As 4673 - 2001 Cold Formed Stainless Steel Structures Unlocked

Accessed by UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN QUEENSLAND on 14 Nov 2017 (Document currency not guaranteed when printed) AS/NZS 4673
Australian/New Zealand Standard
Cold-formed stainless steel structures

AS/NZS 4673:2001
AS/NZS 4673:2001
This Joint Australian/New Zealand Standard was prepared by Joint Technical
Committee BD-086, Stainless Steel Structures. It was approved on behalf of the
Council of Standards Australia on 22 June 2001 and on behalf of the Council of
Standards New Zealand on 24 August 2001. It was published on 9 November 2001.
The following interests are represented on Committee BD-086:

Association of Consulting Engineers Australia
Australasian Railway Association
Australian Industry Group
Australian Stainless Steel Development Association
Bureau of Steel Manufacturers of Australia
Institution of Engineers Australia
New Zealand Stainless Steel Development Association
The University of Sydney
Accessed by UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN QUEENSLAND on 14 Nov 2017 (Document currency not guaranteed when printed)
Welding Technology Institute of Australia
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This Standard was issued in draft form for comment as DR 00011.

AS/NZS 4673:2001

First published as AS/NZS 4673:2001.
COPYRIGHT
Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand
All rights are reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or copied in any form or by
any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without the written
permission of the publisher.
Jointly published by Standards Australia International Ltd, GPO Box 5420, Sydney,
NSW 2001 and Standards New Zealand, Private Bag 2439, Wellington 6020
ISBN 0 7337 3979 2
AS/NZS 4673:2001 2
PREFACE
This Standard was prepared by the Joint Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand
Committee BD-086, Stainless Steel Structures.
The objective of this Standard is to provide designers of stainless steel structures with
specifications for cold-formed stainless steel structural members used for load-carrying
purposes in buildings and other structures.
Sections 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 of this Standard are based on ANSI/ASCE-8-90 Specification for
the Design of Cold-formed Stainless Steel Structural Members. Section 6 is based on
AS/NZS 4600 and AS/NZS 1664.1.
Statements expressed in mandatory terms in notes to tables are deemed to be requirements
of this Standard.
The terms normative and informative have been used in this Standard to define the
application of the appendix to which they apply. A normative appendix is an integral part
of a Standard, whereas an informative appendix is only for information and guidance.
3 AS/NZS 4673:2001
CONTENTS
Page
SECTION 1 SCOPE AND GENERAL

1.1 SCOPE......................................................................................................................... 5
1.2 REFERENCED DOCUMENTS................................................................................... 5
1.3 DEFINITIONS............................................................................................................. 5
1.4 NOTATION............................................................................................................... 11
1.5 MATERIALS............................................................................................................. 19
1.6 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS...................................................................................... 22
1.7 NON-CONFORMING SHAPES AND CONSTRUCTION ....................................... 24
SECTION 2 ELEMENTS
2.1 SECTION PROPERTIES .......................................................................................... 25
2.2 EFFECTIVE WIDTHS OF STIFFENED ELEMENTS.............................................. 27
2.3 EFFECTIVE WIDTHS OF UNSTIFFENED ELEMENTS ........................................ 31
2.4 EFFECTIVE WIDTHS OF UNIFORMLY COMPRESSED ELEMENTS WITH
AN EDGE STIFFENER OR ONE INTERMEDIATE STIFFENER .......................... 32

2.5 EFFECTIVE WIDTHS OF EDGE-STIFFENED ELEMENTS WITH ONE OR
MORE INTERMEDIATE STIFFENERS, OR STIFFENED ELEMENTS
WITH MORE THAN ONE INTERMEDIATE STIFFENER..................................... 37
2.6 STIFFENERS ............................................................................................................ 38
SECTION 3 MEMBERS
3.1 GENERAL................................................................................................................. 41
3.2 MEMBERS SUBJECT TO TENSION....................................................................... 41
3.3 MEMBERS SUBJECT TO BENDING...................................................................... 41
3.4 CONCENTRICALLY LOADED COMPRESSION MEMBERS............................... 50
3.5 COMBINED AXIAL COMPRESSIVE LOAD AND BENDING.............................. 53
3.6 TUBULAR MEMBERS ............................................................................................ 54
SECTION 4 STRUCTURAL ASSEMBLIES

4.1 BUILT-UP SECTIONS.............................................................................................. 57
4.2 MIXED SYSTEMS.................................................................................................... 58
4.3 LATERAL RESTRAINTS......................................................................................... 58
SECTION 5 CONNECTIONS
5.1 GENERAL................................................................................................................. 60
5.2 WELDED CONNECTIONS ...................................................................................... 60
5.3 BOLTED CONNECTIONS ....................................................................................... 64
SECTION 6 TESTING
6.1 TESTING FOR DETERMINING MATERIAL PROPERTIES ................................. 71
6.2 TESTING FOR ASSESSMENT OR VERIFICATION.............................................. 72
AS/NZS 4673:2001 4
Page
APPENDICES
A LIST OF REFERENCED DOCUMENTS ................................................................. 75
B MECHANICAL PROPERTIES ................................................................................. 77
C STAINLESS STEEL PROPERTIES.......................................................................... 83
D STAINLESS STEEL FASTENERS......................................................................... 101
E FLEXURAL MEMBERS SUBJECTED TO POSITIVE
AND NEGATIVE BENDING ................................................................................. 104
F FATIGUE ................................................................................................................ 105
G FIRE ........................................................................................................................ 111
H SECTION PROPERTIES ........................................................................................ 113
I UNSTIFFENED ELEMENTS WITH STRESS GRADIENT................................... 117
J HOLLOW SECTION LATTICE GIRDER CONNECTIONS.................................. 118
K DETERMINATION OF THE CAPACITY
[STRENGTH REDUCTION] FACTOR .................................................................. 130
5 AS/NZS 4673:2001
STANDARDS AUSTRALIA/STANDARDS NEW ZEALAND

S EC TION 1 S C OP E AND G E NER A L
1.1 SCOPE
This Standard sets out minimum requirements for the design of stainless steel structural
members cold-formed to shape from annealed or temper-rolled sheet, strip, plate or flat bar
stainless steels used for load-carrying purposes in buildings. It may also be used for
structures other than buildings provided appropriate allowances are made for dynamic
effects.
For the purpose of this Standard, steels with at least 10.5% chromium and up to 1.2%
carbon are considered as stainless steels.
1.2 REFERENCED DOCUMENTS

The documents referred to in this Standard are listed in Appendix A.
1.3 DEFINITIONS
For the purpose of this Standard, the definitions below apply. Definitions peculiar to a
particular clause or section are also given in that clause or section.
NOTE: In this Standard, terms in square brackets relate to New Zealand use.
1.3.1 Action [Effect]
The cause of stress, dimensional change, or displacement in a structure or a component of a
structure.
1.3.2 Action effect [Action] or load effect [action]
The internal force, moment, deformation, crack, or like effect caused by one or more
actions [effects].
1.3.3 Arched compression element
A circular or parabolic arch-shaped compression element having an inside radius-to-
thickness ratio greater than 8, stiffened at both ends by edge stiffeners. (See Figure 1.3(d).)
1.3.4 Bend
Portion adjacent to flat elements and having a maximum inside radius-to-thickness ratio
(r i/t) of 8. (See Figure 1.1.)
1.3.5 Braced member
One for which the transverse displacement of one end of the member relative to the other is
effectively prevented.
1.3.6 Can
Implies a capability or possibility and refers to the ability of the user of the Standard, or to
a possibility that is available or that might occur.
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1.3.7 Capacity [Strength reduction] factor

A factor used to multiply the nominal capacity to obtain the design capacity.
1.3.8 Cold-formed stainless steel structural members
Shapes that are manufactured by press-braking blanks sheared from sheets, cut lengths of
coils or plates, or by roll-forming cold- or hot-rolled coils or sheets; both forming
operations being performed at ambient room temperature, that is, without manifest addition
of heat as required for hot-forming.
1.3.9 Design action effect [Design action] or design load effect [design action]
The action [effect] or load effect [action] calculated from the design actions [design forces]
or design loads.
1.3.10 Design action [Design force] or design load
The combination of the nominal actions [nominal effects] or loads and the load factors, as
specified in the relevant loading Standard.
1.3.11 Design capacity
The product of the nominal capacity and the capacity [strength reduction] factor.
1.3.12 Effective design width

Where the flat width of an element is reduced for design purposes, the reduced design width
is termed the effective width or effective design width.
1.3.13 Elements
Simple shapes into which a cold-formed structural member is considered divided and may
consist of the following shapes:
(a) Flat elementsappearing in cross-section as rectangles. (See Figure 1.2.)
(b) Bendsappearing in cross-section as sectors of circular rings, having the inside
radius-to-thickness ratio less than or equal to eight (r i/t 8). (See Figure 1.2.)
(c) Arched elementscircular or parabolic elements having the inside radius-to-
thickness ratio greater than eight (r i/t > 8). (See Figure 1.2.)
1.3.14 Feed width (wf)
Width of coiled or flat steel used in the production of a cold-formed product.
1.3.15 Flat-width-to-thickness ratio
The flat width of an element measured along its plane, divided by its thickness.
1.3.16 Flexural-torsional buckling
A mode of buckling in which compression members can bend and twist simultaneously
without change of cross-sectional shape.
1.3.17 Initial Youngs modulus
The initial slope of the stress-strain curve. (See Appendix B.)
1.3.18 Length (of a compression member)
The actual length (l) of an axially loaded compression member, taken as the length centre-
to-centre of intersections with supporting members, or the cantilevered length in the case of
a freestanding member.
1.3.19 Limit state
A state beyond which the structure no longer satisfies the design performance requirements.
NOTE: Limit states separate desired states [no failure] from undesired states [failure].
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1.3.19.1 Limit state, serviceability

A state that corresponds to conditions beyond which specified service requirements for a
structure or structural element are no longer met.
NOTE: Requirements are based on the intended use and may include limits on deformation,
vibratory response, degradation or other physical aspects.
1.3.19.2 Limit state, stability
A limit state corresponding to the loss of static equilibrium of a structure considered as a
rigid body.
NOTE: In New Zealand, the stability limit state is part of the ultimate limit state.
1.3.19.3 Limit state, ultimate
A state associated with collapse, or with other similar forms of structural failure.
NOTE: This generally corresponds to the maximum load-carrying resistance of a structure or
structural element but in some cases to the maximum applicable strain or deformation.
1.3.20 Load
An externally applied limit state force including self-weight.
1.3.21 Local buckling
A mode of buckling involving plate flexure alone without transverse deformation of the line
or lines of intersection of adjoining plates.
1.3.22 May
Indicates the existence of an option.
1.3.23 Multiple-stiffened element
An element that is stiffened between webs, or between a web and a stiffened edge, by
means of intermediate stiffeners that are parallel to the direction of stress.
(See Figure 1.3(c).)
1.3.24 Nominal action [Nominal effect] or nominal load
An unfactored action [effect] or load determined in accordance with the relevant loading
Standard.
1.3.25 Nominal capacity
The capacity of a member or connection calculated using the parameters specified in this
Standard.
1.3.26 Point-symmetric section
A section symmetrical about a point (centroid) such as a Z-section having equal flanges.
(See Figure 1.5(b).)
1.3.27 Proof stress
The stress at a nominated plastic strain. (See Appendix B.)
1.3.28 Proof testing
The application of test loads to a structure, sub-structure, member or connection to ascertain
the structural characteristics of only that one unit under test.
1.3.29 Prototype testing
The application of test loads to one or more structures, sub-structures, members or
connections to ascertain the structural characteristics of that class of structures, sub-
structures, members or connections that are nominally identical to the units tested.
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1.3.30 Segment (in a member subjected to bending)

The length between adjacent cross-sections that are fully or partially restrained, or the
length between an unrestrained end and the adjacent cross-section that is fully or partially
restrained.
1.3.31 Secant modulus
The slope of a line from the origin to a point on the stress-strain curve. (See Appendix B.)
1.3.32 Shall
Indicates that a statement is mandatory.
1.3.33 Should
Indicates a recommendation.
1.3.34 Special study
A procedure for the analysis or design, or both, of the structure, agreed between the
authority having statutory powers to control the design and erection of a structure, and the
design engineer.
1.3.35 Stiffened or partially stiffened compression element
A flat compression element (i.e. a plane compression flange of a flexural member or a plane
web or flange of a compression member) of which both edges parallel to the direction of
stress are stiffened by a web, flange, edge stiffener, intermediate stiffener, or the like. (See
Figure 1.3(a).)
1.3.36 Stiffener(s)
1.3.36.1 Edge stiffener
Formed element at the edge of a flat compression element. (See Figure 1.4(a).)
1.3.36.2 Intermediate stiffeners
Formed elements, employed in multiple stiffened segments, and located between edges of
stiffened elements. (See Figure 1.4(b).)
1.3.37 Structural ductility factor
A numerical assessment of the ability of a structure to sustain cyclic inelastic
displacements.
1.3.38 Structural performance factor
A numerical assessment of the ability of a building to survive cyclic displacements.
1.3.39 Structural response factor
The level of force reduction available for a given system compared with an elastic structural
system.
1.3.40 Sub-element
The portion between adjacent stiffeners, or between web and intermediate stiffener, or
between edge and stiffener.
1.3.41 Tangent modulus
The slope tangential to the stress-strain curve. (See Appendix B.)
1.3.42 Temper rolling
Cold-working of annealed stainless steel by rolling to achieve increased strength.
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1.3.43 Tensile strength

The minimum ultimate strength in tension specified for the grade of steel in the appropriate
Standard.
1.3.44 Thickness
The base steel thickness (t), exclusive of coatings.
1.3.45 Unformed steel
Steel as received from the steel producer or warehouse before being cold-worked as a result
of fabricating operations.
1.3.46 Unformed steel properties
Mechanical properties of unformed steel, such as yield stress, tensile strength and ductility.
1.3.47 Unstiffened compression element
A flat compression element that is stiffened at only one edge parallel to the direction of
stress. (See Figure 1.3(b).)
1.3.48 Yield stress
In the absence of a yield plateau, the yield stress is taken as the 0.2% proof stress, which is
the stress at 0.2% plastic strain. (See Appendix B.)

NOTE: The yield stress varies with the rolling direction, transverse or longitudinal, and is
different in tension and compression.
FIGURE 1.1 BENDS
NOTE: The member illustrated consists of the following nine elements:

(a) Elements 1, 3, 7, 9 are flat elements (flats).
(b) Elements 2, 4, 6, 8 are bends (ri/t 8).
(c) Element 5 is an arched element (ri/t > 8).
FIGURE 1.2 ELEMENTS
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FIGURE 1.4 STIFFENERS
FIGURE 1.3 STIFFENING MODES
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FIGURE 1.5 EXAMPLES OF SECTION SYMMETRY
1.4 NOTATION
The symbols used in this Standard are listed in Table 1.4.
Where non-dimensional ratios are involved, both the numerator and denominator are
expressed in identical units.
The dimensional units for length and stress in all expressions or equations are to be taken as
millimetres (mm) and megapascals (MPa) respectively, unless specifically noted otherwise.
An asterisk placed after a symbol denotes a design action effect [design action] due to the
design load for the strength [ultimate] limit state.
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TABLE 1.4
NOTATION
Symbol Description Clause reference

A area of the full, unreduced cross-section; or 3.3.3
gross cross-sectional area of a channel or Z-section
Ab gross cross-sectional area of the bolt 5.3.8.2
A bs tensile stress area of the bolt 5.3.8.2
Ae effective area calculated at buckling stress f n 3.4.1
A ef effective area of edge stiffener or intermediate stiffeners 2.5
Af gross cross-sectional area of the stainless steel bolt 5.3.7.2
An net area of the cross-section; or 3.2, 5.3.5
net area of the connected part at the line of bolts transverse to
the line of the applied force
Ao reduced area of the cross-section 3.6.3
As reduced area of a stiffener; or 2.4.1, 2.6.1
cross-sectional area of a transverse stiffener
A se effective area of a stiffener 2.4.1

A st gross area of a shear stiffener 2.6.2
A s1, A s2 area of a member in compression consisting of the transverse 2.6.1
stiffeners and a portion of the web
a distance between transverse stiffeners 2.6.2
Bc constant 1.5.2.4
b flat width of element excluding radii; or 2.2.1.2, 2.4.1, 3.6.2
flat width of the compression flange
be effective width of uniformly compressed stiffened and 2.2.1.2, 2.3.1.2, 2.3.1.3
unstiffened elements used for determining the load capacity
[strength]
b ed effective width of uniformly compressed stiffened and 2.2.1.3, 2.3.2.3
unstiffened elements used for determining the deflection
b es effective width of a sub-element or element to be used in 2.5
design calculations
b e1, b e2 effective width of uniformly compressed stiffened element with 2.2.2.1, 2.2.2.2
stress gradient
bf flat width of the beam flange that contacts the bearing plate 3.3.7
b1 width of the compression and tension flanges, either stiffened 2.1.3.2, 2.1.3.3, 4.1.2
or unstiffened, projecting beyond the web for I-beams and
similar sections; or
maximum half the distance between webs for box- or U-type
sections; or
sum of the flange projection beyond the web and the depth of
the lip for I-beams and similar sections; or
flat width of the narrowest unstiffened compression element
tributary to the connections
b2 flat width of element with intermediate stiffener excluding radii 2.4.1
(continued)
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TABLE 1.4 (continued)

