Rinahifdzulrahmi BDN7G 1710104419

LAPORAN MEMBUAT OUTLINE DAN PARAFRASA PADA JURNAL
PARENT-ADOLESCENT DISCUSSIONS ABOUT SEX AND CONDOMS: IMPACT

ON PEER INFLUENCES OF SEXUAL RISK BEHAVIOR
MATAKULIAH : METODELOGI PENELITIAN

MATERI : MEMBUAT PARAFRASA,OUTLINE,DEFINISI
OPERASIONAL,KONSEP TEORI,KERANGKA
KONSEP
MAHASISWA : RINA HIFDZUL RAHMI 1710104419
A. IDENTITAS JURNAL
Jurnal : Journal of Adolescent Research

Judul Jurnal : Parent-Adolescent Discussions About Sex and Condoms:
Impact on Peer Influences of Sexual Risk Behavior
Publiser : SAGE Publications
H Index : 68
Quartile : Q2
B. PARAFRASA JURNAL PENGARUH KOMUNIKASI ORANGTUA PADA

REMAJA MENGENAI SEKS DAN KONDOM DAN PENGARUH TEMAN
SEBAYA TERHADAP PERILAKU RISIKO SEKSUAL
NO PARAFRASA
1. Abstrac
This research examined how parent-adolescent communication about initiating sex and condoms
influenced the relationship between peer norms and behavior. African American and Hispanic
adolescents reported on parent-adolescent discussions about initiating sex and condoms, perceived peer
norms about sex and condom use, and their own behavior. Communication about sex and perceived
peer norms about sex were each related to sexual behavior, and communication about condoms and
peer norms about condoms were related to condom use behavior. For both sex and condom use, the
peer normbehavior relationship was moderated by parental communication: Peer norms were more
strongly related to behavior among adolescents who had not discussed sex or condoms with a parent.
Communication was also related to teens naming a parent as their best source of information about sex.
Results suggest that a lack of communication may cause adolescents to turn to peers and that peers
may then influence their behavior.
Abstrak
Penelitian ini meneliti bagaimana komunikasi orang tua dan remaja tentang memulai seks dan kondom
mempengaruhi hubungan antara norma dan perilaku teman sebaya. Amerika Afrika dan remaja
Hispanik melaporkan pada diskusi orang tua remaja tentang tingkah laku memulai seks dan kondom,
dugaan norma teman sebaya tentang penggunaan seks dan kondom, dan kebutuhan mereka sendiri.
Komunikasi tentang seks dan dugaan norma teman sebaya tentang seks adalah masing-masing terkait
dengan perilaku seksual, dan komunikasi tentang kondom dan norma teman sebaya berhubungan
dengan perilaku penggunaan kondom. Untuk penggunaan seks dan kondom, teman sebahaya
mempunyai hubungan dengan norma-perilaku dimoderasi oleh komunikasi orang tua: norma-norma
teman sebaya lebih kuat berkaitan dengan perilaku di kalangan remaja yang belum pernah membahas
jenis kelamin atau kondom dengan orang tua. Komunikasi juga terkait dengan remaja yang
mengandalkan orang tua sebagai sumber informasi terbaik mereka tentang seks. Hasil penelitian
menunjukkan bahwa kurangnya komunikasi dapat menyebabkan remaja beralih ke teman sebaya dan
teman sebayanya dapat mempengaruhi perilaku mereka.
BAHASA JURNAL PARAFRASA
2. Latar Belakang National surveys of school youth indicate Survei nasional tentang pemuda
that a sizable proportion of adolescents sekolah menunjukkan bahwa
are sexually active (Centers for Disease proporsi remaja cukup besar yang
Control and Prevention [CDC], 1998) aktif secara seksual (Centers for
and at risk for HIV and other sexually Disease Control and Prevention)
transmitted diseases (STDs) and [CDC], 1998) dan berisiko terhadap
becoming pregnant. In the 1950s, only a HIV dan penyakit menular seksual
quarter of the women less than 18 years lainnya (PMS) dan hamil. Pada tahun
old were sexually active, but today, the 1950-an, hanya seperempat wanita
figure is about half (Alan Guttmacher yang Kurang dari 18 tahun aktif
Institute, 1994). Currently, almost half of secara seksual, tetapi sekarang
all high school students report being jumlahnya sekitar setengahnya (Alan
sexually active, and16%report having Guttmacher Institute, 1994). Saat ini,
had four or more sexual partners (CDC, hampir setengah dari semua SMA
1998). Despite this increase in sexual siswa melaporkan aktif secara
activity, adolescents are not using seksual, dan 16% melaporkan
condoms at a particularly high rate. Only memiliki empat atau lebih pasangan
about half report having used a condom seksual (CDC, 1998). Meski terjadi
during their most recent sexual encounter peningkatan aktivitas seksual, remaja
(CDC,1998). As a result, each year, 3 tidak menggunakan kondom berada
million teens acquire an STD and 1 di tingkat yang tinggi. Hanya sekitar
million become pregnant (Alan setengah laporan yang telah
Guttmacher Institute, 1994), and people menggunakan kondom saat
under the melakukan hubungan seksual
age of 24 years account for a large terakhir mereka (CDC, 1998).
percentage of new cases of HIV (CDC, Akibatnya, setiap tahun, 3 juta
1997). Public health strategies to prevent remaja memperoleh STD dan 1 juta
pregnancy, STDs, and HIV among remaja
adolescents must focus on delaying the mengalami kehamilan (Alan
onset of sexual activity and increasing Guttmacher Institute, 1994), dan
teens condom use. Researchers must try orang-orang di bawah usia 24 tahun
to better understand the factors that mencatat persentase besar kasus baru
influence adolescents sexual activity and HIV (CDC, 1997). Strategi yang
condom use in order to promote dapat dilakukan adalah strategi harus
abstinence and safer sex. In examining difokuskan pada remaja, dimana
factors that influence teen sexual remaja harus di arahkan untuk
behavior, many researchers have focused menunda aktifitas seksual dan terlalu
on two primary social influences of dini dan pemakaian kondom dengan
adolescent behavior: parents and peers. diberikannya berupa penyuluhan
Some researchers have focused on how tentang informasi tersebut. Beberapa
parent-adolescent communication faktor yang mempengaruhi perilaku
influences adolescent sexual behavior seksual remaja adalah orang tua dan
(e.g., Jaccard, Dittus,& Gordon, 1996; K. teman sebaya. Belum banyak
Miller, Levin, Whitaker,&Xu, 1998), penelitian yang meneliti tentang efek
whereas others have focused on howpeer interaktif orang tua dengan perilaku
group norms influence adolescent sexual seksual remaja. Pengaruh teman
behavior (e.g., DiClemente, 1991; Fisher, sebaya dalam teori disebutkan jelas
Misovich, & Fisher, 1992). Only a few bahwa teman sebaya memliki
studies have examined the simultaneous pengaruh terhadap perilaku seksual
influence of parents and peers on remaja, tetapi interaktif orang tua
adolescents sexual behavior (Holtzman kepada remaja bukanlah hal yang
& Rubinson, 1995; Romer et al., 1994), sama, hal ini belum didukung oleh
and even fewer studies have examined tinjuan literatur yang memadai untuk
the interactive effects of parent and peer membuktikan. Pada penelitian ini
influence. This research examines how berfokus pada komunikasi orang tua
parental communication about sex and ke remaja, bukan sikap ataupun
about condoms interacts with peer norms perilaku orangtua. Pada beberapa
about sex and about condoms to impact penelitian menemukan bahwa
teens sexual behavior and condom use. komunikasi orang tua adalah terkait
Examining the interactive influence of dengan perilaku seksual yang kurang
parents and peers on teens sexual berisiko (Jaccard et al., 1996; Kallen,
behavior is important because, although Stephenson, & Doughty, 1983; K.
the research literature clearly shows that Miller et al., 1998). Salah satu cara
peers attitudes and behavior influence agar variabel orang tua dan variabel
teens own sexual behaviour (Brooks- sebaya dapat berinteraksi
Gunn & Furstenberg, 1989; Coates & mempengaruhi perilaku seksual
Greenblatt, 1989; Kandel, remaja adalah salah satu faktor yang
Kessler,&Margulies, 1978; dapat mengurangi dampaknya lain.
Krosnick&Judd, 1982; Mays&Cochran, Misalnya, komunikasi orang tua-
1989; H. G. Miller, Turner,&Moses, remaja tentang seks bisa mengurangi
1990), the same cannot be said about Sejauh mana norma teman sebaya
parental communication, where the mempengaruhi perilaku seksual
research data are less clear (for review, remaja. Ada beberapa cara yaitu
see Jaccard & Dittus, 1993). Recent work yang pertama, dengan orang tua
that has examined both parental and peer dapat berkomunikasi dengan remaja
influences in the same study has shown tentang seks, memberikan informasi
that both predict sexual risk behavior kepada remaja tentang teman sebaya.
(Holtzman & Rubinson, 1995; Romer et Orang tua dapat memberikan
al., 1994). Holtzman and Rubinson informasi yang lebih akurat tentang
(1995) found that parentadolescent seks daripada yang diberikan teman
communication about sex and sebaya, dan jika remaja menerima
adolescent-peer communication about informasi yang akurat dari orang tua,
sex both predicted teens number of mereka akan bertindak berdasarkan
sexual partners but in opposite dasar informasi yang telah diberikan
directions: Parental communication was daripada informasi yang tidak akurat
associated with fewer partners, and peer yang didapat dari teman sebaya.
communication was associated with Survei terbaru menunjukkan bahwa
more partners. This work did not address anak-anak dan remaja menginginkan
whether parents and peers interact to informasi tentang seks (Painter,
influence teenssexual behavior. One 1997) tetapi mereka merasa
way that parental variables and peer informasi yang didapatnya tidaklah
variables might interact to influence cukup (Alan Guttmacher Institute,
teens sexual behavior is that one factor 1994). Jika orang tua tidak
might reduce the impact of the other. For memberikan remaja informasi
example, parent-teen communication tentang seks, mereka mungkin akan
about sex might reduce the extent to beralih ke teman sebaya untuk
which peer norms influence teens sexual mendapatkan informasi tersebut.
behavior. There are several ways this Kedua, komunikasi orang tua ke
could happen. First, by communicating remaja tentang seks dapat
with teens about sex, parents may memperkuat nilai tentang seks, yang
provide teens with information that peers seharusnya membuat remaja lebih
would not. Parents presumably provide cenderung berperilaku dengan cara
more accurate information about sex than tertentu konsisten dengan nilai-nilai
peers do, and if adolescents receive tersebut (Jaccard et al., 1996;
accurate information from parents, they Mooreet al, 1985) daripada nilai
may act on the basis of that information rekan sebaya, yang mungkin
rather than on the potentially inaccurate berbeda. Akhirnya, komunikasi
information provided by peers. Recent orang tua yang menyediakan
surveys indicate that children and informasi praktis bagi remaja, seperti
adolescents want information about sex pembuatan keputusan seksual,
(Painter, 1997) but feel that they do not keterampilan, dapat meningkatkan
get enough (Alan Guttmacher Institute, kemampuan remaja untuk menangani
1994). If parents do not provide tekanan teman sebaya. Jika remaja
adolescents with information about sex, memiliki keterampilan dan
they may turn to peers for that kemampuan untuk memutuskan
information. Second, parent-adolescent sendiri untuk menjauhkan diri dari
communications about sex may reinforce seks atau untuk menggunakannya
parental values about sex, which should kondom, mereka cenderung tidak
make teens more likely to behave in a akan menanggapi tekanan teman
manner consistent with those values sebaya untuk berhubungan seks atau
(Jaccard et al., 1996; Moore et al., 1985) melakukan hubungan seks tanpa
rather than peers values, which may be kondom.
different. Finally, parental
communication that provides teens with
practical information, such as sexual
decisionmaking skills, may enhance
teens ability to handle peer pressure. If
teens have the skills and abilities to
decide on their own to abstain from sex
or to use
a condom, they should be less likely to
respond to peer pressure to have sex or to
have unprotected sex. We tested the
