Extracts: Living Systems Principles The Natural World Living Systems

and Their Relevance to Design

By Terry Irwin

Principles of Holistic Science Source: Thin

MSc Thesis, Holisic Science: Holistic Design rela
Holistic Science is a relatively new field of study that pp. 22-66
focuses on the emergent properties of whole systems together Schumacher College/University of Plymouth, Devon onst
with the role of their constituent parts. It focuses on the coming England, 2004 repr
in h
into being of organisms, their overall form and their patterns hier
of relationship and growth. Holistic Science looks at the visual Article Synopsis: diffe
This article is based upon the premise that
patterns of nature and natural dynamics as a way of understand- a better understanding of the principles and
map

ing how they came to be and sees both living and non-living dynamics that characterize heathy eco-sys- of L
systems on the planet as interconnected and symbiotic strands tems could aid in designing moreRelationship
Network appropri- socia
in a complex web of life. ately and responsibly. It includes ideas and are a
concepts from late 20th century science web
Many important principles and theories have arisen out of such as chaos and complexity theories to
this field of inquiry but among the most relevant to designers explain how life organizes itself and creates thin
defin
are: conditions condusive to life (Gaia Theory).
desig
Principles such as systems/networks/wholes,
sequ
Systems, networks & wholes Fields & Attractors fractal structure, emergent properties, fields into
Fractal structure Feedback loops andHierarchy
attractors, feedback loops, cooperation way
and growth are discussed, along with their
Chaos & complexity Cooperation
relevance to design.
Emergent properties Growth

Systems, networks and wholes

One of the chief characteristics of Cartesian thought was
the belief that complex systems could be understood entirely Cultural

from the properties of the parts. This type of analytic think-

ing deconstructs parts into ever smaller parts; a method that
works until one reaches the paradox at the sub-atomic level dis-
cussed earlier. Social

Fritjof Capra in The Web of Life [1996] says The great

shock of twentieth-century science has been that systems can not be P

understood by analysis. The properties of the parts are not intrinsic

properties but can be understood only within the context of the larger
whole. 6

Thinking in terms of network and

22 relationship
w field of study that The diagram at left dem-
hole systems together onstrates three ways of visually
focuses on the coming representing the same concept. Only
in human social systems does true
rm and their patterns hierarchy exist and we can see how
nce looks at the visual different this concept appears when
as a way of understand- mapped in the various ways.
Fritjof Capra in The Web
ving and non-living of Life maintains that biological,
and symbiotic strands Network Relationship social, cultural and physical systems
are all interconnected in a complex
web of life.
ories have arisen out of This challenges designers to
relevant to designers think more carefully about how they
define context for the things they
design and to understand that con-
sequences of their designs ripple out
ields & Attractors into the environment in unforeseen
Hierarchy
eedback loops ways.
ooperation
rowth One of the most important characteristics of life on this
rest whose When we think of the organi- planet is that the web of life is comprised of systems nested
n within zation of life in this way we intui- within other systems and that their primary organizing struc-
Cartesian
tem is vital. thought
tively feel was
that it is networked and
ture is that of a network. Capra goesCultural
on to say that ...an out-
beunderstood
as simple as nested as opposed to separate and
entirely
as complex as hierarchical. standing property of all life is the tendency to form multileveled
pe of analytic
er animals; yet think-
It may be possible to think structures of systems within systems. Each of these forms a whole
rhemparts;
a multi- a method thatwe design in much
about the things Biological
with respect to its parts while at the same time being a part of a
nisms such as the same way; as parts of wholes
he sub-atomic level dis- larger whole. Thus cells combineSocial
to form tissues, to form organs, and
nested within larger systems. The
diagram on the following page organs to form organisms. These in turn exist within social systems
996] says The greatthis concept.
demonstrates
and ecosystems. Throughout the living worldPhysical
we find living systems
that systems can not be nesting within other living systems. 7
e parts are not intrinsic Capra maintains that there are three kinds of living sys-
n the context of the larger temsorganisms, parts of organisms and communities of organ-
ismsall of which are integrated wholes whose essential prop-
erties derive from the interactions and interdependence of their
systems of parts. These are all organized within a network structure with a
organisms complex web of nodes that might represent organsims within
169
an ecosystem or organs within a mammal. The concept of nodes
eral forms of order, complex
of relationship has great relevance for designers which I will
explain in more detail in the section on Origins of Form.
It is important to remember that even though these net-
 Capra maintains that there are three kinds of living sys-
temsorganisms, parts of organisms and communities of organ-
ismsall of which are integrated wholes whose essential prop-
erties derive from the interactions and interdependence of their
systems of parts. These are all organized within a network structure with a
organisms complex web of nodes that might represent organsims within The Natural World Living Systems
an ecosystem or organs within a mammal. The concept of nodes
eral forms of order, complex
of relationship has great relevance for designers which I will
explain in more detail in the section on Origins of Form.
It is important to remember that even though these net-
work structures nest within one another and new ones reveal
themselves at varying levels of magnitude, it is not a hierarchi-
cal structure (which does not exist in nature), but a nested and
cooperative one. This underscores the image of a complex web
in which not even one strand can be disturbed without affect-
ing the entire web. In The Tao of Physics, Capra quotes the
physicist David Bohm on this topic:
One is led to a new notion of unbroken wholeness which
denies the classical idea of analyzability of the world into separately
and independently existing parts...we have reversed the usual clas-

23

The Organizational Structure of Life One of the most important characteristics of li

In evolution there is a progres-
sion from multiplicity and chaos
to oneness and order. There is also
progressive development of
complex multi-component individ-
uals, fewer in number but more
accomplished in behavior than the
previous entities.
Systems of organisms include
large and complex ecosystems such
parts of
organisms
great multiplicity/
little coordination
simple webs
of relationship
as the amazon rainforest whose
inuence and function within
the greater Gaian system is vital.
Organisms can be as simple as
single cell amoeba or as complex as
human beings or other animals; yet
who contain within them a multi-
tude of parts of organisms such as
organs, cells etc.
systems of
organisms organisms
highly coordinate general forms of order, complex
webs of relationship
When we think of the organi-
zation of life in this way we intui-
tively feel that it is networked and
nested as opposed to separate and
hierarchical.
It may be possible to think
about the things we design in much
the same way; as parts of wholes
nested within larger systems. The
diagram on the following page
demonstrates this concept.
planet is that the web of life is comprised of systems
within other systems and that their primary organizi
ture is that of a network. Capra goes on to say that .
standing property of all life is the tendency to form multi
structures of systems within systems. Each of these forms
with respect to its parts while at the same time being a p
larger whole. Thus cells combine to form tissues, to form
organs to form organisms. These in turn exist within soc
and ecosystems. Throughout the living world we find livi
nesting within other living systems. 7
Capra maintains that there are three kinds of l
temsorganisms, parts of organisms and communities
ismsall of which are integrated wholes whose essen
erties derive from the interactions and interdependen
parts. These are all organized within a network struc
complex web of nodes that might represent organsi
an ecosystem or organs within a mammal. The conc
of relationship has great relevance for designers which
explain in more detail in the section on Origins of For
It is important to remember that even though
work structures nest within one another and new on
themselves at varying levels of magnitude, it is not a
cal structure (which does not exist in nature), but a ne
cooperative one. This underscores the image of a com
in which not even one strand can be disturbed witho
ing the entire web. In The Tao of Physics, Capra qu
physicist David Bohm on this topic:
One is led to a new notion of unbroken wholenes
denies the classical idea of analyzability of the world into
and independently existing parts...we have reversed the u

sical notion that the independent elementary parts of the world

ects off clouds are the fundamental reality, and that various systems are merely
particular contingent forms and arrangements of these parts. Rather
we say that inseparable quantum inter-connectedness of the whole
universe is the fundamental reality and that relatively independently
>
behaving parts are merely particular and contingent forms within
>

IR WARM AIR this whole. 8

>

>

D.M.S. derivative forms clouds Perhaps the most eloquent example of wholeness is
ND
> Gaia Theory 9, the name that scientist James Lovelock gave
D.M.S. produced by Coccoliths rises.
WI to his vision of Earth as a single physiological system that,
COLD AIR
>

>
like other living organisms, has the ability to self-regulate and
created
maintain optimum conditions for life. He and biologist Lynn
Margulis developed the theory that biota and the environment
>
>

are inextricably and equally linked in a complex web of sym-

Water turbulence brings nutrients to surface,
providing Coccolithophores with food.
ccolithophores play a key role in maintaining
important Gaian cycles
biotic relationships that regulate climate and have maintained
relatively constant temperatures to support life for millennia.
The diagram on the facing page and above right, show
two of the natural processes that involve both living and non-liv-
ing systems in a cycle of interaction and exchange. More impor-
tantly, the diagram near left shows that it would be folly to think
that the largest (or most sentient) life forms are the most impor- 170
tant in maintaining life. Even the tiniest and seemingly most
insignificant organism has an important role to play.
This is the complex story of every plant, animal, micro-
organism and non-living element such as rocks and oceans
 Symbiotic Relationships in Gaian Systems: The Long-Term Carbon Cycle
One of the most important Carbon Dioxide is released into the
Gaian systems is the long-term atmosphere from volcanoes.
>
carbon cycle, that together with oth- CO2
Co2 Rainfall
ers such as the sulfur and nitrogen
cycles form a tightly woven whole.

....
Carbon dioxide is the key metabolic
> >
gas of the earth, inuencing global Bicarbonate
...
climate, plant growth and oxygen rock weathering
production; all conditions for life.
The diagram above demonstrates
Carbon dioxide is constantly
how carbon dioxide circulates
circulating through the system
through the environment in a
with the current level in the air

>
negative/self-regulating feedback
being approximately 0.03 per cent.
loop. (See more on feedback loops
The balance constantly uxuates
later in this section.)
between the rates at which it leaks
in (volcanoes) and is pumped out
(photosynthesis).
Plants through their growth
>

break up surface granite and micro-

organisms also hasten the weather-
ing with enzymes and organic acids
in the soil coupled with the carbonic
acid and CO2 in the water.
Respiration-weathered calcium
and bicarbonate are washed down
to the sea and used by the micro-
scopic marine life to form shells.
Coccolithophores use
carbonates to form shells
(CaCO3)
Ca2++ 2HCO3 > CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O
The carbon that was locked up in CO2 now nds
itself part of a bicarbonate icon in relationship
to a calcium ion from the rock. Microorganisms
accelerate rock weathering (below right) in
calcium-rich rocks such as granite and basalt

>
The ocean algae also draw down
CaSiO3 + 2CO2 +HH2O

>
carbon dioxide from the air and
CO2 is locked up 2+
when these micro ora die, their Ca + 2HCO3 + Si
SiOO2
as carbonates and
shells sink to the ocean oor to form washed to sea by
sediments of limestone and chalk. the rain and rivers
The cycle begins again when these Example of rock weathering
Caa2+and 2HCO3 taken on The Dartmoor.
deposits are subducted and once
again brought up and exhaled by
volcanoes.
>

Rocks (limestone, etc.)