C for compression members, ratio of the total bend cross- 1.5.2.4, 3.6.2
sectional area to the total cross-sectional area of the full
section; and
for flexural members, ratio of the total bend cross-sectional
area of the controlling flange to the full cross-sectional area of
the controlling flange; or
ratio of the proportionality stress to the yield stress
Cb bending coefficient 3.3.3
Cm coefficient for unequal end moment 3.5
Cs coefficient for moment causing compression or tension on the 3.3.3
shear centre side of the centroid
Cy compression strain factor 3.3.2.3
Cw torsional warping constant of the cross-section 3.3.3
C 1 to C 11 , coefficient 2.4.1, 3.3.6
and C
cf amount of curling 2.1.3.2
d depth of a section; or 2.1.3.2, 2.4.1

actual stiffener dimension
df nominal diameter of a bolt 5.3.2
dh standard hole diameter 5.3.2
dl depth of the flat portion of the web measured along the plane of 2.1.3.4, 2.4.1
the web; or
actual stiffener dimension
dm mean of the across points and across flats dimensions of the 5.3.8.3
bolt head or the nut, whichever is smaller
do outside diameter of a chord Paragraph J3
ds reduced effective width of a stiffener; or 2.4.1
effective stiffener dimension
d se effective width of a stiffener 2.4.1
dw depth of the compressed portion of the web 3.3.2.3
d1 depth of the flat portion of a web measured along the plane of 2.1.3.4
the web
Eo Initial Youngs modulus of elasticity 1.3.17
Er reduced modulus of elasticity 2.2.1.3
Es secant modulus for normal stress Paragraph B1
E sc secant modulus corresponding to stress in compression flange 2.2.1.3
E st secant modulus corresponding to stress in tension flange 2.2.1.3
Et tangent modulus in compression; or 3.4.2, Paragraph B1
tangent modulus for normal stress
e distance measured in the line of the applied force from centre- 5.3.3, Paragraph J3
line of an arc spot weld, arc seam weld or from centre of a bolt
hole to the nearest edge of an adjacent weld or bolt hole, or to
the end of the connected part toward which the force is
directed; or
eccentricity
ey yield strain 3.3.2.3
(continued)
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f normal engineering stress Paragraph B1
fb permissible compressive stress for local distortion 3.3.2.4
fc stress at service load in the cover plate or sheet 4.1.2
f cr critical buckling stress 3.3.2.4
fn buckling stress 2.6.1
f nt nominal tensile strength for bolts subject to combined shear and 5.3.7.4
tension
f nt nominal tensile strength of the stainless steel bolt 5.3.8.3
f nv nominal shear strength of the stainless steel bolt 5.3.7.2
foc flexural buckling stress 3.4.2
f pc offset proportional limit in compression Paragraph B1
ft tensile strength for connections with washers under bolt, bolt 5.3.5
head and nut
fu minimum tensile strength used in the design; or 1.5.2.2, 5.3.5, 5.3.6
tensile or compressive strength of the connected part in the

direction of the applied force
f ua tensile or compressive strength of the annealed base metal 5.2.2.2
f ut tensile strength of the connected part transverse to the direction 5.3.4
of the applied force
f uv tensile strength of unformed steel 1.5.2.4
fv shear stress resulting from the design shear force 5.3.7.4
f wy lower yield stress value of a beam web (f y) or of a stiffener 2.6.1
section (f ys )
f xx tensile strength obtained from all-weld-metal tensile test 5.2.3.2
fy minimum tensile or compressive yield stress used in design; or 1.5.2.2, 5.3.5, Paragraph B1
yield stress of web steel; or
yield stress of stiffener; or
specified yield stress in longitudinal compression or tensile
strength of the connected part in the direction of the applied
force; or
offset yield stress in compression
f ya average design yield stress of the steel in the full section of 1.5.2.4
compression members or full flange sections of flexural
members
f yc tensile yield stress of bends; or 1.5.2.4, 6.1.4
compressive yield stress
f yf yield stress of flat portions; or 1.5.2.4, 6.1.5.1
yield stress of unformed steel if tests are not made; or
yield stress of flat coupons of formed members
f ys yield stress of stiffener steel 2.6.1
f yt minimum tensile yield stress 1.5.3
f yv tensile yield stress of unformed steel; or 1.5.2.4, Appendix B
specified shear yield stress
f* design stress in the compression element calculated on the basis 2.2.1.2

of the effective design width
(continued)
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*
f av average design stress in the full, unreduced flange width 2.1.3.2
f d* design compressive stress in the element being considered 2.2.1.3

based on the effective section at the load for which deflections
are determined
f1* , f 2* web stresses calculated on the basis of the effective section or 2.2.2.1
on the full section
f 3* stress in edge stiffener with stress gradient for which load 2.3.2.2
capacities are determined
Go initial shear modulus 3.3.3
Gs secant modulus for shear stress Paragraph B1
Gt tangent modulus for shear stress Paragraph B1
g distance measured along the length of the connected face of the Paragraph J2.1
chord, between the toes of the adjacent members
ho depth of the chord in the plane of the lattice girder Paragraph J3
Ia adequate second moment of area of a stiffener, so that each 2.4.1
component element behaves as a stiffened element

Ib second moment of area of the full, unreduced cross-section 3.5
about the bending axis
Is second moment of area of a full stiffener about its own 2.4.1
centroidal axis parallel to the element to be stiffened
I sf second moment of area of the full area of a multiple-stiffened 2.5
element, including the intermediate stiffeners, about its own
centroidal axis
Iw warping constant for a cross-section Paragraph H1
Ix second moment of area of the cross-section about its centroidal 4.3.3.3
axis perpendicular to the web
I xy product of second moment of area of the full section about its 4.3.3.3
centroidal axes and perpendicular to the web
I yc second moment of area of the compression portion of a section 3.3.3
about the centroidal axis of the full section parallel to the web,
using the full unreduced section
J St. Venant torsion constant of the cross-section 3.3.3
k plate buckling coefficient; or 2.2.1.2, 3.4.2
effective length factor
kf total population variation due to fabrication 6.2.2.3
km total population of variation due to material 6.2.2.3
ks shear stiffener coefficient 2.6.2
k sc coefficient of variation of structural characteristic 6.2.2.3
k st stiffener type coefficient 2.6.2
kt effective length factor for twisting; or 3.3.3, 6.2.2.2
factor to allow for variability of structural units
kv shear buckling coefficient 2.6.2
k x, k y effective length factors for bending about the x- and y-axes, 3.3.3
respectively
(continued)
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k *
coefficient used to determine N ib where neither flange is 4.3.3.3
connected to the sheeting or connected to the sheeting with
concealed fasteners
l actual length of an axially loaded compression member; or 1.3.18, 3.3.3
unbraced length of a member in compression
lb actual length of bearing 3.3.6
l eb effective length in the plane of bending 3.5
l st length of transverse stiffener 2.6.1
lt unbraced length of the compression member for twisting 3.3.3
lw length of the full size of the weld 5.2.2.3
l x, l y unbraced lengths of the compression member for bending about 3.3.3
the x- and y-axes, respectively
Mb nominal member moment capacity 2.2.1.2
M bx, M by nominal member moment capacities about the x- and y- axes, 3.5
respectively
Mc critical moment 3.3.3

M ld nominal flexural capacity of the member 3.3.2.4
Mm mean value of the measured yield stress to the nominal yield Appendix K
stress of the finished product
M max. absolute value of the maximum moment in the unbraced 3.3.3
segment
Ms nominal section moment capacity 2.2.1.2
My moment causing initial yield 2.2.1.2
M3 absolute value of the moment at quarter point of the unbraced 3.3.3
segment
M4 absolute value of the moment at centre-line of the unbraced 3.3.3
segment
M5 absolute value of the moment at three-quarter point of the 3.3.3
unbraced segment
M* design bending moment 3.3.1
M x* , M y* design bending moment about the x- and y-axes, respectively 3.5
m constant; or 1.5.2.4, 3.3.6, 4.1.1, 4.3.3.3
non-dimensional thickness; or
distance from the shear centre of one channel to the mid-plane
of its web; or
distance from the concentrated load to the brace
Nc nominal member capacity of a member in compression 2.6.1
Ne elastic buckling load 3.5
Nf nominal tensile capacity of the connected part 5.3.5
Ns nominal section capacity of a member in compression 2.6.1
Nt nominal section capacity of a member in tension 3.2
Nw nominal tensile or compressive capacity of a butt weld or a 5.2.1.2, 5.2.3.3
resistance spot weld, welded from one or both sides
N* design concentrated load or reaction; or 2.6.1, 3.4.1

design axial force, tensile or compressive
(continued)
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N f* design tensile force in the connected part 5.3.5
N ft* design tensile force on a bolt 5.3.7.4

* design force to be resisted by intermediate beam brace 4.3.3.3
N ib
* design tensile or compressive force normal to the area of a butt
Nw 5.2.2.2, 5.2.4.3
weld or on a resistance spot weld
n constant Paragraph B1
q intensity of the design load on a beam 4.1.1
Rb nominal capacity for concentrated load or reaction for one solid 3.3.6, 3.3.7
web connecting top and bottom flanges; or
nominal capacity for concentrated load or reaction in the
absence of bending moment
Rd design capacity of members and connections 1.6.2.2, 6.2.2.7
Rf structural response factor 1.6.3
R min. minimum value of the test results 6.2.2.7
Rt target test loads for the number of units to be tested 6.2.2.2

Ru nominal capacity of members and connections 1.6.2.2
*
R design concentrated load or reaction in the presence of bending 3.3.7
moment
Rb* design concentrated load or reaction 3.3.6

r radius of gyration of the full, unreduced cross-section 3.4.2
r cy radius of gyration of one channel about its centroidal axis 4.1.1
parallel to the web
rf ratio of the force transmitted by the bolt or bolts at the section 5.3.5
considered, divided by the tensile force in the member at that
section
ri inside bend radius 1.3.4
ro polar radius of gyration of the cross-section about the shear 3.3.3
centre
r x, r y radii of gyration of the cross-section about the centroidal axes 3.3.3
r1 radius of gyration of an I-section about the axis perpendicular 4.1.1
to the direction in which buckling occurs for the given
conditions of end support and intermediate bracing
S slenderness factor 2.4.1
Sp structural performance factor; or 1.6.3, 3.6.2
plastic section modulus
S* design action effects [design actions] 1.6.2.2
s spacing in line of the stress of welds and bolts, connecting a 4.1.2
cover plate or sheet in compression, to a non-integral stiffener
or another element
sf spacing of bolts transverse to the line of the force; or 5.3.5
width of the connected part, in the case of a single bolt
sg vertical distance between two rows of connections nearest to 4.1.1
the top and bottom flanges
s max. maximum longitudinal spacing of welds or other connectors 4.1.1
joining two channels to form an I-section
(continued)
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sw weld spacing 4.1.1
t nominal base steel thickness of any element or section 1.5.2.8, 2.1.3.1, 2.2.1.2,
exclusive of coatings; or 2.6.1, 5.2.2.2, 5.3.4
thickness of the uniformly compressed stiffened elements; or
base thickness of beam web; or
thickness of the thinnest welded part; or
thickness of the thinnest connected part
tf thickness of the flange 2.1.3.2
tp thickness of the plate under the bolt head or the nut 5.3.8.3
ts thickness of the stiffener steel 2.5
tw thickness of a web; or 2.1.3.4, 5.2.3.2
effective throat
Vb nominal bearing capacity per bolt of the connected part, where 5.3.6
bolts have washers under both bold head and nut
Vf nominal shear capacity per bolt 5.3.4
V fv nominal shear capacity of a stainless steel bolt 5.3.7.2
VM coefficient of variation of the ratio of the measured yield stress Appendix K

to the nominal yield stress of the finished product
Vv nominal shear capacity of the beam 3.3.4
Vw nominal shear capacity of a butt, fillet, 5.2.2.3, 5.2.3.2, 5.2.3.3,
or resistance weld, welded from one or both sides; or 5.2.4.2
nominal shear force transmitted by the weld
V* design shear force 3.3.2.3
Vb* design bearing force at a bolt 5.3.6
Vf* design shear force per bolt 5.3.4
Vfv* design shear force for bolts loaded in shear 5.3.7.2
Vw* design shear force on a butt, fillet or resistance weld; or 5.2.2.3, 5.2.3.2, 5.2.3.3,
design longitudinal or transverse shear force on a fillet weld 5.2.4.2
w 1, w 2 leg sizes of the weld 5.2.3.2
xo distance from the shear centre of the cross-section to the 3.3.3
centroid along the principal x-axis, taken as negative
Zc elastic section modulus of the effective section calculated at a 3.3.3
stress M c/Z f in the extreme compression fibre
Ze effective section modulus calculated with the extreme 3.3.2.2
compression or tension fibre at f yc or f yt , respectively,
whichever initiates yield
Zf elastic section modulus of the full, unreduced cross-section 3.3.2.4
reduction factor 2.5
nx, ny moment amplification factor 3.5
normal strain Paragraph B1
y offset yield strain Paragraph B1
p offset proportional limit strain Paragraph B1
plasticity buckling stress 3.3.2.4
(continued)
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angle between the plane of the web and the plane of the bearing 3.3.6
surface
ov overlap Paragraph J2.3
, 1, 2 slenderness ratio 2.2.1.2, 3.3.2.3
structural ductility factor 1.6.3
Poissons ratio in elastic range of 0.3 3.3.2.4
quantity for load capacity [strength]; or 1.5.2.4, 2.2.1.2
effective width factor
capacity [strength reduction] factor 1.6.2.2
b capacity [strength reduction] factor for bending 3.3.1
c capacity [strength reduction] factor for members in 2.6.1
compression
d capacity [strength reduction] factor for local distortion 3.3.2.4
o reference value Appendix K
t capacity [strength reduction] factor for members in tension 3.2

v capacity [strength reduction] factor for shear 3.3.5
w capacity [strength reduction] factor for bearing 3.3.6
stress ratio f 2* / f1* 2.2.2.1
1.5 MATERIALS
1.5.1 Selection of stainless steel grade
1.5.1.1 Factors to be considered
The selection of the most appropriate grade of stainless steel shall take into account the
mechanical properties, effect of welding on mechanical properties and corrosion resistance,
the environment of the application, the surface finish and appearance, and the maintenance
of the structure. Detailed consideration needs to be given to design for corrosion resistance
when a material is selected for use in a corrosive environment.
1.5.1.2 Corrosion resistance
An appropriate grade of stainless steel shall be selected in accordance with the corrosion
resistance required for the environment in which the structural members are to be used and
in accordance with the fabrication, strength and finish requirements for the specific
application.
NOTE: For initial guidance on grade selection for corrosion resistance, see Appendix C.
1.5.1.3 Surface finish and appearance
Consideration shall be given to restitution of the surface after fabrication, and to
maintenance during service.
NOTE: A variety of surface finishes is described in Appendix C.
1.5.1.4 Cosmetic applications
In cosmetic applications, the possible minor changes in surface appearance that might take
place as a result of dirt deposits, which in adverse circumstances can create crevices and
lead to surface micro-pitting, shall also be taken into account. A suitable corrosion-resistant
grade of stainless steel shall be used to ensure that only superficial surface attack takes
place within the design life of the component.
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1.5.1.5 Maintenance
If necessary, a suitable cleaning regime shall be specified to maintain the surface
appearance.
1.5.2 Stainless steels
1.5.2.1 Applicable stainless steel grades
Structural members or steel used in manufacturing shall comply with AS 1449,
ASTM A167, ASTM A176, ASTM A240, ASTM A276, ASTM A480, ASTM A666,
EN 10088 and JIS G4305, as applicable.
1.5.2.2 Other stainless steel grades
Clause 1.5.2.1 shall not be interpreted to exclude the use of other steels, the properties and
suitability of which shall be determined in accordance with Clause 1.5.2.6. The yield stress
(f y) and tensile strength (f u) used in design shall be determined in accordance with
Section 6. The steel shall conform to the chemical and other mechanical requirements, and
shall have been subjected by either the producer or purchaser to analyses, tests and other
controls as prescribed by one of the Standards listed in Clause 1.5.2.1 or in accordance with
Clause 1.5.2.6.
1.5.2.3 Availability of stainless steel grades and product forms
Not all grades are readily available in all product forms. Appendix C describes the
commonly available grades and tempers of stainless steel by product form.
1.5.2.4 Strength increase resulting from cold-forming (ferritic stainless steels)
The increase in yield stress due to cold-forming or temper-rolling, or both, may be partly or
completely lost by processes such as welding, annealing or other heat treatment carried out
after forming (see Clause 1.5.2.5).
The equations given in this Clause are only applicable to the ferritic stainless steels
type 409, type 430, type 439 and to type 1.4003 (EN 10088) steel. The increase in strength
due to cold forming for the austenitic stainless steels type 201, type 301, type 304 or
type 316, shall be determined by a rational method or by tests.
Strength increase resulting from cold-forming shall be permitted by substituting the average
design yield stress (f ya) of the full section for f y. Such increase shall be limited to
Clauses 3.3 (excluding Clause 3.3.3.2), 3.4, 3.5, 3.6 and 4.4. The limitations and methods
for determining f ya shall be as follows:
(a) For axially loaded compression members and flexural members whose proportions are
such that the quantity () for load capacity [strength] is unity, as determined in
accordance with Clause 2.2 for each of the component elements of the sections, the
average design yield stress (f ya ) shall be determined on the basis of one of the
following:
(i) Full section tensile tests (see Section 6).
(ii) Stub column tests (see Section 6).
(iii) Calculated as follows:
f ya = Cf yc + (1 C ) f yf . . . 1.5.2.4(1)
where
f ya = average design yield stress of the steel in the full section of
compression members or full flange sections of flexural members
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C = for compression members, ratio of the total bend cross-sectional