hypothesis that parent-adolescent sexual
communication would reduce the impact
of peer norms on adolescentssexual
behavior using two different types of
behavior: sexual activity and condom
use. As we advocated above, we
measured specific communication topics
(initiating sex and
condoms), rather than communication
about sex in general, and examined
whether discussions about initiating sex
relate to sexual behavior and
whether discussions about condoms
relate to condom use behavior. For each
topic, we examined whether parental
communication interacted with peer
norms to predict behavior. If so, we then
computed the perceived peer norms
behavior relationship separately for teens
who had talked with a parent about the
topic and for teens who had not.We
expected that the relationship between
peer norms and behavior would be
stronger for teens who had not talked
with a parent about the topic than for
teens who had. In addition, we examined
whether parental communication about
sex and/or condoms affected teens
judgment about where useful information
about sex can be obtained.
3. Tujuan Penelitian Mengetahui Pengaruh Komunikasi Orangtua Pada Remaja Mengenai
Seks dan Kondom Dan Pengaruh Teman Sebaya Terhadap Perilaku
Risiko Seksual.
4. Metode Penelitian Observasi Analitik dengan pendekatan Cross-sectional. Data yang
digunakan data primer, pengumpulan data dengan Kusioner.
Penentuan sampel dengan tehnik Purposive Sampling.
5. Hasil Data were collected from both the 544 (60%) remaja telah
adolescent and his or her mother for a mengkomunikasikan tentang topik
number of domains, including seks dan kondom dengan ibu atau
demographic data, sexual behavior, ayah mereka, dan 360 (40%) telah
family communication about sexual melakukannya . Remaja yang telah
issues, family structure, personality melakukan hubungan seks berjumlah
factors, and drug and alcohol use (for a 372 remaja. Dari 372 remaja
more complete description of these tersebut, 291 (78%) telah membahas
domains, Only the measures that are kondom dengan orang tua dan 81
pertinent to this analysis are described (22%) tidak melakukannya. Pada
here, and all measures described below remaja pertama melakukan hubungan
are taken from the adolescents report. seks dimulai dari umur 13,5 tahun.
Parent-adolescent communication. Pada remaja melaporkan jumlahnya
Adolescents were asked whether they teman dekat mereka yang pernah
had ever had a discussion with their melakukan hubungan seks, dari
mother about when to start having sex, laporan tersebut, yang pernah
whether they had ever had a discussion berhubungan seks (41,2%
with their father about when to start berhubungan seks), usia di hubungan
having sex, whether they had ever had a seksual pertama (M = 13,7 tahun, SD
discussion with their mother about = 1,54 tahun), dan jumlah jenis
condoms, and whether they had ever had kelamin seumur hidup pasangan (M
a discussion with their father about = 3,85, SD = 5,24). Penggunaan
condoms. Separate groups of adolescents kondom dipengaruhi oleh teman
were created that had and had not sebaya, dari info yang didapat teman
discussed sexual initiation with either sebaya mereka beranggapan bahwa
parent and had and had not discussed sult jika menggunakan kondom "(M
condoms with either parent. For sexual = 2,00, SD = 0,83) dan dari info lain
initiation, 544 (60%) adolescents had teman sebaya mereka, mengatakan
discussed the topic with either their bahwa kondom dapat melindungi
mother or father, and 360 (40%) had dari virus HIV/AIDS "(M = 3,18,
not.1 For condoms, only adolescents who SD = 0,70). Dalam penggunaan
reported having had sex at least one time kondom dipengaruhi teman sebaya
(n = 372) could be included in the yang banyak dari teman sebaya
analyses. Of those 372 adolescents, 291 mereka menggunakan kondom. Dari
(78%) had discussed condoms with a laporan tersebut, persentase teman
parent and 81 (22%) had not. Peer norms sebya yang selalu menggunakan
for sexual activity. All peer-norm kondom saat berhubungan seks (M =
measures were assessed as perceived 44,7, SD = 40,5). Pada Penggunaan
peer norms, that is, teens perceptions laporan remaja tentang penggunaan
about their peers sexual activity. Two kondom saat mereka pertama kali
measures of perceptions of peers sexual berhubungan seksual (62,5%
behavior were used. First, adolescents menggunakan kondom) dan laporan
estimated the age when most of their remaja yang selalu menggunakan
same-gender peers in their geographical kondom setiap berhubungan seksual
area (i.e., Montgomery, Bronx, Puerto (70,4% menggunakan kondom).
Rico) first have sex (M = 13.5 years, SD
= 1.68 years). Second, adolescents
reported the number of close friends they
had and the number of those close
friends that had ever had sex; from these
reports, we computed the percentage of
close friends that had ever had sex (M =
56.7, SD = 39.6).Adolescent sexual
activity. Three self-report measures of
sexual activity were considered:
teensreports of ever having had sex
(41.2% had sex), age at first intercourse
(M= 13.7 years,SD= 1.54 years), and
number of lifetime sex partners (M =
3.85, SD = 5.24). Although reports of
ever having had sex and of age at first
intercourse are most directly relevant to
discussions about initiating sex, we
included the number of sexual partners as
an outcome, because problem behaviors
such as early initiation of sex and
multiple partners typically cluster
together (Jessor & Jessor, 1977). Peer
norms for condoms. As with peer norms
for sexual activity, peer norms for
condoms were assessed as perceived peer
norms. Three measures of peer norms
were collected: two assessing perceived
peer attitudes and one assessing
perceived peer behavior. The two
measures of perceived peer attitudes
about condoms were answered along 4-
point scales that range from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). The items
were my friends think it is too much
trouble to use condoms (M= 2.00, SD =
0.83) and most of my friends think that
using condoms can protect them from
getting the AIDS virus (M = 3.18, SD =
0.70). The behavioral measure of peers
condom use was created from
adolescentsreports of the number of
close friends they had and the number of
close friends they had that had always
used a condom during sex; from these
reports, we computed the percentage of
friends that had always used a condom
during sex (M = 44.7, SD = 40.5).
Condom use. Four measures of condom
use were examined. The first two
measures were adolescents reports of
having used a condom during their first
episode of sexual intercourse (62.5% had
used a condom) and adolescents reports
of having used a condom during their
most recent episode of sexual intercourse
(70.4% had used a condom). The third
measurewas a measure of lifetime
condom use and was based on the
participants response to the question,
Of the ___ times you have had penile-
vaginal intercourse, how often did you
use a condom? which was made along a
5-point scale that ranged from 1 (never)
to 5 (always) (M= 3.81, SD = 1.31).
Responses to this question were also
used to create the fourth measure,
consistent condom use, which was
created by classifying participants as
having always used condoms
(participants who responded 5 = 41.9%)
or not (participants who responded 1 to 4
= 58.1%). Because the information about
their first condom use is redundant with
the other condom use measures for
adolescents who had sex only one time
(n = 48, which includes 38 who had
talked with a parent about condoms and
10 who had not), those individuals were
excluded from analyses that focused on
most recent, lifetime, and consistent
condom use. Sources of information
about sex. Adolescents were asked the
open-ended question, Where do yo u
think you get the most useful information
aboutsex? Responses were classified as
either a parent (mother or father), a
peer(friend, boyfriend, or girlfriend), or
another source of information
6. Pembahasan This research examined how parental Pada penelitian membahas bagaiman
communication affects the influence pengaruh komunikasi orang tua dan
of peer norms on adolescents sexual teman sebaya tentang seks dan
behavior and condom use. When kondum dalam perikasi seksual
looked at individually, parental remaja. Kedua hal tersebut memiliki
communication about sex and peer pengaruh terhadap perilaku seksual
norms remaja dan penggunaan kondom.
about sex both related to sexual behavior. Dari hasil penelitian pada beberapa
Likewise, parental communication remaja bahkan tidak pernah
about condoms and peer norms about berbicara ataupun bertanya kepada
condoms both related to teenscondom orang tua mereka mengenai seks
use. However, we hypothesized that the maupun kondom. Pada sebagian
two sourcesparental communications remaja yang mengkomunikasi seks
and peer normswould interact to affect dan kondom pada orang tua mereka
teens behavior. Specifically, we beranggapan bahwa orangtua
expected that parental communication merupakan sumber informasi
about initiating sex and about terakurat yang dapat mereka
condomswould reduce the extent to percayai. Didapatkan fakta bahwa
which perceived peer norms related to komunikasi orang tua ke remaja
teens sexual behavior and condom use, dapat megurangi perilaku resiko
respectively. This prediction was seksual pada remaja, dan berbanding
strongly supported for both sexual terbalik terhadap norma teman
behavior and condom use: Peer norms sebaya yang malah dapat
about sex related to teens sexual menjerumuskan mereka ke perilaku
behavior more strongly among teens who resiko seksual.
did not talk to a parent about initiating
sex than among teens who did, and peer
norms about condoms related to
teenscondom use more strongly among
teens who did not talk to a parent about
condoms than among teens who did. In
addition, having a discussion about
initiating sex or about condoms was
associated with the greater belief that
parents, rather than peers, were the best
source of information about sex. In sum,
parental discussions were associated with
less risky sexual behavior, less
conformity to peer norms, and a greater
belief that parents provide the most
useful information about sex. Although
causal inferences cannot be made from
this correlational data, one possible
causal sequence is that teens who do not
discuss sexual issues with a parent attend
to peer norms that guide their sexual
behavior. In contrast, teens who discuss
sexual issues with their parents see their
parents as the most useful source of
information and norms about sex, and are
therefore buffered from influence from
peer norms. This line of reasoning is
consistent with and complementary to
the data presented by K. Miller et al.
(1998), who found that maternal
discussions about condoms that occur
before sexual debut influenced condom
use at first intercourse, and condom use
at first intercourse influenced subsequent
condom use. Thus, the K. Miller et al.
(1998) data showed that parental
discussions about condoms can have a
direct impact on adolescents condom
use. Our data complement those findings
by suggesting that parental discussions
about sex and condoms can also impact
adolescent behavior by moderating the
extent to which peer norms guide sexual
behavior and condoms use.
7. Kesimpulan Kesimpulannya adalah komunikasi terhadap orang tua kepada remaja dan
pengaruh teman sebaya mempengaruhi perilaku seksual dan penggunaan
kondom pada remaja. Komunikasi orang tua memiliki efek dalam mengurangi
perilaku beresiko pada remaja, berkomunikasi dengan orang tua, remaja
mendapatkan informasi yang akurat tentang seks dan penggunaan kondom.
Sedangkan pengaruh teman sebaya tidak mengurangi perilaku beresiko pada
remaja.
MEMBUAT OUTLINE TINJAUAN PUSTAKA, DEFINISI OPERASIONAL,
KERANGKA KONSEP, KERANGKA TEORI DARI JURNAL
EFEKTIFITAS PENYULUHAN DENGAN MEDIA POWER POINT DAN VIDEO