The illustration at right shows Limestone is subducted and
formed by accumulation of
The Natural World Living Systems

this process in greater chemical dead coccolithophores released into atmosphere

detail. CaCO3 + SiO2 > CaSiO3 + CO2

171
24
 relatively constant temperatures to support life for millennia.
The diagram on the facing page and above right, show
olithophores play a key role in maintaining two of the natural processes that involve both living and non-liv-
mportant Gaian cycles ing systems in a cycle of interaction and exchange. More impor-
tantly, the diagram near left shows that it would be folly to think
that the largest (or most sentient) life forms are the most impor- The Natural World Living Systems
tant in maintaining life. Even the tiniest and seemingly most
insignificant organism has an important role to play.
This is the complex story of every plant, animal, micro-
organism and non-living element such as rocks and oceans
intertwined in a dance of life, growth, decay and renewal that
goes on all around us all the time. All these processes are per-
fectly balanced to sustain and support life on the planet; it is
only when humans introduce man-made process and objects
that contain overly synthesized (and toxic or non-biodegradable)
compounds or introduce harmful activities (such as mining,
ld with the The key may have some- logging, dumping of waste into water supplies, industrial farming
thing to do with the spiritual and
n in his book intuitiveeven sacredwhich
etc.) that this relatively robust system of balance is disrupted to25
e Artificial seems to be conspicuously absent the point that natural processes can no longer compensate.
Simons con- from much of the theoretical dis- The kind of symbiosis demonstrated by Gaia Theory is
of design cussion regarding designed objects.
n our culture, We would not find it out of life sustaining, beautiful and functional and should be the fun-
material. 10 place to be deeply moved or touched damental model upon which human design is based.
heory that spiritually by a beautiful sunset
If designers can begin to understand the concept of
e of the arti- or feel the sacred intent that was
Natural present in the building of structures wholes and see a world comprised of networks nested within
about natural such as Stonehenge or Notre Dame networks, they may begin to see that any boundary they draw
a. 11 He saw Cathedral. Even the simplest plant
and phe- or tree can inspire us if we truly
around a problem is an artificial one. They may understand
umans. observe it. Few people could say the that the consequences of the things they design (whether they
l distinction, same for a blender or box of laun- are messages, things, activities or environments) will ripple out
e boundaries dry detergent.
are intellec- Could it be that what is
into both society and the environment in ways they will never
alizing that missing is an understanding of fully be able to see or predict. They may come to understand
ucts of the wholeness at the onset of the that seemingly small decisions or components of a solution
ore the forms design process?
world are in In my essay on Holistic can have very large effects, such as the microorganisms role in
. Science I said there may be two regulating earth processes.
d a criteria aspects of wholeness that we must
Instead of designing with a one off or one size fits all
artificial attempt to understand. One can be
ds. He discerned and understood through mentality (which is a reductionist approach) designers can begin
gs derive from sensory techniques and quantita- to design with wholes in mind and understand that even a
ch he termed tive observation, but the other may
ysis, or the involve an almost spiritual (or at
commission to design something as simple as a household
w we relate to least intuitive) element in which blender is a single strand in a web of relationships that they
s character- wholeness is experienced as a state must attempt to understand in greater depth (which is a holistic
als, adapta- of appropriateness, completeness
n terms of or oneness that has something of
approach). The blender, in fact, becomes a node of relation-
descriptives. the qualities of health and beauty ships.
the most about it. 12 The diagram on the opposite page asks whether or not
h designers I would now add that
ntion is the designing with a consideration of human-created design can be seen as embedded within a web
natural and where and how the thing designed of relationships the same way whole systems in the natural
can the sits within the web of life is also
world are. Can the things we design be thought of as organisms,
nto the world and essential part of the design
amlessly process. parts of organisms and ecosystems? When we examine the images
on the top level of the diagram we have an innate understand-
ing of their relationships to each other. However the images
along the bottom are simply separate messages, objects and 27
activities that do not necessarily have any relationship to one
anotherbecause they have been designed that way.
If designers can learn to think in terms of whole systems
and see the things they design as nodes within a complex
web of relationships, they might be able to forge connections
between the messages, things and environments they design
that would make them more sustainable, beautiful and func- The self-similarity of fractal structure that can provide clues or
tional. Part of forming these connections would require the structure is found throughout principles to guide the making of seem
design of a better interface between the artificial world created nature in both living and non-living man-made forms. even
forms. What are the visual and lated
by humans and the natural one, which is the greater whole One of the important areas for structural harmonies found within func
within which everything exists. designers to explore is whether there natural forms that makes them form
are commonalities or characteris- meaningful, beautiful and more embu
tics between seemingly unrelated importantlycompatiblewith same
Fractal Structures forms that form a type of universal each other and their environment?
If networks, systems and wholes are how life on this planet
organizes itself, then fractal structure is the form in which it
manifests. We cannot talk about wholes and parts in the natural
world without examing the fractal nature of many of the things
of which it is comprised.
Fractal structure simply refers to the self-similar and itera-
tive structure that seems to underlie most natural forms in
the universe and is also the order that characterizes the dynam-
ics of chaos. One of the most striking aspects of fractal struc-
ture is that its characteristic patterns are found repeatedly at abov
descending scales, so that their parts, at any scale, are similar in emat
simp
shape to the whole. This self-similarity is found in both the liv- comp
ing and non-living realms; rocks on mountains look like small less i
show
mountains, braches of lightening look like branches on trees
scale
or the patterns of a river delta. These in turn resemble the ves- untiv
sels within our own circulatory system and it goes on and on. plexi
172 itself

28
 ecosystems
cells

molecules organisms
communities
Living systems
In the living world, organisms are aggregates of autonomous but closely coupled cells; communities are networks of atuonomous organisms belonging to a single species; and
ecosystems are webs of organisms, both single celled and multicellular, belonging to many different species.* In the articial world of designed forms, a similar multilayered structure
of systems nesting within systems exists. Messages are fragments of experience which reect our perception of objects or things, which are instruments of action, all of which are
organized in complex environments by a unifying or organzing idea.**

Articial systems

things
messages
actions
environments
26 *From Fritjof Capras The Web of Life **Based upon Dick buchanans 4 Domains of Design

Living vs. artificial systems:
Designing with wholeness in
mind
If we look at the diagram
on the opposite page, along the top
row we can see Capras concept of
parts and wholes illustrated from
the micro to the meta levels.
We understand how cells
relate to organisms and we have
known since we were children that
there are communities of indi-
viduals in the human, animal and
insect worlds. Many people also
understand that communities of
various species combine with liv-
ing and non-living systems to form
complex ecosystems through a tight
web of relationships and intercon-
nections.
Gaia Theory, explained on
the previous pages, sees the earth
itself as a self-regulating system
that is comprised of countless
ecosystems which in turn are com-
prised of countless communities,
individuals and so on.
With this diagram I ask-
whether designers can approach the
things they design with a greater
awareness of wholes and the
networked and nested nature of
natural systems. Can we design for
relationship the way nature does?
Can we see a message or the design
of a babys high chair as part of
a greater whole and a node of
countless relationships that extend
out into both the natural and arti-
ficial world?
And can designers incorpo-
rate into their process a fundamen-
tal concern for the interface of the
artificially created world with the
natural one?
Victor Margolin in his book
The Politics of the Artificial
cites theorist Herbert Simons con-
tention that a process of design
underlies everything in our culture,
both material and immaterial. 10
Simon developed the theory that
design was the science of the arti-
ficial in 1969, saying Natural
Science is knowledge about natural
objects and phenomena. 11 He saw
the artificial as objects and phe-
nomena invented by humans.
This is a useful distinction,
but we must hold these boundaries
lightly, knowing they are intellec-
tual constructs and realizing that
we ourselves are products of the
natural worldtherefore the forms
we bring forth into the world are in
a way, extensions of it.
Simon proposed a criteria
for distinguishing the artificial
from the natural worlds. He
believed artificial things derive from
the act of making which he termed
synthesis, while analysis, or the
act of observing is how we relate to
nature. The artificial is character-
ized by functions, goals, adapta-
tion and is discussed in terms of
imperatives as well as descriptives.
Perhaps one of the most
vital areas upon which designers
should focus their attention is the
interface between the natural and
artificial worlds. How can the
things we bring forth into the world
blend naturally and seamlessly
with it?
The key may have some-
thing to do with the spiritual and
intuitiveeven sacredwhich
seems to be conspicuously absent
from much of the theoretical dis-
cussion regarding designed objects.
We would not find it out of
place to be deeply moved or touched
spiritually by a beautiful sunset
or feel the sacred intent that was
present in the building of structures
such as Stonehenge or Notre Dame
Cathedral. Even the simplest plant
or tree can inspire us if we truly
observe it. Few people could say the
same for a blender or box of laun-
dry detergent.
Could it be that what is
missing is an understanding of
wholeness at the onset of the
design process?
In my essay on Holistic
Science I said there may be two
aspects of wholeness that we must
attempt to understand. One can be
discerned and understood through
sensory techniques and quantita-
tive observation, but the other may
involve an almost spiritual (or at
least intuitive) element in which
wholeness is experienced as a state
of appropriateness, completeness
or oneness that has something of
the qualities of health and beauty
about it. 12
I would now add that
designing with a consideration of
where and how the thing designed
sits within the web of life is also
and essential part of the design
process.
logging, dumping of waste into water supplies,
etc.) that this relatively robust system of bal
the point that natural processes can no long
The kind of symbiosis demonstrated
life sustaining, beautiful and functional and
damental model upon which human design
If designers can begin to understand
wholes and see a world comprised of netw
networks, they may begin to see that any bo
around a problem is an artificial one. They
that the consequences of the things they de
are messages, things, activities or environments
into both society and the environment in w
fully be able to see or predict. They may com
that seemingly small decisions or compone
can have very large effects, such as the micr
regulating earth processes.
Instead of designing with a one off o
mentality (which is a reductionist approach) d
to design with wholes in mind and unders
commission to design something as simple
blender is a single strand in a web of relatio
must attempt to understand in greater depth
approach). The blender, in fact, becomes a
ships.
The diagram on the opposite page as
human-created design can be seen as embe
of relationships the same way whole system
world are. Can the things we design be thou
parts of organisms and ecosystems? When we
on the top level of the diagram we have an i