area to the total cross-sectional area of the full section; and for
flexural members, ratio of the total bend cross-sectional area of the
controlling flange to the full cross-sectional area of the controlling
flange
f yc = tensile yield stress of bends
Bc f yv
= . . . 1.5.2.4(2)
( r i / t )m
Equation 1.5.2.4(2) is applicable only if
(A) f uv/f yv is greater than or equal to 1.2;
(B) r i/t is less than or equal to 7; and
(C) the minimum included angle is less than or equal to 120.
B c = constant
2
f f
= 1.486 uv 0.210 uv 0.128
. . . 1.5.2.4(3)
f yv f yv

f yv = tensile yield stress of unformed steel
ri = inside bend radius
m = constant
f uv
= 0.123 0.068
. . . 1.5.2.4(4)
f
yv
f uv = tensile strength of unformed steel
f yf = yield stress of the flat portions (see Clause 6.1.5); or
yield stress of unformed steel if tests are not made
(b) For axially loaded tension members, f ya shall be determined by either Item (a)(i) or
Item (a)(iii). The value of C shall be calculated as for compression members.
1.5.2.5 Effect of welding and heat treatment
The increase in yield stress due to cold-forming or temper-rolling, or both, may be partly or
completely lost by processes such as welding, annealing or other heat treatment carried out
after forming.
The effect of any welding and heat treatment on the mechanical properties of a member
shall be determined on the basis of tests on specimens of the full section containing the
weld within the gauge length. Any necessary allowance for such effect shall be made in the
structural use of the member. In the absence of specified testing, the annealed properties
shall be used.
Surface finishing of the weld is normally required to restore full corrosion resistance.
Surface finishing shall be in accordance with AS/NZS 1554.6.
NOTE: For initial guidance on the effect of welding and heat treatment, see Appendix C.
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1.5.2.6 Ductility
Stainless steels not specifically conforming to the Standards listed in Clause 1.5.2.1 shall
comply with one of the following requirements:
(a) The ratio of tensile strength to yield stress in both longitudinal and transverse
directions shall be not less than 1.08.
(b) The total elongation shall be not less than 10% for a 50 mm gauge length, or 7% for a
200 mm gauge length.
(c) The elongation shall be determined in accordance with Section 6.
1.5.2.7 Acceptance of steels
Certified mill test reports, or test certificates issued by the mill, shall constitute sufficient
evidence of compliance with the Standards referred to in this Standard.
1.5.2.8 Delivered minimum thickness
The minimum thickness of the cold-formed stainless steel product in the structure shall not
at any location be less than 95% of the thickness (t) used in its design, except at bends and
corners where the thickness may be less due to cold-forming effects.
1.5.2.9 Unidentified steel
Unidentified steel may only be used when sufficient samples have been subjected by either
the producer or purchaser to analyses, tests and other controls as prescribed by one of the
Standards listed in Clause 1.5.2.1 or in accordance with Clause 1.5.2.6.
1.5.3 Design stresses
The minimum yield stress (f y) used in design shall be the proof stress determined at a plastic
strain of 0.2%. The minimum tensile yield stress (f yt ) or compressive yield stress (f yc ), and
tensile strength (f u) used in design shall not be greater than the higher of the following:
(a) The specified minimum values given in the Standards listed in Clause 1.5.2.1.
(b) The values given in Appendix B.
(c) The values determined by tests in accordance with Section 6.
1.5.4 Fasteners
1.5.4.1 Bolts, nuts and washers
Bolts, nuts and washers complying with ASTM A 193, ASTM A 276, ASTM F 593 or
ISO 3506 may be used. A manufacturers test report, test certificate or letter of
conformance, shall constitute sufficient evidence of compliance with the Standard used.
NOTE: Appendix D describes the commonly available grades and tempers of stainless steel
fasteners.
1.5.4.2 Welding consumables
All welding consumables shall comply with AS/NZS 1554.6.
1.6 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

1.6.1 Loads and load combinations
A structure and its components shall be designed for the loads and load combinations as
specified in the appropriate limit state loading Standard.
1.6.2 Structural analysis and design
NOTE: Guidance on the applicability of elastic structural analysis to continuous beams and
frames is given in Appendix E.
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1.6.2.1 General
The following types of limit states shall be considered for the design of structures and its
components:
(a) The ultimate and stability limit states.
(b) The serviceability limit state.
1.6.2.2 Ultimate limit state
The structure and its component members and connections shall be designed for the
ultimate limit state as follows:
(a) All members and connections shall be proportioned so that the design capacity (R d ) is
not less than the design action effect [design action] (S *), i.e.
S* Rd
(b) The design action effects [design actions] (S *) resulting from the ultimate limit state
design loads shall be determined by an elastic structural analysis unless
(i) member strength is established by testing in accordance with Section 6; or
(ii) it is ensured that any plastic hinges have adequate strength and ductility to
perform their intended purpose, in which case the forces and moments may be
determined by a plastic analysis.

(c) The design capacity (Rd) shall be determined by either
(i) the nominal capacity (R u) in accordance with Sections 2 to 5, and the capacity
[strength reduction] factor (), i.e.
R d = R u; or
(ii) testing in accordance with Section 6.
1.6.2.3 Stability limit state
The structure as a whole (and any part of it) shall be designed to prevent instability due to
overturning, uplift or sliding as specified in the appropriate loading Standard.
1.6.2.4 Serviceability limit state
The structure and its components shall be designed for the serviceability limit state by
controlling or limiting deflection, vibration, bolt slip and corrosion, as appropriate.
1.6.2.5 Fatigue
NOTE: Guidance on the design of stainless steel structures for fatigue is given in Appendix F.
1.6.2.6 Fire
NOTE: Guidance on the design of stainless steel structures for fire is given in Appendix G.
1.6.3 Earthquake
Where applicable, the following shall be considered for earthquake design:
(a) For Australia All structures shall be designed for the loads and load combinations
specified in AS 1170.4. If stainless steel members are used as the primary earthquake
resistance element then the structural response factor (R f) shall be less than or equal
to 2.0 unless specified otherwise.
(b) For New Zealand All structures shall be designed for the loads and load
combinations specified in NZS 4203 but subject to the following limitations:
(i) For the ultimate limit state, the structural ductility factor () shall be less than
or equal to 1.25, unless a greater value (but not greater than 4.0) is justified by
a special study. The structural ductility factor () depends upon the structural
form, the ductility of the material and structural damping characteristics.
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(ii) For the serviceability limit state, the structural ductility factor () shall be equal
to 1.0.
(iii) The structural performance factor (S p ) shall be equal to 0.67, unless a lower
value (but not less than 0.4) is determined as appropriate by a special study.
The structural performance factor (S p ) depends on the material, form and period
of the earthquake resisting system, damping of the structure and the interaction
of the structure with the ground.
1.6.4 Durability
A structure shall be designed to perform its required functions during its expected life.
NOTE: For further information, see Appendix C.
1.7 NON-CONFORMING SHAPES AND CONSTRUCTION

This Standard shall not be interpreted to prevent the use of alternative shapes or
constructions not specifically prescribed in this Standard. Such alternatives shall comply
with Section 6.
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SECTION 2 E LEME NTS
2.1 SECTION PROPERTIES

2.1.1 General
Properties of sections, such as cross-sectional area, second moment of area, section
modulus, radius of gyration, and centroid, shall be determined in accordance with
conventional methods by division of the section shape into simple elements, including
bends.
Properties shall be based on nominal dimensions and nominal base steel thickness.
2.1.2 Design procedures
2.1.2.1 Full section properties
Properties of full, unreduced sections shall be based on the entire simplified shape with the
flats and the bends located along the element mid-lines, unless the manufacturing process
warrants consideration of a more accurate method.
To calculate the stability of members, a simplified shape, where the bends are eliminated
and the section is represented by straight mid-lines, may be used when calculating the
following properties:
(a) Location of shear centre (see Paragraph H1 of Appendix H).
(b) Warping constant (see Paragraph H1 of Appendix H).
(c) Monosymmetry section constant (see Paragraph H2 of Appendix H).
2.1.2.2 Effective section properties
For the design of cold-formed stainless steel members with slender elements, the area of the
sections shall be reduced at specified locations.
The reduction of the area is required to
(a) compensate for the effects of shear lag (see Clause 2.1.3.3); and
(b) compensate for local instabilities of elements in compression (see Clauses 2.2 to 2.5).
2.1.2.3 Location of reduced width
The location of reduced width shall be determined as follows:
(a) For the design of uniformly compressed stiffened elements, the location of the lost
portion shall be taken at the middle of the element (see Figures 2.2.1 and 2.4.1(b)).
(b) For the design of stiffened elements under a stress gradient or where only a part of the
element is in compression, e.g. the webs, the location of the lost portion shall be as
shown in Figure 2.2.2.
(c) For unstiffened elements, under either a stress gradient or uniform compression, the
lost portion shall be taken at the unstiffened edge as shown in Figure 2.3.1. Where the
unstiffened element is subjected to both tension and compression across its width, the
lost portion may be taken as set out in Appendix I.
(d) For the design of elements with an edge stiffener, the location of the lost portion shall
be as shown in Figure 2.4.2.
2.1.2.4 Effective section for determining deflection
The effective second moment of area used to determine deflection may be obtained in
accordance with Clause 2.2.1.3.
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2.1.3 Dimensional limits

2.1.3.1 Maximum flange flat-width-to-thickness ratios
The maximum overall flat-width-to-thickness ratios (b/t), disregarding intermediate
stiffeners and taking t as the nominal base thickness of the element exclusive of coatings,
shall be as follows:
(a) For stiffened compression element having one longitudinal edge connected to a web
or flange element and the other stiffened by
(i) simple lip ............................................................................................. 50; and
(ii) any other kind of stiffener having I s > Ia and d l /b < 0.8 in accordance
with Clause 2.4.3 .........................................................................................90.
(b) For stiffened compression element with both longitudinal edges connected to other
stiffened elements ...............................................................................................400.
(c) For unstiffened compression element and elements with an edge stiffener having
Is < Ia and d l/b 0.8 in accordance with Clause 2.4.3 .............................................50.
NOTE: Unstiffened compression elements with b/t ratios greater than 30 and stiffened
compression elements with b/t ratios greater than 75 are likely to develop noticeable
deformation at the full design load, without affecting the ability of the member to carry the
design load. Stiffened elements with b/t ratios greater than 400 can be used with adequate
design capacity [strength] to sustain the design loads; however, substantial deformations of
such elements usually will invalidate the design equations of this Standard.
2.1.3.2 Flange curling
Where the flange of a flexural member is unusually wide and it is desired to limit the
maximum amount of curling or movement of the flange toward the neutral axis, the
maximum width (b1) of the compression and tension flanges, either stiffened or unstiffened
projecting beyond the web for I-beams and similar sections or the maximum half distance
(b 1) between webs for box- or U-type beams, shall be determined from the following
Equation:
0.061 t f dE o 100 c f
b1 = 4 . . . 2.1.3.2
f *av d
where
tf = thickness of the flange
d = depth of the section
E o = initial Youngs modulus of elasticity (given in Appendix B)
f av* = average design stress in the full, unreduced flange width (see Note 1)
cf = amount of curling (see Note 2)
NOTES:
1 Where members are designed by the effective design width procedure, the average stress
equals the maximum stress multiplied by the ratio of the effective design width to the actual
width.
2 The amount of curling that can be tolerated will vary with different kinds of sections and
should be established by the designer. Amount of curling in the order of 5% of the depth of
the section is usually not considered excessive.
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2.1.3.3 Shear lag effects (usually short spans supporting concentrated loads)
Where the span of the beam (l) is less than 30b 1 and the beam carries one concentrated load,
or several loads spaced greater than 2b 1 , the effective design width of any flange, whether
in tension or compression, shall be limited to the values given in Table 2.1.3.3.
For flanges of I-beams and similar sections stiffened by lips at the outer edges, b 1 shall be
taken as the sum of the flange projection beyond the web and the depth of the lip.
TABLE 2.1.3.3
MAXIMUM RATIO OF EFFECTIVE
DESIGN WIDTH TO ACTUAL WIDTH
FOR SHORT WIDE FLANGE BEAMS
l/b 1 Ratio l/b 1 Ratio
30 1.00 14 0.82
25 0.96 12 0.78
20 0.91 10 0.73
18 0.89 8 0.67
16 0.86 6 0.55
NOTE: l is the full span for simple beams; or

distance between inflection points for continuous
beams; or twice the length of cantilever beams.
2.1.3.4 Maximum web depth-to-thickness ratio

The maximum web depth-to-thickness ratio (d 1 /t w ) of flexural members shall not exceed the
following:
(a) For unreinforced webs d1/t w .................................................................................200.
(b) For webs with transverse stiffeners complying with Clause 2.6.1
(i) if using bearing stiffeners only d 1 /t w .................................................... 260; and
(ii) if using bearing stiffeners and intermediate stiffeners d 1 /t w .........................300;
where
d 1 = depth of the flat portion of the web measured along the plane of the web
t w = thickness of web
Where a web consists of two or more sheets, the ratio d 1 /t w shall be calculated for each
sheet.
2.2 EFFECTIVE WIDTHS OF STIFFENED ELEMENTS

2.2.1 Uniformly compressed stiffened elements
2.2.1.1 General
For uniformly compressed stiffened elements, the effective widths for section or member
capacity and deflection calculations shall be determined in accordance with Clauses 2.2.1.2
and 2.2.1.3, respectively.
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2.2.1.2 Effective width for capacity calculations

For determining the section or member capacity [strength], the effective widths (b e ) of
uniformly compressed stiffened elements shall be determined from either one of the
following Equations, as appropriate:
For 0.673 be = b . . . 2.2.1.2(1)
For > 0.673 b e = b . . . 2.2.1.2(2)
where
b = flat width of element excluding radii (see in Figure 2.2.1(a))
= effective width factor
0.22
1
= . . . 2.2.1.2(3)
1.0

The slenderness ratio () shall be determined as follows:
1.052 b f *
= . . . 2.2.1.2(4)
k t E o
where
k = plate buckling coefficient
= 4 for stiffened elements supported by a web on each longitudinal edge (k values
for different types of elements are given in the applicable clauses)
t = thickness of the uniformly compressed stiffened elements
f* = design stress in the compression element calculated on the basis of the effective
design width (see Figure 2.2.1(b))
Eo = initial Youngs modulus of elasticity given in Appendix B.
Alternatively, the plate buckling coefficient (k) for each flat element may be determined
from a rational elastic buckling analysis of the whole section as a plate assemblage
subjected to the longitudinal stress distribution in the section prior to buckling.
FIGURE 2.2.1 STIFFENED ELEMENTS WITH UNIFORM COMPRESSION
For determining the nominal section or member capacity of flexural members, the design
stress ( f * ) shall be taken as follows:
(a) Where the nominal section moment capacity (M s ) is based on initiation of yielding as
specified in Clause 3.3.2.2, and the initial yielding of the element being considered is
in compression, then f * shall be equal to f yc . If the initial yielding of the section is in
tension, then f * of the element being considered shall be determined on the basis of
the effective section at M y (moment causing initial yield).
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(b) Where the nominal section moment capacity (M s ) is based on inelastic reserve
capacity as specified in Clause 3.3.2.3, then f * shall be the stress of the element
being considered at Ms. The basis of the effective section shall be used to determine
Ms.
(c) Where the nominal member moment capacity (M b ) is based on lateral buckling as
specified in Clause 3.3.3, then f * shall be equal to M c /Z f as described in Clause 3.3.3
in determining Z c.
For compression members, f * shall be taken equal to f n determined in accordance with
Clause 3.4.
2.2.1.3 Effective width for deflection calculations
For determining the deflection, the effective widths (b ed ) shall be determined from either
one of the following Equations, as appropriate.
For 0.673 b ed = b . . . 2.2.1.3(1)
For > 0.673 b ed = b . . . 2.2.1.3(2)
The effective width factor () shall be determined from Equations 2.2.1.2(3) and 2.2.1.2(4),
except that f d* shall be substituted for f * , where f d* is the design compressive stress in the
element being considered based on the effective section at the load for which deflections
are determined, and the reduced modulus of elasticity (E r) shall be substituted for E o in
Equation 2.2.1.2(4).
E st + E sc
Er = . . . 2.2.1.3(3)
2
where
E st = secant modulus corresponding to stress in tension flange
E sc = secant modulus corresponding to stress in compression flange
The values of E st and E sc shall be obtained from Appendix B, as appropriate.
2.2.2 Effective widths of webs and stiffened elements with stress gradient
2.2.2.1 Effective widths for capacity calculations
For determining the section or member capacity, the effective width (b e1 ) (see Figure 2.2.2)
shall be determined from the following Equation:
be
be 1 = . . . 2.2.2.1(1)
3
The effective width (be2) (see Figure 2.2.2) shall be determined from Equation 2.2.2.1(2) or
Equation 2.2.2.1(3), as appropriate.
be
For 0.236: b e2 = . . . 2.2.2.1(2)
2
where (b e1 + be2) shall not be greater than the compression portion of the web calculated on
the basis of effective section.
For > 0.236 b e2 = b e be1 . . . 2.2.2.1(3)
where
be = effective width determined in accordance with Clause 2.2.1.2 with f 1*
substituted for f * and with k determined as follows:
k = 4 + 2(1 )3 + 2(1 ) . . 2.2.2.1(4)
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= stress ratio
f 2*
= . . . 2.2.2.1(5)
f1*
f 1* , f 2* = web stresses calculated on the basis of the effective section