ANIMASI TENTANG DAMPAK SEKS BEBAS PADA REMAJA DI SMA TAMAN
MADYA JETIS, KOTA YOGYAKARTA
A. Outline Tinjauan Pustaka
A. Penyuluhan Kesehatan
1. Pengertian
2. Langkah-langkah penyuluhan
a. Mengenal masalah, masyarakat dan wilayah
b. Menentukan priotitas
c. Menentukan tujuan penyuluhan
d. Sasaran penyuluhan
e. Isi penyuluhan
f. Metode penyuluhan yang akan digunakan
g. Memilih alat peraga atau media penyuluhan
B. Pengetahuan
1. Pengertian
2. Proses terjadinya pengetahuan
3. Tingkat pengetahuan dalam domain kognitif
4. Cara memperoleh pengetahuan
5. Faktor yang mempengaruhi pengetahuan
C. Seks Bebas
1. Pengertian
2. Perilaku seks bebas
3. Bentuk-bentuk perilaku seks bebas
4. Faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi seks bebas
5. Faktor penyebab terjadinya perilaku seks bebas
6. Dampak seks bebas
D. Remaja
1. Pengertian
2. Tahapan remaja
3. Ciri-ciri Remaja
E. Hubungan Kegiatan Penyuluhan Media Power Point dan Video Animasi dengan
Peningkatan Pengetahuan Tentang Seks Bebas
F. Tinjauan Islam
B. Definisi Operasional
No Nama Variabel Definisi Alat Ukur Hasil Ukur Skala
1. Pengetahuan Pengetahuan Kusioner Baik = 75% Ordinal
merupakan hasil dari - 100%
penyuluhan tentang
kesehatan reproduksi Cukup =
yang di dapat dari hasil 56% - 75%
pretes dan post test Kurang =
55%
2. Penyuluhan Pemberian informasi Observasi Media powerNominal
tentang seks bebas point dan
dengan metode Video
ceramah menggunakan Animasi
media power point dan
video power point
C. Kerangka Konsep
Variabel Pengganggu :
1. Sikap
2. Tingkat pendidikan
D. Kerangka Teori
Struktur Proses Keluaran
Sumber Daya Anamnesis Pengetahuan

