking and master the art of mass-producing and distributing
high-quality films with broad cross-cultural appeal.[5] Today, the Big Six majors routinely distribute hundreds of films every year into all significant
international markets (that is, where discretionary income is high enough for consumers to afford to watch films). It is very rare, if not impossible, for a
film to reach a broad international audience on multiple continents and in multiple languages without first being picked up by one of the majors for
distribution.

Contents
1 Majors
1.1 Current
 1.2 Former
2 Mini-majors
2.1 Current
2.2 Former
2.3 The studios
2.4 The standings
2.5 Instant major studios
2.6 Other significant, formerly independent entities
3 History
3.1 The majors before the Golden Age
3.2 The majors during the Golden Age
3.3 The majors after the Golden Age
3.3.1 1950s1960s
3.3.2 1970s1980s
3.3.3 1990spresent

4 Organizational lineage
4.1 The eight Golden Age majors
4.1.1 Columbia Pictures
4.1.2 20th Century Fox
4.1.3 Warner Bros.
4.1.4 Paramount Pictures
4.1.5 Universal Pictures
4.1.6 Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer
4.1.7 United Artists
4.1.8 RKO Radio Pictures (defunct 196080, dormant 199397)

5 See also
6 References
7 External links

Majors

Current
 Other US/CA
Major film Genre
Studio parent Date divisions market
studio Arthouse/indie movie/B Animation
(conglomerate) founded and share
unit movie
brands (2016)[6]
WDSMP
DisneyToon
Walt Disney ESPN Films
Disneynature Studios
Studios Walt (80%)
Lucasfilm Pixar
(The Walt Disney 1923 A&E IndieFilms (50%) Miravista Films 26.09%1
Marvel Walt Disney
Disney Pictures Studios Animation
Touchstone
Company) Studios
Pictures
UTV Pictures

Cartoon Castle Rock

Network
CNN Films
Studios
Warner Bros. Warner New Line Flagship
Warner Bros.
Entertainment Bros. 1923 Cinema
Animation
(49%)[7] 16.86%2
(Time Warner) Pictures DC Films HBO Films
Warner
Animation Turner
Group Entertainment

Fox 2000
Pictures
Fox Star
Studios
Fox Blue Sky
Entertainment 20th Studios Kudos Film
Fox Searchlight and Television
Group Century 1935 20th 12.92%3
Pictures (50%)
(21st Century Fox Century Fox
New Regency
Fox) Animation (20%)
National
Geographic
Films (73%)

Amblin
Big Idea Partners
Entertainment (minority)[8]
Bullwinkle Focus World
Studios (50%) High Top
Universal Focus Features DreamWorks Releasing
Universal Gramercy
Studios
Pictures
1912 Working Title
Pictures
Animation Awesomeness 12.50%4
(Comcast) Films Illumination Films (51%)
Entertainment NBCU Ent.
Universal Japan
Animation Oriental
Studios DreamWorks
(45%)

Sony Pictures
Releasing
TriStar
Screen Sony Pictures[9]
Sony Pictures Gems Pictures TriStar
Sony Pictures Productions[10]
Motion Picture Columbia Affirm Animation
1924 Classics 8.07%5
Group Pictures Films Sony Left Bank
Destination Films Pictures
(Sony) Stage 6 Pictures
Films Imageworks SPWA[11]
Triumph Films
Funimation
Films (95%)

Paramount Paramount 1912 Nickelodeon Paramount 7.50%6

Motion Pictures Pictures Animation Players[12]
Group Studio Comedy
(Viacom) Paramount Central Films

Animation MTV Films

Nickelodeon
Movies
Paramount
Famous
 Productions
Viacom 18
Motion
Pictures (50%)

^1 Disney 20.71%; UTV Communications: +.08%; (Prev. totals: 2015 - 20.7%; 2014 - 14.9%; 2013 - 15.9%; 2012 - 14.7%; 2011-12.2%; 201014.3%;
200911.9%; 200811.4%; 200715.3%; 200616.7%; 200514.6%; 200416.5%)
^2 Warner Bros.: 13.9%; New Line: 2.9% (Prev. totals: 2015 - 14.0%; 2014 - 14.4%; 2013 - 17.08%; 2012 - 15.3%; 2011-18.1%; 201018.0%; 2009
20.1%; 200819.4%; 200720.5%; 200614.9%; 200521.7%; 200417.7%)
^3 20th Century Fox: 11.3%; Fox Searchlight: 1.0%(Prev. totals: 2015 - 12.7%; 2014 - 16.5%; 2013 - 10.80%; 2012-10.4%; 201
1-11.1%; 201014.8%;
200916.1%; 200813.2%; 200711.9%; 200617.0%; 200516.5%; 200411.7%)
^4 Universal: 21.3%; Focus Features: 1.0% (Prev. totals: 2015 - 21.6%; 2014 - 10.3%; 2013 - 13.9%; 2012-11.3%; 2011-11.3%; 20109.2%; 2009
10.0%; 200812.9%; 200712.7%; 200610.9%; 200513.2%; 200410.8%)
^5 Sony (Columbia/Screen Gems/TriStar): 8.4%; Sony Classics: 0.5% (Prev. totals: 2015 - 8.5%; 2014 - 11.6%; 2013 - 11.17% ; 2012 - 17.0%; 2011-
13.4%; 201012.8%; 200914.2%; 200813.4%; 200713.4%; 200619.3%; 20051
1.1%; 200416.8%)
^6 Paramount: 5.9% (Prev. totals: 2015 - 6.2%; 2014 - 9.7%; 2013 - 8.94%; 2012-8.3%;2011-19.3%; 201016.8%; 200914.3%; 200817.2%; 2007
16.1%; 200611.0%; 20059.8%; 20046.8%)

Former
Former majors include:

Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Pictures19241986 - became a mini-major studio

RKO Pictures 19281960 - became an independent studio
United Artists 19191982 - acquired by MGM

Mini-majors
Mini-major studios (or "mini-majors") are the larger film production companies that are smaller than the major studios and attempt to compete directly
with them.[13]

Current
 US/CA market
Studio parent Mini-major studio Date Other divisions
share
(conglomerate) unit founded and brands
(2016)[6]
Anchor Bay Films
CodeBlack Films
Globalgate Entertainment[18]
Lions Gate Motion Picture Group
Lionsgate Premiere
(Lions Gate Entertainment Lionsgate Films[17] 1997 5.9%
Pantelion Films (49%)
Corporation[14])[15][16]
Roadside Attractions(43%)
Summit Entertainment
Good Universe

STX Entertainment[19] STXfilms 2014 STXinternational 1.74%

Open Road
Tang Media Partners[20] 2011 IM Global (80%) 0.94%
Films[21]
Dimension Films
The Weinstein Radius-TWC
2005 0.43%
Company[22] TWC-Dimension
Kaleidoscope TWC

The Amblin Group[23]

Participant Media
Reliance Entertainment(Reliance ADA DreamWorks Pictures[27]
Group) Amblin Partners[26] 2015 Amblin Entertainment
Entertainment One[24] Storyteller Distribution
Alibaba Pictures (Alibaba Group)
NBCUniversal (Comcast)[25]

CBS Corporation CBS Films[21] 2007

Gaumont Film
1895 Gaumont Animation
Company[28]
MGM Animation
Metro-Goldwyn- United Artists
MGM Holdings 1924
Mayer[17] Orion Pictures
Mirror

Former
Former mini-majors included:

Allied Artists Pictures, 1967[29]