173
 Natural and Human-made Fractal Forms as living beings, resonate more completely.
The images on this page show fractal-like
forms that are both natural and man-made. We These qualities of pattern, imperfect/organic repetition and
cannot speak of fractals without also talking of pat- rich diversity relate to the next principle of Holistic Science that
tern, however the fractal patterns here are distinctly
is addressed: Chaos and Complexity.
different from the patterns on the facing page. Unlike
the Euclidian, mechanical forms opposite, these all
have an organic self-similarity that comes from an Chaos & Complexity The Natural World Living Systems
irregularity in the pattern that imbues it with what
architect Christopher Alexander calls life.
We cannot contemplate chaos and complexity without
In his book The Phenomenon of Life thinking of its complement; simplicity. As weve already seen
[2002] Christopher Alexander likens the life present in from the principles of wholes/systems and fractal structure,
non-living things to the Japanese concept of wabi sabi
which translates to rusty beauty and says, ...these
the natural world is one of incredible diversity and complexity
things are all beautiful, but they are all damaged. of forms, that scientists speculate arises from relatively simple
Life itself is damaged, and nothing which is perfect parameters of generation.
can truly be alive...this quality, the real life, the deep
life of all great art, and of all genuine experience is The complexity of fractal form repeats itself at each level of Chaotic systems and The evolution of the system is rep-
phase space resented as the shape produced in
our aim. 17 scrutiny and each part of the greater whole is in itself a whole. The 19th century French math- phase space by a moving point.
Modern design is based on highly simplistic, Euclidian-based 33 ematician Henri Poincare was These shapes are called strange
one of the first to realize that the attractors (such as the Lorenz at-
forms (that do not reflect the complexity and diversity found in
behavior of a complex system can tractor below) because the system
nature) and conceived as parts unrelated to greater interrelated become unpredictable if it consists will stay within the region described
wholes. of a few parts that interact with by the points in the phase space that
each other, such as three interact- define the attractor.
John Briggs and David Peat in the book Turbulent ing planets. He found that in some Mathematical phase space made
Mirror suggest that ...instead of thinking of the whole as the cases a slight change in initial con- possible the application of chaos
sum of all parts, think of it as what rushes in under the guise of ditions results in large-scale differ- theory to all manner of natural
ence in result. The classic hypothesis phenomenon from weather patterns
chaos whenever scientists try to separate and measure dynamical sys- is the butterfly flapping its wings in to biological morphology.
tems as if they were composed of parts. 18 the Amazon creating a hurricane More importantly, as Peter
The scientific definition of chaos refers to the underly- on the other side of the world. Reason and Brian Goodwin state in
This is really the basis of their paper Toward a Science of
ing interconnectedness that exists between seemingly random complexity theory. It is termed Qualities in Organizations,
events and chaos science focuses on the hidden patterns and complexity because a system must Since most natural processes are at
be complex enough for unexpedted least as complex as the weather, the
subtle sensitivity to conditions as well as the rules for how the
properties to emerge and within world is fundamentally unpredict-
unpredictable leads to the new. Chaos theory and the math- this context, an essential ingredi- able in the sense that small changes
ematics of complexity have allowed science to better understand ent of complexity is non-linearity. can lead to unforeseeable results.
The science of non-linear dynamics This means the end of scientific
the natural dynamics that produce thunderstorms, raging includes chaos theory because from certainty, which is a property of
rivers, hurricanes, behavior in ant colonies, cloud formations non-linear equations, unpredictable simple systems. 19
and irregular coastlines. The natural world is filled with open, trajectories emerge.
This is described as determin-
non-linear systems such as these, however they could not be istic chaos because deterministic
adequately understood or modeled by scientists until the math- mathematical equations result
ematics of complexity was developed. in unpredictable motion to an
observer.
This tool enabled scientists to model the nonlinear inter- One way to study chaotic sys-
connected characteristics of networks. Briggs and Peat say tems of this type is to abstract them
from time into phase space. This
There exists within these mathematics a round-off error or what
is a mathematical space with six
Joseph Ford calls the missing information that spills in at the dimensions, three of which are the
seventeenth or thirty-first or 5-millionth iteration and obliterates usual spatial dimensions of width,
height and depth that determine
prediction...Los Alamos theoretical physicist Frank Harlow says the position. In phase space, a point
uncertainties or errors, the missing information, in knowing the ini- can be represented in terms of
tial conditions of dynamical systems are similar to the seeds which position and velocity which maps
the overall motion of the system.
produce turblence and chaos: the butterflys wings (see sidebar at
right),
34 a rough spot of ice crystals on the surface of a plane wing, an
As the system/organism
exchanges energy and
The system reaches a point
of bifurcation, in which
electron on the outskirts of the galaxy. Anything might be a seed if
matter with its environment
it moves further from
it 'chooses' a path of evolution
to a new and more complex
its in the right place in the right dynamic. 20
equilibrium. level of organization...
They go on to say that this theory refutes the contention
.... ....
that our place in the cosmos is inconsequential because seem-
.... ...
.... . ..
..

Bifurcation Point

..

.... .... ingly inconsequential events can have a major impact in a non-
.... ....
.... ...
.... ...

linear universe. Chaos theory has implications on many levels

..

..

........
and in their book Seven Lessons of Chaos [1999], Briggs
and Peat say: ...each of us as an individual is inter-connected to
diagram is based upon Ilya Prigogines Theory the systems of nature, society, and thought that surround and flow
ssipative Structures, based upon the second through us. We live within movements constantly affecting each
f thermal dynamics. What is interesting is
other and creating an unpredictable chaos at many levels. Yet within
te the characteristics of non-linear systems as
move further from equilibrium toward a this same chaos is born all the physical and psychological order that
ve crisis, bifurcation point or even a phase we know. 21 In a way, chaos theory is not only an explanation of
ition
how life organizes itself, it is something of a cultural metaphor
that runs counter to our intuition.
s seem to be new form of order will emerge that is
Most of us see chaos as a realm of disorder and lack of
of reality and impossible to predict. Once a form is meaning; to be avoided at all costs. Recent discoveries in
npredictable chosen, a degree of determinism science however, have shown that it is actually a highly creative
resumes. Most of nature is made up
hat order of such systems that are in a con- state out of which emerge new and incredibly rich forms
equilibrium stant exchange of energy and matter of life. The sidebar at left describes Nobel Prize winning scien-
quilibrium with their environment and each
tist Ilya Prigogines Theory of Dissipative Structures 22 which
ined by a con- other. In such structures, it is ironic
rgy and matter that disorder or non-equilibruim describes how systems at a bifurcation point may evolve
nt. In the actually becomes the source of order. up into new and unpredictable forms of order when they are on
ms, order is Prigogines theory locates
of this energy self-organization as the source of
the edge of chaos.
haracteristic of spontaneous emergence of ordered As the diagram on the left shows, as open systems (we our-
structure and behavior in open selves are open, dynamic and non-linear systems) move away from
systems move (non-linear) systems that exist in a
um, local state far from equilibrium and that
equilibrium toward chaos they also move into higher levels
using them to are described mathematically by of complexity. The behavior of the system becomes more unpre-
disorder. At a non-linear equations. dictable, but surprisingly, it often become more stable (due to
tion point) a
the increase of feedback loops; see page 47) and increases the What Chaos can teach us about large suburban area. All of these
design situations are common scenarios adv
opportunities for creativity and innovation (or for new forms of 35 Designers from all disiciplines for architects, interior, graphic and way
order to emerge). pride themselves in their ability product designers. ing
to solve problems; some mundane A corporate culture that is tion
For designers these principles can suggest new ways of
and simple, others so complex that unraveling can174 seem like barely com
designing and viewing problems within their greater contexts. projects may last years from concept contained chaos (Ive consulted
A traditional designers tendency to judge an existing situation to completion. with several coporations in this situ- Th
In my thirty years as a ation) and is usually one in which exp
as chaotic or entirely dysfunctional may be wrong. These situa- designer I have seen a collective people are angry, fearful, suspicious erin
tions can instead be viewed as states in which latent patterns
 produce turblence
The Natural and
World Living chaos: the butterflys win
Systems
Characteristics of Dissipative Structures
right), a rough spot of ice crystals on the surfac
As the system moves
further into disorder,
Equilibrium As the system/organism
exchanges energy and
The system reaches a point
of bifurcation, in which
electron on the outskirts of the galaxy. Anything
the number of feedback
loops increases,
matter with its environment
it moves further from
it 'chooses' a path of evolution
to a new and more complex
its in the right place in the right dynamic. 20
The
providing a high degree
of stability.
Natural World Living Systems
equilibrium. level of organization...
They go on to say that this theory refute
. . . .. . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . ....... .......
.... ....
that our place in the cosmos is inconsequen

.... ...
.... . ..
..
Bifurcation Point

..
Feedback
Feed
dback
k Loopss
.... .
.... . . .
.... .

....

....

....
.... .... ingly inconsequential events can have a maj
.... ....
. . . .. . . . ..

.... .

.... .

.... .

.... .
...

...

...

...

...
..
..

.. .

.. .

.. .
...

.... ...
.... ...
. . . . . ... . ..... . . . .... .. .... .. .... ..
linear universe. Chaos theory has implicatio

..

..
........
and in their book Seven Lessons of Chaos
Characteristics of
systems moving toward and Peat say: ...each of us as an individual is
non-equilibrium
This diagram is based upon Ilya Prigogines Theory the systems of nature, society, and thought that
Simplicity Complexity
Universal laws Laws unique to system of Dissipative Structures, based upon the second through us. We live within movements constan
law of thermal dynamics. What is interesting is
Linearity Non-linearity
other and creating an unpredictable chaos at m
Instability Stability to note the characteristics of non-linear systems as
Being Becoming
they move further from equilibrium toward a this same chaos is born all the physical and psy
Predictability
Order
Innovation
Chaos
creative crisis, bifurcation point or even a phase we know. 21 In a way, chaos theory is not onl
transition
how life organizes itself, it is something of a
that runs counter to our intuition.
Creativity on the edge of chaos non-equilibrium states seem to be new form of order will emerge that is
Most of us see chaos as a realm of diso
Ilya Prigogines Non-Equilib- fundamental features of reality and impossible to predict. Once a form is meaning; to be avoided at all costs. Recent d
rium Thermodynamics helped to re- states out of which unpredictable chosen, a degree of determinism science however, have shown that it is actua
define the way scientists understand forms emerge. resumes. Most of nature is made up
natural phenomena and caused His theory posits that order of such systems that are in a con- state out of which emerge new and incredib
them to focus on self-organizing can arise out of either equilibrium stant exchange of energy and matter of life. The sidebar at left describes Nobel Pr
systems or from non-equilibrium with their environment and each
principles within complex systems. tist Ilya Prigogines Theory of Dissipative St
Prigogines theory has influenced systems that are sustained by a con- other. In such structures, it is ironic
research within a wide variety of stant exchange of energy and matter that disorder or non-equilibruim describes how systems at a bifurcation poin
disciplines from chemistry to sociol- with their environment. In the actually becomes the source of order. up into new and unpredictable forms of ord
ogy and especially morphogenesis. non-equilibrium systems, order is Prigogines theory locates
generated by the flux of this energy self-organization as the source of
the edge of chaos.
Thermodynamics describes an
evolving world (as opposed to a exchange, which is characteristic of spontaneous emergence of ordered As the diagram on the left shows, as op
static world with fixed laws) in all living organisms. structure and behavior in open selves are open, dynamic and non-linear system
which irreversible processes occur in As these complex systems move (non-linear) systems that exist in a
further from equilibrium, local state far from equilibrium and that
equilibrium toward chaos they also move in
an overall movement from order to
disorder. Irreversible processes and fluctuations occur, causing them to are described mathematically by of complexity. The behavior of the system be
move further toward disorder. At a non-linear equations. dictable, but surprisingly, it often become m
critical point (bifurcation point) a
the increase of feedback loops; see page 47) and increases the What Chaos can teach us about large suburban area. All of these
design situations are common scenarios adv
opportunities for creativity and innovation (or for new forms of Designers from all disiciplines for architects, interior, graphic and wa
order to emerge). pride themselves in their ability product designers. ing
to solve problems; some mundane A corporate culture that is tion
For designers these principles can suggest new ways of
and simple, others so complex that unraveling can seem like barely com
designing and viewing problems within their greater contexts. projects may last years from concept contained chaos (Ive consulted
A traditional designers tendency to judge an existing situation to completion. with several coporations in this situ- T
In my thirty years as a ation) and is usually one in which exp
as chaotic or entirely dysfunctional may be wrong. These situa- designer I have seen a collective people are angry, fearful, suspicious erin
tions can instead be viewed as states in which latent patterns mindset that focuses on solving and have a litany of complaints sca
of order may exist that simply need to be revealed, interpreted problems within contexts that are amassed over months or even years.
considered chaotic and messy. It is Design consultants will listen L
and coaxed forth. What appears as disarray or chaos (within not atypical for designers to want to to managements assessment of org
the traditional understanding of the term) can now be seen as a wipe the slate clean and throw out the situation and may even speak leve
highly creative state pregnant with unrealized possibilities that everything that came before in the to a few middle managers and div
asumption that it obviously doesnt employees, but they seldom view the
is only waiting for a bifurcation point in which something work or they wouldnt have been situation (that has been defined by L
new can emerge. This even suggests the role of designer as called in to fix it. management as problematic) as the pat
This applies especially in situ- edge of chaos where new forms of wit
facilitator, coaxing new forms to come forth, as opposed to the
ations in which something needs to order are on the verge of emergence. dire
designer as mechanic called in to fix something that is bro- be improved or redesigned (which The principles of chaos and hap
ken or designer as engineer who builds something new and constitutes 90% of what most complexity suggest to us that this
designers do) but can also apply is exactly what we should do. If we P
imposes it upon the existing situation. the the concept and development of view the breakdowns and apparent ada
Chaos theory also issues a caution to designers to not pre- entirely new design solutions. lack of order that confront us as me
sume to predict the outcomes of the things they design, nor What designers rarely do is a rich bed out of which design
enter a situation (this might be solutions will grow, we will create O
underestimate the impact even small, seemingly insignificant within an institution, company or differently. The
changes, components or relationships can have. Ervin Laszlo in even the consumer marketplace) Margaret Wheatly and Myron ada
his book Vision 2020 [1994] discusses the dangers and prom- and look within the chaos for clues Kellner-Rogers book A Simpler seek
to the solution. Way [1996] 25 applies some of the
ise of chaos: Chaos harbors danger as well as promise. As we have Some examples might lessons from chaos and complex-
seen, world weather, being in a state of chaos, is sensitive to minute include: a corporate culture in dis- ity theories to social organizations wit
array that needs to rethink its offer (and most designers are working act
variations. some of these variations can be artificially produced, and
in the marketplace and re-inspire within the context of some type of dict
they can have unexpectedly harmful effects 23 employees and other constituencies. social organization). we
Briggs and Peat in Seven Lessons say, ...chaos tells us that A manufacturer whose In their book they advocate a faci
marketshare has dropped drasti- shift from containment and control fab
each one of us has an unrecognized but enormous influence on [a cally because its products have been to coaxing order to come forth.
situation]. Chaos suggests that although we may not have power of eclipsed by the competition. Essentially this is what designers do: offe
the controller in the traditional sense, we all possess the butterfly A 30 year old shopping mall bring forth various types of order in the
that needs refurbishment in order the world.
power of subtle influence. 24 to to remain competitive in a
36