Manusia Pemeriksaan fisik meningkat
Perbekalan Pemeriksaan Tingkat kesembuhan
Peralatan penunjang medik meningkat
Bahan Peresapan obat Tingkat kematian
Fasilitas Penyuluhan menurun
Kebijaksanaan kesehatan Tingkat kesakitan
Merujuk pasien menurun
Standar
Tingkat kecatatan
menurun
Tingkat Kepuasan
pasien meningkat
Kerangka teori tentang pelayanan mutu menurut Donabedian (1980) dalam Pohan (2006)
Parent-Adolescent Discussions
About Sex and Condoms:
Impact on Peer Influences of
Sexual Risk Behavior
Daniel J. Whitaker
Kim S. Miller
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
This research examined how parent-adolescent communication about initiating sex and
condoms influenced the relationship between peer norms and behavior. African Ameri-can
and Hispanic adolescents reported on parent-adolescent discussions about initiat-ing sex
and condoms, perceived peer norms about sex and condom use, and their own behavior.
Communication about sex and perceived peer norms about sex were each related to sexual
behavior, and communication about condoms and peer norms about condoms were related
to condom use behavior. For both sex and condom use, the peer normbehavior
relationship was moderated by parental communication: Peer norms were more strongly
related to behavior among adolescents who had not discussed sex or condoms with a
parent. Communication was also related to teens naming a parent as their best source of
information about sex. Results suggest that a lack of communication may cause adolescents
to turn to peers and that peers may then influence their behavior.
National surveys of school youth indicate that a sizable proportion of ado-

lescents are sexually active (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
[CDC], 1998) and at risk for HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases
(STDs) and becoming pregnant. In the 1950s, only a quarter of the women less
than 18 years old were sexually active, but today, the figure is about half
(Alan Guttmacher Institute, 1994). Currently, almost half of all high school
students report being sexually active, and 16% report having had four or more
sexual partners (CDC, 1998). Despite this increase in sexual activity, adoles-
cents are not using condoms at a particularly high rate. Only about half report
having used a condom during their most recent sexual encounter (CDC,
Address correspondence concerning this article to Daniel J. Whitaker, Centers for Disease Control and Pre-
vention, National Center for HIV, STD, and TB Prevention, Division of HIV/AIDS Prevention: Surveillance and
Epidemiology, 1600 Clifton Road, Mail stop E-45, Atlanta, GA 30333; e-mail: dpw7@cdc.gov.
Journal of Adolescent Research, Vol. 15 No. 2, March 2000 251-273

2000 Sage Publications, Inc.
251
252 JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENT RESEARCH / March 2000
1998). As a result, each year, 3 million teens acquire an STD and 1 million
become pregnant (Alan Guttmacher Institute, 1994), and people under the
age of 24 years account for a large percentage of new cases of HIV (CDC,
1997). Public health strategies to prevent pregnancy, STDs, and HIV
among adolescents must focus on delaying the onset of sexual activity and
increas-ing teens condom use. Researchers must try to better understand
the factors that influence adolescents sexual activity and condom use in
order to pro - mote abstinence and safer sex.
In examining factors that influence teen sexual behavior, many research-ers
have focused on two primary social influences of adolescent behavior: parents
and peers. Some researchers have focused on how parent-adolescent
communication influences adolescent sexual behavior (e.g., Jaccard, Dittus, &
Gordon, 1996; K. Miller, Levin, Whitaker, & Xu, 1998), whereas others have
focused on how peer group norms influence adolescent sexual behavior (e.g.,
DiClemente, 1991; Fisher, Misovich, & Fisher, 1992). Only a few studies
have examined the simultaneous influence of parents and peers on adoles-
cents sexual behavior (Holtzman & Rubinson, 1995; Romer et al., 1994), and
even fewer studies have examined the interactive effects of parent and peer
influence. This research examines how parental communication about sex and
about condoms interacts with peer norms about sex and about con-doms to
impact teens sexual behavior and condom use.
Examining the interactive influence of parents and peers on teens
sexual behavior is important because, although the research literature
clearly shows that peers attitudes and behavior influence teens own
sexual behavior (Brooks-Gunn & Furstenberg, 1989; Coates & Greenblatt,
1989; Kandel, Kessler, & Margulies, 1978; Krosnick & Judd, 1982; Mays
& Cochran, 1989; H. G. Miller, Turner, & Moses, 1990), the same cannot
be said about parental communication, where the research data are less
clear (for review, see Jac-card & Dittus, 1993).
Starting with the influence of peer norms, a number of studies has found
that perceptions of peers sexual attitudes and behaviors predict sexual risk
behavior for both adolescents and adults (Catania et al., 1989; DiClemente,
1990, 1991; Fisher et al., 1992; Friedman et al., 1987; Holtzman & Rubinson,
1995; Joseph et al., 1987; Kelly et al., 1990; Lowe & Radius, 1987; McKu-
sich, Coates, & Morin, 1990; Romer et al., 1994). For example, DiClemente
(1991) reported that among incarcerated youth, consistent condom use was
five times more likely when perceived peer norms supported condom use, and
Fisher et al. (1992) reported that college students perceived peer norms about
condom use predicted actual condom use measured 2 months later.
Whitaker, Miller / PARENT, PEERS, AND SEXUAL RISK BEHAVIOR 253
The research literature concerning the influence of parental variables on

adolescents sexual behavior is less clear. Most studies have focused on
whether parental communication, rather than parental attitudes and behavior,
influences teens sexual behavior (however, see Kotchick, Dorsey, Miller, &
Forehand, 1997). Some studies have found that parental communication is
associated with less risky sexual behavior (Jaccard et al., 1996; Kallen, Ste-
phenson, & Doughty, 1983; K. Miller et al., 1998), but others have found it is
not (Fox & Inazu, 1980; Furstenberg, Herceg-Burton, Shea, & Webb, 1984;
Newcomer & Udry, 1985; Reiss, Banwart, & Forman, 1975).
One reason for the lack of clear findings about parental communication is
that, in many studies, parental communication has been conceptualized rela-
tively simply: either parents have talked to their teens about sex or they have
not. There are two problems with this conceptualization. The first is that a
general measure of sexual communication ignores the specific topics that are
discussed, which may be a critical component in determining whether parent-
adolescent communication relates to the adolescents behavior. For example,
parent-adolescent discussion about sexual development, masturba-tion, and
condoms could each be considered discussions about sex, but only discussions
about condoms should be expected to affect teens condom use. The second
problem with conceptualizing parent-adolescent sexual commu-nication as
simply whether a discussion about sex occurred is that important aspects of
the communication process are ignored. Recent studies have shown that
communication process variables relate to adolescent sexual behavior. These
process variables include the timing of the communication (K. Miller et al.,
1998), the breadth of the communication (K. Miller, Kotchick, Dorsey,
Forehand, & Ham, 1999), parental responsiveness during the discussion
(Whitaker, Miller, May, & Levin, 1999), and whether permis-sive or
conservative messages are conveyed (Jaccard et al., 1996; Moore, Peterson, &
Furstenberg, 1985).
A second possible reason for the lack of a clear relationship between paren-
tal communication and adolescent sexual behaviorone that we explore in
this articleis that parental communication may interact with peer norms to
influence adolescent sexual behavior (Jaccard & Dittus, 1993). Recent work
that has examined both parental and peer influences in the same study has
shown that both predict sexual risk behavior (Holtzman & Rubinson, 1995;
Romer et al., 1994). Holtzman and Rubinson (1995) found that parent-
adolescent communication about sex and adolescent-peer communication
about sex both predicted teens number of sexual partners but in opposite
directions: Parental communication was associated with fewer partners, and
peer communication was associated with more partners. This work did not
address whether parents and peers interact to influence teenssexual behavior.
One way that parental variables and peer variables might interact to influ-
ence teens sexual behavior is that one factor might reduce the impact of the
other. For example, parent-teen communication about sex might reduce the
extent to which peer norms influence teens sexual behavior. There are sev-
eral ways this could happen. First, by communicating with teens about sex,
parents may provide teens with information that peers would not. Parents
presumably provide more accurate information about sex than peers do, and if
adolescents receive accurate information from parents, they may act on the
basis of that information rather than on the potentially inaccurate information
provided by peers. Recent surveys indicate that children and adolescents want
information about sex (Painter, 1997) but feel that they do not get enough
(Alan Guttmacher Institute, 1994). If parents do not provide adoles-cents with
information about sex, they may turn to peers for that information. Second,
parent-adolescent communications about sex may reinforce parental values
about sex, which should make teens more likely to behave in a manner
consistent with those values (Jaccard et al., 1996; Moore et al., 1985) rather
than peers values, which may be different. Finally, parental communication
that provides teens with practical information, such as sexual decision-making
skills, may enhance teens ability to handle peer pressure. If teens have the
skills and abilities to decide on their own to abstain from sex or to use a
condom, they should be less likely to respond to peer pressure to have sex or
to have unprotected sex.
We tested the hypothesis that parent-adolescent sexual communication
would reduce the impact of peer norms on adolescents sexual behavior
using two different types of behavior: sexual activity and condom use. As
we advo-cated above, we measured specific communication topics
(initiating sex and condoms), rather than communication about sex in
general, and examined whether discussions about initiating sex relate to
sexual behavior and whether discussions about condoms relate to condom
use behavior. For each topic, we examined whether parental
communication interacted with peer norms to predict behavior. If so, we
then computed the perceived peer normsbehavior relationship separately
for teens who had talked with a par - ent about the topic and for teens who
had not. We expected that the relation-ship between peer norms and
behavior would be stronger for teens who had not talked with a parent
about the topic than for teens who had. In addition, we examined whether
parental communication about sex and/or condoms affected teens
judgment about where useful information about sex can be obtained.
METHOD
Sample
Study participants were 907 adolescents that participated in the Family