Artisan Entertainment[30] - purchased in 2003 by Lions Gate Entertainment
Avco Embassy, 1967[29]
The Cannon Group[31]
Castle Rock Entertainment[32] - purchased in 1993 byTurner Broadcasting System; TBS merged with Time Warner in 1996
DreamWorks Animation[17] - acquired by NBCUniversal in 2016[33]
FilmDistrict[21] - merged into Focus Features (a subsidiary of Universal) in 2014
Miramax Films[13] - owned by The Walt Disney Company from 1993 to 2010; sold toFilmyard Holdings in 2010, then to beIN Media
Group in 2016
New Line Cinema[13] - purchased in 1994 by Turner Broadcasting System; TBS merged with Time Warner in 1996; New Line merged
with Warner Bros. in 2008
New World Pictures[29] - acquired by News Corporation (then parent company of 20th Century Fox) in 1997
October Films[22] - purchased in 1997 by Universal; purchased in 1999 byBarry Diller and merged with Gramercy Pictures into USA
Films; USA in 2001 acquired byVivendi (then parent company of Universal) and merged withGood Machine and Universal Focus into
Focus Features
Orion Pictures[34] - in 1990, was considered the last of the mini-majors
[35] Purchased in 1988 by Kluge/Metromedia; purchased in 1997
by MGM
Overture Films[22] Distribution and marketing assets sold to Relativity Media in 2010.
 PolyGram Filmed Entertainment[13] - sold to Universal Studios in 1999; re-launched in 2017 asUniversal Music Group's film &
television production division, PolyGram Entertainment[36]
[37]
Republic Pictures - Produced many serials and was formed by the consolidation of six minor studios
Relativity Media - filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcyon July 15, 2015[38] Emerged in March 2016.
Summit Entertainment[22] - acquired by Lions Gate Entertainment in 2012
TriStar Pictures[34] - consolidated in 1987 into Columbia, one of the partners in the joint venture that created it
Walt Disney Productions / The Walt Disney Company - became a major studio[34]
Weintraub Entertainment Group[39]

The studios
Lions Gate Entertainment, which moved in 2006 from Vancouver, British Columbia, to Santa Monica, California, was the most successful North
American movie studio based outside the Los Angeles metropolitan area before its relocation. Now known as Lionsgate, it was founded in 1997 by
financier Frank Giustra.[40] (The company is unrelated to Lion's Gate Films, the Los Angelesbased production company run by filmmaker Robert
Altman in the 1970s.)[41] In 2003, the company doubled in size with the acquisition of Artisan Entertainment.[42] In January 2012, Lionsgate acquired
Summit Entertainment, which was the highest-grossing mini-major the previous three years.[43] Summit was founded as an independent overseas sales
company in 1991, moved into production in the mid-1990s, and was reconstituted as a full-fledged studio in 2006.[44] Lionsgate also owns a minority
stake in the independent distribution companyRoadside Attractions.[45]

Lionsgate is apparently on the cusp of becoming a major studio with the parent's purchase of Summit Entertainment as well as its controlling share of
Roadside Attractions (43%)[46] and Pantelion Films (as specialty units). With its top five box office showing it was declared a new major studio by
Variety;[45] however, The Hollywood Reporterdoes not yet recognize the company as a major
.[47]

The Weinstein Company was founded in late 2005 by brothers Harvey and Bob Weinstein after their departure from Miramax Films, which they had
founded in 1979. In 1993, they sold control of Miramax to the Walt Disney Company, continuing to run the studio in quasi-independent fashion under the
Disney umbrella. When the Weinsteins left Disney, they retained the right to the Dimension Films brand, which is used by The Weinstein Company (as it
was by Miramax) for genre films. After the success of 1408, released in June 2007, the studio went two years without a hit.[48] It experienced several
high-level executive defections in 2008, and announced major layoffs that November.[49] The Weinsteins have a long-standing relationship with Quentin
Tarantinoall of the feature films he has directed through 2009 have been distributed either by Miramax, when it was led by the brothers, or The
[50]
Weinstein Company. The successful release of hisInglourious Basterds in August 2009 was seen as a "turnaround" for the studio.

MGM, after decades as a major studio, continues to distribute motion pictures and television content as a minor, privately held media company. In April
2005, it was purchased from Kirk Kerkorian's Tracinda Corporation by a consortium including Sony, cable company Comcast, Providence Equity
Partners, and three other private investment firms. MGM has a deal with 20th Century Fox for the distribution of home video and overseas theatrical
product.[51] MGM is also once again the sole owner of United Artists, after Tom Cruise and Paula Wagner sold back their minority stakes. Via its original
1981 merger with UA, MGM controls the rights ot the James Bond franchise. Columbia co-distributed the first two Bond films starring Daniel Craig after
the 2005 purchase.[52] After a third Bond film with Craig was put on hold when MGM slipped into deep financial trouble, Sony reached an agreement
with MGM in April 2011 to distribute the next entry in the series.[53]

DreamWorks was founded in 1994 by Steven Spielberg, Jeffrey Katzenberg, and David Geffen. Once again independent with the founding of a new
company after two-and-a-half years under the Viacom/Paramount corporate umbrella, it is backed by India's Reliance ADA Group.[54] DreamWorks is
not a full-service studioit produces and finances films, but as it did for most of its first era as an independent, it arranges distribution through the
majors. In February 2009, after dropping out of a deal with Universal, DreamWorks struck such a deal with Disney, though Paramount was releasing the
DreamWorks pictures developed there through mid-2011.[55] The first independent DreamWorks film to be released under the new deal, via Touchstone,
was I Am Number Four in February 2011. Katzenberg, who was completely divested from the new DreamWorks, ran DreamWorks Animation as a totally
separate business. The company maintained distribution deals with DreamWorks Pictures, Paramount Pictures and 20th Century Fox.[56] On August 22,
2016, Universal Studios' parent company NBCUniversal acquired DreamWorks Animation for $3.8 billion, thereby granting Universal ownership access
to every DreamWorks Animation product and distribution rights for future movies. As part of the agreement, Katzenberg relinquished control of
orks New Media.[57][58] How
DreamWorks Animation to Illumination Entertainment's CEO Chris Meledandri while heading as new chairman of DreamW
to Train Your Dragon 3, which is scheduled to be released on March 1, 2019, will be the first DreamWorks Animation movie to be distributed by
Universal Studios.

The standings
In 2010, Summit led with $519.9 million in grosses and a 5.0% market share. Lionsgate was close behind with $513.9 million in grosses, good for a 4.9%
share. They were far ahead of the other mini-majors, none of which reached $100 million in grosses or a 1% share.[59] In 2009, Summit's mini-major-
leading figures were $480.4 million in grosses and a 4.5% market share. Lionsgate's $401.5 million in grosses gave it a 3.8% share. Two other companies
commanded market shares greater than 1%: Weinstein/Dimension (2.0%) and Overture Films (1.5%).[60] In 2008, Lionsgate topped the mini-majors with
$441.5 million in grosses, a 4.5% market share. Three other companies had over $100 million in box office grosses: Summit (2.4% market share),
[61]
MGM/UA (1.7% market share), and Overture (1.1% market share).