(see Figure 2.2.2)
f1* is compression (+) and f 2* can be either tension () or compression. In case f1* and f 2*
are both compression, f1* shall be greater than or equal to f 2* .
For determining the deflection, the effective widths (b e1 ) and (b e2 ) shall be determined in
accordance with Clause 2.2.2.1 except that f d1* and f d2* shall be substituted for f 1* and f 2* .
The calculated stresses f 1* and f 2* (see Figure 2.2.2) shall be used to determine f d1* and
f d2* , respectively. Calculations shall be based on the effective section for the load for which
deflections are determined.
FIGURE 2.2.2 STIFFENED ELEMENTS WITH STRESS GRADIENT AND WEBS
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2.3 EFFECTIVE WIDTHS OF UNSTIFFENED ELEMENTS

2.3.1 Uniformly compressed unstiffened elements
2.3.1.1 General
For uniformly compressed unstiffened elements (see Figure 2.3.1), the effective widths for
section or member capacity and deflection calculations shall be determined in accordance
with Clauses 2.3.1.2 and 2.3.1.3, respectively.
For determining the section or member capacity, the effective widths (b e ) of uniformly
compressed unstiffened elements shall be determined in accordance with Clause 2.2.1.2
with the exception that k shall be taken as 0.5 and b shall be as shown in Figure 2.3.1.
For determining the deflection, the effective widths (b e ) shall be determined in accordance
with Clause 2.2.1.3 except that f d* shall be substituted for f * and k is equal to 0.5.
FIGURE 2.3.1 UNSTIFFENED ELEMENT WITH UNIFORM COMPRESSION
2.3.2 Unstiffened elements and edge stiffeners with stress gradient

2.3.2.1 General
For unstiffened elements and edge stiffeners with stress gradient, the effective widths for
For determining the section or member capacity, the effective widths (b e ) of unstiffened
compression elements and edge stiffeners with stress gradient shall be determined in
accordance with Clause 2.2.1.2 with f * equal to f 3* as shown in Figures 2.3.2 and 2.4.2,
and k equal to 0.5. Values of the plate buckling coefficient (k) given in Appendix I may be
used in lieu of 0.5.
For determining the deflection, the effective widths (b ed ) of unstiffened compression
elements and edge stiffeners with stress gradient shall be determined in accordance with
Clause 2.2.1.3 except that f d3* shall be substituted for f * and k is equal to 0.5. Values of the
plate buckling coefficient (k) given in Appendix I may be used in lieu of 0.5.
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FIGURE 2.3.2 UNSTIFFENED COMPRESSION ELEMENTS SUBJECT

TO A STRESS GRADIENT
2.4 EFFECTIVE WIDTHS OF UNIFORMLY COMPRESSED ELEMENTS WITH

AN EDGE STIFFENER OR ONE INTERMEDIATE STIFFENER
2.4.1 Notation
For the purpose of this Clause
As = reduced area of the stiffener. A s shall be used in calculating the overall effective
section properties. The centroid of the stiffener shall be considered located at the
centroid of the full area of the stiffener, and the second moment of area of the
stiffener about its own centroidal axis shall be that of the full section of the
stiffener
A se = effective area of the stiffener
= d set (for stiffener shown in Figure 2.4.2) . . . 2.4.1(1)
b = flat width of element excluding radii (see Figures 2.4.1(a) and 2.4.2(a))
b2 = flat width of element with intermediate stiffener excluding radii
(see Figure 2.4.1(a))
C1, = coefficients (see Figure 2.4.2(b))
C2
d, d l = actual stiffener dimension (see Figure 2.4.2(a))
ds = reduced effective width of the stiffener (see Figure 2.4.2(a)). The value of d s
calculated in accordance with Clause 2.4.3, shall be used in calculating the overall
effective section properties
d se = effective width of the stiffener calculated in accordance with Clause 2.3.1 (see
Figure 2.4.2(a))
Ia = adequate second moment of area of the stiffener, so that each component element
behaves as a stiffened element
Is = second moment of area of the full stiffener about its own centroidal axis parallel
to the element to be stiffened
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d 3 t sin 2
= (for stiffener shown in Figure 2.4.2) . . . 2.4.1(2)
12
k = plate buckling coefficient
S = slenderness factor
Eo
= 1.28 . . . 2.4.1(3)
f*
For edge stiffeners, the round corner between the stiffener and the element to be stiffened
shall not be considered as part of the stiffener.
FIGURE 2.4.1 ELEMENTS WITH INTERMEDIATE STIFFENER
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FIGURE 2.4.2 ELEMENTS WITH EDGE STIFFENER
2.4.2 Elements with an intermediate stiffener

2.4.2.1 General
For uniformly compressed elements with an intermediate stiffener, the effective widths for
compressed elements with an intermediate stiffener shall be determined for the following
cases:
b2
(a) Case I: S
t
Ia = 0 (no intermediate stiffener is required)
be = b . . 2.4.2.2(1)
A s = A se . . 2.4.2.2(2)
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b2
(b) Case II: S < < 3S
t

50 b 2
Ia
= t 50 . . . 2.4.2.2(3)
t4 S
b e shall be calculated in accordance with Clause 2.2.1.2
where
I
k = 3 s +1 4 . . . 2.4.2.2(4)
Ia

As = Ase I s Ase . . . 2.4.2.2(5)
Ia
A se shall be calculated in accordance with Clause 2.2.1.2.
b2
(c) Case III: 3S
t
b2
128
Ia t
= 285 . . . 2.4.2.2(6)
t 4 S

b e shall be calculated in accordance with Clause 2.2.1.2
where
1/ 3
I
k = 3 s +1 4 . . . 2.4.2.2(7)
Ia
Is
A s = Ase Ase . . . 2.4.2.2(8)
Ia
A se shall be calculated in accordance with Clause 2.2.1.2.
with Clause 2.4.2.2, except that f d* shall be substituted for f *.
2.4.3 Elements with an edge stiffener
2.4.3.1 General
For uniformly compressed elements with an edge stiffener, the effective widths for section
or member capacity and deflection calculations shall be determined in accordance with
Clauses 2.4.3.2 and 2.4.3.3, respectively.
compressed elements with an edge stiffener shall be determined for the following cases:
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b S
(a) Case I:
t 3
Ia = 0 (no edge stiffener is required)
be = b . . . 2.4.3.2(1)
d s = d se (for simple lip stiffener) . . . 2.4.3.2(2)
A s = A se (for other stiffener shapes) . . . 2.4.3.2(3)
S b
(b) Case II: < <S
3 t
Ia (b / t ) ku 3
= 399 . . . 2.4.3.2(4)
t4 S 4
n = 0.5
Is 1
C2 = . . . 2.4.3.2(5)
Ia
C 1 = 2 C2
. . . 2.4.3.2(6)
b e shall be calculated in accordance with Clause 2.2.1.2, where k shall be determined
as follows:
k = C 2n (k a k u ) + k u . . . 2.4.3.2(7)
k u = 0.43
For simple lip stiffener with 140 40 and d l/b 0.8, where is as shown in
Figure 2.4.2:
k a = 5.25 5 (d l b ) 4.0 . . . 2.4.3.2(8)
d s = C 2 ds . . . 2.4.3.2(9)
For stiffener shape other than simple lip:
k a = 4.00
A s = C2 Ase Ase . . . 2.4.3.2(10)
b
(c) Case III: S
t
Ia 115 (b t )
= +5 . . . 2.4.3.2(11)
S
4
t
C1 , C2 , be, k, ds , As shall be calculated in accordance with Case II with n equal to
0.333.
with Clause 2.4.3.2, except that f d* shall be substituted for f * .
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2.5 EFFECTIVE WIDTHS OF EDGE-STIFFENED ELEMENTS WITH ONE OR

MORE INTERMEDIATE STIFFENERS, OR STIFFENED ELEMENTS WITH
MORE THAN ONE INTERMEDIATE STIFFENER
For determining the effective width (b e ), the intermediate stiffener of an edge-stiffened
element or the stiffeners of a stiffened element with more than one stiffener shall be
disregarded unless each intermediate stiffener has the following minimum I s :

b 0.119 E o
2
I s, = 3.66t 4 18.4t 4 . . . 2.5(1)
min.
t fy

where
Is = second moment of area of the full stiffener about its own centroidal axis
parallel to the element to be stiffened
b
= width-to-thickness ratio of the larger stiffened sub-element.
t
In addition, the following shall be considered:
(a) Where the spacing of intermediate stiffeners between two webs is such that for the
sub-element between the stiffeners, b e is less than b as determined in accordance with
Clause 2.2.1.2, only two intermediate stiffeners, those nearest each web, shall be
considered effective.
(b) Where the spacing of intermediate stiffeners between a web and an edge stiffener is
such that for the sub-element between the stiffeners, b e is less than b as determined in
accordance with Clause 2.2.1.2, only one intermediate stiffener, that nearest the web,
shall be considered effective.
(c) Where intermediate stiffeners are spaced so closely that for the elements between the
stiffeners, b e is equal to b as determined in accordance with Clause 2.2.1.2, all the
stiffeners may be considered effective. In calculating the flat-width-to-thickness ratio
of the entire multiple-stiffened element, such element shall be considered as replaced
by an equivalent element without intermediate stiffeners whose width (b 2 ) shall be the
full width between webs or from web to edge stiffener, and whose equivalent
thickness of the stiffener (t s ) shall be determined from the following Equation:
12 I sf
ts = 3 . . . 2.5(2)
b2
where Isf is the second moment of area of the full area of the multiple-stiffened
element, including the intermediate stiffeners, about its own centroidal axis. The
second moment of area of the entire section shall be calculated assuming the
equivalent element to be located at the centroidal axis of the multiple stiffened
element, including the intermediate stiffener. The actual extreme fibre distance shall
be used in calculating the section modulus.
(d) If b/t is greater than 60, the effective width (b e ) of the sub-element or element shall be
determined from the following Equation:
bes be b
= 0.1 60 . . . 2.5(3)
t t t
where
b/t = flat-width ratio of the sub-element or element
b es = effective width of the sub-element or element to be used in design
calculations
b e = effective width determined in accordance with Clause 2.2.1.2
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To calculate the effective structural properties of a member having compression sub-

elements or element subjected to the above reduction in effective width, the area of
stiffeners (edge stiffener or intermediate stiffeners) shall be considered reduced to an
effective area as follows:
b
(i) For 60 < < 90: A ef = As . . . 2.5(4)
t
where
2b 1 b b
= 3 es 1 es . . . 2.5(5)
b 30 b t
b b
(ii) For 90 : Aef = es As . . . 2.5(6)
t b
In Equations 2.5(4) and 2.5(6), A ef and A s apply only to the area of the stiffener section,
exclusive of any portion of adjacent elements.
The centroid of the stiffener shall be considered at the centroid of the full area of the
stiffener, and the second moment of area of the stiffener about its own centroidal axis shall
be that of the full section of the stiffener.
2.6 STIFFENERS
2.6.1 Transverse stiffeners
Transverse stiffeners attached to beam webs at points of concentrated loads or reactions
shall be designed as compression members. Concentrated loads or reactions shall be applied
directly into the stiffeners, or each stiffener shall be fitted accurately to the flat portion of
the flange to provide direct loadbearing into the end of the stiffener. Means for shear
transfer between the stiffener and the web shall be provided in accordance with Section 3.
The design concentrated loads or reactions (N*) shall satisfy the following:
(a) N* c Ns . . . 2.6.1(1)
(b) N* c Nc . . . 2.6.1(2)
Where
c = capacity [strength reduction] factor for members in compression
= 0.85
Ns = nominal section capacity of a member in compression (see Clause 3.4)
= f wyAs1
Nc = nominal member capacity of a member in compression (see Clause 3.4)
= f nAs2
f wy = lower yield stress value of the beam web (f y) or of the stiffener
section (f ys)
fn = buckling stress (see Clause 3.4)
A s1 , As2 = area of a member in compression consisting of the transverse stiffeners
and a portion of the web
A s1 = 18t2 + As
(for transverse stiffeners at interior support and under . . . 2.6.1(3)
concentrated load)
= 10t2 + As
. . . 2.6.1(4)
(for transverse stiffeners at end support)
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A s2 = b 1t + As
(for transverse stiffeners at interior support under . . . 2.6.1(5)
concentrated load)
= b 2t + As
. . . 2.6.1(6)
(for transverse stiffeners at end support)
t = base thickness of beam web
As = cross-sectional area of transverse stiffeners
l
b1 = 25t 0.0024 s t + 0.72 25t . . . 2.6.1(7)
t
l
b2 = 12t 0.0044 s t + 0.83 12t . . . 2.6.1(8)
t
lst = length of transverse stiffener
The b/ts ratio for the stiffened and unstiffened elements of cold-formed steel transverse
stiffeners shall not exceed 1.28 E o / f y s and 0.37 E o / f y s , respectively, where f ys is the
yield stress and ts is the thickness of the stiffener steel.