and Adolescent Risk Behavior and Communication Study (FARBCS). The
FARBCS was a cross-sectional study of adolescents and their mothers
recruited from two public high schools in Montgomery, Alabama, and one
public high school each in the Bronx, New York, and San Juan, Puerto
Rico. Data collection took place between October 1993 and June 1994 at
high schools that had an overrepresentation of African American and
Puerto Rican adolescents, who are disproportionately at risk for HIV
(Lindegren, Hanson, Miller, Byers, & Onorato, 1994).
For recruitment purposes, a list of potential participants was obtained from
each high school, and students were recruited via fliers that were dis-tributed
in homerooms and sent to students homes. Interested participants contacted
the researchers, and at the same time, the adolescent-mother pair was screened
for eligibility. Eligibility criteria for the adolescent were the following:
between 14 and 16 years old; currently enrolled in the 9th, 10th, or 11th grade;
must have lived with their mother for at least the past 10 years; and must have
lived in the recruitment area for at least the past 10 years. An additional
eligibility criterion for the mother was that she was the biological, step, or
adoptive parent of the adolescent. Of the 1,733 students that provided
screening information, 1,124 were eligible, and 982 (87%) of the eligible pairs
were interviewed. Analyses of data collected during the interviews revealed
that 907 pairs actually met eligibility requirements, and these pairs were kept
as the sample. Overall, the sample consisted of 259 Blacks in Montgomery,
172 Blacks in the Bronx, 216 Hispanics in the Bronx, and 260 Hispanics in
San Juan. There were 388 (43%) males and 519 (57%) females. Three
adolescents refused to report whether they had ever had sexual inter-course
and are excluded from all analyses, leaving 904 for the analyses. Sev-eral of
the analyses described below could only be conducted with the sample of
sexually active adolescents (n = 372).
Measures
Data were collected from both the adolescent and his or her mother for a
number of domains, including demographic data, sexual behavior, family
communication about sexual issues, family structure, personality factors, and
drug and alcohol use (for a more complete description of these domains,
see K. Miller et al., 1997). Only the measures that are pertinent to this
analy-sis are described here, and all measures described below are taken
from the adolescents report.
Parent-adolescent communication. Adolescents were asked whether they

had ever had a discussion with their mother about when to start having sex,
whether they had ever had a discussion with their father about when to start
having sex, whether they had ever had a discussion with their mother about
condoms, and whether they had ever had a discussion with their father about
condoms. Separate groups of adolescents were created that had and had not
discussed sexual initiation with either parent and had and had not dis-cussed
condoms with either parent. For sexual initiation, 544 (60%) adolescents had
discussed the topic with either their mother or father, and 360 (40%) had not. 1
For condoms, only adolescents who reported having had sex at least one time
(n = 372) could be included in the analyses. Of those 372 adolescents, 291
(78%) had discussed condoms with a parent and 81 (22%) had not.
Peer norms for sexual activity. All peer-norm measures were assessed as
perceived peer norms, that is, teens perceptions about their peers sexual
activity. Two measures of perceptions of peers sexual behavior were used.
First, adolescents estimated the age when most of their same-gender peers in
their geographical area (i.e., Montgomery, Bronx, Puerto Rico) first have sex
(M = 13.5 years, SD = 1.68 years). Second, adolescents reported the number of
close friends they had and the number of those close friends that had ever had
sex; from these reports, we computed the percentage of close friends that had
ever had sex (M = 56.7, SD = 39.6).
Adolescent sexual activity. Three self-report measures of sexual activity

were considered: teens reports of ever having had sex (41.2% had sex), age at
first intercourse (M = 13.7 years, SD = 1.54 years), and number of lifetime sex
partners (M = 3.85, SD = 5.24). Although reports of ever having had sex and
of age at first intercourse are most directly relevant to discussions about initi-
ating sex, we included the number of sexual partners as an outcome, because
problem behaviors such as early initiation of sex and multiple partners typi-
cally cluster together (Jessor & Jessor, 1977).
Peer norms for condoms. As with peer norms for sexual activity, peer
norms for condoms were assessed as perceived peer norms. Three measures of
peer norms were collected: two assessing perceived peer attitudes and one
assessing perceived peer behavior. The two measures of perceived peer atti-
tudes about condoms were answered along 4-point scales that range from 1
(strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). The items were my friends think it

is too much trouble to use condoms ( M = 2.00, SD = 0.83) and most of my
friends think that using condoms can protect them from getting the AIDS
virus ( M = 3.18, SD = 0.70). The behavioral measure of peers condom use
was created from adolescents reports of the number of close friends they had
and the number of close friends they had that had always used a condom dur-
ing sex; from these reports, we computed the percentage of friends that had
always used a condom during sex (M = 44.7, SD = 40.5).
Condom use. Four measures of condom use were examined. The first two
measures were adolescents reports of having used a condom during their first
episode of sexual intercourse (62.5% had used a condom) and adoles-cents
reports of having used a condom during their most recent episode of sexual
intercourse (70.4% had used a condom). The third measure was a mea-sure of
lifetime condom use and was based on the participants response to the
question, Of the ___ times you have had penile-vaginal intercourse, how
often did you use a condom? which was made along a 5-point scale that
ranged from 1 (never) to 5 (always) (M = 3.81, SD = 1.31). Responses to this
question were also used to create the fourth measure, consistent condom use,
which was created by classifying participants as having always used con-doms
(participants who responded 5 = 41.9%) or not (participants who responded 1
to 4 = 58.1%). Because the information about their first condom use is
redundant with the other condom use measures for adolescents who had sex
only one time (n = 48, which includes 38 who had talked with a parent about
condoms and 10 who had not), those individuals were excluded from analyses
that focused on most recent, lifetime, and consistent condom use.
Sources of information about sex. Adolescents were asked the open-ended

question, Where do you think you get the most useful information about
sex? Responses were classified as either a parent (mother or father), a peer
(friend, boyfriend, or girlfriend), or another source of information.
Procedure
Data collection occurred between October 1993 and June 1994. Partici-
pants were recruited via presentations in the classroom describing the
research and through fliers distributed to students and mailed to families
of students. Individuals expressing interest in the study were screened over
the telephone to determine their eligibility according to the requirements
described above.
Face-to-face interviews were conducted separately with the mother and

with the adolescent by an interviewer who was matched on ethnicity and
gen-der to the participant. To ease the adolescents concerns that
responses would be discussed with his or her mother, the mother was
interviewed first when-ever possible (91% of the time). Mothers were paid
$45 for their participa-tion, and adolescents were paid $25.
RESULTS
Analytic Plan
The two risk behaviors of sexual activity and condom use were considered
separately. As we recommended earlier, we examined how peer norms about
sex and parent-teen communication about initiating sex relate to sexual
behavior outcomes, and how peer norms about condoms and parent-teen
communication about condoms relate to condom use. For sexual activity, we
first examined the simple bivariate relationships between parental communi-
cation about initiating sex, peer norms for sex, and sexual behavior outcomes.
Next, a series of two-step hierarchical regression models were conducted to
determine whether parental communication about initiating sex moderates the
relationship between peer norms about sex and sexual behavior (Jaccard,
Turrisi, & Wan, 1990). In the first step, each sexual behavior outcome (i.e.,
had sex vs. did not, age of sexual debut, number of partners) was regressed
onto a single peer-norm predictor and a dummy-coded variable representing
whether the adolescent had talked to a parent about initiating sex (coded 1) or
not (coded 0).2 Then in the second step, the interaction between the peer-norm
predictor and the dummy-coded grouping variable was added. A sig-nificant
interaction term at the second step would indicate that the relation-ship
between the peer-norm predictor and the sexual behavior outcome (i.e., the
slopes) was different for teens who talked to a parent about initiating sex
versus those who did not. Thus, where the interactions are significant, we
computed slopes relating the peer-norm predictor to the sexual behavior out-
come separately for the two groups. The analytic strategy for condom use was
identical: First, the univariate relationships were examined, and then the two-
step hierarchical regressions were conducted. For the regression analy-ses,
linear regression was used when the dependent measure was continuous (i.e.,
age at first intercourse, lifetime sex partner, and lifetime condom use) and
logistic regression was used when the dependent measure was binary (had sex,
condom use at first intercourse, condom use at most recent inter-course, and
consistent condom use).
TABLE 1: Correlations Among Parent-Teen Discussion About Initiating Sex,