175
 reases the What Chaos can teach us about
design
r new forms of Designers from all disiciplines
pride themselves in their ability
to solve problems; some mundane
new ways of
and simple, others so complex that
eater contexts. projects may last years from concept
isting situation to completion.
In my thirty years as a
ng. These situa- designer I have seen a collective
tent patterns mindset that focuses on solving
ed, interpreted problems within contexts that are
considered chaotic and messy. It is
haos (within not atypical for designers to want to
w be seen as a wipe the slate clean and throw out
ossibilities that everything that came before in the
asumption that it obviously doesnt
something work or they wouldnt have been
designer as called in to fix it.
This applies especially in situ-
opposed to the
ations in which something needs to
g that is bro- be improved or redesigned (which
hing new and constitutes 90% of what most
designers do) but can also apply
the the concept and development of
ners to not pre- entirely new design solutions.
design, nor What designers rarely do is
enter a situation (this might be
y insignificant within an institution, company or
Ervin Laszlo in even the consumer marketplace)
ers and prom- and look within the chaos for clues
to the solution.
mise. As we have Some examples might
sitive to minute include: a corporate culture in dis-
array that needs to rethink its offer
ly produced, and
in the marketplace and re-inspire
employees and other constituencies.
haos tells us that A manufacturer whose
marketshare has dropped drasti-
nfluence on [a cally because its products have been
t have power of eclipsed by the competition.
the butterfly A 30 year old shopping mall
that needs refurbishment in order
to to remain competitive in a
large suburban area. All of these
situations are common scenarios
for architects, interior, graphic and
product designers.
A corporate culture that is
unraveling can seem like barely
contained chaos (Ive consulted
with several coporations in this situ-
ation) and is usually one in which
people are angry, fearful, suspicious
and have a litany of complaints
amassed over months or even years.
Design consultants will listen
to managements assessment of
the situation and may even speak
to a few middle managers and
employees, but they seldom view the
situation (that has been defined by
management as problematic) as the
edge of chaos where new forms of
order are on the verge of emergence.
The principles of chaos and
complexity suggest to us that this
is exactly what we should do. If we
view the breakdowns and apparent
lack of order that confront us as
a rich bed out of which design
solutions will grow, we will create
differently.
Margaret Wheatly and Myron
Kellner-Rogers book A Simpler
Way [1996] 25 applies some of the
lessons from chaos and complex-
ity theories to social organizations
(and most designers are working
within the context of some type of
social organization).
In their book they advocate a
shift from containment and control
to coaxing order to come forth.
Essentially this is what designers do:
bring forth various types of order in
the world.
Wheatley and Kellner-Rogers The Natural World Living Systems
advocate taking our clues from the
way life works and offer the follow-
ing beliefs about human organiza-
tion and the world in which they
come into form:
The universe is a living, creative,
experimenting experience of discov-
ering whats possible at all levels of
scale, from microbe to cosmos.
Lifes natural tendency is to
organize. Life organizes into greater
levels of complexity to support more
diversity and greater sustainability.
Life self-organizes. Networks,
patterns, and structures emerge
without external imposition or
direction. Organization wants to
happen.
People are intelligent, creative,
adaptive, self-organizing, and
meaning-seeking.
Organizations are living systems.
They too are intelligent, creative,
adaptive, self-organizing, meaning-
seeking.
If we combine these principles
with the chaotic principle that small
actions can have big and unpre-
dictable results, then as designers
we can begin to see ourselves as
facilitators of form as opposed to
fabricators.
Wheatley and Kellner-Rogers
offer the elements of logic that make
these principles viable: 26