In 2007, Lionsgate and MGM/UA were virtually tied for the position of most successful mini-major in terms of market share, each with 3.8%. No other
independent studio had even a 1% market share.[62] In 2006, Lionsgate had a 3.6% market share, The Weinstein Company had a 2.5% market share, and
MGM/UA had a 1.8% market share.[63] In 2005, the still independent DreamWorks SKG had 5.7% and Lionsgate had 3.2%. Of MGM/UA's four
significant money-earners during 2005, it released three before its acquisition by the Sony-led consortium; MGM/UA's total market share for the year was
2.1%. The Weinstein Company, in its first three months of operation, gained 0.5% of the year's total market share.[64] In 2004, DreamWorks SKG had
10.0% (more than the Paramount Motion Pictures Group), Newmarket had 4.3% (due almost entirely to The Passion of the Christ), Lionsgate had 3.2%,
and MGM/UA had 2.1%.[65] In 2016, STX Entertainment a film studio founded in late 2014, had market share of 2.0% and ranking number eight, it also
had its first $100 million domestic film with the release ofBad Moms[66][67][67]

Instant major studios

"'Instant major' is a newly coined term for a film company that seemingly overnight has approached the status of major"[68] In 1967, three "instant
majors" studios popped up, two of which were partnered with aTelevision network theatrical film unit with most lasting until 1973:

Cinerama Releasing Corporation(distributor for ABC Pictures Corporation)

National General Corporation(distributor for Cinema Center Films)
Commonwealth United Corporation[29]

Other significant, formerly independent entities

Lucasfilm - purchased in 2012 by The Walt Disney Company
Pixar Animation Studios- purchased in 2006 by The Walt Disney Company
The Samuel Goldwyn Company- purchased in 1996 byJohn Kluge/Metromedia International; purchased in 1997 by MGM
Turner Pictures - purchased along withTurner Broadcasting System, Hanna-Barbera, Castle Rock Entertainment, New Line Cinema
and Turner Entertainment in 1996 by Time Warner

History

The majors before the Golden Age

In 1909, Thomas Edison, who had been fighting in the courts for years for control of fundamental motion picture patents, won a major decision. This led
to the creation of the Motion Picture Patents Company, widely known as the Trust. Comprising the nine largest U.S. film companies, it was "designed to
eliminate not only independent film producers but also the country's 10,000 independent [distribution] exchanges and exhibitors."[69] Though its many
members did not consolidate their filmmaking operations, the New Yorkbased Trust was arguably the first major North American movie conglomerate.
The independents' fight against the Trust was led by Carl Laemmle, whose Chicago-based Laemmle Film Service, serving the Midwest and Canada, was
the largest distribution exchange in North America. Laemmle's efforts were rewarded in 1912 when the U.S. government ruled that the Trust was a
"corrupt and unlawful association" and must be dissolved. On June 8, 1912, Laemmle organized the merger of his production division, IMP (Independent
Motion Picture Company), with several other filmmaking companies, creating the Universal Film Manufacturing Companyin New York City. By the end
of the year, Universal was making movies at two Los Angeles facilities: the former Nestor Film stu
dio in Hollywood, and another studio inEdendale. The
first Hollywood major was in business.[70]

In 1916, a second powerful Hollywood studio was established when Adolph Zukor merged his Famous Players Film Company movie production house
with the Jesse L. Lasky Companyto form Famous PlayersLasky. The combined studio acquired Paramount Pictures as a distribution arm and eventually
adopted its name. That same year, William Fox relocated his Fox Film Corporation from Fort Lee, New Jersey to Hollywood and began expanding.[71] In
1918, four brothersHarry, Albert, Sam, and Jack Warnerfounded the first Warner Brothers Studio on Sunset Boulevard in Hollywood. On April 4,
1923, the Warner Brothers incorporated their fledgling movie company asWarner
" Brothers Pictures, Inc."

The Motion Picture Theatre Owners of America and the Independent Producers' Association declared war in 1925 on what they termed a common enemy
the "film trust" of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Paramount, and First National, which they claimed dominated the industry by not only producing and
distributing motion pictures, but by entering into exhibition as well.[72] On October 6, 1927, Warner Bros. released The Jazz Singer, starring Al Jolson,
and a whole new era began, with pictures that talked, bringing the Studio to the forefront of the film industry. The Jazz Singer played to standing-room-
only crowds throughout the country and earned a special Academy Award for Technical Achievement.[73] Fox, in the forefront of sound film along with
Warners, was also acquiring a sizable circuit of movie theaters to exhibit its product.
The majors during the Golden Age
Between late 1928, whenRCA's David Sarnoff engineered the creation of theRKO (Radio-Keith-Orpheum) studio, and the end of 1949, when Paramount
divested its theater chainroughly the period considered Hollywood's Golden Agethere were eight Hollywood studios commonly regarded as the
"majors".[74][75] Of these eight, the so-called Big Five were integrated conglomerates, combining ownership of a production studio, distribution division,
and substantial theater chain, and contracting with performers and filmmaking personnel: Loew's/MGM, Paramount, Fox (which became 20th Century-
Fox after a 1935 merger), Warner Bros., and RKO. The remaining majors were sometimes referred to as the "Little Three" or major minor studios.[34]
Two - Universal and Columbia (founded in 1924)were organized similarly to the Big Five, except for the fact that they never owned more than small
theater circuits (a consistently reliable source of profits). The third of the lesser majors, United Artists (founded in 1919), owned a few theaters and had
access to production facilities owned by its principals, but it functioned primarily as a backer-distributor, loaning money to independent producers and
releasing their films. During the 1930s, the eight majors averaged a total of 358 feature film releases a year; in the 1940s, the four largest companies
shifted more of their resources toward high-budget productions and away from [74]
B movies, bringing the yearly average down to 288 for the decade.

Among the significant characteristics of the Golden Age was the stability of the Hollywood majors, their hierarchy
, and their near-complete domination of
the box office. At the midpoint of the Golden Age, 1939, the Big Five had market shares ranging from 22% (MGM) to 9% (RKO); each of the Little
Three had around a 7% share. In sum, the eight majors controlled 95% of the market and all the smaller companies combined had a total of 5%. Ten years
later, the picture was largely the same: the Big Five had market shares ranging from 22% (MGM) to 9% (RKO); the Little Three had shares ranging from
8% (Columbia) to 4% (United Artists). In sum, the eight majors controlled 96% of the market and all the smaller companies combined had a total of
4%.[76]

The majors after the Golden Age

1950s1960s
The end of the Golden Age had been signaled by the majors' loss of a federal antitrust case that led to the
divestiture of the Big Five's theater chains. Though this had virtually no immediate effect on the eight
majors' box-office domination, it somewhat leveled the playing field between the Big Five and the Little
Three. In November 1951, Decca Records purchased 28% of Universal; early the following year, the
studio became the first of the classic Hollywood majors to be taken over by an outside corporation, as
Decca acquired majority ownership.[77] The 1950s saw two substantial shifts in the hierarchy of the
Walt Disney Studios in Burbank,
majors: RKO, perennially the weakest of the Big Five, declined rapidly under the mismanagement of California
Howard Hughes, who had purchased a controlling interest in the studio in 1948. By the time Hughes sold
it to the General Tire and Rubber Companyin 1955, the studio was a major by outdated reputation alone.
In 1957, virtually all RKO movie operations ceased and the studio was dissolved in 1959. (Revived on a
small scale in 1981, it was eventually spun off and now operates as a minor independent company.) In
contrast, there was United Artists, which had long operated under the financing-distribution model the
other majors were now progressively shifting toward. Under Arthur Krim and Robert Benjamin, who
began managing the company in 1951, UA became consistently profitable. By 1956when it released
one of the biggest blockbusters of the decade, Around the World in 80 Daysit commanded a 10%
market share. By the middle of the next decade, it had reached 16% and was the second-most profitable
studio in Hollywood. Despite RKO's collapse, the majors still averaged a total yearly release slate of 253 Warner Bros. in Burbank, California
feature films during the decade.[74]

The 1960s were marked by a spate of corporate takeovers. MCA Inc., under Lew Wasserman, acquired
Universal in 1962; Gulf+Western took over Paramount in 1966; and the Transamerica Corporation
purchased United Artists in 1967. Warner Bros. underwent large-scale reorganization twice in two years:
a 1967 merger with the Seven Arts company preceded a 1969 purchase by Kinney National, under
Stephen J. Ross. MGM, in the process of a slow decline, changed ownership twice in the same span as
well, winding up in the hands of financier Kirk Kerkorian. The majors almost entirely abandoned low-
budget production during this era, bringing the annual average of features released down to 160.[74] The
decade also saw an old name in the industry secure a position as a leading player. In 1923, Walt Disney
had founded the Disney Brothers Cartoon Studio with his brother Roy and animator Ub Iwerks. Over the 20th Century Fox in Century City, Los
following three decades Disney became a powerful independent focusing on animation and, from the late Angeles
1940s, an increasing number of live-action movies. In 1954, the companynow Walt Disney
Productionsestablished Buena Vista Film Distribution to handle its own product, which had been
distributed for years by various majors, primarily United Artists and then RKO. (Disney's 1937 Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, released by RKO, was
the second biggest hit of the 1930s.) In its first year, Buena Vista had a major success with 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea, the third biggest movie of
1954. In 1964, Buena Vista had its first blockbuster, Mary Poppins, Hollywood's biggest hit in half a decade. The company achieved a 9% market share
that year, more than Fox and Warner Bros. Though over the next two decades, Disney/Buena Vista's
share of the box-office would again hit similar marks, its relatively small output and exclusive focus on
family movies meant that it was not generally considered a major
.