Perceived Peer Norms About Sex, and Sexual Behavior
Variable 1 2 3 4 5
Parent-teen discussions about initiating sex

1. Talked to
parenta Peer norms
2. Age of peers sexual debut .09
3. Percentage of friends who had sex .001 .02
Sexual behavior
4. Had sexa .02 .19** .48**
5. Age of sexual debut .09 .31** .05 NA
6. Number of partners (lifetime) .09 .07 .16** NA .38**
NOTE: All tests were two-tailed.
a. These were coded 0 (no) or 1 (yes).
*p < .05. **p < .01. p < .10.
Sexual Activity
Simple bivariate relationships. Table 1 shows the correlations between

peer-norms measures for sex, parental communication about sex, and
sexual behavior outcomes. There are several points to note from this table.
First, note that parental-adolescent communication about sex was not
related to any of the perceived peer-norms measures. Second, the
correlations between talking to a parent about sex and two of the three
sexual behavior outcomes (age at first intercourse and number of partners)
are marginally significant. Teens who talked to a parent about initiating
sex tended to initiate sex at a later age (M = 13.8 years vs. 13.5 years) and
tended to have fewer partners (M = 3.47 vs. 4.43). Finally, four of the six
relationships between the peer-norm predictors and the sexual behavior
outcomes are significant and in the expected direction. Specifically, earlier
perceived sexual debut of peers was associated with a greater likelihood of
having had sex and a younger age of sexual debut, and having a greater
percentage of sexually active friends was associated with a greater
likelihood of having had sex and a greater number of partners. Thus, these
data replicate prior findings that peer norms predict sex-ual behavior.
Moderation of peer normssexual behavior relationship by parental com -

munication. To examine whether parental communication moderated the
relationship between perceived peer norms about sex and sexual behavior, we
conducted six hierarchical regressions (two peer-norm predictors for three
sexual behavior outcomes). Table 2 shows the results from the second step of
TABLE 2: Main and Interactive Effects of Parent-Teen Discussions About Ini-

tiating Sex and Peer Norms About Sex on Teens Sexual Behavior
Sexual Behavior Outcome

Number of
Had Age of Partners
Predictor Sexa Sexual Debut b (Lifetime)b
Peer-norm predictor: Average age when

kids in your area have sex
Age of peers sexual debut 0.374** 0.628** 0.707*
Talked to a parent about sex 2.559* 6.524** 10.546*
Age of peers sexual debut talked 0.184* 0.479** 0.733*
Slope for age of peers sexual debut:
Talked 0.190 0.149 0.027
Slope for age of peers sexual debut:
Did not talk 0.374 0.628 0.707
Peer-norm predictor: Percentage of friends
that have had sex
Percentage of friends that have had sex 0.032** 0.009* 0.036*
Talked to a parent about sex 0.171 0.596 0.405
Percentage of friends who had sex talked 0.004 0.011* 0.016
Slope for percentage of friends: Talked 0.002
Slope for percentage of friends: Did not talk 0.009
NOTE: All regression coefficients are unstandardized and from a model that includes
both main effects and the interaction between the parent-teen discussion variable
and the peer-norm predictor. All tests were two-tailed.
a. These were analyzed using logistic regression that modeled yes response.
b. These were analyzed using linear regression.
*p < .05. **p < .01.
the regressions models, which contain the peer-norm predictor, the

dummy-coded parental communication variable, and the interaction
between the two. Where there is a significant Peer Norm Parental
Communication interac-tion, the slope between the peer-norm predictor
and the outcome is displayed below the interaction term separately for
teens who talked with a parent and for teens who had not.
In each of the six regression models, the peer-norm predictor was signifi-
cantly related to the sexual behavior outcome. However, in four of the six
cases, the relationship between the peer-norm predictor and the sexual
behavior outcome was moderated by parental communication about initiat-ing
sex. Inspection of the individual slopes relating the peer-norm predictors to
sexual behavior outcomes separately for teens who did versus teens who did
not talk to a parent about initiating sex shows that, in cases where modera-
Figure 1. Plot of slopes of the estimated age of peers sexual debut and teens
own age of sexual debut separately for adolescents who did and adolescents
who did not talk to a parent about sex.
NOTE: Low and high values of the estimated age of peers debut are 1 standard
de-viation below and above the mean.
tion occurred, the slope was greater in magnitude among teens who had
not talked with a parent than among teens who had. This indicates that the
rela-tionship between perceived peer norms and sexual behavior is
stronger among teens who had not discussed sex with a parent than among
teens who had. To illustrate the effect, the interaction between the
estimated age of peers sexual debut and parental communication about
sex on teens own age of sexual debut is plotted in Figure 1. Figure 1
shows that the slope relating the age of peers debut and age of ones own
debut is steeper among teens who had not talked with a parent (b = 0.628)
than among teens who had (b = 0.149). Note, however, that not every
interaction will have exactly the same form.
Condom Use
Parallel analyses were conducted for condom use. Table 3 shows the
bivariate relationships between parent-teen communication about condoms,
peer norms about condoms, and condom use. Again, there are several points to
note from these data. First, parent-teen communication about condoms and
peer norms about condoms are not related. Second, the parent-teen condom
TABLE 3: Correlations Between Parent-Teen Communication About

Condoms, Perceived Peer Norms About Condoms, and
Condom Use Outcomes
Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Parent-teen discussions
about condoms
1. Talked to parent about condomsa
Peer norms about condoms
2. Percentage of friends who use
condoms .07
3. Too much trouble to use
condomsb .01 .28**
4. Condoms protect against HIV
b
.03 .01 .09
Teens condom use
a
5. Condom use at first intercourse .02 .29** .26** .05
6. Condom use at most recent
intercourse a .22** .35** .21** .06 .46**
7. Lifetime condom usec .18** .39** .29** .10 .70** .70**
a
8. Consistent condom use .11 .36** .29** .01 .69** .55** .77**
NOTE: For correlations involving condom use at most recent intercourse, lifetime
con-dom use, and consistent condom use, adolescents who reported only one sex
act were excluded. All tests were two-tailed.
a. These were coded 0 (no) or 1 (yes).
b. These were coded from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree).
c. This was coded from 1 (never ) to 5 (always).
*p < .05. **p < .01. p < .10.
discussion variable is related to three of the four condom use measures such
that condom discussions are related to greater condom use at most recent
intercourse (75.7% vs. 51.4 %), greater lifetime condom use (M = 3.86 vs.
3.49 on a 5-point scale), and greater consistent condom use (44.6% vs.
31.9%). Finally, two of the three peer-norm measures were related to condom
use measures such that the belief that peers do not use condoms or dislike
using them is related to lower condom use. Thus, these findings are similar to
the findings for sexual behavior: For each behavior, parent-teen discussions
did not relate to peer norms, but parent-teen discussions and peer norms
related to behavior (sexual behavior or condom use).
Moderation of peer normscondom use relationship by parental commu -

nication. Regression analyses were used to examine whether parental discus-
sion about condoms moderated the relationship between peer norms and teen
condom use. Again, each peer-norm measure was considered in a separate
regression model for each condom use outcome. Thus, 12 two-step regres-
sion models were conducted, as there were 3 peer-norm predictors 4 con-

dom use outcomes. Table 4 displays the results from the second step of those
12 regression analyses. Again, where the interaction between the peer-norm
and the parental communication variable are significant, separate slopes for
the peer-norm predictor and the condom use outcome are computed for teens
who had discussed condoms with a parent and teens who had not.
The Peer Norm Parental Communication interaction is significant in 6 of
the 12 models and marginally significant in 2 others. An inspection of the
individual group slopes shows that for all eight of these models, the peer
normbehavior slope is larger in magnitude for teens who had not talked with
a parent about condoms than for teens who had, indicating that peer norms for
condoms are a stronger predictor of condom use for teens who did not talk. To
illustrate the effect, the interaction between the percentage of friends who
always use a condom and parent-teen communication on teens own lifetime
condom use is plotted in Figure 2. The figure shows that the slope relating the
perceived peer consistent condom use to ones own condom use is steeper
among teens who did not communicate with a parent about condoms (b =
0.019) than among teens who did (b = 0.010). Again, not all of the eight inter-
actions will have an identical form. For all eight, however, the slope is steeper
among teens who had not talked with a parent about condoms than among teen
who had. This matches the findings for sexual behavior.
Does Gender Moderate the Parental