Everything is in a constant pro-
cess of discovery and creating.
Everything is changing all the time;
individuals, systems, environments,
the rules, the processes of evolution.
Even change changes. Every organ-
ism reinterprets the rules, creates
exceptions for itself, creates new
rules.
Life uses messes to get to well-
ordered solutions.
Life doesnt seem to share our
desires for efficiency or neatness. It
uses redundancy, fuzziness, dense
webs of relationships, and unending
trials and errors to find what works.
Life is intent on finding what
works, not whats right.
It is the ability to keep finding
solutions that is important; any one
solution is temporary. There are
no permanently right answers. The
capacity to keep changing, to find
what works now, is what keeps any
organism alive.
Life creates more possibilities as
it engages with opportunities.
There are no windows of opportu-
nity, narrow openings in the fabric
of space-time that soon disappear
forever. Possibilities beget more pos-
sibilities; they are infinite.
Life is attracted to order.
It ex
experiments until it discovers
how to form a system that can sup-
port diverse members. Individuals
search out a wide range of possible
relationships to discover whether
they can organize into a life-sus-
taining system. These explora-
tions continue until a system is
discovered. This system then
provides stability for its members,
so that individuals are less buffeted
by change.
Life organizes around identity.
Every living thing acts to develop
and preserve itself. Identity is the
filter that every organism or system
uses to make sense of the world.
New information, new relation-
ships, changing environmentsall
are interpreted through a sense
of self. This tendency toward self-
creation is so strong that it creates a
seeming paradox. An organism will
change to maintain its identity.
how a thing will unfold:
Everything participates in the
creation and evolution of its
neighbors.
There are no unaffected outsiders.
No one system dictates conditions
to another. All participate together
in creating the conditions of their
interdependence.
If designers went into each
new situation with these principles
in mind, a different sort of design
process would ensue. We would
view both problem and context in
a different way and would see col-
laboration as central to the design
process.
We would see chaotic situa-
tions as the richest possible kind
within which to design. We would
not create and impose design solu-
tions, we would coax new forms of
order to come forth.
I look for the way things Perhaps one of the most harmful aspects o
will turn out
disciplines is the failure of designers to underst
spiralling from a center
the shape things will take sequences that ripple out from the things they d
to come forth in unlikely that Henry Ford anticipated his inventi
duced automobiles would become closely linked
so that the birch tree white ent crisis of global warming. The architects of th
touched black at branches
will stand out system could not have known that they were lite
wind-glittering way for much of the natural world to eventually
totally its apparent self: concrete, congested with automobiles and globa
Along with a caution to factor in our inabil
I look for the forms
things want to come as and predict outcomes, we also have the boon of
even small changes we might implement or sug
from what black wells of exponential positive (or negative) change.
possibility, An important characteristic of the realm kn
of chaos is that new forms of order or types of be
not the shape on paper a system emerge in this region and are the next p
though Holistic Science that I address.
that, too
but the uninterfering
means on paper: Emergent Properties
Emergence can be described as order that a
not so much looking for ously and unpredictably out of evolving systems,
the shape complex, yet originates out of very simple circum
as being available
to any shape that may be as previously mentioned is closely connected to chao
summoning itself the diagram on page 35 that illustrates Ilya Prigo
through me of Dissipative Structures, systems tend to move
from the self not mine but
further from equilibrium until they reach a poin
ours.
of chaos where new forms of order or behavior
A.R. Ammons emerge.
One of the primary dynamics of the univer
this thrust toward complexity. Lifes tendency is
ever more complex and creative structures of or
arise yet more new and unpredictable forms.
176
 xplora- I look for the way things Perhaps one of the most harmful aspects of the design The Natural World Living Systems
ystem is will turn out
then
disciplines is the failure of designers to understand the con-
spiralling from a center
members,
the shape things will take sequences that ripple out from the things they design. It is
less buffeted unlikely that Henry Ford anticipated his invention of mass pro-
to come forth in
duced automobiles would become closely linked with our pres-
identity. so that the birch tree white ent crisis of global warming. The architects of the first freeway
to develop touched black at branches
will stand out system could not have known that they were literally paving the
ntity is the
m or system wind-glittering way for much of the natural world to eventually be sacrificed to
he world. totally its apparent self: concrete, congested with automobiles and global-scale pollution.
relation-
nmentsall
Along with a caution to factor in our inability to control
I look for the forms
a sense things want to come as and predict outcomes, we also have the boon of knowing that
ward self- even small changes we might implement or suggest can lead to
at it creates a
rganism will
from what black wells of exponential positive (or negative) change.
identity.
possibility, An important characteristic of the realm known as the edge
how a thing will unfold:
of chaos is that new forms of order or types of behavior within
s in the
n of its not the shape on paper a system emerge in this region and are the next principle of
though Holistic Science that I address.
d outsiders. that, too
conditions but the uninterfering
ate together
means on paper: Emergent Properties
ns of their Emergence can be described as order that arises spontane-
not so much looking for ously and unpredictably out of evolving systems, that is rich and
into each the shape complex, yet originates out of very simple circumstances (and
e principles as being available
to any shape that may be as previously mentioned is closely connected to chaos). As we saw in
t of design
We would summoning itself the diagram on page 35 that illustrates Ilya Prigogines Theory
context in through me of Dissipative Structures, systems tend to move further and
uld see col- from the self not mine but further from equilibrium until they reach a point on the edge
the design ours.
of chaos where new forms of order or behavior are likely to
otic situa-
A.R. Ammons emerge.
ible kind
We would
One of the primary dynamics of the universe seems to be
design solu- this thrust toward complexity. Lifes tendency is to move toward
ew forms of ever more complex and creative structures of order out of which
arise yet more new and unpredictable forms.
Emergence can be found in most natural systems where 37
emergent properties are widespread; the branching of a river
delta as it moves toward the sea and tree branches as they
spread out from the trunk becoming twigs and shoots of new
growth. We also see emergent properties in cell interaction
during embryonic development that produces a human fetus,
and in patterns of species extinction during evolution. What
makes this so extraordinary is that these emergent proper-
ties arise out of complex, seemingly chaotic structures whose
underlying properties of organization are very simple.
These principles of chaos/complexity and emergence are
interlinked and are essentially the story of how structure arises
from the interaction of many independent, yet interconnected
elements or entities. What is relevant to designers is that this
story may apply not only to a myriad of natural phenomena
such as biological morphology but also to behavior in human
systems.
Peter Reason and Brian Goodwin in a paper entitled
Toward a Science of Qualities in Organizations [1999]
argue that ...social life in general, and organizations in particular,
can well be seen as complex self-organizing systems... 27 and they
maintain that complexity theory can be used to understand
their dynamics and emergent properties. They see societies as
complex systems similar to living organisims and ecological
systems and as such, are radically unpredictable in their behav-
ior.
These systems may lie on the edge of chaos themselves or
within a strange attractor (see page 42 for a description of strange
attractors) which is governed by sensitivity to initial conditions
and obey chaotic rules that make them unpredictable.
We see emergent behavior within systems of living enti-
ties all around us. Animals such as birds flying in formation or
fish
38 swimming in schools display striking examples of emer-
gent behavior in their ability to move in unison as if they were
a single organism. Social insects such as ants and bees display
similar behavior that arises seemingly spontaneously.
The study of emergent behaviors in social systems is one
of the most interesting and relevant aspects for designers to
begin to understand. For if social systems operate within the
same dynamics as the living systems mentioned, then they may
display the greatest degrees of creativity, robustness and flexibil- 177
ity on the edge of chaos.
Everything designers conceptualize or produce exists within
the realm of social systems (though the consequences of the things
fish swimming in schools display striking examples of emer- The Natural World Living Systems
gent behavior in their ability to move in unison as if they were
a single organism. Social insects such as ants and bees display
similar behavior that arises seemingly spontaneously.
The study of emergent behaviors in social systems is one
of the most interesting and relevant aspects for designers to
begin to understand. For if social systems operate within the
same dynamics as the living systems mentioned, then they may
display the greatest degrees of creativity, robustness and flexibil-
ity on the edge of chaos.
Everything designers conceptualize or produce exists within
the realm of social systems (though the consequences of the things
we design ripple out far beyond social systems and are doing untold
damage to the biosphere). We therefore need to better understand
the phenomenon of emergence if we are to design appropriately
for and within these systems.
Reason and Goodwin stress the need to learn and relate
to complex systems but to give up believing that we can control
them through manipulation of their parts to achieve predictable,
desired results. 28 We can however, influence them. This view is
echoed by a number of people working within complementary
discourses:
Humberto Maturana and Francisco Varela (biologist and
cognitive psychologist, respectively) in their book The Tree of
Knowledge [1992]29examine the biological roots of human
cognition. They contend that autopoietic (self-making) entities
couple with each other and their environment in the normal
process of living but maintain they are autonomous insofar as
they can only be perturbed and not directed by other organisms
or the environment. Maturana and Varela believe this recurrent
coupling may trigger structural changes within the entity and
vice versa, but only as long as it is beneficial to do so.
R.D. Stacey of the Complexity and Management Centre at39
the University of Hertfordshire says ...organizations are
nonlinear, network feedback systems and it therefore follows logi-
cally that the fundamental properties of such systems should apply to
organizations... 30 Goodwin and Reason underscore this point
by maintaining that organizations are characterized by bounded
instability and spontaneous self-organization and emergent order.31
I would further contend that the spontaneous order that can
emerge from within an organization can also periodically dis-
solve back into disorder and bring with it all manner of chal-
lenges for the people that are a part of it.
This point is key not only for designers, but for everyone
participating to some degree within a social system. This theory,
if valid, forces us to give up the idea of control in all manner
of situations; from the naive idea that we can manage the envi-
ronment to the idea that a manager can manage or control people
within an organization. The difference between perturbation
and control is significant within almost any context we care to
consider. It is one of the primary differences between a mecha-
nistic vs. holistic world view.
We can conclude, therefore, that in order to facilitate
change, we can only perturb a system or its environment and,
since both are apt to be open systems, the outcome will be rela-
tively unpredictable. The lesson may be for us to become more
flexible in our views and behavior, which in turn may encour-
age new forms of order to emerge. These principles are affect-
ing the entire field of leadership/management and sociology
as Wheatley and Kellner-Rogers work also shows, but I believe
the same principles have great relevance for designers who
participate in the creation of social artifacts, environments and
messages.
40 Patricia Shaw, professor of sociology at the University
of Hertfordshire says ...we must realize that we are shaping
the evolving meaning of living experience as an ongoing creative
social endeavor. 33 This suggest that meaning itself is an emer-
gent property of communication and something that communi-
cation designers in particular need to be aware of.
John Shotter in his book Conversational Realities 34
contends that meaning is indeed an emergent property of the
continuous social interaction that we have with each other. A
closer examination of this principle would take us quickly into 178
the area of linguistics and its sub-disciplines such as semantics
and semiotics.
It is especially important for communication designers
 gent property of communication and something that communi-
cation designers in particular need to be aware of.
John Shotter in his book Conversational Realities 34
contends that meaning is indeed an emergent property of the
continuous social interaction that we have with each other. A
closer examination of this principle would take us quickly into The Natural World Living Systems
the area of linguistics and its sub-disciplines such as semantics
and semiotics.
It is especially important for communication designers
to understand that meaning emerges out of interaction among
a social group who share cultural experience. As variables
change so too does the meaning that emerges out of such a con-
text. Meaning is not transmitted to uswe actively participate
in its emergence out of a complex interplay of codes and/or
cultural conventions of which we are normally unaware. We are
as blind to the ways in which meaning emerges out of commu-
nication as we are to the ways in which life unfolds in its thrust
toward complexity and new forms of order.
The principle of emergence has two important lessons
for designers. 1) The first is that the social systems we interact
with and within display emergent properties in the forms of
behavior and organizational structure that are spontaneous,
chitecture. In effect, the artificial and
walls of natural systems have coupled self-organizing and unpredictable. 2) The messages, artifacts,
m natural producing new emergent proper- activities and environments that we design all exist within
verly synthe- ties. As designers can we design
y stood the with this type of coupling in mind;
larger contexts comprised of both the artificial/designed world
ecome host design in a way that encourages and the natural one. Therefore our designs will couple with
ng organ- and anticipates emergence? other entities within these contexts in ways that are emergent
ss, fern and
and unpredictable; sometimes with positives results, sometimes Basins of attraction Strange attract
with harmful ones. 41 in mathematica

If designers better understand these principles they can

stop trying to anticipate and control outcomes and design with
emergence in mind. Instead of creating static artifacts, we can
conceptualize structures and frameworks that welcome change
and that encourage order and new forms to come forth. As
Wheatley and Kellner-Rogers say, In the west, people have tried
to understand the world in terms of static things, machine-like struc-
tures that move on command. This line of thinking has led to some
interesting ideas about change. Static objects do not possess any
inherentCreating
to change.form
They that is as imposed
require natural, expertise
sustainable
and and beau-
energy to
tiful as that which nature brings into being ought
move them. Change is something we do to the world, something we to be what
designers aspireIn
cause to happen. to.this
Accomplishing it, change
world of things, however is may involvebut
not motion, a Attractors The diagram above and right tors
Attractor is a word we see often shows the plot of such a system in filled
combination
a descirption ofof anew
thingsstate.
including
A thinga changes;
better understanding of how
change is completed in connection with Holistic Science mathematical phase space. The that
the
when world works,
the new formandis ina place.
different worldview
Rather which integrates
than understanding change and the study of chaos and complex- diagram above left provides a men- tions
new values and ethics.
as continuous, creative energy, it becomes nothing but a redesign. 35
ity theories. tal map of how an attractor works; that
Strictly speaking, attractors are pulling non-linear systems toward a into
spaces or types of behavior that a basin of attraction that influences W
Feedback Loops
Fields & Attractors system tends to be attracted to. The and to an extent, regulates their that
ones that have most relevance to the behavior. natu
The
JohntermBriggsfeedback
and David loopPeat
comes from the
describe fieldattractors
strange of Cyber- as
study of chaos are called strange Our own heartbeat is an ex- be un
netics and is ofa term
The activity coined
a collective by philosopher
chaotic and mathematician
system, composed of interacting attractors which are characteristic ample of a system with an attractor. attra
Norbert Wiener to describe a science of
feedback among its many scales of parts, is sometimescontrol and communi-
referred to by
of many open, dynamic systems that A healthy heartbeat has an element anim
cation in the animal and in the machine. 42 are far from equilibrium. of chaos within its seemingly regular T
the poetic name strange attractor. When scientists say that a system Chaotic systems (whether living rythmn, and indeed studies have influ
has anThe achievements
attractor, they meanof the Cybernetists
that are systemss
if they plot the found primarily
changes, or non-living) are generated by shown that an absolutely regular simil
in
or behavior, in mathematical space, the plot shows that the organ-
their investigations and comparisons between living system
iterative, non-linear interactions heartbeat is the pattern manifested and n
within their many scales of parts. in patients going into cardiac arrest. chall
isms and machines that led them to the concept of
is repeating a pattern. The system is attracted to that pattern of feedback, When the systems behavior In a way it is self-organized bette
self-regulations
behavior, scientists andsay.self-organization.
In other words, if Patterns
they perturbof organization
the system is plotted in mathematical phase chaos that gives the heart the whet
in
by particular
knocking itbecame
away from an area of focusitfor
the behavior, them
tends and feedback
to return to it fairly
space, the diagram shows that the freedom needed to settle back into its could
system is following a pattern that is attractor or normal rhythmn even as we
loop is
quickly. a term
36 coined to explain the self-regulating dynamics unpredictable and non-mechanical after it has been nudged away by C
foundOne inside both
of the living
most and mechanical
familiar examples ofsystems.
a strange attractor (see diagram above, right). And overexertion or a rush of adrenaline. appr
because the system is open to its David Peat and John Briggs say: hum
is that of the heartbeat, which is produced bya afeedback
Fritjof Capra in Web of Life describes loop in
firing sequence environment, it is capable of many [animals and plants have] strange lead
this way: A feedback loop is a circular arrangement of causally nuances of movement. attractors and are strange attrac- tiona
connected elements, in which an initial cause propagates around
42
the links of the loop, so that each element has an effect on the next,
until the last feeds back the effect into the first element of the cycle.
The consequence of this arrangement is that the first link (input)
is affected by the last (output), which results in self-regulations of
the entire system, as the initial effect is modified each time it travels
around the cycle.43
This process is referred to as a loop and feedback loops
are termed either negative or positive, according to whether
they are self-regulating or amplifying. A negative feedback loop
occurs when the system regulates itself, much like a thermostat A
Circular causality of a feedback
loop (self-
in our homes; when the temperature falls in the winter, the 47 The diagram at left shows the plifyi
heat will automatically click on until the designated tempera- circular arrangement of causally and
connected elements within a feed-
ture is achieved, then it will shut off. The result is self-regula-
back loop. Each element or action prise
tion toward a goal of the desired temperature. The design of has an effect on the next, until the that
the U.S. constitution with its three branches of government C B last feeds back the effect into the toget
first element of the cycle. the s
(executive, legislative and judicial) is another example of a nega-
chao
tive feedback loop (when it works correctly) and was designed to
produce a self-regulating effect and ensure ongoing democracy.
In a positive feedback loop, inputs in the cycle amplify the 179
Humanity or Nature: The universe as a collection of o
initial conditions producing more of the same result. Another A model of control, predictability, alienation, win/loose in a po
way to think of it is that the systems output loops around that increases ill health & separation from nature.
to become the input, increasing whatever behavior has been
 back loop. Each element or action prised
tion toward a goal of the desired temperature. The design of has an effect on the next, until the that a
the U.S. constitution with its three branches of government C B last feeds back the effect into the togeth
first element of the cycle. the sy
(executive, legislative and judicial) is another example of a nega-
chaos
tive feedback loop (when it works correctly) and was designed to
produce a self-regulating effect and ensure ongoing democracy.
In a positive feedback loop, inputs in the cycle amplify the The Natural World Living Systems
Humanity or Nature: The universe as a collection of ob
initial conditions producing more of the same result. Another A model of control, predictability, alienation, win/loose in a po
way to think of it is that the systems output loops around that increases ill health & separation from nature.
to become the input, increasing whatever behavior has been
already expressed. The ear-splitting screeches we hear when
Unconscious Ill-Health
public address systems malfunction are examples of positive Participation Fragmentation
feedback. So are infectious epidemics or runs on banks during Disintegration