1970s1980s
The early 1970s were difficult years for all the majors. Movie attendance, which had been declining
steadily since the Golden Age, hit an all-time low in 1971. In 1973, MGM president James T. Aubrey Jr.
drastically downsized the studio, slashing its production schedule and eliminating its distribution arm Universal Studios in Universal City,
California
(UA would distribute the studio's films for the remainder of the decade). From fifteen releases in 1973,
the next year MGM was down to five; its average for the rest of the 1970s would be even lower.[78] Like
RKO in its last days under Hughes, MGM remained a major in terms of brand reputation, but little more.
MGM, however, was not the only studio to trim its release line. By the mid-1970s, the industry had
rebounded and a significant philosophical shift was in progress. As the majors focused increasingly on
the development of the next hoped-for blockbuster and began routinely opening each new movie in many
hundreds of theaters (an approach called "saturation booking"), their collective yearly release average
fell to 81 films during 197584.[74] The classic set of majors was shaken further in late 1980, when the
disastrously expensive flop of Heaven's Gate effectively ruined United Artists. The studio was sold the
following year to Kerkorian, who merged it with MGM. After a brief resurgence, the combined studio
again declined. From the mid-1980s on, MGM/UA has been at best a "mini-major", to use the present-
day term. Sony Pictures in Culver City,
California
Meanwhile, a new member was finally admitted to the club of major studios and two significant
contenders emerged. With the establishment of its Touchstone Pictures brand and increasing attention to
the adult market in the mid-1980s, Disney/Buena Vista secured acknowledgment as a full-fledged
major.[34] Film historian Joel Finler identifies 1986 as the breakthrough year, when Disney rose to third
.[79] The two
place in market share and remained consistently competitive for a leading position thereafter
contenders were both newly formed companies. In 1978, Krim, Benjamin, and three other studio
executives departed UA to found Orion Pictures as a joint venture with Warner Bros. It was announced
optimistically as the "first major new film company in 50 years".[80] Tri-Star Pictures was created in
1982 as a joint venture of Columbia Pictures (then owned by the Coca-Cola Company), HBO (then
owned by Time Inc.), and CBS. In 1985, Rupert Murdoch's News Corporation acquired 20th Century-
Paramount Pictures in Hollywood
Fox, the last of the five relatively healthy Golden Age majors to remain independent throughout the
entire Golden Age and after.

In 1986, the combined share of the six classic majorsat that point Paramount, Warner Bros., Columbia, Universal, Fox, and MGM/UAfell to 64%,
the lowest since the beginning of the Golden Age. Disney was in third place, behind only Paramount and Warners. Even including it as a seventh major
and adding its 10% share, the majors' control of the North American market was at a historic ebb. Orion, now completely independent of Warner Bros.,
and Tri-Star were well positioned as mini-majors, each with North American market shares of around 6% and regarded by industry observers as "fully
competitive with the majors".[81] Smaller independents garnered 13%more than any studio aside from Paramount. In 1964, by comparison, all of the
companies beside the then seven majors and Disney had combined for a grand total of 1%. In the first edition of Finler's The Hollywood Story (1988), he
wrote, "It will be interesting to see whether the old-established studios will be able to bounce back in the future, as they have done so many times before,
[82]
or whether the newest developments really do reflect a fundamental change in the US movie industry for the first times since the 20s."

1990spresent
With the exception of MGM/UAwhose position was effectively filled by Disneythe old-established studios did bounce back. The purchase of Fox by
Murdoch's News Corp. presaged a new round of corporate acquisitions. Between 1989 and 1994, Paramount, Warners, Columbia, and Universal all
changed ownership in a series of conglomerate purchases and mergers that brought them new financial and marketing muscle. Paramount's parent
company Gulf+Western was renamed Paramount Communications in 1989 and was merged with Viacom five years later. Warners merged with Time Inc.
to give birth to the conglomerate Time Warner. Coke sold Columbia to Japanese electronics firm Sony also in 1989. And Universal's parent MCA was
purchased by Matsushita. By the early 1990s, both Tri-Star and Orion were essentially out of business: the former consolidated into Columbia, the latter
bankrupt and sold to MGM. The most important contenders to emerge during the 1990s, New Line, the Weinsteins' Miramax, and DreamWorks SKG,
were likewise sooner or later brought into the majors' fold, though DreamW
orks and the Weinstein brothers are now independent again.

The development of in-house pseudo-indie subsidiaries by the conglomeratessparked by the 1992 establishment of Sony Pictures Classics and the
success of Pulp Fiction (1994), Miramax's first project under Disney ownershipsignificantly undermined the position of the true independents. The
majors' release schedule rebounded: the six primary studio subsidiaries alone put out a total of 124 films during 2006; the three largest secondary
subsidiaries (New Line, Fox Searchlight, and Focus Features) accounted for another 30. Box-office domination was fully restored: in 2006, the six major
movie conglomerates combined for 89.8% of the North American market; Lionsgate and Weinstein were almost exactly half as successful as their 1986
[83]
mini-major counterparts, sharing 6.1%; MGM came in at 1.8%; and all of the remaining independent companies split a pool totaling 2.3%.

Only one of the major studios changed corporate hands during the first decade of the 2000s, though it did so three times: Universal was acquired by
Vivendi in 2000, then by General Electric four years later, and finally by Comcast in 2011. More developments took place among the majors' subsidiaries.
The very successful animation production housePixar, whose films were distributed by Buena Vista, was acquired by Disney in 2006. In 2008, New Line
Cinema lost its independent status within Time Warner and became a subsidiary of Warner Bros. Time Warner also announced that it would be shutting
down its two specialty units, Warner Independent and Picturehouse.[84] In 2008 as well, Paramount Vantage's production, marketing, and distribution
departments were folded into the parent studio,[85] though it retained the brand for release purposes.[86][87] Universal sold off its genre specialty division,
Rogue Pictures, to Relativity Media in 2009.[88] Disney closed down Miramax's operations in January 2010,[89] and sold off the unit and its library that
July to an investor group led by Ronald N. Tutor of the Tutor Perini construction firm and Tom Barrack of the Colony Capital private equity firm.[90]

Organizational lineage

The eight Golden Age majors

The eight major film studios of the Golden Age have gone through the following significant ownership changes ("independent" meaning customarily
identified as the primary commercial entity in its corporate structure; "purchased" meaning acquired anything from majority to total ownership):

Columbia Pictures

independent as CBC Film Sales, 19181924 (founded byHarry Cohn, Joe Brandt, and Jack Cohn)
independent, 19241982 (company changes name as Columbia Pictures Corporation; goes public in 1926; changes name in 1968 to
Columbia Pictures Industries after merging with TV subsidiary Screen Gems)
Coca-Cola, 19821987 (purchased by Coca-Cola;Tri-Star Pictures, a joint venture with HBO and CBS initiated in 1982CBS drops
out in 1985 and HBO in 1986)
independent as Columbia Pictures Entertainment (or Columbia/T ri-Star), 19871989 (divested by Coca-Cola; Coke's entertainment
business sold to Tri-Star and takes 49% in CPE)
Sony, 1989present (purchased by Sony)

20th Century Fox

Independent, 19351985 (founded byJoseph Schenck and Darryl F. Zanuck; fully purchased by Marc Rich and Marvin Davis in 1981;
Rich's interest purchased by Davis in 1984; half of Davis's interest purchased by
Rupert Murdoch's News Corporation in March 1985)
News Corporation, 19852013 (purchased the remainder of Davis's shares in September)
21st Century Fox, 2013present (renamed conglomerate on June 28, 2013)

Warner Bros.