2.6.2 Shear stiffeners
Where shear stiffeners are required, the spacing shall be such that the design shear force
shall not be greater than the design shear capacity ( vV v) specified in Clause 3.3.4, and the
ratio a/d1 shall not be greater than [260/(d 1 /t)]2 and 3.0.
The actual second moment of area (I s,min. ) of a pair of attached shear stiffeners, or of a
single shear stiffener, with reference to an axis in the plane of the web, shall have a
minimum value as follows:
d1 a d1 4
I s , min. = 5d 1t 0.7
3
. . . 2.6.2(1)
a d1 50
The gross area of shear stiffeners (A st) shall be not less than

a
2

1 k s a d1
Ac = k st d 1 t . . . 2.6.2(2)
2 d1 a a
2

+ 1 +
d1 d1
where
ks = shear stiffener coefficient
1.53 Eo k v
= d
2
if k s 0.8 . . . 2.6.2(3)
fy 1
t
0.00248 k v E o

= d1 fy if k s > 0.8 . . . 2.6.2(4)

t
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= yield stress of web

yield stress of stiffener
kst = stiffener type coefficient
= 1.0 for stiffeners in pairs
= 1.8 for single-angle stiffeners
= 2.4 for single-plate stiffeners
k v = shear buckling coefficient
5.34 a
= 4.00 + 2
if 1.0 . . . 2.6.2(5)
a d1

d1
4.00 a
= 5.34 + 2
if > 1.0 . . . 2.6.2(6)
a d1

d1
a = distance between transverse stiffeners

2.6.3 Non-conforming stiffeners
The design capacities of members with transverse stiffeners that do not comply with
Clause 2.6.1 or 2.6.2, such as stamped or rolled-in transverse stiffeners, shall be determined
by tests in accordance with Section 6.
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S E C T IO N 3 M E M BE R S
3.1 GENERAL
Section properties used for the determination of structural performance, moment capacity of
beams or capacity of axial members in compression, shall be those calculated in accordance
with Section 2.
Both full and effective section properties, where applicable, shall be required. Full section
properties shall be used for the determination of buckling moments or stresses. Effective
section properties shall be used for the determination of section and member capacities.
3.2 MEMBERS SUBJECT TO TENSION

The design tensile force ( t Nt ) for axially loaded tension members shall be determined as
follows:
t = 0.85
Nt = An f y . . . 3.2
where
t = capacity [strength reduction] factor for members in tension
Nt = nominal section capacity of the member in tension
A n = net area of the cross-section, obtained by deducting from the gross area of the
sectional area of all penetrations and holes, including fastener holes
f y = yield stress used in design (see Appendix B)
When mechanical fasteners are used in connections for tension members, the design tensile
strength shall also be limited by Clause 5.3.5.
3.3 MEMBERS SUBJECT TO BENDING

3.3.1 Bending moment
The design bending moment (M *) of a flexural member shall satisfy the following:
(a) M * bMs
(b) M * bM b
where
b = capacity [strength reduction] factor for bending
= 0.90 for sections with stiffened compression flanges
= 0.85 or sections with unstiffened compression flanges
Ms = nominal section moment capacity calculated in accordance with Clause 3.3.2
M b = nominal member moment capacity calculated in accordance with Clause 3.3.3
3.3.2 Nominal section moment capacity
3.3.2.1 General
The nominal section moment capacity (M s ) shall be calculated either on the basis of
initiation of yielding in the effective section specified in Clause 3.3.2.2 or on the basis of
the inelastic reserve capacity specified in Clause 3.3.2.3.
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3.3.2.2 Based on initiation of yielding

The nominal section moment capacity (M s ) shall be determined as follows:
Ms = Z e f y . . . 3.3.2.2
where Z e is the effective section modulus calculated with the extreme compression or
tension fibre at f yc or f yt respectively, whichever initiates yield.
3.3.2.3 Based on inelastic reserve capacity
The inelastic flexural reserve capacity may be used if the following conditions are met:
(a) The member is not subject to twisting or to lateral, torsional, distortional or flexural-
torsional buckling.
(b) The effect of cold-forming is not included in determining the yield stress (f y).
The ratio of the depth of the compressed portion of the web (d w ) to its thickness (t w ) does
not exceed the slenderness ratio ( 1 ).
The design shear force (V *) does not exceed 0.35f y times the web area (d 1 t w ).
The angle between any web and the vertical does not exceed 30.
The nominal section moment capacity (M s ) shall not exceed either 1.25Z e f y, where Z e f y shall
be determined in accordance with Clause 3.3.2.2 or that causing a maximum compression
strain of Cye y,
where
Cy = compression strain factor
e y = yield strain
fy
= . . . 3.3.2.3(1)
Eo
NOTE: There is no limit for the maximum tensile strain.
The compression strain factor (Cy) shall be determined as follows:
(i) For stiffened compression elements without intermediate stiffeners:
For b/t 1: Cy = 3 . . . 3.3.2.3(2)
For 1 < b/t < 2: Cy = 3 2[((b/t) 1)/( 2 1)] . . . 3.3.2.3(3)
For b/t 2: Cy = 1 . . . 3.3.2.3(4)
1.11
1 = . . . 3.3.2.3(5)
f yc / E o
1.28
2 = . . . 3.3.2.3(6)
f yc / E o
(ii) For unstiffened compression elements:

Cy = 1
(iii) For multiple-stiffened compression elements and compression elements with edge
stiffeners:
Cy = 1
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Where applicable, effective design widths shall be used in calculating section properties.
Ms shall be calculated considering equilibrium of stresses, assuming an ideally elastic-
plastic stress-strain curve that is the same in tension as in compression, small deformation
and that plane sections remain plane during bending. Combined bending and bearing shall
be in accordance with Clause 3.3.7.
3.3.2.4 Local distortion
Where local distortions in flexural members under nominal service loads shall be limited,
the design flexural capacity ( d M ld) shall be determined as follows:
d = 1.0
M ld = Z f f b . . . 3.3.2.4(1)
Where
d = capacity [strength reduction] factor for local distortion
M ld = nominal flexural capacity of the member
Zf = elastic section modulus of the full, unreduced cross-section
fb = permissible compressive stress for local distortion, determined as follows:
(a) If small, barely perceptible amounts of local distortions are

permissible
(i) for stiffened compression elements:
f b = 1.2fcr . . . 3.3.2.4(2)
(ii) for unstiffened compression elements:
f b = fcr . . . 3.3.2.4(3)
(b) If no local distortions are permissible
(i) for stiffened compression elements:
f b = 0.9fcr . . . 3.3.2.4(4)
(ii) for unstiffened compression elements:
f b = 0.75f cr . . . 3.3.2.4(5)
fcr = critical buckling stress
2 kE o
=
(
12 1 2 (b t ) ) 2 . . . 3.3.2.4(6)
= plasticity reduction factor

= E t / Eo for stiffened compression elements
= Es E o for unstiffened compression elements
= Poissons ratio in the elastic range equal to 0.3

3.3.3 Nominal member moment capacity
The design strength of the laterally unbraced segments of doubly or singly symmetric
sections subjected to lateral buckling ( b M b ) shall be determined as follows:
b = 0.85
M
Mb = Z c c . . . 3.3.3(1)
Zf
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where
Z c = elastic section modulus of the effective section calculated at a stress M c /S f in
the extreme compression fibre
Z f = elastic section modulus of the full, unreduced section for the extreme
compression fibre
Mc = critical moment
Mc shall be calculated as follows, with a maximum value of M y:
(a) For doubly symmetric I-sections bent about the centroidal axis perpendicular to the
web (x-axis)
Et dI yc
Mc = E o C b
2
2 . . . 3.3.3(2)

Eo l
Alternatively, Mc can be calculated using Equation 3.3.3(4).
(b) For point-symmetric Z-sections bent about the centroidal axis perpendicular to the
web (x-axis)
Et dI yc
Mc = 0.5 E o C b
2
2 . . . 3.3.3(3)

Eo l
Alternatively, Mc can be calculated as half the value using Equation 3.3.3(4).
(c) For singly symmetric sections, where the x-axis is assumed to be the axis of
symmetry
(i) for bending about the symmetry axis, where the x-axis is the axis of symmetry
oriented such that the shear centre has a negative x- coordinate
Mc = C b ro A ey t . . . 3.3.3(4)
Alternatively, Mc can be calculated using Equation 3.3.3(2) for doubly

symmetric I-sections.
(ii) for bending about the centroid axis perpendicular to the symmetry axis
Mc = C s C b A ex j + C s j 2 + ro2 ( t / ex ) . . . 3.3.3(5)

where
My = moment causing initial yield at the extreme compression fibre
of the full section
= Zf fy . . . 3.3.3(6)
l = unbraced length of the member
I yc = second moment of area the compression portion of the section
about the centroidal axis of the full section parallel to the web,
using the full unreduced section
Cs = +1 for the moment causing compression on the shear centre side
of the centroid
Cs = 1 for the moment causing tension on the shear centre side of
the centroid
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2 Eo E t
ex = 2
. . . 3.3.3(7)
(k x l x /rx ) E o
2E E
ey =
o
t
(
k y l y /ry )
2
E o
. . . 3.3.3(8)
1 2 Eo C w E t
t = 2 Go J + . . . 3.3.3(9)
(k l )2 E o
Aro t t
A = area of the full, unreduced cross-section
E t/Eo = plasticity reduction factor given in Appendix B
Cb = bending coefficient
12.5M max.
= . . . 3.3.3(10)
2.5M max. + 3M 3 + 4 M 4 + 3M 5
Cb is permitted to be conservatively taken as unity for all cases.
For cantilevers or overhang where the free end is unbraced, Cb

shall be taken as unity. For members subject to combined axial
load and bending moment (see Clause 3.5), Cb shall be taken as
unity.
M max. = absolute value of the maximum moment in the
unbraced segment
M3 = absolute value of the moment at the quarter point of
the unbraced segment
M4 = absolute value of the moment at the centre-line of the
unbraced segment
M5 = absolute value of the moment at the three-quarter point
of the unbraced segment
d = depth of the section
ro = polar radius of gyration of the cross-section about the shear
centre
= rx2 + ry2 + x o2 . . . 3.3.3(11)
r x, r y = radii of gyration of the cross-section about the centroidal axes

Go = initial shear modulus (see Appendix B)
k x, k y = effective length factors for bending about the x- and y-axes,
respectively
kt = effective length factor for twisting
l x, l y = unbraced lengths of the compression member for bending about
the x- and y axes, respectively
lt = unbraced length of the compression member for twisting
xo = distance from the shear centre of the cross-section to the
centroid along the principal x-axis, taken as negative
J = St. Venant torsion constant of the cross-section
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Cw = torsional warping constant of the cross-section
j =
1
2I y
( )
A x 3 dA + A xy 2 dA x o . . . 3.3.3(12)
3.3.4 Shear
The design shear force ( vV v) at any cross-section shall be calculated as follows:
v = 0.85
4.84 E o t w (Gs Go )
3
Vv = . . . 3.3.4(1)
d1
In no case shall the design shear force ( vV v) be greater than 0.95d 1 t w f yv,
where
v = capacity [strength reduction] factor for shear
Vv = nominal shear capacity of the beam
tw = thickness of web
Gs/Go = plasticity reduction factor given in Appendix B

d1 = depth of the flat portion of the web measured along the plane of the web
f yv = specified shear yield stress given in Appendix B
When the web consists of two or more sheets, each sheet shall be considered as a separate
element carrying its share of the shear force.
For beam webs with transverse stiffeners satisfying the requirements of Clause 2.6.1, the
nominal shear capacity (V v) shall be calculated as follows:
0.904k v E o t w (Gs /G o )
3
Vv = . . . 3.3.4(2)
d1
where k v is the shear buckling coefficient and shall be determined in accordance with
Clause 2.6.2.
3.3.5 Combined bending and shear
For beams with unstiffened webs, the design bending moment (M *) and the design shear
force (V *) shall satisfy
2 2
M* V*
+ 1.0 . . . 3.3.5(1)
M V
b s v v
For beams with transverse web stiffeners, the design bending moment (M *) shall satisfy
M * bM b . . . 3.3.5(2)
The design shear force (V *) shall satisfy
V * vV v . . . 3.3.5(3)
M* V*
If > 0.5 and > 0.7 ; then M * and V * shall satisfy
b M s bV v
M* V*
0.6 + 1.3 . . . 3.3.5(4)
V
b M s v v
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47 AS/NZS 4673:2001
where
b = capacity [strength reduction] factor for bending (see Clause 3.3.1)
v = capacity [strength reduction] factor shear (see Clause 3.3.4)
Ms = nominal section moment capacity about the centroidal axes determined in
accordance with Clause 3.3.2
Vv = nominal shear capacity when shear alone exists determined in accordance
with Clause 3.3.4
M b = nominal member moment capacity when bending alone exists determined in
accordance with Clause 3.3.3
3.3.6 Bearing
This Clause applies to webs of flexural members subject to concentrated loads or reactions,
or the components thereof, acting perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the member and
in the plane of the web under consideration, and causing compressive stresses in the web.
To avoid failure of unstiffened flat webs of flexural members having a flat width ratio
( )
(d 1/t w) less than or equal to 200, the design concentrated loads and reactions Rb* shall
satisfy
Rb* w Rb . . . 3.3.6(1)
where
w = capacity [strength reduction] factor for bearing
= 0.70 for single unstiffened webs and I-sections
R b = nominal capacity for concentrated load or reaction for one solid web
connecting top and bottom flanges
The values of R b for stiffened and unstiffened flanges, and for the appropriate type and
position of loads, are given in Table 3.3.6. Webs of flexural members for which d 1 /t w is
greater than 200 shall be provided with means of transmitting concentrated loads and
reactions directly into the webs.
The equations in Table 3.3.6 apply, if
(a) l b/tw 210 and lb/d1 3.5;
(b) r i/tw 6 for beams; and
(c) r i/tw 7 for decking and cladding;
where
l b = actual length of bearing. For the case of two equal and opposite concentrated
loads distributed over unequal bearing lengths, the smaller value of l b shall be
taken
t w = thickness of web
r i = inside bend radius
For two or more webs, R b shall be calculated for each individual web and the results added
to obtain the nominal concentrated load or reaction for the multiple web. Where two webs
of a beam are inclined in opposite directions, the R b equations may be applied to such webs
only if they are restrained against spreading.
For built-up I-sections, or similar sections, the distance between the web connector and
beam flange shall be kept as small as practicable.
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TABLE 3.3.6
NOMINAL VALUES OF Rb
I-sections or similar sections
Shapes with single webs
(See Note 1)
Type and position of loads
Stiffened, partially stiffened and unstiffened
Stiffened or partially stiffened flanges Unstiffened flanges
flanges
End reaction
Opposing loads (see Note 3) t 2C3C4C (2.28 - 0.0042 (d1 t )) (1 + 0.01 (lb t )) t 2C3C4C (1.51 - 0.002 (d1 t ))(1 + 0.01(lb t )) (
t 2 f y c b 0.01 + 0.00125 lb t )
spaced greater
( )
than 1.5d 1 Interior
(see Note 2) reaction t 2C1C2C (3.71 - 0.005 (d1 t ))(1 + 0.007 (lb t )) t 2C1C2C (3.71 - 0.005 (d1 t ))(1 + 0.007 (lb t )) t 2 f yC5 (0.88 + 0.12m ) 0.015 + 0.00325 lb t
(see Note 4)
Opposing loads End reaction t 2C3C4C (1.68 - 0.004 (d1 t ))(1 + 0.01(lb t )) t 2C3C4C (1.68 - 0.004 (d1 t ))(1 + 0.01(lb t )) (
t 2 f yC8 (0.64 + 0.31m ) 0.01 + 0.00125 lb t )
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spaced less than

or equal to
( )
Interior
48
48
1.5d 1 reaction t 2C1C2C (5.32 - 0.016 (d1 t ))(1 + 0.0013 (lb t )) t 2C1C2C (5.32 - 0.016 (d1 t )) (1 + 0.0013(lb t )) t 2 f yC7 (0.82 + 0.15m ) 0.015 + 0.00325 lb t
(see Note 5) (see Note 4)
NOTES:
1 I-sections made of two channels connected back-to-back, or similar sections that provide high degree of restraint against rotation of the web, such as I-sections made
by welding two angles to the channel.
2 At locations of one concentrated load or reaction acting either on top or bottom flange, if clear distance between bearing edges of this and adjacent opposite
concentrated loads or reactions is greater than 1.5d 1 .
3 For end reactions of beams or concentrated loads on end of cantilevers if distance from edge of bearing to end of beam is less than 1.5d 1 .
4 For reactions and concentrated loads if distance from edge of bearing to end of beam is greater than or equal to 1.5d 1 .
5 At locations of two opposite concentrated loads or of concentrated load and opposite reaction acting simultaneously on top and bottom flanges, if clear distance
between their adjacent bearing edges is less than or equal to 1.5d 1 .
6 If l b/t > 60, the factor (1 + 0.01 (l b/t)) may be increased to (0.71 + 0.015 (l b/t)).
7 If l b/t > 60, the factor (1 + 0.07 (l b/t)) may be increased to (0.75 + 0.011 (l b/t)).
49 AS/NZS 4673:2001
The following applies to the equations given in Table 3.3.6:

w = capacity [strength reduction] factor for bearing
R b = nominal capacity for concentrated load or reaction for one web connecting top
and bottom flanges
C1 = (1.22 0.22k)k if f y 631 MPa . . . 3.3.6(2)
= 1.69 if f y > 631 MPa
C2 = (1.06 0.06(r i/t)) 1.0 . . . 3.3.6(3)
C3 = (1.33 0.33k)k if f y 459 MPa . . . 3.3.6(4)
= 1.34 if f y > 459 MPa
C4 = (1.15 0.15(r i/t)) 1.0 but not less than 0.50 . . . 3.3.6(5)
C5 = (1.49 0.53k) 0.6 . . . 3.3.6(6)
d1 t
C6 = 1 + if d1/t 150 . . . 3.3.6(7)
750
= 1.20 if d1/t > 150
C7 = 1/k if d1/t 66.5 . . . 3.3.6(8)

d1 t 1
= 1.10 if d1/t > 66.5 . . . 3.3.6(9)
665 k
d1 t 1
C8 = 0.98 . . . 3.3.6(10)
865 k

2
C = 0.7 + 0.3 . . . 3.3.6(11)
90
fy = specified yield stress in longitudinal compression
d1 = depth of the flat portion of the web measured along the plane of the web
k = f y/228 . . . 3.3.6(12)
m = non-dimensional thickness
= t/1.91 . . . 3.3.6(13)
lb = actual length of bearing
For the case of two equal and opposite concentrated loads distributed over unequal bearing
lengths, the smaller value of l b shall be taken.
ri = inside bend radius
= angle between the plane of the web and the plane of the bearing surface.
shall be within the following limits:
90 45
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3.3.7 Combined bending and bearing