>
depressions.
Scientists now realize that these two types of feedback are
Materialistic
present everywhere; in living organisms, ecosystemseven logic based upon +
social systems. Briggs and Peat in Turbulent Mirror say: solid objects
Feedback, like nonlinearity, embodies an essential tension between Simplicity Disintegration

>
order and chaos.44 What is important to understand is that Fragility toward entropy
(infectious disease)
complex systems such as living organisms, ecosystems and Lack of the sacred
social systems such as a corporation are made up of a stagger- Lack of belonging
ing number of feedback loops that together provide the self- Lack of meaning
regulation necessary to preserve life. Disconnection
Independence
This ability to self regulate and renew is what Maturana Alienation
and Varela refer to as autopoiesis, or self-making.45 As we Competition
saw from the diagram on page 35 of Ilya Prigogines Theory of Diagrams based upon a lecture given by

>
{
Jordi Pigem at Schumacher College,
Dissipative Structures, open systems can move further from September 12, 2001. Re-presented by Specialization >
Daniel Wahl at Schumacher College in individualism
equilibrium, and toward chaos and actually become more stable summer, 2004. analysis
negative (balancing) feedback to break a harmful through increased feedback.
edback loop
diagram below left shows how negative beliefs,
48 The concept of feedback within open systems is highly
or behaviors feed back on themselves to exacerbate relevant to designers because it is one of the fundamental
Both the diagram below and left are examples of
dynamics of life. Companies, economies, living bodies, cities
dback loops, one with detrimental results, one with
sults. At left we see how the introduction of negative and local ecologies are all systems that self-regulate via feed-
actions can reverse the direction of the cycle and back. As open systems, they can be thrown out of their stable
rness the power of positive feedback to create a
ndition. Designers have tremendous potential to use
conditions and into cycles which can create long-term ill effects
le in design to transform existing situations. and it is important that designers understand these dynamics in
order to design appropriately within them.
In A Simpler Way, Wheateley and Kellner-Rogers describe
a communion of subjects
e, love & trust in a positive feedback loop how living systems take shape: A self gets organized. A world
e. of shared meaning develops. Networks of relationships take form.
Information is noticed, 46 Out of these
thermostat Circular causalityinterpreted,
of a feedbacktransformed. These loops can be negative
A processes loop
a multitude of different expressions of organizational
(self-regulating) or positive (am-
er, the Conscious
forms emerge The anddiagram
feedbackat left is one
shows theof the primary
plifying) overalldynamics of
with both negative
Participation
empera- circular arrangement of causally and positive
this process. As the system increases in complexity it is able to actions within them.
connected elements within a feed-
form and structure because theMost open systems are com-
>

f-regula- maintain its level of feedback

back loop. Each element or action prised of countless feedback loops
sign of Anticipatory, intuitive, increases has
as we saw in the diagram of dissipative
an effect on the next, until the
structures.
that are interconnected, functioning
nment C
understanding of B Donella Meadows,
last feeds back the who wasthean adjunct
effect into togetherprofessor of envi-
to either stabilized/regulate
ronmentalfirst
studies
element at Dartmouth
of the cycle. University inamplify
the US wrote
of
rsity a nega- process and change the system or it toward
an article in Whole Earth magazine in 1997
chaos and entitled
disorder. Places to
signed
nic, cultural to
>

gical) System 47 whose principles are found on the fol-

Intervene in a System
emocracy. lowing pages. In it she proposes a hierarchy of leverage points
The world is sacred,
mplify the I belong to the (in increasing order of effectiveness) where a small shift in one
Humanity or Nature: The universe as a collection of objects
Another world, the world is area can produce big changes elsewhere. Her entire theory is
A model of control, predictability, alienation, win/loose in a positive feedback loop
meaningful
ound based upon the idea that addressing particular leverage points
that increases ill health & separation from nature.
will either regulate or amplify conditions (in order to stimulate
as been
healing/solutions) through feedback.
r when In her article she describes the late Jay Forester, professor
Unconscious Ill-Health
positive Participation at MIT, having been asked Fragmentation by The Club of Rome48 to show
nks during how major global problemsDisintegration such as poverty, hunger, environ-
>

dback are 49
Materialistic
even logic based upon +
or say: solid objects
n between Simplicity Disintegration Homogeneity
>

s that Fragility toward entropy Uniformity

(infectious disease)
ms and Lack of the sacred
a stagger- Lack of belonging
he self- Lack of meaning
Disconnection
Independence
aturana Alienation
As we Competition
Theory of Diagrams based upon a lecture given by
>

{ }
Jordi Pigem at Schumacher College,
er from September 12, 2001. Re-presented by Specialization > Discussion > Dominator
Daniel Wahl at Schumacher College in individualism hierarchy
more stable summer, 2004. analysis

180
 Ill-Health
Fragmentation
Delivering negative (balancing) feedback to break a harmful through increased
The Natural feedback.
World Living Systems
Disintegration negative feedback loop
The diagram below left shows how negative beliefs, The concept of feedback within open syst
+ conditions or behaviors feed back on themselves to exacerbate relevant to designers because it is one of the fu
situations. Both the diagram below and left are examples of
Simplicity
Fragility
Disintegration Homogeneity --
toward entropy Uniformity
dynamics of life. Companies, economies, livin
positive feedback loops, one with detrimental results, one with
Diversity of
(infectious disease)
species, beliefs,
healthful results. At left we see how the introduction of negative and local ecologies are all systems that self-reg
. . . . behaviors
... Disconnection ...
conditions/actions can reverse the direction of the cycle and back. As open systems, they can be thrown ou
.... actually harness the power of positive feedback to create a
Independence
Alienation conditions and into cycles which can create lon
Competition -- healthful condition. Designers have tremendous potential to use
Connection,
this principle in design to transform existing situations. and it is important that designers understand
interdependence,
cooperation order to design appropriately within them.
In A Simpler Way, Wheateley and Kellne
Humanity and Nature: The universe as a communion of subjects
A model of participation, acceptance of change, love & trust in a positive feedback loop how living systems take shape: A self gets organ
that increases health and connection to nature. of shared meaning develops. Networks of relations
Information is noticed, interpreted, transformed.
processes a multitude of different expressions
Health Conscious
Wholeness Participation forms emerge and feedback is one of the prim
Integration this process. As the system increases in compl

>
maintain its form and structure because the le
increases as we saw in the diagram of dissipat
Anticipatory, intuitive,
+ understanding of Donella Meadows, who was an adjunct pr
process and change ronmental studies at Dartmouth University
Complexity Integration Diversity an article in Whole Earth magazine in 1997
Resilience (ethnic, cultural
>

toward life System 47 whose principles are fo

Intervene in a System
Resistance (infectious health) biological)
The world is sacred, lowing pages. In it she proposes a hierarchy of
I belong to the (in increasing order of effectiveness) where a sma
Interconnection
world, the world is area can produce big changes elsewhere. Her e
Symbiosis meaningful based upon the idea that addressing particular
g negative (balancing) feedback to break a harmful through increased feedback.
Interdependence
eedback loop will either regulate or amplify conditions (in o
diagram below left shows how negative beliefs, The concept of feedback within open systems is highly
Participation
or behaviors feed back on themselves to exacerbate Cooperation
relevant to designers because it is one of the fundamental healing/solutions) through feedback.
In her article she describes the late Jay Fo

{
. Both the diagram below and left are examples of

}
dynamics of life. Companies, economies, living bodies, cities
>

edback loops, one with detrimental results, one with

results. At left we see how theGrowth <of negative
introduction Dialogue < andInterdisciplin-
local ecologies are all systems that self-regulate via feed- at MIT, having been asked by The Club of Ro
hierarchy ary synthesis
/actions can reverse the direction of the cycle and back. As open systems, they can be thrown out of their stable how major global problems such as poverty, hu
arness the power of positive feedback to create a
conditions and into cycles which can create long-term ill effects
condition. Designers have tremendous potential to use
and it is important that designers understand these dynamics in
ple in design to transform existing situations.
order to design appropriately within them.
In A Simpler Way, Wheateley and Kellner-Rogers describe
s a communion of subjects
ge, love & trust in a positive feedback loop how living systems take shape: A self gets organized. A world
re. of shared meaning develops. Networks of relationships take form.
Information is noticed, interpreted, transformed. 46 Out of these
processes a multitude of different expressions of organizational
Conscious
Participation forms emerge and feedback is one of the primary dynamics of
this process. As the system increases in complexity it is able to
>

maintain its form and structure because the level of feedback

increases as we saw in the diagram of dissipative structures.
Anticipatory, intuitive,
understanding of Donella Meadows, who was an adjunct professor of envi-
process and change ronmental studies at Dartmouth University in the US wrote
ersity an article in Whole Earth magazine in 1997 entitled Places to
nic, cultural
>

ogical) System 47 whose principles are found on the fol-

Intervene in a System
The world is sacred, lowing pages. In it she proposes a hierarchy of leverage points
I belong to the (in increasing order of effectiveness) where a small shift in one
world, the world is area can produce big changes elsewhere. Her entire theory is
meaningful based upon the idea that addressing particular leverage points
will either regulate or amplify conditions (in order to stimulate
healing/solutions) through feedback.
In her article she describes the late Jay Forester, professor
at MIT, having been asked by The Club of Rome48 to show
how major global problems such as poverty, hunger, environ-
mental destruction, resource depletion, urban deterioration and Ways to Intervene in a System (based on an article by Donel
umemployment are related and how they might be solved. He 49 In an article for the fluctuation etc.) in the system state tions
came back to them with a single, clear leverage point: Growth. Magazine Whole Earth, Donella that the feedback loop is trying to capa
control. Delays that are too short
In effect, Forrester framed a multi-faceted design problem Meadows, a systems analyst