Independent, 19181929 (founded byJack L. Warner, Harry Warner, Albert Warner, and Sam Warner; Sam Warner died in 1927)
Independent as Warner Bros.First National,19291967 (acquires First National Pictures; syndicate led by Jack Warner, Serge
Semenenko of First National Bank of Boston, and Charles Allen Jr. purchased controllinginterest in 1956)
Warner Bros.Seven Arts, 19671969 (purchased by and merged withSeven Arts Productions)
Kinney National Company, 19691972 (Kinney purchased Warner Bros.Seven Arts)
Warner Communications, 19721989 (Kinney spun off non-entertainment assets and changed name)
Time Warner, 1989present (Warner merged with Time Inc.; from 2000 to 2003, the parent company was known as AOL ime T Warner,
following merger with AOL)

Paramount Pictures

Independent as Famous PlayersLasky , 19161921 (founded by Adolph Zukor and Jesse L. Lasky)
Independent, 19221966 (company adopted distribution division's name)
Gulf+Western Industries, 19661989 (purchased by Gulf+Western)
Paramount Communications, 19891994 (Gulf+Western changed name after selling non-entertainment assets)
Viacom, 19942005 (Viacom purchased Paramount)
Viacom, 2006present (Viacom split into two companies: "new" Viacomwith Paramount Pictures,MTV, BET, and other cable
channelsand CBS Corporationwhich includes CBS Television Studios; both companies are controlled byNational Amusements)

Universal Pictures
 Independent, 19121946 (founded byCarl Laemmle, Pat Powers, Adam Kessel, Charles Baumann, Mark Dintenfass, William
Swanson, David Horsley, and Jules Brulatour)
independent as Universal-International, 19461952 (merged with International Pictures)
Decca, 19521962 (purchased by Decca)
MCA Inc., 19621990 (MCA purchased Decca)
Matsushita Electric, 19901995 (Matsushita purchased MCA)
Seagram, 19952000 (purchased by Seagram from Matsushita)
Vivendi, 20002004 (Vivendi purchased Seagram)
General Electric/Vivendi, 20042011 (jointly owned by GE (80%) and Vivendi, S.A. (20%) and merged withNBC to form NBC
Universal)
Comcast/General Electric, 20112013 (Comcast purchased 51% of redubbedNBCUniversal)
Comcast, 2013present (Comcast bought the remaining 49% from GE)

Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer

Loew's Incorporated, 19241959 (founded by Marcus Loew; controlling interest in Loew's purchased by William Fox in 1929; Fox was
forced to sell off interest in 1930; operationalcontrol ceded by Loew's to studio management in 1954)
independent, 19591990 (fully divested by Loew's; purchased byEdgar Bronfman Sr. in 1967; purchased byKirk Kerkorian in 1969;
United Artists purchased by Kerkorian in 1981 and merged into MGM; purchased by Ted Turner in 1986; repurchased by Kerkorian
seventy-four days later; purchased byGiancarlo Parretti in 1990)
Crdit Lyonnais, 19921997 (foreclosed upon by bank after Parretti defaulted)
Tracinda Corporation, 19972005 (repurchased by Kerkorian)
MGM Holdings, 2005present

Sony/Comcast/4 private equity firms, 20052010 (purchased by Sony, Comcast, and private investment firmsProvidence Equity
Partners currently owns the greatest number of sharesand privately held as a minor media company independent of
Sony/Columbia)
Credit Suisse, JPMorgan Chase, other former bondholders (2011present) includingCarl Icahn (2011-2012)

United Artists

independent, 19191967 (founded byCharles Chaplin, Douglas Fairbanks, D. W. Griffith, and Mary Pickford; operational control by
Arthur Krim and Robert Benjamin from 1951; fully purchased by Krim and Benjamin in 1956)
Transamerica, 19671981 (purchased by Transamerica)
MGM/UA, 19811992 (purchased by Kirk Kerkorian from rTansamerica and merged into MGM; see above for further detail)

RKO Radio Pictures (defunct 196080, dormant 199397)

RCA, 19281935 (founded byDavid Sarnoff)

independent, 19351955 (half of RCA's interest purchased byFloyd Odlum, control split between RCA, Odlum, andRockefeller
brothers; controlling interest purchased by Odlum in 1942; controlling interest purchased by
Howard Hughes in 1948; Hughes interest
purchased by Stolkin-Koolish-Ryan-Burke-Corwin syndicate in 1952; interest repurchased by Hughes in 1953; fully purchased by
Hughes in 1954)
General Tire and Rubber, 19551984 (purchased by General Tire and Rubbercoupled with General Tire's broadcasting operation as
RKO Teleradio Pictures; production and distribution halted in 1957; movie business dissolved in 1959 and RKOeleradio
T renamed
RKO General; RKO General establishes RKO Pictures as production subsidiary in 1981)
GenCorp, 19841987 (reorganization creates holding company with RKO General and Generalire T as primary subsidiaries)
Wesray Capital Corporation, 19871989 (spun off from RKO General, purchased by Wesraycontrolled by William E. Simon and Ray
Chambersand merged with amusement park operations to form RKO/Six Flags Entertainment)
independent, 1989present (split off from Six Flags, purchased by Dina Merrill and Ted Hartley, and merged with Pavilion
Communications; no films produced or distributed from 1993 through 1997)

See also
Seven sisters the seven major studios during the 1980s through mid-2000s
Hollywood history and culture
Media conglomerate
Big Three the three major music corporations:Universal Music Group, Sony Music Entertainmentand Warner Music Group; formerly
the Big Six: before Universal acquiredPolyGram in 1998 and merged withEMI in 2012,[91] and Sony and BMG merged in 2004