Communication Peer Norm Interaction?
It is possible that the Parental Communication Peer Norm interactions on

sexual behavior and condom use would be moderated by gender. That is, these
effects may be stronger or weaker for girls than for boys. To test this, we reran
each of the regression models just discussed, adding gender main effects and
gender interactions. We were primarily concerned with any three-way
interactions involving gender, parental communication, and the perceived
peer-norm variable. Of the six models on sexual behavior out-comes, there
was one significant three-way interaction (Gender Perceived Age of Peers
Debut Parental Communication About Sex on Teens Age of Sexual Debut,
p < .01) and one marginally significant interaction (Gender Perceived Age
of Peers Debut Parental Communication About Sex on Number of Lifetime
Sex Partners, p = .07). For each of these interactions, the Peer Norm Parent-
Teen Sex Communication interaction was stronger for boys than for girls. For
the 12 models on condom use outcomes, there were no significant or
marginally significant three-way interactions of gender, paren-
TABLE 4: Main and Interactive Effects of Parent-Teen Discussions About

Condoms and Peer Norms About Condoms on Teens Condom Use
Condom Use Outcome

Condom Condom
Use at Use at Lifetime Consistent
First Most Recent Condom Condom
Predictor Intercoursea Intercoursea Useb Usea
Peer-norm predictor: Percentage of

friends who always use a condom
Percentage of friends 0.016* 0.024** 0.019** 0.034**
Talked to a parent about condoms 0.133 1.297** 0.912** 1.422*
Percentage of friends who use
condoms talked 0.001 0.003 0.009* 0.018*
Slope for percentage of friends:
Talked 0.010 0.016
Slope for percentage of friends:
Did not talk 0.019 0.034
Peer-norm predictor: Friends who
think it is too much troublec
Friends who think it is too much
trouble 1.132** 0.635* 0.638** 1.438*
Talked to a parent about condoms 1.043 0.912 0.081 0.780
Too much trouble talked 0.578 0.100 0.248 0.774
Slope for too much trouble: Talked 0.554 0.664
Slope for too much trouble:
Did not talk 1.132 1.438
Peer-norm predictor: Friends who
think condoms protect against AIDSc
Friends who think condoms
protect 0.973** 0.829* 0.713** 0.689*
Talked to a parent about
condoms 3.246* 1.692 1.655* 2.286
Condoms protect talked 1.045* 0.872* 0.712** 0.907*
Slope for condoms protect: Talked 0.073 0.042 0.001 0.218
Slope for condoms protect:
Did not talk 0.973 0.829 0.713 0.689
NOTE: All regression coefficients are unstandardized and from a model that includes both
main effects and the interaction between the parent-teen discussion variable and the peer-
norm predictor. Analyses of condom use at most recent intercourse, lifetime condom use,
and consistent condom use excluded adolescents who only had sex once. a. These were
analyzed using logistic regression that modeled yes response.
b. These were analyzed using linear regression with lifetime condom use, and
they were coded from 1 (never) to 5 (always).
c. These were coded from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree).
*p < .05. **p < .01. p < .10.
Figure 2. Plot of slopes of perceived percentage of friends who are sexually

ac-tive and lifetime condom use for adolescents who did and did not talk to a
parent about condoms.
NOTE: Low and high values of percentage of friends to always use a condom are
1 standard deviation below and above the mean.
tal communication, and the peer-norm variable. It is also worthy to note

that the inclusion of gender did not appreciably alter the results already
discussed in that the Parental Communication Peer Norm interaction
remained sig-nificant in most cases.
Preferred Sources of Information About Sex

One final analysis examined adolescents reports of their best source of
information about sex. Open-ended responses to the question, Where do you
think you get the most useful information about sex? were classified as a
parent (mother or father), a peer (boyfriend, girlfriend, friend), or a different
source (e.g., teacher, doctor). Frequency analyses showed that teens who
talked to a parent about initiating sex, when compared to those who did not,
were more likely to name a parent (85.1% vs. 51.7%) but less likely to name a
peer (8.6% vs. 27.3%), 2 (2) = 120.40, p < .01.3 Similar findings were
obtained for sexually active teens who talked to their parents about condoms
versus those who did not. Teens who talked about condoms with a parent were
more likely to name a parent than teens who did not (80.1% vs. 29.6%), but they
were less likely to name a peer (13.1% vs. 50.6%), 2 (2) = 76.29, p < .01.
DISCUSSION
This research examined how parental communication affects the influ-ence

of peer norms on adolescents sexual behavior and condom use. When looked
at individually, parental communication about sex and peer norms about sex
both related to sexual behavior. Likewise, parental communication about
condoms and peer norms about condoms both related to teens condom use.
However, we hypothesized that the two sourcesparental communica - tions
and peer normswould interact to affect teens behavior. Specifically, we
expected that parental communication about initiating sex and about con-doms
would reduce the extent to which perceived peer norms related to teens
sexual behavior and condom use, respectively. This prediction was strongly
supported for both sexual behavior and condom use: Peer norms about sex
related to teens sexual behavior more strongly among teens who did not talk
to a parent about initiating sex than among teens who did, and peer norms
about condoms related to teens condom use more strongly among teens who
did not talk to a parent about condoms than among teens who did. In addition,
having a discussion about initiating sex or about condoms was associated with
the greater belief that parents, rather than peers, were the best source of
information about sex. In sum, parental discussions were associated with less
risky sexual behavior, less conformity to peer norms, and a greater belief that
parents provide the most useful information about sex.
Although causal inferences cannot be made from this correlational data,
one possible causal sequence is that teens who do not discuss sexual issues
with a parent attend to peer norms that guide their sexual behavior. In con-
trast, teens who discuss sexual issues with their parents see their parents as the
most useful source of information and norms about sex, and are therefore
buffered from influence from peer norms. This line of reasoning is consistent
with and complementary to the data presented by K. Miller et al. (1998), who
found that maternal discussions about condoms that occur before sexual debut
influenced condom use at first intercourse, and condom use at first intercourse
influenced subsequent condom use. Thus, the K. Miller et al. (1998) data
showed that parental discussions about condoms can have a
direct impact on adolescents condom use. Our data complement those

find - ings by suggesting that parental discussions about sex and condoms
can also impact adolescent behavior by moderating the extent to which
peer norms guide sexual behavior and condoms use.
Public Health Implications

Two primary strategies for preventing HIV infection among adolescents
are to encourage sexual delay and to promote condom use among sexually
active youth. This data suggest that parental communication can influence
these behaviors by reducing the extent to which peer norms influence sexual
activity and condom use (and peers may promote rather than prevent risky
behavior, e.g., Holtzman & Rubinson, 1995; Romer et al., 1994). Of course,
parents cannot completely eliminate peer influence (peer attitudes and
behavior often related to teens behavior, even among teens who had talked to
a parent), but parents should be informed of the potential benefits of talking to
their children about sex, they should be encouraged to talk to them, and they
should talk to them before their children begin having sex (K. Miller et al.,
1998). Parents are often adolescents preferred source of sexual information
(as indicated by this data and data presented elsewhere, e.g., the Kaiser Fam-
ily Foundation survey reported by Painter, 1997), and teens whose parents do
not discuss sexual issues with them may turn to peers when they have a ques-
tion or problem. Not talking to teens about sex may open the door a bit wider
for peers to influence adolescents sexual behavior. The public health mes-
sage for parents to be gleaned from this data may be a relatively simple one: If
you do not provide your teens with information and norms about sex, some-
one else will (in this case, peers), and they may influence your teens to engage
in high-risk behaviors.
Why Do Parent-Child Discussions