Unstiffened flat webs of shapes subjected to a combination of bending and reaction or
concentrated load shall be designed as follows:
(a) Shapes having single unstiffened webs shall satisfy
R* M*
1.07 +
M
1.42
. . . 3.3.7(1)
w Rb b s
(b) At the interior supports of continuous spans, the above interaction is not applicable to
deck or beams with two or more single webs, where the compression edges of
adjacent webs are laterally supported in the negative moment region by continuous or
intermittently connected flange elements, rigid cladding, or lateral bracing, and the
spacing between adjacent webs does not exceed 250 mm.
(c) Back-to-back channel beams and beams with restraint against web rotation, such as
I-sections made by welding two angles to a channel, shall satisfy
R* M*
0.82 +
M
1.32
. . . 3.3.7(2)
w Rb b s
If d1/t w 2.33 f y E o and 0.673, the nominal concentrated load or reaction strength
may be determined in accordance with Clause 3.3.6.
In Items (a) and (b), the following applies:
R* = design concentrated load or reaction in the presence of bending moment
Rb = nominal capacity for concentrated load or reaction in the absence of bending
moment determined in accordance with Clause 3.3.6
M * = design bending moment at, or immediately adjacent to, the point of application of
the design concentrated load or reaction (R *)
Ms = nominal section moment capacity about the centroidal axes determined in
accordance with Clause 3.3.1, excluding Clause 3.3.3
bf = flat width of the beam flange which contacts the bearing plate
tw = thickness of the web
= slenderness ratio (see Clause 2.2.1.2)
3.4 CONCENTRICALLY LOADED COMPRESSION MEMBERS

3.4.1 General
This Clause applies to members in which the resultant of all loads acting on the member is
an axial load passing through the centroid of the effective section calculated at the stress
(f n). The design compressive axial force ( c Nc ) shall be calculated as follows:
(a) c = 0.85
(b) Nc = Ae f n . . . 3.4.1(1)
where
Nc = nominal member capacity of the member in compression
A e = effective area calculated at buckling stress f n
f n = the least of the flexural, torsional and flexural-torsional buckling stress
determined in accordance with Clauses 3.4.2 to 3.4.5
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Where local distortions in compression members under service loads shall be limited, the
design compressive axial force ( d Nld ) shall be determined as follows:
d = 1.0
Nld = Af b . . . 3.4.1(2)
where
fb = permissible compressive stresses determined in accordance with
Clause 3.3.2.4
Angle sections shall be designed for the design axial force (N*) acting simultaneously with
a moment equal to N*l/1000 applied about the minor principal axis causing compression in
the tips of the angle legs.
NOTE: The slenderness ratio (le/r) of all compression members should not be greater than 200,
except that during construction only, le/r should not be greater than 300.
3.4.2 Sections not subject to torsional or flexural-torsional buckling
For doubly symmetric sections, closed cross-sections and any other sections that can be
shown not to subject to torsional or flexural-torsional buckling, the flexural buckling stress
(f oc) shall be determined as follows:
2 Et
f oc = fy . . . 3.4.2(1)
(kl r )2
where
E t = tangent modulus in compression corresponding to the buckling stress given in
Appendix B
k = effective length factor
l = unbraced length of the member
r = radius of gyration of the full, unreduced cross-section
Alternatively, the design compressive axial force can be calculated as follows:
c = 0.9
Nc = Aef n . . . 3.4.2(2)
where
fy
fy
fn = . . . 3.4.2(3)
+ 2 2
1
= 2 1+ +
2
( ) . . . 3.4.2(4)
(
= ( 1 ) o

) . . . 3.4.2(5)
kl fy
= . . . 3.4.2(6)
r Eo
2
Values for , , o and 1 shall be as given in Table 3.4.2, and values for E o shall be as
given in Appendix B.
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TABLE 3.4.2
VALUES OF , , 0 AND 1
FOR TYPES 304, 304L, 316, 316L, 409, 1.4003, 430 AND S31803
Types
Property
304, 316 340L, 316L 409 1.4003 430 S31803
1.59 1.59 0.77 0.94 1.04 1.16
0.28 0.28 0.19 0.15 0.14 0.13
o 0.55 0.55 0.51 0.56 0.59 0.65
1 0.20 0.20 0.19 0.27 0.33 0.42
NOTES:
1 In frames where lateral stability is provided by diagonal bracing, shear walls,
attachment to an adjacent structure having adequate lateral stability, or floor slabs
or roof decks secured horizontally by walls or bracing systems parallel to the plane
of the frame, and in trusses, the effective length factor (k) for compression
members, which do not depend upon their own bending stiffness for lateral stability
of the frame or truss, should be taken as equal to the unbraced length (l), unless
analysis shows that a smaller value may be used.

2 In a frame that depends upon its own bending stiffness for lateral stability, the
effective length (kl) of the compression members should be determined by a rational
method and should not be less than the actual unbraced length.
3.4.3 Doubly symmetric or point-symmetric sections subject to torsional buckling

For doubly or point-symmetric sections subject to torsional buckling, f n shall be taken as the
smaller of f n calculated in accordance with Clause 3.4.2 and f n calculated as follows:
f n = t . . . 3.4.3(1)
1 2 Eo C w Et
= 2 Go J + . . . 3.4.3(2)
(k t l t )2 E o
Aro
where t is specified in Clause 3.3.3.
3.4.4 Singly symmetric sections subject to flexural-torsional buckling
For sections subject to flexural-torsional buckling, f n shall be taken as the smaller of f n
calculated in accordance with Clause 3.4.2 and f n calculated as follows:
1
fn = ex + t ( ex + t ) 2 4 ex t . . . 3.4.4(1)
2
Alternatively, a conservative estimate of f n can be obtained using the following equation:

t ex
fn = . . . 3.4.3(2)
t + ex
where
2
x
= 1 o . . . 3.4.3(3)
ro
t , ex, r o and xo shall be as specified in Clause 3.3.3.
For singly symmetric sections, the x-axis shall be assumed to be the axis of symmetry.
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3.4.5 Non-symmetric sections

For shapes whose cross-sections do not have any symmetry, either about an axis or about a
point, f n shall be determined by a rational analysis.
Alternatively, compression members composed of such shapes may be tested in accordance
with Section 6.
3.5 COMBINED AXIAL COMPRESSIVE LOAD AND BENDING

The design axial compressive load (N*), and the design bending moments ( M x* and M y* )
about the x- and y-axes of the effective section, respectively, shall satisfy the following:
N* C mx M x* C my M y*
(a) + + 1.0 . . . 3.5(1)
c Nc b M bx nx b M by ny
*
N* M x* My
(b) + + 1.0 . . . 3.5(2)
c N s b M bx b M by
If N*/ c Nc 0.15, the following may be used in lieu of Items (a) and (b):
*
N* M x* My
+ + 1.0 . . . 3.5(3)
c N c b M bx b M by
where
Nc = nominal member capacity of the member in compression determined in
accordance with Clause 3.4
C mx, C my = coefficients for unequal end moment whose value shall be taken as
follows:
(i) For compression members in frames subject to joint translation
(side-sway):
C m = 0.85
(ii) For restrained compression members in frames braced against joint
translation and not subject to transverse loading between their
supports in the plane of bending:
C m = 0.6 0.4 (M 1/M2) . . . 3.5(4)
M 1/M2 is the ratio of the smaller to the larger moment at the
unbraced in the plane of bending. M 1 /M 2 is positive if the member
is bent in reverse curvature and negative if it is bent in single
curvature.
(iii) For compression members in frames braced against joint
translation in the plane of loading and subject to transverse loading
between their supports, the value of Cm may be determined by
rational analysis. However, in lieu of such analysis, the following
values may be used:
(A) For members whose ends are restrained:
C m = 0.85
(B) For members whose ends are unrestrained:
C m = 1.0
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M bx, M by = nominal member moment capacity about the x- and y-axes, respectively,
determined in accordance with Clause 3.3.3
b = capacity [strength reduction] factor for bending
= 0.90 for beam sections with stiffened and partially stiffened compression
flanges
= 0.85 for beam sections with unstiffened compression flanges; or
= 0.85 for laterally unbraced beam
= 0.85
Ns = nominal section capacity of the member in compression determined in
accordance with Clause 3.4, with f n equal to f y
nx, ny = moment amplification factors
N*
= 1 . . . 3.5(5)
N
e
Ne = elastic buckling load

= 2 E o I b /l eb2 . . . 3.5(6)
Ib = second moment of area of the full, unreduced cross-section about the
bending axis
leb = effective length in the plane of bending
3.6 TUBULAR MEMBERS

3.6.1 General
This Clause applies to rectangular, square and circular hollow sections. For circular hollow
sections, the ratio of outside diameter to wall thickness (d o /t) shall not be greater than
0.881E o/f y.
3.6.2 Bending
The design bending moment ( b M s ) shall be determined using
b = 0.9.
The nominal member moment capacity (M s ) shall be determined as follows:
(a) Rectangular and square hollow sections:
(i) For compact sections that satisfy b/t = 1
1.11
1 = . . . 3.6.2(1)
f ye / E o
where b is the flat width of the compression flange, and for which the
compressed portion of the web to its thickness is not greater than 1 , M s shall be
calculated as follows:
Ms = f yS p . . . 3.6.2(2)
where S p is the plastic section modulus.
(ii) For non-compact sections (b/t > 1 ), the design bending moment ( b M s ) shall be
determined in accordance with Clause 3.3.1.
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(b) Circular hollow sections:

(i) For compact sections satisfying d o /t 0.078E o /f y
Ms = f yS p . . . 3.6.2(3)
(ii) For non-compact sections satisfying 0.078E o /f y < d o /t < 0.31Eo /f y
Ms = f yZ f . . . 3.6.2(4)
(iii) For slender sections satisfying 0.31E o /f y < d o /t < 0.881E o /f y
Ms = K cf yZ f . . . 3.6.2(5)
where
f y = specified yield stress, given in Appendix B
Z f = elastic section modulus of the full, unreduced cross-section
(1 C ) (E o / f y ) 0.178 C
Kc = + . . . 3.6.2(6)
(3.226 c )(d o / t ) 3.226 c
C = ratio of the proportionality stress to the yield stress
(see Appendix B)
= f p/f y
(E o fy )
c = limiting value of , based on specified ratio C
(d o t )
= 3.048C
3.6.3 Compression
This Clause applies to members in which the resultant of all design loads and design
bending moments acting on the member is equivalent to a single force in the direction of
the member axis passing through the centroid of the section.
The design axial load (c Nc ) shall be determined as follows:
(a) Rectangular and square hollow sections c Nc shall be determined in accordance with
Clause 3.4.1.
(b) Circular hollow sections c Nc shall be determined as follows:
(i) For compact sections, where A e equals A as given in Equation 3.6.3(3), c Nc
shall be determined in accordance with Clause 3.4.1.
(ii) For slender sections, where A e is less than A as given in Equation 3.6.3(3), c Nc
shall be determined as follows:
c = 0.8
N c = f nA e . . . 3.6.3(1)
where
f n = flexural buckling stress determined in accordance with
Clause 3.4.2
A e = effective area at buckling stress f n
{1 [1 (E / E ) ][1 (A / A)]}A
t o
2
o . . . 3.6.3(2)
A o = reduced area of the cross-section
(
= Kc A A for (d o / t ) 0.881 E o / f y ) . . . 3.6.3(3)
A = area of the full, unreduced cross-section
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3.6.4 Combined compression and bending

Combined compression and bending shall satisfy the provisions of Clause 3.5.
3.6.5 Shear
The design shear capacity of rectangular hollow sections shall satisfy the provisions of
Clause 3.3.4.
NOTE: Design shear requirements for circular hollow sections are not provided in this Standard.
3.6.6 Combined shear and bending
Combined shear and bending in rectangular hollow sections shall be determined as follows:
(a) For compact sections as specified in Clause 3.6.2(a), the design bending and shear
capacities shall not be reduced by the presence of combined actions.
(b) For slender sections, the combined bending and shear capacity shall be determined in
accordance with Clause 3.3.5.
NOTE: Design requirements for shear and bending for circular hollow sections are not provided
in this Standard.
3.6.7 Welded connections
The design capacity of welded connections in rectangular and circular hollow sections shall
be determined in accordance with Appendix J.
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S EC TION 4 S TR UC TUR AL AS S EMB LIES
4.1 BUILT-UP SECTIONS

4.1.1 Sections composed of two channels
The maximum longitudinal spacing of welds (s max. ) or other connectors joining two
channels to form an I-section shall be determined as follows:
(a) For compression members
lrcy
s max. = . . . 4.1.1(1)
2 r1
where
l = unbraced length of the member in compression
r cy = radius of gyration of one channel about its centroidal axis parallel to the
web
r1 = radius of gyration of the I-section about the axis perpendicular to the

direction in which buckling occurs for the given conditions of end
support and intermediate bracing.
(b) For flexural members
l
s max . = . . . 4.1.1(2)
6
2 sg N *
. . . 4.1.1(3)
mq
where
l = span of beam
sg = vertical distance between two rows of connections nearest to the top
and bottom flanges
N = design tensile force of the connection (see Section 5)
q = intensity of the design load on the beam
m = distance from the shear centre of one channel to the mid-plane of its
web (see Appendix H).
The intensity of the design load (q) shall be obtained by dividing the magnitude of the
design concentrated loads or reactions by the length of bearing. For beams designed for a
uniformly distributed load, q shall be equal to three times the intensity of the uniformly
distributed design load. If the length of bearing of a concentrated load or reaction is less
than the weld spacing (s w), the design tensile force of the welds or connections closest to
the load or reaction shall be determined as follows:
mRb*
N* = . . . 4.1.1(4)
2s g
where Rb* is the design concentrated load or reaction.
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The maximum longitudinal spacing of connections (s max. ) depends upon the intensity of the
load applied directly at the connection. Therefore, if uniform spacing of connections is used
over the whole length of the beam, it shall be determined at the point of maximum local
load intensity. In cases where this procedure may result in uneconomically close spacing,
either of the following methods may be adopted:
(i) The connection spacing may be varied along the beam in accordance with the
variation of the load intensity.
(ii) The reinforcing cover plates may be welded to the flanges at points where
concentrated loads occur. The design shear force of the connections joining these
plates to the flanges shall then be used for N* and s g shall be taken as the depth of the
beam.
4.1.2 Spacing of connections in compression elements
The spacing (s) in the line of stress of welds and bolts connecting a cover plate or sheet in
compression, to a non-integral stiffener or another element shall not be greater than
(a) that which is required to transmit the shear between the connected parts on the basis
of the design shear force per connection specified in this Clause;
(b) 1.11t E t /f c , where t is the thickness of the cover plate or sheet, E t is the tangent
modulus in compression and f c is the stress at service load in the cover plate or sheet.
(c) three times the flat width (b 1 ) of the narrowest unstiffened compression element
tributary to the connections, but not less than 1.03t E o /f y if b/t < 0.50 E o /f y , or
1.24t E o /f y if b/t 0.50 E o /f y , unless closer spacing is required by Item (a) or
Item (b).
In the case of intermittent fillet welds parallel to the direction of stress, the spacing shall be
taken as the clear distance between welds plus 12 mm. In all other cases, the spacing shall
be taken as the centre-to-centre distance between connections.
This Clause does not apply to cover sheets that act only as sheeting material, and shall not
be considered as load-carrying elements.
4.2 MIXED SYSTEMS

The design of members in mixed systems using cold-formed stainless steel components in
conjunction with other materials shall conform to this Standard and to the relevant material
Standard.
4.3 LATERAL RESTRAINTS

4.3.1 General
Restraints shall be designed to restrain lateral bending or twisting of a loaded beam or
column, and to avoid local buckling at the points of attachment.
4.3.2 Symmetrical beams and columns
Restraints and restraint systems, including connections, shall be designed in accordance
with the strength and stiffness requirements.
4.3.3 Channel and Z-section beams
4.3.3.1 General
The requirements for bracing to restrain twisting of channels and Z-sections used as beams
and loaded in the plane of the web, apply only if
(a) the top flange is connected to the deck or sheeting material in such a manner as
effectively to restrain lateral deflection of the connected flange; or
(b) neither flange is connected.
If both flanges are connected, further bracing is not required.
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4.3.3.2 Bracing when one flange is connected