and set up parameters for its global solution by identifying its

root cause. Typically, problems such as poverty, natural resource
outlined 9 ways to intervene in a
system.
She identifies leverage points
cause overreaction, oscillations
amplified by the jumpiness of the
response. Delays that are too long
7.
which are places within a complex cause damped, sustained or explod-
depletion, urban degradation etc. would be seen as separate and ing oscillations and at the extreme
Now
system (which can be a living parts
unrelated problems, and solutions would be designed for each. organism, company, economy or end they cause chaos. tion
But because these multiple solutions overlook the interconnect- ecosystem) where a small shift in The reason delays are not age i
one thing can produce big changes higher up on the scale is that they
edness and existance of a common root, new problmes are in everything. are often hard to control because feedb
created and as we know, seldom work. These principles are largely they involve fixed time frames such them
A holistic solution for the aforementioned problems based based upon positive and negative as the time it takes a child to ma- stabl
feedback loops and have the poten- ture, or to build 181
a freeway system.
upon the common root cause of unbridled growth would be a tial to become key principles within requ
radically different approach and likely have a greater chance of a more holistic design practice.
8. Material stocks
and flows
arou
succeeding, Feedback is what causes solutions to succeed or
fail and often too little or delayed feedback is what creates and 9. Numbers Refer to how a system is laid out;
ing d
the g
 which are places within a complex cause damped, sustained or explod-
depletion, urban degradation etc. would be seen as separate and ing oscillations and at the extreme
Now
system (which can be a living part
unrelated problems, and solutions would be designed for each. organism, company, economy or end they cause chaos. tion
But because these multiple solutions overlook the interconnect- ecosystem) where a small shift in The reason delays are not age
one thing can produce big changes higher up on the scale is that they
edness and existance of a common root, new problmes are in everything. are often hard to control because feed
created and as we know, seldom work. These principles are largely they involve fixed time frames such them
A holistic solution for the aforementioned problems based basedThe
uponNatural
positive and negative
World as the time it takes a child to ma-
Living Systems stab
feedback loops and have the poten- ture, or to build a freeway system.
upon the common root cause of unbridled growth would be a tial to become key principles within requ
radically different approach and likely have a greater chance of a more holistic design practice.
8. Material stocks
and flows
arou
succeeding, Feedback is what causes solutions to succeed or
fail and often too little or delayed feedback is what creates and 9. Numbers
Numbers in general are
Refer to how a system is laid out;
its plumbing, its stocks (reservoirs)
ing
the g
to br
perpetuates problems. one of the least powerful leverage and its flows. Meadows contends goal
that the only way to fix a system
In an essay entitled Lets Have a Little More Feedback, points and Meadows likens working func
with them to rearraging deck chairs that is laid out incorrectly is to
Donella Meadows maintains that feedback makes the invisible on the Titanic. She maintains that rebuild it if you can. has
visible and can impose the consequences of decision-making numbers become leverage points An example is the baby-boom loop
when they go into ranges that kick swell that first caused strain on the
upon those who make decisions. She says Feedback means, US elementary school system in the
type
off one of the items higher on this rare
basically, giving people quick, accurate, emphatic information about list. Interest rates or birth rates 50s-60s then high schools, then eme
the results of their own actions. A seller who sets a price too high control the gains around positive jobs, housing and now retirement. mist
feedback loops. The systems were not designed to of lo
gets no customers. A politician who thwarts the public gets no votes. An important factor in handle flows that large. or b
Feedback can promote quick learning. 49 It can also facilitate feedback the length of delay in a The only leverage point seems
swift and radical change as the examples in the sidebar at right feedback loop. An example is a to be in the size of stocks or buffers. not
hot water fawcet that responds too If flows are open and depleting long
illustrate. slowly to being turned, creating an resources, stocks are a temporary tion
Much of what designers do is intervene in systems. An occillating effect as we try to adjust solution at best. surv
The leverage point is really
architect who builds a new community center within a troubled it to the desired temperature.
She maintains a delay proper design to begin with. When feed
urban center has the opportunity to introduce negative feedback in a feedback process is critical that is absent, there is some leverage imp
into a system where gange violence is in positive feedback. relative to rates of change (glowth, in understanding the limitations the i
and bottlenecks within it and
on flows systems scope, boundaries, and How well the building will function will be a result of how refraining from causing fluctua-
ory is that degrees of freedom. Examples
Meadows gives are: The right to
effective
50 the dialog between the architect and community lead-
ack (infor-
cause of free speech, Thou shalt not kill, ers is (information flows based on feedback loops) and how well
nd adding the US president serves 4 years it is designed to function as a carrier of feedback itself (does it
a powerful and cannot serve more than two
consecutive terms, etc. meet the social and physical objectives necessary to introduce nega-
usually
an rebuilding Rules change behavior and tive feedback into the system?)
the power to change rules is real
Design consultants are regularly asked to intervene within
arly relevant power. Meadows recommends pay-
and visual ing attention to a systems rules and corporate cultures in dissaray. Many times they encounter a
ners, but has who has control over them if you culture of secrecy in which the divide between management
really want to understand it.
n disciplines.
Her description of the flaws
and employees yawns wide and sensitive information is jeal-
he example
bdivision of with the system of globalization is ously guarded by management for various reasons. Design
placed the eloquent: It is a system with rules consultants familiar with the principle of feedback can read-
of them in designed by corporations, run by
corporations, for the benefit of cor-
ily identify a positive feedback loop in which secrecy and a
others it was
hall where porations. Its rules exclude almost dearth of information breeds unrest and dissatisfaction among
onstanly any feedback from other sectors of employees, which affects their performance and in turn con-
slower as society. Most of its meetings are
closed to the press (no information, firms managements fears, triggering even more secrecy. The
he result
30% less no feedback). It forces nations into solution will involve identifying the leverage point for introduc-
positive loops, competing with each
was in the ing negative feedback into the system and breaking the cycle of
mmediate other to weaken environmental
. and social safeguards in order to amplyfication.
there is a attract corporate investment. Its a Designers can also identify feedback loops in the systems
recipe for unleashing success to the
n the part of
successful. 52
within which they design and analyze whether they are creat-
untability
ing healthful or harmful situations. They can work with the
3.
actionsits
y missing The power of regulating/stabilizing principles of negative feedback or stimu-
self-organization
late the amplifying effects of positive feedback much as Chinese
at if the politi- This refers to changing any
ar were forced aspect of a system lower on this list, medicine and acupuncture stimulate systemic responses by
nes, it would adding or deleting a new physical inserting a few needles along meridians.50
m our culture. structure or deleting negative or
positive loops or information flows
This principle is closely related to chaos and complexity
of the or rules. Meadows consider this the in that small but well planned/situated stimulants can lead to
strongest form of system resilience; dramatic, even exponential changes or results. However, we
the incen- the ability to survive change by
changing.
must remember thata living system can never be directed, we
d constraints
fine the There are built in rules for can only perturb it, and must do so with humility and caution,
self-organization within the liv- knowing we can never fully predict outcomes.
The ability to see the interconnectedness of large problems51 ing world, but within social and what whole system goal they are
mechanical system, rules for their serving. para
within complex systems and understand dynamics such as ability to self-organize have also Usually changing players at th
feedback, is the type of skill designers must acquire in order to been designated. within a system is a lower level old p
contribute meaningful solutions in the world. These rules govern how, leverage point, however Meadows loud
where and what the system can add points out that occassionally, the new
into or subtract from itself under introduction of a single indi- new
Cooperation what conditions. Meadows calls vidual with the power to specify and visib
self-organization a basic matter of change the goals within the system time
One of the primary contrasts between traditional and holis-
evolutionary raw materiala stock can have great leverage. She cites work
tic science is that one sees the world as highly competitive, the of information from which a system the example of Hitler in post-war and
other as highly cooperative. The Darwinian view which has pre- selects possible patternsand a Germany or Ronald Regan in peop
means for testing them. changing the views of US citizens
dominated for over a hundred years paints a picture of nature Any system, biological, toward government.
as red in tooth and claw 52; a landscape in which survival of the economic or social that ceases vant
fittest is played out in a violent struggle for dominance.
In contrast, the holistic view sees nature as a highly coop-
experimentation and eliminates
the raw material of innovation
is doomed in the long term on a
1. The mindset or
paradigm out of
the p
Desi
out o
which the system arises
erative place where competition rarely exists. Briggs and Peat planet which Meadows maintains grea
At the top of Meadows list is what
in Turbulent Mirror cite the work of Boston University is highly variable. worl
she refers to as the shared idea or
Perhaps her most eloquent inste
microbiologist Lynn Marguilis theory of symbiosis as the basis observation is that encouraging
collective mindset within the system
the t
which carries with it great unstated
for the evolution of life: Marguilis believes that the new kind of diversity means losing control.
assumptions. Examples she cites
ous p

2.
cell which made its appearance 2.2 billion years ago to become the are: People who are paid less are
The goals of the as a
basis for the cells of all multicelled plants and animals that exist system
worth less, Growth is good,
assig
Nature is a stock of resources to be
today was not the result of a genetic mutation, but of symbiosis. It Meadows considers the goals of the converted to human purposes.
with
and
was not the product of brutal competition for surveval of the fittest, system to be even more important She calls these paradigms the
182 in M
than its ability to self-organize and sources of systems. From them come
but of cooperation. In her book Microcosmos...she says competi- has this to say about it: ence
goals, information flows, feedback,
tion in which the strong wins has been given a good deal more press If the goal is to bring more stocks, flows and all the other items
and more of the world under the omn
than cooperation. But certain superficially weak organisms have on the list.
that
control of one central planning sys- Change the paradigm within
survived in the long run by being part of collectives, while the so- desig
 Perhaps her most eloquent inste
microbiologist Lynn Marguilis theory of symbiosis as the basis observation is that encouraging
collective mindset within the system
the t
which carries with it great unstated
for the evolution of life: Marguilis believes that the new kind of diversity means losing control.
assumptions. Examples she cites
ous p