Reduce Peer Influences?
We discussed several possible ways that parent-child discussion might

reduce the influence of peers on adolescents sexual behavior. Specifically, we
suggested that parent-teen discussions about specific sexual issues (a) provide
information to teens, (b) reinforce parental values, and (c) buffer teens from
peer pressure. The data presented are consistent with the informa-tional
function of parents (teens who talked with a parent about sex or con-doms
were more likely than teens who did not to name a parent as the best
source of information about sex) and the buffering function of parents (teens
who talked with a parent about sex were less likely to behave like their peers
than teens who did not) described above. These mechanisms should not be
considered exclusive, however, as they may operate simultaneously.
An alternative explanation for the findings focuses on parental
closeness and monitoring rather than on the specifics of parent-child
communication. It is possible that parents who talk to their children about
sex or condoms have closer relationships with their children and may
monitor their childrens activities more closely than parents who do not
talk to their children about sex or condoms. If this were true, the children
of parents who talk to them about sex and condoms would spend relatively
more time with their parents and less time with their peers than the
children of parents who do not talk to them about sex and condoms. If so,
then the greater influence of peer norms for teens who do not versus those
who do discuss sex or condoms with a parent may simply be due to the
greater exposure that those teens receive to peer atti-tudes and behavior.
We conducted several additional tests to examine this alternative explana-
tion. Using a four-item parental-monitoring measure, = .68 (adapted from
Steinberg, Lamborn, Dornbusch, & Darling, 1992), and a four-item parental-
closeness measure, = .85, we examined differences between teens who did
and teens who did not talk to a parent about sex, and teens who did and teens
who did not talk to a parent about condoms. There were no differ-ences in
parental monitoring as a function of whether initiating sex was dis-cussed ( p
= .12) or whether condoms were discussed ( p = .61). There were differences
in closeness, however, with adolescents who talked with a parent about sex
reporting greater closeness than those who did not (M = 13.5 vs. 12.8, p = .01)
and adolescents who talked with a parent about condoms reporting greater
closeness than those who did not (M = 13.4 vs. 12.4, p <
.001). Consequently, we included parental monitoring and closeness as
covariates in all regression models presented above. With monitoring and
closeness as covariates, the overall results changed only slightly; one signifi-
cant interaction was reduced to a marginal level of significance, one margin-
ally significant effect became significant, and one nonsignificant effect
became marginally significant. Thus, although monitoring and closeness may
be important predictors of deviant behavior (Forehand, Miller, Dutra, &
Watts-Chance, 1997), in this data, the interactive effect of parental communi-
cation and peer norms on teens sexual behavior and condom use was inde -
pendent of parental monitoring and closeness.
Theoretical Implications
The data show that parental communication moderates the relationship
between teens perceptions of peer norms and their sexual behavior. This sug -
gests that the effect of parental communication on teen sexual behavior may
be indirect, rather than or in addition to being direct. This is important because
some studies have found no relationship between parent-adolescent
communication and adolescent sexual behavior, leading some to conclude that
parents have little impact. This work suggests that parental communica-tion
about sexual issues can have an impact by affecting other correlates of teens
sexual behavior. This is important to recognize because it is possible that
parent-teen communication might affect the correlates of teen sexual behavior
but not the overall level of teen sexual behavior, and examining only the main
effect of parental communication would lead one to conclude that parental
communication has no impact. The broader implication of this is that
researchers need to focus on understanding how and why parental com-
munication affects teen sexual behavior rather than simply on whether or not it
does. To do this, researchers must examine interactions and specific process
variables. Such process-based research that focuses on how parental
communication influences risk behavior will aid in the development of theo-
retical models that account for multiple sources of influence on adolescent
sexual behavior.
Limitations of This Work

There are some limitations of this work. First, as noted above, the data are
strictly correlational, so the direction of causality cannot be determined. The
proposed causal sequence, that is, that children who do not talk to their par-
ents turn to their peers for information and norms that guide their own sexual
behavior, cannot be established based on this data alone. Longitudinal inves-
tigations that track the development of attitudes and values as a function of
parental communication and peer norms are needed to make more confident
causal inferences. Second, the study population consisted of minority youth,
and therefore, the sample is not a representative sample, so the findings may
not be generalizable to nonminority populations. Nevertheless, minority
populations are at an increased risk for STDs including HIV (Lindegren et al.,
1994) and are therefore an important population to study. A third limitation
pertains to the fact that peer norms were measured as perceptions of peers
attitudes and behavior rather than peers actual attitudes and behavior. It is
well documented that people use their own behavior to judge the attitudes and
behaviors of others (e.g., Ross, Greene, & House, 1977), particularly when
objective information is scarce. This raises the possibility that the causal
direction of the relationship between perceived peer norms and teens behav -
ior is reversed (i.e., behavior influences perceived peer norms rather than per-
ceived peer norms influence behavior), and the moderation of this relation-
ship by parent-teen discussions is due to the fact that parent-teen discussions
provide teens with information that reduces the extent to which they are able
to distort their perceptions of peers norms. For example, discussing sex with a
parent may provide the teen with information that reduces his or her belief that
all my friends are having sex. The findings presented here may be more
compelling if they are replicated using measures of the actual attitudes and
behaviors of teens peers.
Conclusions
Public health objectives regarding HIV prevention for adolescents focus on
the delay of sexual onset and on condom use among sexually active youths.
Parental communication may play a critical role in achieving the pub-lic
health objectives for sexual activity among adolescents, which focus on
delaying the onset of sex and promoting condom use. Recent research on
parental communication that has examined the communication process and
interactive influences of parents and peers has shown that parental communi-
cation is a robust predictor of childrens sexual behavior. The continued
examination of these factors will allow researchers and educators to deter-
mine the important elements that make parental communication effective and
to develop effective programs based on those elements.
NOTES
1. Mothers also reported on whether they had ever discussed initiating sex and discussed
con-doms with their child. Adolescents and mothers agreement was 65% for initiating sex
and 68% for condoms. No additional data were available about fathers reports. For more
complete re - ports, see Miller, Kotchick, Dorsey, Forehand, and Ham (1999).
2. Each predictor was considered in separate regression equations because we were inter-
ested in examining the interactive effects of parental communication on the predictors and
not in the combined predictive effect of the various peer-norm measures. For the most part,
the predic-tors were not highly correlated. The correlation between the two peer-norm
predictors of sexual behavior was only r = .19, and the correlations between the three
measures of peer norms for condom use were .27, .01, and .09, respectively.
3. This result remained significant when only sexually active adolescents who did talk to
a parent about initiating sex versus those who did not talk to a parent about initiating sex
were con-sidered, and when only children who named a parent or a peer were considered
(i.e., when those whose responses were classified as other were dropped).
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Daniel J. Whitaker is a research psychologist at the Centers for Disease Control and
Pre-vention (CDC), National Center for HIV, STD, and TB Prevention, Division of
HIV/AIDS Prevention, Surveillance and Epidemiology. Dr. Whitaker received his
Ph.D. in social psychology in 1996 from the University of Georgia and joined the
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Kim S. Miller is a research sociologist at the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC), National Center for HIV, STD, and TB Prevention, Division of
HIV/AIDS Pre-vention, Surveillance and Epidemiology. Dr. Miller joined the CDC in
1991, following the completion of her doctoral degree in sociology at Emory
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enactment of HIV risk and risk reduction behaviors in adolescents, and the design
and implementation of interventions to prevent HIV in adolescents.

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LAPORAN MEMBUAT OUTLINE DAN PARAFRASA PADA JURNAL

PARENT-ADOLESCENT DISCUSSIONS ABOUT SEX AND CONDOMS: IMPACT

MATAKULIAH : METODELOGI PENELITIAN

Jurnal : Journal of Adolescent Research

B. PARAFRASA JURNAL PENGARUH KOMUNIKASI ORANGTUA PADA

BAHASA JURNAL PARAFRASA

EFEKTIFITAS PENYULUHAN DENGAN MEDIA POWER POINT DAN VIDEO

A. Outline Tinjauan Pustaka

Struktur Proses Keluaran

Sumber Daya Anamnesis Pengetahuan

National surveys of school youth indicate that a sizable proportion of ado-

Journal of Adolescent Research, Vol. 15 No. 2, March 2000 251-273

The research literature concerning the influence of parental variables on

Study participants were 907 adolescents that participated in the Family

Parent-adolescent communication. Adolescents were asked whether they

Adolescent sexual activity. Three self-report measures of sexual activity

(strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). The items were my friends think it

Sources of information about sex. Adolescents were asked the open-ended

Face-to-face interviews were conducted separately with the mother and

TABLE 1: Correlations Among Parent-Teen Discussion About Initiating Sex,

Parent-teen discussions about initiating sex

Simple bivariate relationships. Table 1 shows the correlations between

Moderation of peer normssexual behavior relationship by parental com -

TABLE 2: Main and Interactive Effects of Parent-Teen Discussions About Ini-

Sexual Behavior Outcome

Peer-norm predictor: Average age when

the regressions models, which contain the peer-norm predictor, the

TABLE 3: Correlations Between Parent-Teen Communication About

Moderation of peer normscondom use relationship by parental commu -

sion models were conducted, as there were 3 peer-norm predictors 4 con-

Does Gender Moderate the Parental

It is possible that the Parental Communication Peer Norm interactions on

TABLE 4: Main and Interactive Effects of Parent-Teen Discussions About

Condom Use Outcome

Peer-norm predictor: Percentage of

Figure 2. Plot of slopes of perceived percentage of friends who are sexually

tal communication, and the peer-norm variable. It is also worthy to note

Preferred Sources of Information About Sex

This research examined how parental communication affects the influ-ence

direct impact on adolescents condom use. Our data complement those

Public Health Implications

Why Do Parent-Child Discussions

We discussed several possible ways that parent-child discussion might

Limitations of This Work

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