References
1. Epstein, Edward Jay (2006).The Big Picture: Money And Power in Hollywood
. New York: Random House. pp. 1419, 82, 109, 133.
ISBN 9780812973822.
 2. Bettig, Ronald V.; Jeanne Lynn Hall (2012). Big Media, Big Money: Cultural Texts and Political Economics (2nd ed.). Lanham, MD:
Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 59108.ISBN 9781442204294.
3. Barnes, Brooks (9 November 2014)."Disney Film Boss Ousted by Warner Finds Vindication in Success" (https://www.nytimes.com/201
4/11/10/business/media/alan-horn-rights-the-ship-at-disney-and-fortune-follows.html)
. New York Times. The New York Times
Company. Retrieved 9 November 2014.
4. Barnes, Brooks (26 March 2011)."In Hollywood, a Decade of Hits Is No Longer Enough"(https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/27/busines
s/27steal.html). New York Times. The New York Times Company. Retrieved 10 November 2014.
5. Flew, Terry (2012). The Creative Industries: Culture and Policy. London: SAGE. p. 128.ISBN 9781446273081.
6. "Market Share for Each Distributor in 2016"(http://www.the-numbers.com/market/2016/distributors). The-Numbers.com. Nash
Information Services, LLC. Retrieved January 16, 2016."Market Share for Each Distributor in 2015"(http://www.the-numbers.com/mark
et/2015/distributors). The-Numbers.com. Nash Information Services, LLC. Retrieved January 16, 2015."Market Share for Each
Distributor in 2014" (http://www.the-numbers.com/market/2014/distributors). The-Numbers.com. Nash Information Services, LLC.
Retrieved January 16, 2015. "Leading Domestic Distributors in 2013"(http://www.the-numbers.com/market/2013/distributors). The
Numbers/Nash Information Services. 2014. Retrieved 2014-02-03. For previous years' data in section notes, see"Leading Domestic
Distributors in 2012" (http://www.the-numbers.com/market/2012/distributors). The Numbers/Nash Information Services. 2013 .
Retrieved 2013-02-03. "Market Share for Each Distributor in 2011"(http://www.the-numbers.com/market/Distributors2011.php). The
Numbers/Nash Information Services. 2012. Retrieved 2012-02-03. "Market Share for Each Distributor in 2010"(http://www.the-number
s.com/market/Distributors2010.php). The Numbers/Nash Information Services. 2011 . Retrieved 2011-01-26. "Market Share for Each
Distributor in 2009" (http://www.the-numbers.com/market/Distributors2009.php). The Numbers/Nash Information Services. 2010 .
Retrieved 2010-01-19. "Market Share for Each Distributor in 2008"(http://www.the-numbers.com/market/Distributors2008.php). The
Numbers/Nash Information Services. 2009. Retrieved 2010-01-19. Studio Market Share (2007)(http://www.boxofficemojo.com/studio/?
view=company&view2=yearly&yr=2007&p=.htm) , Studio Market Share (2006)(http://www.boxofficemojo.com/studio/?view=company&v
iew2=yearly&yr=2006&p=.htm), Studio Market Share (2005)(http://www.boxofficemojo.com/studio/?view=company&view2=yearly&yr=
2005&p=.htm), and Studio Market Share (2004)(http://www.boxofficemojo.com/studio/?view=company&view2=yearly&yr=2004&p=.ht
m). Retrieved March 3, 2009.
7. Frater, Patrick (2015-09-20)."China Media Capital, Warner Bros. Seal Flagship Production Pact"(http://variety.com/2015/film/asia/chin
a-media-capital-warner-bros-seal-flagship-production-pact-1201597886/) . Variety. Retrieved 2016-11-25.
8. Perry, Spencer (February 15, 2017)."Universal Studios Buys a Minority Stake in Amblin Partners"(http://www.comingsoon.net/movies/
news/814659-universal-studios-buys-a-minority-stake-in-amblin-partners)
. Comingsoon.net. Retrieved February 20, 2017.
9. Divisions (http://www.sonypictures.com/corp/divisions.html). Sony Pictures Entertainment: SonyPictures.com. Accessed on November
7, 2013.
10. Fleming, Mike Jr. "Tom Rothman To Launch New TriStar Productions Label For Sony (http://www.deadline.com/2013/08/tom-rothman-t
o-launch-new-tristar-productions-label-for-sony/#more-554730)
" Deadline Hollywood (August 1, 2013).
11. About (http://www.sonypicturesworldwideacquisitions.com/about/). Sony Pictures Worldwide Acquisitions.com.Accessed on November
7, 2013.
12. McNary, Dave (June 7, 2017)."Paramount Pictures Launches New Production Division Headed by Brian Robbins" (http://variety.com/2
017/film/news/paramount-pictures-brian-robbinsparamount-players-1202457210/)
. Variety. Retrieved June 30, 2017.
13. "mini-major" (http://www.variety.com/static-pages/slanguage-dictionary/#m). Variety - Slanguage Dictionary. Reed Elsevier Inc.
Retrieved 2 July 2012.
14. "LIONS GATE ENTERTAINMENT COR (LGF:New York)" (http://investing.businessweek.com/research/stocks/snapshot/snapshot.asp?t
icker=LGF). Bloomberg Businessweek. Bloomberg. Retrieved 28 January 2014.
15. Agency, RED Interactive. "Corporate" (https://www.lionsgate.com/corporate/governance/management/steve-beeks/).
www.lionsgate.com. "He is also responsible for the overall operations of the Lionsgate Motion Picture Group,
"
16. "Lions Gate Entertainment Corporation Company History"(http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/Lions-Gate-Entertainm
ent-Corporation-Company-History.html). Funding Universe. Retrieved October 14, 2011.
17. "Movie Studios A-Z" (http://www.filmbug.com/studios/). filmbug.com. Misja.com. Retrieved 2 July 2012.
18. Lieberman, David (2016-05-02)."Lionsgate Partners With Execs At Film Initiative a
Trgeting Global Local Markets"(http://deadline.com/
2016/05/lionsgate-partnership-globalgate-entertainment-local-market-films-1201747841/). Deadline. Retrieved 2016-11-01.
19. Guerrasio, Jason (August 16, 2016)."How this smaller movie studio is succeeding in Hollywood by breaking all the rules" (http://www.b
usinessinsider.com/how-stx-entertainment-is-competing-with-big-hollywood-studios-2016-8) . Business Insider. Retrieved October 28,
2016. "But with the recent news that the company has received significant strategic investments from two major players in Hong Kong,
it has suddenly become a powerful mini-major that plans to spend as much yearly in the making and marketing of its content as the big
conglomerates like Disney, Sony, and Warner Bros."
20. Lang, Brent (August 7, 2017)." 'Spotlight' Studio Open Road Sells to T
ang Media Partners" (http://variety.com/2017/film/box-office/spotl
ight-studio-open-road-sells-to-tang-media-partners-1202517264/). Variety. Retrieved September 26, 2017.
21. Manis, Aimee (March 20, 2013)."Beyond the Big 6: Mini Majors Gain Momentum"(https://web.archive.org/web/20140902141446/http://
www.studiosystemnews.com/beyond-the-big-6-mini-majors-gain-momentum/). Studio System News. Archived from the original (http://w
ww.studiosystemnews.com/beyond-the-big-6-mini-majors-gain-momentum/)on September 2, 2014. Retrieved March 20, 2013. Cite
error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "ssn" defined multiple times with different content (see the
help page).
22. "Distributor report cards: Mini-majors, specialty divisions and indies"(http://www.filmjournal.com/filmjournal/content_display/news-and-f
eatures/features/movies/e3i0d1b247e2040d9db25b41c5a8fe4dae5?pn=1) . Film Journal International. September 1, 2009. Retrieved
2 July 2012.
23. "EX-99.1" (https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1297401/000119312516450671/d277745dex991.htm)
. www.sec.gov. Retrieved
2016-11-27.
24. "DreamWorks Studios, Participant Media, Reliance Entertainment and Entertainment One Form Amblin Partners, a New Film,
Television and Digital Content Creation Company" (http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20151216006049/en/DreamWorks-Studio
s-Participant-Media-Reliance-Entertainment-Entertainment)(Press release). Business Wire. Universal City, California. December 16,
2015. Retrieved December 23, 2015. "Film projects in various stages of production include: The BFG, and The Light Between
Oceans, scheduled for release by Disney in 2016."
25. Perry, Spencer (February 15, 2017)."Universal Studios Buys a Minority Stake in Amblin Partners"(http://www.comingsoon.net/movies/
news/814659-universal-studios-buys-a-minority-stake-in-amblin-partners)
. Comingsoon.net. Retrieved February 20, 2017.
26. "Steven Spielberg, Participant, eOne and Reliance Form Amblin Partners"
(http://www.comingsoon.net/movies/news/641693-steven-sp
ielberg-participant-eone-and-reliance-form-amblin-partners)
. Comingsoon.net. December 16, 2015. Retrieved December 16, 2015.
27. "Steven Spielberg's DreamWorks Relaunches as Amblin Partners" (https://www.wsj.com/articles/steven-spielbergs-dreamworks-relaun
ches-as-amblin-partners-1450301848). The Wall Street Journal. December 16, 2015. Retrieved December 16, 2015.
28. Keslassy, Elsa (August 5, 2013)."Gaumont Intl. Television Staff Up L.A. Headquarter"(http://variety.com/2013/tv/international/gaumont-
intl-television-staff-up-l-a-headquarter-1200573947/). Variety. Retrieved August 5, 2013. "Gaumont International Television, the French
mini-majors L.A.-based production and distribution studio, is staf
fing up its Los Angeles office with the appointment of three new execs.
(France)"
29. Cook, David A. (2000). Page 10.Lost Illusions: American Cinema in the Shadow of W
atergate and Vietnam, 1970-1979 (https://books.
google.com/books?id=HVygqYMVP2wC&lpg=PA332&ots=-V2jhKZi9s&dq=ABC%20Circle%20Films&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q=ABC%2
0Circle%20Films&f=false). University of California Press.
30. Carver, Benedict (1998-09-28)."Artisan Home Entertainment ups exex"(http://variety.com/1998/biz/news/artisan-home-entertainment-
ups-exex-1117480800/). Variety. Retrieved 2016-10-08. "Artisan Home Entertainment, a division of mini-major Artisan Entertainment,
has upped Jed Grossman to senior vice president, rental sales and distribution.
"
31. Delugach, Al (August 24, 1986)."Cannon Bid as Major Studio Is Cliffhanger : Firm's Future at Risk in High-Stakes Gamble - purchased
by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer"(http://articles.latimes.com/1986-08-24/business/fi-17584_1_major-studios) . Los Angeles Times. Retrieved
2 July 2012.
32. "Film & TV Finance 101"(http://www.experience.com/alumnus/article?channel_id=Entertainment&source_page=editor_picks&article_id
=article_1132770893333). Guidance. Experience, Inc. Retrieved 2 July 2012.
33. "Comcast completes DreamWorks acquisition" (http://www.philly.com/philly/business/20160823_Comcast_completes_Dreamworks_ac
quisition.html). philly-archives. Retrieved 2016-10-08.
34. Schatz, Tom. "The Studio System and Conglomerate Hollywood". The Studio System (http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/content/BPL
_Images/Content_store/Sample_chapter/9781405133876/9781405133876_C01.pdf) (PDF). Blackwell Publishing."Disney also
exploited new technologies and delivery systems, creating synergies that were altogether unique among the studios, and that finally
enabled the perpetual mini-major to ascend to major studio status.
"
35. Easton, Nina J. (1990-07-19)."Whither Orion? : The Last of the Mini-Major Studios Finds Itself at a Crossroads"