2.
cell which made its appearance 2.2 billion years ago to become the are: People who are paid less are
The goals of the as a
basis for the cells of all multicelled plants and animals that exist system
worth less, Growth is good,
assig
Nature is a stock of resources to be
today was not the result of a genetic mutation, but of symbiosis. It Meadows considers the goals of the converted to human purposes.
with
and
was not the product of brutal competition for surveval of the fittest, systemThe
to beNatural
even more important
World Living Systems She calls these paradigms the
in M
than its ability to self-organize and sources of systems. From them come
but of cooperation. In her book Microcosmos...she says competi- has this to say about it: ence
The Natural World Living Systems goals, information flows, feedback,
tion in which the strong wins has been given a good deal more press If the goal is to bring more stocks, flows and all the other items
and more of the world under the omn
than cooperation. But certain superficially weak organisms have on the list.
that
control of one central planning sys- Change the paradigm within
survived in the long run by being part of collectives, while the so- tem (the empire of Genghis Khan, desig
the system and you change it fun-
called strong ones, never learning the trick of cooperation, have been the world of Islam...Wal-Mart, comp
damentally. Meadows maintains
the s
dumped onto the scrap heal of evolutionary extinction. 53 Disney), then everything further this may be the easiest and cheapest
cont
down the list, even self-organizing leverage point on the list because in
Briggs and Peat go on to say that symbiosis is testimony to behavior will be pressured or weak- a single individual it can happen
this
the principle that an autopoetic structure will change in order ened to confirm to that goal.54 in a millisecond. I would maintain
She claims there is usually a with
to remain the same and it accomplishes this through feedback hierarchy of goals within a system
this is what happened to me when I
ing t
left my company; I describe this in
and coupling with the environment and other organisms. and most people dont recognize the preface to this dissertation.
and
more
Ecological niches among four They maintain that all of life is based upon cooperation:
species warblers ...[although] we may think of ourselves as autonomous beings,
52
we are, from our toes to our brain, a collection of microbes bound
together by symbiotic cooperation. In fact, all life is a form of coop-
eration, an expression of feedback arising out of the flux of chaos. 55
Bacteria In the book The New Biology [1987], Robert Augros and
George Stanciu quote David Simberloff on the topic of competi-
tion between species: It is rare to see two animals, particularly
animals of different species, tugging at the same piece of meat. And
even when competition is observed, it often appears inconsequential.
ium Perhaps a fiddler crab scurries into a hole on a beach only to come
running out again, expelled by the current inhabitant. But the
drion
crab simply moves off to find another hole. Competition between
speciesinterspecific competitionthus appears to be little more
than a minor, temporary inconvenience. 56
Augros and Stanciu go on to describe the various ways
in which nature avoids competition, including geographical
Fungi separation, division of habitat into ecological niches, divison of
habitat into temporal territories, food specializtion, and migra-
tion among others. In each case plants and animals are involved
in rich webs of relationship with the environment that allow
them to not only peaceably co-exist, but to actually benefit from
each others well being. Studies of predation also show that it
y differ-
as hunting
too takes on a cooperative dynamic which in many cases helps
of highly to eliminate the weak and sick from communities and acts as a
lopment is force to strengthen and diversify.
of just how One of the most eloquent examples of cooperation is found
asive coop-
ystems is.
within species of parasites, many of whom have intricate life-
n stark cycles requiring one or more secondary hosts. Augros and
t economic Stanciu point out, ...most parasites and hosts...have achieved a
esigners oper- mutual tolerance, and [the host] does not suffer greatly from [their
rized almost
tion.
presence].57
So we can see that life is, in yet another way, connected 53 Cooperation in the web of life
through a rich web of relationships of cooperation and sym-
biosis. Not only do we find cooperation instead of competition,
we see symbiotic relationships of all kinds; between animals,
within communities, between species of plants and animals
and between plants, animals and their environments. Augros
and Stanciu say flowering plants use bees, moths, hummingbirds
and bats to achieve cross-fertilization, rewarding the workers with
Herbivores
nutritious nectar. Many of these associations have developed into
obligatory mutalism between plant and animal, so that they allow
prediction. 58
Fruits are an example of how plants disperse their seeds
with the cooperation of animals. The animal eats the fruit and
later, usually at some distance away, excretes the undigested Cycle of food
seeds which fall to the ground with the necessary fertilizer. production
In addition, fruits commonly have a mild laxative effect that among living
ensures that the objective is accomplished; symbiotic relation-
organisms
Food Producers
ship is simply designed into living organisms as part of their
ability to survive and thrive.
The principle of cooperation in the natural world holds
relevance for designers in a number of ways; generally it is
the basis for an entirely different worldview, and specifically it
can become a fundamental principle in the design process. In
the natural world everything is connected in a symbiotic web
of relationships and therefore it is impossible to consider an
organism in isolation; its very existence is based upon its rela-
tionship to other members of its community, other species and
the environment. We might therefore think of it as a node of Dec
Nutrient Pool
relationship with the larger web of life. Taking this principle
into the realm of design, we might begin to view the objects 183
and activites we design in the same way; as nodes of relation-

54
 of relationships and therefore it is impossible to consider an
organism in isolation; its very existence is based upon its rela-
tionship to other members of its community, other species and
the environment. We might therefore think of it as a node of Dec
Nutrient Pool
relationship with the larger web of life. Taking this principle
into the realm of design, we might begin to view the objects The Natural World Living Systems
and activites we design in the same way; as nodes of relation-
ship connected cooperatively with other artifacts, users and
activities within the larger context of an environment.
54
This would represent a significant shift from traditional
design thinking which typically focuses on separate and indi-
Enzymes
vidual projects whose outcome is the design of an artifact,
message or activity that must succeed in a highly competitive
Chicken
Feed marketplace. Using the principles of cooperation and symbiosis
Earth Worms
nt Grain
as a fundamental parameter for design, we would begin to look
for ways that our design solution (and its process) could couple
cooperatively with other entities within its environment (both
Mushrooms Wasted
the human-made and natural environment).
Heat
Substrate
A good example of design based upon these principles is
Cattle Feed being pioneered by the Zero Emissions Research Initiative59
Energy or ZERI in Germany. They work with clusters of businesses
Pig Feed
and industries to design symbiotic/cooperative webs of relation-
ship much as we see in the natural world. In the diagram at left
Cattle we see how waste products from one industry become the raw
Cattle & Pig materials for another, which elminates waste and fosters coop-
Manure
Pigs eration as opposed to competition between businesses in the
marketplace.
nterlinked waste from one industry becomes The design of the cluster itself requires thinking in terms
ne organism the raw material for another. of nodes of relationship but there are similar design oppor-
within the The success of one node within the
tunities that would present themselves within each of the nodes
network profits all.
am of a Not only can designers
themselves. For instance, sustainable packaging within which
d by Zero contribute to design thinking that to grow mushrooms could be designed as well as economical
h Initiative results in webs like this, but they and sustainable modes of delivery for materials between nodes.
ts from the can use the principles of coopera-
This is a type of design thinking predicated upon cooperative
m the basis tion and symbiosis as the basis
rconnected for design process. Seeing each de-
relationship and the Zeri Clusters function as ecosystems
sign solution as a node of relation- that have coupled successfully within the marketplace and the
design ships whose connections outward environment.
bs we find and inward are as important as the
n which the individual design itself.
cted Cooperation in the web of life
55
sym-
etition,
mals,
mals
ugros
ngbirds
s with
Herbivores
into
allow

seeds
uit and
sted Cycle of food
zer. production
that among living
lation-
organisms Carnivores
Food Producers
f their

olds
t is
cally it
ess. In
c web
er an
s rela-
ies and
ode of Decomposers
Nutrient Pool
ciple
jects
lation-

184
Cooperation in a web of commerce
Zeri Cluster: Beer bakes bread and feeds sh
Water
Beer
Fish Pond
Algae Basins
Run-off
Water
Fertilizer
Waste Water
Symbiosis and cooperation
The diagram on the facing
page shows how plants, animals
and the environment are linked in
cooperative and symbiotic relation-
ships. The diagram shows the cycle
of food production between produc-
ers (plants), consumers (herbivores
and carnivores) and decomposers
(microoganisms, fungi etc.).
Rather than a cycle of
competition for survival, we can see
an elegant design of cooperation
and symbiosis in which food, waste
Enzymes
Grain
Spent Grain
Bread
Heat
Algae
Energy
Digester
Cattle & Pig
Manure
Garden
and life processes are interlinked
so that the welfare of one organism
is tied to that of others within the
ecoystem.
Above is a diagram of a
ZERI cluster developed by Zero
Emissions Research Initiative
in which waste products from the
production of beer form the basis
for a complex and interconnected
web of commerce.
This sustainable design
closely mimicks the webs we find
in the natural world, in which the
Chicken
Feed
Earth Worms
Mushrooms Wasted
Substrate
Cattle Feed
Pig Feed
Cattle
Pigs
waste from one industry becomes
the raw material for another.
The success of one node within the
network profits all.
Not only can designers
contribute to design thinking that
results in webs like this, but they
can use the principles of coopera-
tion and symbiosis as the basis
for design process. Seeing each de-
sign solution as a node of relation-
ships whose connections outward
and inward are as important as the
individual design itself.
ship
The connected cooperatively
Natural World Living Systems with other arti
activities within the larger context of an envi
This would represent a significant shift
design thinking which typically focuses on s
vidual projects whose outcome is the design
message or activity that must succeed in a h
marketplace. Using the principles of coopera
as a fundamental parameter for design, we w
for ways that our design solution (and its pro
cooperatively with other entities within its en
the human-made and natural environment).
A good example of design based upon t
being pioneered by the Zero Emissions Res
or ZERI in Germany. They work with cluste
and industries to design symbiotic/cooperat
ship much as we see in the natural world. In
we see how waste products from one indust
materials for another, which elminates waste
eration as opposed to competition between b
marketplace.
The design of the cluster itself requires
of nodes of relationship but there are simila
tunities that would present themselves withi
themselves. For instance, sustainable packag
to grow mushrooms could be designed as w
and sustainable modes of delivery for mater
This is a type of design thinking predicated
relationship and the Zeri Clusters function a
that have coupled successfully within the ma
environment.

However this principle could also be applied to package Cooperation and connection most of our disciplines as well; both
Inherent in the principle academic and professional. This issu
design for large multi-nationals such as Microsoft (who ship
of cooperation are the aspects of disconnection from nature, and of h
millions of packages worldwide each quarter that are designed from connection and relationship. from what Ill call the sacred, can- boo
a single source, without regard for local conditions). The packag- Cooperation pervades the natural not help but influence the way in Ar
ing itself could become a node, using raw materials from one world from the level of ecosystems to which designers view their problems the
the internal workings of a cell; both and go about solving them. If we and
industry to create biodegradable or recycleable packaging that
exist within a web of relationships. feel little or no connection to the a re
is locally produced. The shift from a centralized to networked The connections between natural world, it will not appear tha
design process would allow a company such as Microsoft to organisms, parts of organisms and to us as the greater context for our betw
seed and help sustain clusters such as this around the world communities of organisms within design solutions, though it is. nat
an environment form the fabric of We will not design in coop-
and designers are in an ideal position to conceive, advocate and
life on this planet. eration with nature or the built can
implement such a plan. When we are in nature or an environment; we will take a one-off tion
Perhaps an even more important implication of integrating envornment in which nature has approach devoid of ethics, and will as o
the principle of cooperation and symbiosis into the design coupled significantly with human- not see a need to create artifacts and tha
made structures, we feel a connec- activities that are in harmony with to i
process is the shift of worldview that it represents. Once people
tion on a very deep level. It is what the natural world. wou
shift from a worldview based upon competition and survival of the biologist E.O. Wilson refers to This is more or less the state wor
the fittest (especially within a consumer-led marketplace), to one as Biophilia 60, or the deep affinity of design at this moment and is
of cooperation, the choice of products and services that need humans feel for the natural world. represented by the diagram on wor
This connection with the page 26 which shows a collection of hon
to be designed will change as well as the way in which they
natural world formed the basis messages, activities, artifacts and all
are designed. Seen as nodes of relationship within webs that of our ancestors worldview and environments, thatunlike the cial
extend into the bio and technosphere, designers would have to spiritual beliefs. In the essay I wrote natural worldhave little or no to c
take into consideration issues related to sustainability, ethical for the Indigenous Wisdom connection. con
Course at Schumacher in spring As we continue to design betw
practices and the question of how much is enough?.
of 2004, I said: the world we live in, we can see acti
Deriving design principles from the natural environment One of the most profound our connection to the natural one Can
(which after all, has had much longer to perfect its designs) and themes of this course was connec- become ever more tenuous. Many nat
understanding them on a deep level will be much more mean- tionto community, to land and of us spend more time in artificially
to the invisible or spirit world. constructed environments than we brin
inful and transformative than trying to memorize the countless
Connection of this sort has both an do in natural ones and therefore tha
number of ecological design principles and processes that are external and internal aspect that (consciously or unconsciously) we for
being adopted without such a fundation. Without this ground- forms a balance or harmonious have begun to think of the artificial
ing, ecological design principles run the danger of becoming way of being in the world that we in world as the sole context for our and
the west have all but forgotten. 61 designs. tion
yet another branded and hyped design process to be sold to
If this is the predominant and
clients as the latest and greatest process for selling their prod- condition within western culture, tran
ucts and goods. it isnt surprising that it pervades
56
185