Channels and Z-sections, which are used to support attached covering material and loaded
in a plane parallel to the web, shall be designed taking into account the restraining effects
of covering materials and fasteners. Provisions shall be made for the forces from each beam
which accumulate in the covering material. These forces shall be transferred from the
covering material to a member or assembly of sufficient strength and stiffness to resist
these forces.
The design of braces shall be in accordance with Clause 4.3.3.3. In addition, tests in
accordance with Section 6 shall be performed to ensure that the type or spacing, or both, of
the braces selected is such that the strength of the braced beam assembly tested in
accordance with Section 6 is greater than or equal to its nominal flexural strength.
4.3.3.3 Neither flange connected to sheeting
Each intermediate brace, at the top and bottom flange, shall be designed to resist a
( )
horizontal design force N ib* determined as follows:
(a) For uniformly distributed loads, N ib* is equal to 1.5k times the design load within a
distance 0.5l b each side of the brace, where l b is the distance between the centre-line
of braces.
(b) For concentrated loads, N ib* is equal to 1.0k times each design concentrated load
within a distance 0.3l b each side of the brace, plus 1.4k[1 (m/l b )] times each design
concentrated load located farther than 0.3l b but not farther than 1.0l b from the brace,
where m is the distance from the concentrated load to the brace.
For channels:
m
k = . . . 4.3.3.3(1)
d
For Z-sections:
Ixy
k = . . . 4.3.3.3(2)
Ix
where
k = coefficient used to determine N ib* where neither flange is connected to the
sheeting or connected to the sheeting with concealed fasteners
I xy = product of second moment of area of the full section about its centroidal axes
parallel and perpendicular to the web
I x = second moment of area of the cross-section about its centroidal axis
perpendicular to the web
Braces shall be designed to avoid local buckling at the points of attachment to the member.
Where braces are provided, they shall be attached in such a manner to effectively restrain
the section against lateral deflection of both flanges at the ends and at any intermediate
brace points.
When all loads and reactions on a beam are transmitted through members that frame into
the section, in such a manner as to effectively restrain the section against torsional rotation
and lateral displacement, no additional braces will be required except those required for
strength in accordance with Clause 3.3.3.
4.3.3.4 Laterally unbraced box beams
For closed box-type sections used as beams subject to bending about the major principal
axis, the ratio of the laterally unsupported length to the distance between the webs of the
section shall not be greater than 0.086E o /f y .
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S EC TION 5 C ONNEC T ION S
5.1 GENERAL
Connections shall be designed to transmit the design action effects derived for the structure
at that connection, or joint, from analysis in accordance with accepted principles of
structural mechanics.
Connections and joints shall be proportioned so as to be consistent with the assumptions
made in the analysis of the structure and comply with this Section. Consideration shall be
given to load paths and eccentricity.
There are a number of suitable fastening systems to join stainless steel structural members
or component parts such as welding, bolting, screwing, riveting, clinching, pinning or
structural adhesive. These systems may be used singly or in combination
This Section applies to welded and bolted connections.
Design capacities of specific connections may be obtained by prototype testing in
accordance with Section 6.
5.2 WELDED CONNECTIONS

5.2.1 General
This Clause applies to welded connections for cold-formed stainless steel structural
members in which the weld is produced by the electric arc welding or resistance welding
process.
The design capacity of arc welds determined in accordance with this Clause applies only to
welds complying with AS/NZS 1554.6.
The design capacity of resistance welds determined in accordance with this Section applies
only to welds complying with AWS C1.1.
For members made from material other than in the annealed condition, allowance shall be
made for design strength reduction near welds.
The effect of any welding on the mechanical properties of a member shall be determined on
the basis of tests on specimens of the full section containing the weld within the gauge
length. Any necessary allowance for such effect shall be made in the structural use of the
member. In the absence of specified testing, the annealed properties shall be used.
Surface finishing of the weld is normally required to restore full corrosion resistance and
shall be in accordance with AS/NZS 1554.6.
NOTES:
1 With the exception of 1.4003 (EN 10088), most grades of ferritic and martensitic stainless
steels are not suitable for use in welded connections. Information regarding applicability for
such uses should be sought from the steel manufacturer or supplier.
2 Austenitic stainless steels used at temperatures above 30C do not require toughness testing
of welds.
3 For other stainless steels, see AS 1210 for guidance on toughness testing of structural welds.
5.2.2 Butt welds
5.2.2.1 General
This Clause applies to butt welds between stainless steel structural elements loaded in
tension, compression or shear, welded from one or both sides, provided that an effective
throat of matching weld greater than or equal to the thickness of the thinnest material is
provided throughout the weld.
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5.2.2.2 Tension or compression

A butt weld subjected to a tensile or compressive force shall satisfy
N w* N w . . . 5.2.2.2
where
N w* = design tensile or compressive force normal to the area of the butt weld
= capacity [strength reduction] factor of a butt weld for tensile or compressive
force
= 0.6
Nw = nominal tensile or compressive capacity of a butt weld, welded from one or
both sides
= l w t f ua
lw = length of weld
t = thickness of the thinnest welded part
f ua = tensile or compressive strength of the annealed base metal
5.2.2.3 Shear
A butt weld subjected to a shear force shall satisfy
V w* V w . . . 5.2.2.3(1)
where
Vw* = design shear force
= capacity [strength reduction] factor of a butt weld for shear
= 0.6
Vw = nominal shear capacity of a butt weld, welded from one or both sides
= l w t (0.6 f ua ) . . . 5.2.2.3(2)
lw = length of the full size of the weld
5.2.3 Fillet welds
5.2.3.1 General
This Clause applies to fillet welds in lap or T joints between stainless steel structural
elements, loaded either longitudinal (parallel) or transverse to the line of the weld.
5.2.3.2 Longitudinal loading
A fillet weld subjected to a longitudinal shear force shall satisfy
V w* V w . . . 5.2.3.2(1)
where
Vw* = design longitudinal shear force on a fillet weld
= capacity [strength reduction] factor of a fillet weld
= 0.55
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V w = nominal longitudinal shear capacity of a fillet weld, determined as follows:

(a) For l w/t < 30
0.009l w
V w = 0.7 t l w f ua . . . 5.2.3.2(2)
t
(b) For l w/t 30
V w = 0.43tl w f ua . . . 5.2.3.2(3)
In addition, the value of V w shall not be greater than
V w = 0.75t w l w f xx . . . 5.2.3.2(4)
where
tw = effective throat
= 0.707w1 or 0.707w2 , whichever is smaller
w1 , w2 = leg sizes of the weld
f xx = tensile strength obtained from all-weld-metal tensile test.
NOTE: Table B2 of Appendix B gives values of f xx for manual metal arc welding (MMAW).
5.2.3.3 Transverse loading
A fillet weld subjected to a transverse shear force shall satisfy
V w* V w . . . 5.2.3.3(1)
where
V w* = design transverse shear force on a fillet weld
= 0.55
Vw = nominal transverse shear capacity of a fillet weld
= tl w f ua . . . 5.2.3.3(2)
In addition, the value of V w shall not be greater than
Vw = 0.65t w l w f xx . . . 5.2.3.3(3)
5.2.4 Resistance spot welds
5.2.4.1 General
This Clause applies to Types 301, 304 and 316 stainless steel sheets joined by electric
resistance single impulse spot welding or pulsation spot welding.
5.2.4.2 Shear
A resistance spot weld subjected to a shear force shall satisfy
V w* V w . . . 5.2.4.2
where
Vw* = design shear force on a resistance spot weld
= capacity [strength reduction] factor of a resistance spot weld for shear
= 0.60
Vw = nominal shear capacity of a resistance spot weld (see Tables 5.2.4(1)
and 5.2.4(2)), as appropriate.
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5.2.4.3 Tension
A resistance spot weld subjected to a tensile force shall satisfy
N w* N w . . . 5.2.4.3
where
N w* = design tensile force on a resistance spot weld
= capacity [strength reduction] factor of a resistance spot weld for tensile force
= 0.60
Nw = nominal tensile capacity of a resistance spot weld, taken conservatively as
25% of the nominal shear capacity given in Table 5.2.4(A) for single impulse
spot welding, or Table 5.2.4(B) for pulsation spot welding, for the appropriate
thickness of the thinnest outside sheet.
5.2.5 Tubular connections
The design capacity of welded connections in rectangular, square and circular hollow
sections shall be determined in accordance with Appendix J.
TABLE 5.2.4(A)
NOMINAL SHEAR CAPACITY (Vw) OF SINGLE IMPULSE SPOT WELDS
Thickness of thinnest outside V W per spot weld

sheet kN
mm Annealed 1/4 Hard 1/2 Hard
0.152 0.27 0.31 0.40
0.203 0.44 0.58 0.67
0.254 0.67 0.76 0.93
0.305 0.85 0.93 1.11
0.356 1.07 1.11 1.42
0.406 1.25 1.33 1.69
0.457 1.42 1.60 2.09
0.533 1.64 2.09 2.22
0.635 2.22 2.67 3.02
0.787 3.02 3.56 4.13
0.864 3.56 4.09 4.89
1.016 4.45 5.65 6.23
1.118 5.34 6.45 7.56
1.222 6.45 7.56 8.89
1.422 7.56 8.90 10.90
1.575 8.67 10.68 12.90
1.778 10.68 12.45 15.79
1.981 12.01 15.12 17.79
2.388 15.79 18.68 23.57
2.769 18.68 22.24 28.47
3.175 22.24 26.69 33.80
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TABLE 5.2.4(B)
NOMINAL SHEAR CAPACITY (Vw) OF PULSATION SPOT WELDS
Thickness of thinnest outside V W per spot weld

sheet kN
mm 1/4 Hard 1/2 Hard
3.962 33.8 44.48
4.75 43.37 54.71
5.156 47.15 57.82
6.35 57.82 75.62
NOTE: The range of thicknesses given for pulsation spot welding is not intended to
indicate that single-impulse spot welding cannot be used for welding these thicknesses.
5.3 BOLTED CONNECTIONS

5.3.1 General
This Clause applies to bolted connections in cold-formed stainless steel structural members
proportioned in accordance with this Standard.
Bolts, washers and nuts shall be installed and tightened so as to achieve the design
performance intended for the connection.
5.3.2 Holes
Standard holes for bolts shall be used for joining members unless otherwise specified.
Standard holes shall not be greater than the values given in Table 5.3.2.
Oversized or slotted holes not greater than the sizes given in Table 5.3.2 may be used,
provided all bolts are loaded in shear and the length of such a slotted hole is normal to the
direction of the applied shear force.
Larger holes may be used, provided backup plate washers of appropriate size and thickness
are used. Backup plate washers shall have a standard hole to suit the bolt that is to be used.
Where a holing and washer arrangement for a bolted connection does not comply with the
requirements of this Clause, its performance may be established by testing in accordance
with Section 6.
NOTE: Guidance on steel backup plate washers specified in AS 4100 and NZS 3404.2 is
applicable to stainless steel backup plate washers.
TABLE 5.3.2
MAXIMUM SIZE OF BOLT HOLES
Nominal bolt Standard hole Oversized

Short-slotted hole Long-slotted hole
diameter diameter hole diameter
dimension dimension
(d f ) (d h) (d h)
mm mm mm mm mm
< 12 d f + 1.0 d f + 2.0 (d f + 1.0) by (d f + 6.0) (d f + 1.0) by 2.5d f
12 d f + 2.0 d f + 3.0 (d f + 2.0) by (d f + 6.0) (d f + 2.0) by 2.5d f
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5.3.3 Spacing and edge distance

In addition to the requirements of Clause 5.3.4, the minimum distance between centres of
bolt holes shall provide sufficient clearance for bolt heads, nuts, washers and the wrench,
but shall not be less than 3d f. Also, the distance from the centre of any standard hole to the
end or other boundary of the connecting member shall not be less than 1.5d f.
For oversized and slotted holes, the distance between the edges of two adjacent holes and
the distance from the edge of the hole to the end or other boundary of the connecting
member in the line of force shall not be less than [e (d h 2)] , where e is the distance
measured in the line of the applied force from the centre of a standard hole to the nearest
edge of an adjacent hole or to the end of the connected part.
The clear distance between the edges of two adjacent holes shall not be less than 2d f and the
distance between the edge of the hole and the end of the member shall not be less than d f.
5.3.4 Tear out capacity of the connected part
For lapped joints between structural members in which bolts are loaded in shear, both the
spacing between bolts and the edge distance from a bolt in the line of the applied force shall
be such that in a connected part
Vf* Vf
. . . 5.3.4(1)
where
Vf* = design shear force per bolt
= 0.70
Vf = nominal shear capacity per bolt
= te f ut . . . 5.3.4(2)
t = thickness of the thinnest connected part
f ut = tensile strength of the connected part transverse to the direction of the applied
force.
5.3.5 Net section tensile capacity of the connected part
For lap joints between structural members in which bolts are loaded in shear, both the
spacing between bolts and the edge distance from a bolt transverse to the line of the applied
force shall be such that in a connected part
N f* N f
. . . 5.3.5(1)
where
N f* = design tensile force in the connected part
= 0.70
Nf = nominal tensile capacity of the connected part
= An f t . . . 5.3.5(2)
An = net area of the connected part at the line of bolts transverse to the line of the
applied force
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ft = tensile strength for connections with washers under both bolt head and nut,
determined as follows:
(a) For single shear connections:
f t = (1.0 rf + (2.5rf d f /sf ) ) f u f u . . . 5.3.5(3)
(b) For double shear connection:
f t = (1.0 0.9rf + (3rf d f /s f ) ) f u f u . . . 5.3.5(4)
rf = ratio of the force transmitted by the bolt or bolts at the section considered,
divided by the tensile force in the member at that section. If r f is less than 0.2,
it may be taken as zero
sf = spacing of bolts transverse to the line of the force, or in the case of a single
bolt, the width of the connected part
fu = tensile strength of the connected part in the direction of the applied force.
In addition, N f* shall not be greater than 0.85A n f y, where f y is the specified yield stress in
tension of the connected part.
5.3.6 Bearing capacity of the connected part
For lapped joints between structural members in which bolts are loaded in shear, the design
( )
bearing force Vb* at a bolt shall be such that in a connected part
Vb* Vb . . . 5.3.6(1)
where
= 0.65
V b = nominal bearing capacity per bolt of the connected part, where bolts have
washers under both bolt head and nut, determined as follows:
(a) For single shear connections:
V b = 2.0d f t f u . . . 5.3.6(2)
(b) For double shear connection:

Vb = 2.75d f t f u . . . 5.3.6(3)
f u = compressive strength of the connected part in the direction of the applied force.
5.3.7 Stainless steel bolts to ASTM Standards
5.3.7.1 General
The design capacity of bolts determined in accordance with Clause 5.3.7 applies to bolts
complying with ASTM A 193/A 193 M, ASTM A 276 and ASTM F 593.
The design capacity described in this Clause is based on the provisions of ANSI/ASCE-8-
90.
The nominal shear strength (f nv) and the nominal tensile strength (f nt ) for stainless steel
bolts complying with ASTM Standards shall be obtained from Table 5.3.7, as appropriate.
5.3.7.2 Bolts in shear
( )
The design shear force Vfv* for bolts loaded in shear shall satisfy
Vfv* Vfv . . . 5.3.7.2(1)
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where
= 0.65
V fv = nominal shear capacity of the stainless steel bolt
= Af f nv . . . 5.3.7.2(2)
A f = gross cross-sectional area of the stainless steel bolt
f nv = nominal shear strength of the stainless steel bolt given in Table 5.3.7.
5.3.7.3 Bolts in tension
( )
The design tensile force N ft* shall satisfy
N ft* N ft . . . 5.3.7.3(1)
where
= 75
Nft = Af f nt . . . 5.3.7.3(2)
f nt = nominal tensile strength of the stainless steel bolt given in Table 5.3.7
The pull-over (pull-through) capacity of the connected part at the bolt head, nut or washer
shall be considered where bolt tension is concerned.
The increase in pull-out force resulting from bending moments or prying forces transmitted
into the bolt from various adjacent structural components shall be taken into account.
5.3.7.4 Bolts in combined shear and tension
For a bolt subjected simultaneously to a design shear force (Vfv* ) and a design tensile force
(N ), the design tensile force (N ) shall satisfy
*
ft
*
ft
N ft* N ft . . . 5.3.7.4(1)
where
= 0.75
N ft* = Af f nt . . . 5.3.7.4(2)
f nt shall be determined as follows:

(a) Threads in the shear plane
f nt = 1.25 f nt 2.4 f v f nt . . . 5.3.7.4(3)
(b) No threads in the shear plane
f nt = 1.25 f nt 1.9 f v f nt . . . 5.3.7.4(4)
where
f nt = nominal tensile strength for bolts subject to combined shear and tension
f nt = nominal tensile strength given in Table 5.3.7
fv ( )
= shear stress resulting from the design shear force V *
fv
Vfv*
= f nv . . . 5.3.7.4(5)
Af
f nv = nominal shear strength given in Table 5.3.7
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TABLE 5.3.7
NOMINAL SHEAR AND TENSILE STRENGTHS FOR STAINLESS STEEL BOLTS
COMPLYING WITH ASTM STANDARDS
Nominal shear strength Nominal tensile

Diameter (fnv) strength
(d f ) (see Note 1) (fnt )
Type of stainless steel MPa (see Note 1)
No threads in Threads in
mm MPa
shear plane shear plane
201
All 311 232 386
(see Note 2)
304, 316
All 311 232 386
(see Note 3)
304, 316
12.7 372 279 465
(see Notes 5)
304, 316
19.1 517 388 646
(see Note 7)
304, 316
6.4 d f 38.1 290 217 362
(see Note 4)
304, 316
6.4 d f 15.9 393 295 491
(see Note 6)
304, 316
19.1 d f 38.1 331 248 414
(see Note 6)
430
All 248 186 310
(see Note 2)
430
6.4 d f 38.1 290 217 362
(see Note 4)
NOTES:
1 Reduction of the nominal strength given in this Table is required for d f < 12.7 mm. For d f <
12.7 mm, the value shall be reduced to 0.9f nv for nominal shear strength and to 0.9f nt for nominal
tensile strength.
2 Condition A in ASTM A 276, hot-finished or cold-finished.
3 Condition A in ASTM A 276, hot-finished and Class 1(solution-treated) in ASTM A 193/A 193M,
hot-finished.
4 Condition A in ASTM F 593, machined from annealed or solution-annealed stock or hot-formed
and solution-annealed. The minimum tensile strength is based on tests on the machined specimen.
5 Condition A in ASTM A 276, cold-finished.
6 Condition CW in ASTM F 593, headed and rolled from annealed stock thus acquiring a degree of
cold work. Sizes 19.05 mm diameter and larger may be hot-worked. The minimum tensile strength
is based on tests on the machined specimen.
7 Condition B (cold-worked) in ASTM A 276 cold-finished and Class 2 (solution-treated and strain-
hardened) in ASTM A 193/A 193M.
5.3.8 Stainless steel bolts to ISO 3506