(http://articles.latimes.
com/1990-07-19/entertainment/ca-363_1_studio-executives) . The Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2010-12-28.
36. "Universal Music Relaunching Polygram, Announces 'Story of Motown' as First Production"(http://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/news/t
v-film/7686199/universal-music-relaunching-polygram-announces-story-of-motown-as)
. billboard.com. Retrieved 17 February 2017.
37. Dixon, Wheeler Winston (August 28, 2012).Death of the Moguls: The End of Classical Hollywood(https://books.google.com/books?id=
sU_6AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA67&lpg=PA67&dq=%22Republic+Pictures%22+mini-major&sour ce=bl&ots=q9I3wJ4pYT&sig=H94Svi0K8x1Oi
Tu1eUOn3WTnlaY&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjQ3JDC8sjXAhUL2mMKHc5hBr0Q6AEIVDAL#v=onepage&q=%22Republic%20Pictu
res%22%20mini-major&f=false)(illustrated ed.). Rutgers University Press. p. 67.ISBN 9780813553788. Retrieved November 18,
2017.
38. Patten, Dominic; Fleming, Mike, Jr. (30 July 2015). "Ryan Kavanaugh's Relativity Media Finally Files Chapter 11 Bankruptcy"
(http://de
adline.com/2015/07/relativity-bankruptcy-ryan-kavanaugh-chapter-11-filing-1201485656/) . Deadline.com. Retrieved 7 August 2015.
39. Cieply, Michael (January 11, 1989)."Weintraub's Worries : Box-Office Flops Add to Woes of Flashy 'Mini-Major' " (http://articles.latimes.
com/1989-01-11/entertainment/ca-194_1_box-of fice). Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2 July 2012.
40. "Lions Gate Entertainment Corporation"(http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/Lions-Gate-Entertainment-Corporation-Co
mpany-History.html). Funding Universe. Retrieved 2010-05-12.
41. Cook (2000), p. 97.
42. "Lions Gate Entertainment Corp /CN/ 8-K 20090917 Exhibit 99"(http://yahoo.brand.edgar-online.com/EFX_dll/EDGARpro.dll?FetchFili
ngHtmlSection1?SectionID=6803313-5614-32464&SessionID=09R1HCJwqZFYHR7) . Edgar Online. September 17, 2009. Retrieved
2010-05-12.
43. "It's Official: Lionsgate Has Acquired SummitEntertainment for $412.5 Million"(http://www.comingsoon.net/news/movienews.php?id=8
5972). ComingSoon.net. 2012-01-13. Retrieved 2012-02-03.
44. Barnes, Brooks (2008-11-19)."For Studio, Vampire Movie Is a Cinderella Story" (https://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/20/business/media/
20summit.html). New York Times. Retrieved 2008-12-19.
45. Josh L. Dickey "Variety" 800 million reasons Lionsgate is mini no more(http://www.variety.com/article/VR1118060141/)variety.com,
Retrieved on February 7, 2013
46. JAY A. FERNANDEZ "Indiewire" SEPTEMBER 13, 2012 Toronto 2012: Just What's Going on With Lionsgate and Roadside
Attractions? Here Are Some Answers.(http://www.indiewire.com/article/toronto-2012-just-whats-going-on-with-lionsgate-and-roadside-
attractions-lgf-acquisitions-head-jason-constantine-provides-some-answers)
indiewire.com, Retrieved on February 12, 2013
47. Vlessing, Etan (January 2, 2013).".Lionsgate Stock Hits All-Time High on Film and TV Slate Prospects"(http://www.hollywoodreporter.
com/news/lionsgate-stock-hits-all-time-407455). Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 11 February 2013.
48. Teodorczuk, Tom (2008-07-25). "Weinsteins' Hollywood Star Begins to Fade"(http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/mediat
echnologyandtelecoms/2793494/Weinsteins'-Hollywood-star-begins-to-fade.html). Telegraph. Retrieved 2008-12-19. Segal, David
(2009-08-16). "Weinsteins Struggle to Regain Their T
ouch" (https://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/16/business/media/16wein.html?_r=1&h
p). New York Times. Retrieved 2009-08-16.
49. Goldstein, Gregg (2008-11-21)."Weinstein Co. Lets Go of 24"(http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/hr/content_display/news/e3i8e47fc3e
1fcb41bfa66529852d374e2a). Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 2008-12-19.
50. Barnes, Brooks (2009-08-23)."Brad Pitt Pulls Them In at the Box Office" (https://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/24/movies/24box.html?hp
w). New York Times. Retrieved 2009-08-25.
51. Halbfinger, David M. (2008-06-08)."MGM: A Lion or a Lamb?"(https://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/08/business/media/08mgm.html).
New York Times. Retrieved 2008-09-29.
52. Barnes, Brooks & Michael Cieply (2008-11-16)."A Studio, a Star, a Fateful Bet" (https://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/17/business/media/
17cruise.html?scp=2&sq=%22harry%20sloan%22%20mgm&st=cse) . New York Times. Retrieved 2008-12-19.
53. Child, Ben (2011-04-14)."Sony Joins James Bond Rescue"(https://www.theguardian.com/film/2011/apr/14/sony-james-bond-mgm-dea
l). Guardian. Retrieved 2011-06-06.
54. Thompson, Anne & Tatiana Siegel (2008-09-19). "DreamWorks, Reliance Close Deal"(http://www.variety.com/VR1117992505.html).
Variety. Retrieved 2008-12-23.
55. Graser, Marc & Tatiana Siegel (2009-02-09)."Disney Signs Deal with DreamWorks" (http://www.variety.com/article/VR1117999836.htm
l?categoryid=13&cs=1). Variety. Retrieved 2009-02-14.
56. Fritz, Ben (2008-09-26)."DreamWorks Toons Stay Put" (http://www.variety.com/VR1117992976.html). Variety. Retrieved 2008-12-23.
57. "Comcast Completes Its $3.8B DreamWorks Animation Purchase" (http://deadline.com/2016/08/comcast-completes-dreamworks-anim
ation-purchase-1201807164/). Deadline.com. Retrieved 23 August 2016.
58. "Comcast's NBCUniversal completes purchase of DreamWorks Animation" (http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/envelope/cotown/la-
et-ct-comcast-dreamworks-deal-complete-20160822-snap-story
.html). Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 23 August 2016.
59. "Market Share for Each Distributor in 2010"(http://www.the-numbers.com/market/Distributors2010.php). The Numbers/Nash
Information Services. 2011. Retrieved 2011-01-26.
60. "Market Share for Each Distributor in 2009"(http://www.the-numbers.com/market/Distributors2009.php). The Numbers/Nash
Information Services. 2010. Retrieved 2010-01-19.
61. "Market Share for Each Distributor in 2008"(http://www.the-numbers.com/market/Distributors2008.php). The Numbers/Nash
Information Services. 2009. Retrieved 2010-01-19.
62. Studio Market Share (2007)(http://www.boxofficemojo.com/studio/?view=company&view2=yearly&yr=2007&p=.htm)part of
BoxOfficeMojo.com. Retrieved August 9, 2009 (with Premier Pass allowing access to data of all distributors, rather than universally
accessible top 12).
63. Studio Market Share (2006)(http://www.boxofficemojo.com/studio/?view=company&view2=yearly&yr=2006&p=.htm)part of
BoxOfficeMojo.com. Retrieved May 14, 2007 (with Premier Pass allowing access to data of all distributors, rather than universally
accessible top 12).
64. Studio Market Share (2005)(http://www.boxofficemojo.com/studio/?view=company&view2=yearly&yr=2005&p=.htm)part of
BoxOfficeMojo.com. Retrieved May 14, 2007 (with Premier Pass allowing access to data of all distributors, rather than universally
accessible top 12).
65. Studio Market Share (2004)(http://www.boxofficemojo.com/studio/?view=company&view2=yearly&yr=2004&p=.htm)part of
BoxOfficeMojo.com. Retrieved May 14, 2007 (with Premier Pass allowing access to data of all distributors, rather than universally
accessible top 12).
66. D'Alessandro, Anthony (3 September 2016)." 'Bad Moms' Sleeps Its Way To The Top Of The B.O.; Becomes STX's First $100M
Domestic Hit" (http://deadline.com/2016/09/bad-moms-stx-entertainment-1201813120/)
.
67. " 'Don't Breathe' #1 Over 4-Day Weekend, 'Suicide Squad' Tops $300M & 'Bad Moms' Crosses $100M - Box Of
fice Mojo" (http://www.b
oxofficemojo.com/news/?id=4220&p=.htm).
68. Thomas, Bob (May 8, 1968)."Instant Major' Is New Term For Film Companies" (https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/39700755/).
The Daily Times. Salisbury, Maryland. AP. Retrieved May 11, 2015.
69. Hirschhorn (1983), p. 9.
70. Hirschhorn (1983), p. 11.
71. Thomas and Solomon (1985), p. 12
72. "Theatre Owners Open War on Hays", The New York Times, May 12, 1925, p. 14.
73. Warner Bros. held 42,000 shares of commonstock out of 72,000 outstanding shares, while Fox Pictures held 21,000 shares, and
12,000 shares were publicly held. "Warner Buys First National", The Wall Street Journal, September 27, 1928, p. 3. Fox sold its shares
of First National to Warner Bros. in November 1929. "Fox Holdings in First National Pictures Sold", The W
ashington Post, November 4,
1929, p. 3. 8.^ "Film Concern Dissolves", The New o Yrk Times, July 12, 1936, p. F1.
74. Finler (2003), pp. 36467.
75. "230 Pix On Season's Production Charts Ready"(https://archive.org/stream/filmdaily75wids#page/n3/mode/2up)
. The Film Daily.
January 3, 1939. pp. 1, 3. Retrieved December 26, 2015.
76. Finler (2003), p. 40.
77. Hirschhorn (1983), p. 157.
78. Finler (2003), pp. 155, 366.
79. Finler (2003), pp. 32425.
80. Cook (2000), p. 319.
81. Thompson, Anne (1987-05-10). "VCRs Sending People Back to Theaters".
San Francisco Chronicle. p. 29.
82. Finler (1988), p. 35.
83. Studio Market Share (2006)(http://www.boxofficemojo.com/studio/?view=company&view2=yearly&yr=2006&p=.htm)part of
BoxOfficeMojo.com. Retrieved May 20, 2007.
84. Hayes, Dade & Dave McNary (2008-05-08)."Picturehouse, WIP to Close Shop"(http://www.variety.com/article/VR1117985299.html?ca
tegoryid=13&cs=1). Variety. Retrieved 2009-01-18.
85. Goldsmith, Jill & Tatiana Siegel (2008-12-04). "Viacom Lays Off 850 Staffers" (http://www.variety.com/article/VR1117996816.html?cate
goryid=3284&cs=1). Variety. Retrieved 2009-02-23.
86. "Paramount Vantage Acquires Worldwide Rights" (http://www.paramount.com/news/press-releases/paramount-vantage-acquires-world
wide-rights-to-the-new-film-by-oscar-winning-documentarian-davis-gu)
(Press release). Paramount. 2010-01-22. Retrieved
2010-01-31.
87. Ng, Philiana (2011-04-15)."Paramount Vantage Sets Release Date for Sundance Winner 'Like Crazy'" (http://www.hollywoodreporter.c
om/risky-business/paramount-vantage-sets-release-date-179119)
. Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 2011-06-06.
88. Borys, Kit (2009-01-04)."Relativity Completes Rogue Acquisition"(http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/hr/content_display/film/news/e3i7
fcfe6ddd3b5d6c23c7d5bc685b4e12d). Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 2009-08-09.
89. Waxman, Sharon (2010-01-27)."Miramax Dies: Rest in Peace"(http://www.thewrap.com/ind-column/rip-miramax-13606). The Wrap.
Retrieved 2010-01-31.
90. Barnes, Brooks & Michael Cieply (2010-07-30)."Disney Sells Miramax for $660 Million"(https://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/31/busines
s/media/31miramax.html). The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-07-30.
91. "Universal-EMI Merger: A Timeline Of Events" (http://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/news/1083872/universal-emi-merger-a-timeline-of-
events). Billboard. 21 September 2012. Retrieved 8 April 2013.

Works cited

Cook, David A. (2000).Lost Illusions: American Cinema in the Shadow of W atergate and Vietnam, 19701979 (Berkeley, Los Angeles,
and London: University of California Press).ISBN 0-520-23265-8.
Eames, John Douglas (1985).The Paramount Story (New York: Crown). ISBN 0-517-55348-1.
Finler, Joel W. (1988). The Hollywood Story, 1st ed. (New York: Crown). ISBN 0-517-56576-5.
Finler, Joel W. (2003). The Hollywood Story, 3d ed. (London and New York: Wallflower). ISBN 1-903364-66-3.
Hirschhorn, Clive (1983).The Universal Story (London: Crown). ISBN 0-517-55001-6.
Hirschhorn, Clive (1999).The Columbia Story (London: Hamlyn). ISBN 0-600-59836-5.
Jewell, Richard B., with Vernon Harbin (1982). The RKO Story (New York: Arlington House/Crown).ISBN 0-517-54656-6.
Schatz, Thomas (1998 [1989]).The Genius of the System: Hollywood Filmmaking in the Studio Era(London: Faber and Faber).
ISBN 0-571-19596-2.
Thomas, Tony, and Aubrey Solomon (1985).The Films of 20th Century-Fox(Secaucus, N.J.: Citadel).ISBN 0-8065-0958-9.

External links
Media related to Film studios at Wikimedia Commons
Media related to Film production companiesat Wikimedia Commons

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Major_film_studio&oldid=812464668

"

This page was last edited on 28 November 2017, at 00:10.

Text is available under theCreative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to
the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia is a registered trademark of theWikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.