5.3.8.1 General
The design capacity of bolts determined in accordance with Clause 5.3.8 applies only to
bolts and nuts complying with ISO 3506, with washers of austenitic stainless steel
complying with ISO 7089 or ISO 7090, as appropriate.
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The design capacity described in this Clause is based on the provisions of ENV 1993-1-1
and ENV 1993-1-4.
For items resisting shear or tension through the threaded portion with cut threads, such as
anchor bolts or tie rods fabricated from round stainless steel bars where the threads are cut
by the steelwork fabricator and not by a specialist bolt manufacturer, the relevant values
given in Table 5.3.8 shall be reduced by multiplying them by a factor of 0.85.
The nominal yield stress (f ny) and the nominal tensile strength (f nt ) for stainless steel bolts
complying with ISO 3506 shall be obtained from Table 5.3.8, as appropriate.
The specified properties shall be verified by a recognized quality control system, with
samples from each batch of fasteners.
TABLE 5.3.8
BOLTS COMPLYING WITH ISO 3506
Property class to Nominal yield Nominal tensile

Material groups ISO 3506 Range of sizes stress (f ny ) strength (fnt )
(see Note 1) MPa MPa

Austenitic and
50 M39 210 500
austenitic ferritic
M20
70 450 700
(see Note 2)
M20
80 600 800
(see Note 2)
NOTES:
1 In addition to the various steel types specified in ISO 3506 under property classes 50, 70 and 80, other
steel types to EN 10088-3 may also be used.
2 For bolts of property classes 70 and 80 with lengths greater than 8 diameters or with sizes larger than M20,
the values of the mechanical properties shall be obtained from the bolt manufacturer.
5.3.8.2 Bolts in shear

The design shear force ( Vfv* ) shall satisfy
Vfv* Vfv
Where
= 0.44
V fv = Ab f nt if the shear plane passes through the unthreaded portion of the bolt; or
= Abs f nt if the shear plane passes through the threaded portion of the bolt
A b = gross cross-sectional area of the bolt
A bs = tensile stress area of the bolt
The shear strength of a bolt in a lapped joint shall be the lesser of the shear capacity of the
bolt (V fv) or the bearing capacity per bolt ( V b ), specified in Clause 5.3.6.
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5.3.8.3 Bolts in tension

The design tensile force ( N ft* ), inclusive of any force due to prying action, shall satisfy
N ft* N ft
where
= 0.67
Nft = Abs f nt
The tensile capacity of a bolt in a joint shall be the lesser of the tensile capacity of the bolt
(Nft ) or the pull through (punching shear) resistance of the bolt head and nut ( N pt* )
calculated as follows:
N pt* = 0.44 d m t p f u
where
d m = mean of the across points and across flats dimensions of the bolt head or the
nut, whichever is smaller

tp = thickness of the plate under the bolt head or the nut
5.3.8.4 Bolts in combined shear and tension
A bolt subjected simultaneously to a design shear force ( Vfv* ) and a design tensile force
( N ft* ) shall satisfy
Vfv* N ft*
+ 1.0
0.44Vfv 0.94 N ft
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S E C T IO N 6 T E S T IN G
6.1 TESTING FOR DETERMINING MATERIAL PROPERTIES

6.1.1 Design based on measured values of yield stress
Where the design is based on measured values of yield stress as determined from mill
certificates or in accordance with Clauses 6.1.2, 6.1.3, 6.1.4 and 6.1.5.2, the capacity
[strength reduction] factors () shall be reduced by 6%. Alternatively, the reduction in
capacity [strength reduction] factor may be determined in accordance with Appendix K
when statistical values of the mean and coefficient of variation of the ratio of measured
to nominal yield stress is available, as it may apply to production runs of specific
products.
6.1.2 Testing of unformed steel
Where the stainless steels specified in Clause 1.5.2.2 are used or the yield stress of
stainless steel is required for the purpose of Clause 6.1.4, unformed stainless steel
tensile properties shall be determined by tests in accordance with AS 1391.
Test specimens shall be taken from positions located one quarter of the coil width from
either edge near the outer end of the coil or other location to determine the lowest
strength of the material in the coil. At the option of the manufacturer, the test specimens
may be cut longitudinally or transversely and may be tested in tension or compression,
provided the manufacturer demonstrates that such tests reliably indicate the yield stress
of the section when subjected to the kind of stress under which the member is to be
used.
6.1.3 Compression testing
Compressive mechanical properties may be obtained from coupon or stub column tests.
Compressive coupon tests shall be in accordance with ASTM E9. For coupon tests of
unformed steel, test specimens shall be taken as specified in Clause 6.1.2.
Stub column tests shall be made on flat-end specimens whose length shall not be less
than three times the largest dimension of the section but no more than 20 times the least
radius of gyration. If tests of ultimate compressive strength are used to determine yield
stress for quality control purposes, the length of the section shall be not less than
15 times the least radius of gyration. In making the compression tests, the specimen in
the testing machine shall be centred so that the load is applied concentrically with
respect to the centroidal axis of the section.
NOTE: For further information regarding compression testing using coupons or stub columns,
reference may be made to ASTM E9, and to Technical Memoranda Nos 2 and 3 of the
Column Research Council, Notes on Compression Testing of Materials, and Stub-Column
Test Procedure, reprinted in the Column Research Council Guide to Stability Design Criteria
for Metal Structures, Fifth Edition, 1998. Where tangent or secant moduli are to be derived
from compression tests, reference is made to ASTM E111.
6.1.4 Testing of full sections
This Clause applies only to the determination of the mechanical properties of a fully
formed section for the purposes specified in Clause 1.5.2.4. It shall not be interpreted as
forbidding the use of test procedures instead of the usual design calculations.
The procedure shall be as follows:
(a) Determine the tensile yield stress (f yt ) in accordance with AS 1391 or the compressive
yield stress (f yc) by coupon testing in accordance with ASTM E9.
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(b) Determine the compressive yield stress (f yc ) by means of compression tests as

specified in Clause 6.1.3.
(c) Where the principal effect of the loading to which the member will be subjected in
service is to produce bending stresses, determine the yield stress for the flanges. In
determining the yield stress, carry out tests on specimens cut from the section. Each
such specimen shall consist of one complete flange plus a portion of the web of such
flat width ratio so that the section is fully effective.
(d) For acceptance and control purposes, make two full section tests from formed
material lots. Material lots shall be considered as parcels, as defined in the relevant
Standards material specification in the Clauses on selection and preparation of test
samples for mechanical testing.
(e) Use either tension or compression tests for routine acceptance and control purposes,
provided it is demonstrated that such tests reliably indicate the yield stress of the
section when subjected to the kind of stress under which the member is to be used.
6.1.5 Testing of flat coupons of formed members
6.1.5.1 Assessment of strength increase
Tests for determining material properties of flat coupons of formed members and
material properties of unformed steel for the purpose of assessing strength increase
resulting from cold-forming as specified in Clause 1.5.2.4 shall be made as follows:
(a) The yield stress of flats (f yf) shall be established by means of a weighed average
of the yield stresses of standard tensile coupons taken longitudinally from the
major flat portions of a cold-formed member. The weighted average shall be the
sum of the products of the average yield stress for each major flat portion times
its cross-sectional area, divided by the total area of the major flats in the cross-
section.
(b) Where the actual yield stress of the unformed steel exceeds the specified
minimum yield stress, the yield stress of the flats (f yf) shall be adjusted by
multiplying the test values by the ratio of the specified minimum yield stress to
the actual yield stress of the unformed steel.
6.1.5.2 Design properties
Tests for determining material properties of flat coupons of formed members for the
purpose of establishing design properties of the formed members as specified in
Clause 1.5.2.2 shall be made as follows:
(a) The test specimens shall be taken longitudinally from a major flat portion of the
section midway between corners (excluding the corners) or midway between a
corner and a free edge (excluding the corner).
(b) The test specimen shall be taken from the flat portion with the least strength
increase from cold-forming.
(c) The minimum yield stress (f y) and the minimum tensile strength (f u) used in
design shall be determined in accordance with AS 1391.
6.2 TESTING FOR ASSESSMENT OR VERIFICATION

6.2.1 General
The methods of test specified in this Clause apply to prototype units of complete
structures, parts of structures, individual members or connections for design verification
as an alternative to calculation. The methods do not apply to the testing of structural
models nor to the establishment of general design criteria.
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6.2.2 Static tests for strength or serviceability

6.2.2.1 Test specimens
The prototype test specimens shall be identical nominally to the class of units for which
structural verification is required. The materials and fabrication of the prototype
specimens shall comply with the relevant specifications used in production. Any
additional requirements of a manufacturing specification shall be complied with. The
method of assembly used shall simulate that which is used in production.
6.2.2.2 Test loads
The target test loads (R t) for the number of units to be tested shall be equal to the design
action effects [design actions] (S *) for the relevant strength or serviceability
requirements, multiplied by the appropriate factor (k t ) to allow for variability of
structural units, given in Table 6.2.2, i.e. R t is equal to k t S *.
The design action effects [design actions] shall be determined in accordance with
AS 1170.1, AS 1170.2, AS 1170.3, AS 1170.4 or NZS 4203, as appropriate.
TABLE 6.2.2
FACTORS (k t) TO ALLOW FOR VARIABILITY OF STRUCTURAL UNITS
No. of units to Coefficient of variation of structural characteristics (k sc )

be tested 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30%
1 1.20 1.46 1.79 2.21 2.75 3.45
2 1.17 1.38 1.64 1.96 2.36 2.86
3 1.15 1.33 1.56 1.83 2.16 2.56
4 1.15 1.30 1.50 1.74 2.03 2.37
5 1.13 1.28 1.46 1.67 1.93 2.23
10 1.10 1.21 1.34 1.49 1.66 1.85
100 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
6.2.2.3 Coefficient of variation of structural characteristics

The coefficient of variation of structural characteristics (k sc ) refers to the variability of
the total population of the production units. This includes the total population variation
due to fabrication (k f) and material (k m). It can be approximated as follows:
k sc = k f2 + k m2 . . . 6.2.2.3
6.2.2.4 Test requirements

Loading devices shall be calibrated and care shall be taken to ensure that no
unintentional restraints on the specimen are applied by the loading systems. The
distribution and duration of the forces applied in the test shall represent those forces to
which the structure is deemed to be subjected. For short-term static test, the test load
shall be applied at a uniform rate such that the test duration shall be not less than 5 min.
Deformations shall, as a minimum, be recorded at the following times:
(a) Prior to the application of the test load.
(b) After the test load has been applied.
(c) After the removal of the test load.
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6.2.2.5 Criteria for acceptance

Criteria for acceptance shall be as follows:
(a) Acceptance for static strength.
(b) All test units shall be capable of resisting the target test load.
(c) Acceptance for serviceability.
(d) All test units shall be capable of sustaining the target test load while remaining
within the limiting serviceability value appropriate for the required performance
level and the elastic recovery (after the removal of the test load) is 95% complete.
6.2.2.6 Test report
The report of the test of each unit shall contain, in addition to the test results, a clear
statement of the conditions of testing, including the method of loading and of measuring
deflection, together with any relevant data. The report shall also contain a statement as
to whether the units tested satisfy the acceptance criteria.
6.2.2.7 Design capacity of specific products and assemblies
The design capacity (Rd) of a specific product or a specific assembly may be established
by prototype testing of that specific product or assembly. The design capacity (R d ) shall
satisfy
R
Rd min. . . . 6.2.2.7
kt
where R min. is the minimum value of the test results and k t is as given in Table 6.2.2.
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APPENDIX A
LIST OF REFERENCED DOCUMENTS
(Normative)
The following documents are referred to in this Standard:
AS
1170 Minimum design loads on structures
1170.1 Part 1: Dead and live loads and load combinations
1170.2 Part 2: Wind loads
1170.3 Part 3: Snow loads
1170.4 Part 4: Earthquake loads
1210 Pressure vessels
1391 Methods for tensile testing of metals
1449 Wrought alloy-steelsStainless and heat-resisting steel plate, sheet and
strip
4100 Steel structures
4100 Supp 1 Steel structures Commentary (Supplement to AS 4100 1998)

AS/NZS
1554 Structural steel welding
1554.1 Part 1: Welding of steel structures
1554.5 Part 5: Welding of steel structures subject to high levels of fatigue
loading
1554.6 Part 6: Welding stainless steels for structural purposes
NZS
3404 Steel structures Standard
3404.2 Part 2: Commentary to the steel structures Standard
4203 Code of practice for general structural design and design loadings for
buildings (Volume 1 Code of practice; Volume 2 Commentary)
ASTM
A167 Standard Specification for Stainless and Heat-resisting Chromium-
Nickel Steel Plate, Sheet and Strip
A176 Standard Specification for Stainless and Heat-Resisting Chromium-
Steel Plate, Sheet and Strip
A193 Standard Specification for Alloy-Steel and Stainless Steel Bolting
Materials for High-Temperature Service
A240 Standard Specification for Heat-Resisting Chromium and Chromium-
Nickel Stainless Steel Plate, Sheet and Strip for Pressure Vessels
A276 Standard Specification for Stainless Steel Bars and Shapes
A480 Standard Specification for General Requirements for Flat-Rolled
Stainless and Heat-Resisting Steel Plate, Sheet and Strip
A666 Standard Specification for Annealed or Cold-Worked Austenitic
Stainless Steel Sheet, Strip, Plate and Flat Bars
E9 Standard Test Methods of Compression Testing of Metallic Materials at
Room Temperature
E111 Standard Specification for Youngs modulus, tangent modulus and
chord modulus
F593 Standard Specification for Stainless Steel Bolts, Hex Cap Screws and
Studs
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ANSI
ANSI/AWS D1.3 Structural Welding CodeSheet Steel
ANSI/ASCE-8-90 Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Stainless Steel Structural
Members
ANSI/AWS
C1.1 Recommended Practices for Resistance Welding
EN
10088 Stainless Steels
10088-1 Part 1: List of Stainless Steels
10088-2 Part 2: Technical Delivery Conditions for Sheet/Plate and Strip for
General Purposes
10088-3 Part 3: Technical Delivery Conditions for Semi-Finished Products,
Bars, Rods and Sections for General Purposes
ENV
1993-1-1 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures
Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings
1993-1-4 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures
Part:1-4: General rulesSupplementary rules for stainless steels
ISO
3506 Mechanical properties of corrosion-resistant stainless-steel fasteners
3506-1 Part 1: Bolts, screws and studs
3506-2 Part 2: Nuts
3506-3 Part 3: Set screws and similar fasteners not under tensile stress
7089 Plain washersNormal seriesProduct grade A
7090 Plain washers, chamfordNormal seriesProduct grade A
JIS
G4305 Cold-rolled stainless steel plates, sheets and strip
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APPENDIX B
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
(Normative)
B1 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STAINLESS STEELS

The stress-strain relationships for annealed and cold-rolled stainless steels are non-linear
and anisotropic and this shall be considered in design. (See Figure B1.)
FIGURE B1 TYPICAL STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIP FOR STAINLESS STEEL
The stress-strain relationship for stainless steels can be expressed analytically by the
Ramberg-Osgood equation as follows:
n
f f
= + 0.002 . . . B1(1)
Eo fy

where
= normal strain
f = normal engineering stress
E o = initial elastic modulus
n = constant
(
log y p )
log ( f )
= . . . B1(2)
yc f pc
y = offset yield strain

= 0.002
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p = offset proportional limit strain

= 0.0001
f y = offset yield stress in compression
f pc = offset proportional limit in compression
The tangent and secant moduli to be used for design can be calculated as follows:
E t = tangent modulus for normal stress
df
=
d
f y Eo
= n -1
f . . B1(3)
f y + 0.002nE o
fy

E s = secant modulus for normal stress
f
= . . . B1(4)

Eo
=
f n -1 . . . B1(5)
1 + 0.002 E o n
fy

Gt = tangent modulus for shear stress . . . B1(6)
df v
=
d
= f yv Go
n 1
f
f yv + 0.003Go v
f yv

Gs = secant modulus for shear stress
fv
=

= Go
f n -1
1 + 0.003Go v n
f yv

Mechanical properties of cold-formed stainless steels for design calculation are given in
Tables B1(A) to B1(E).
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TABLE B1(A)
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES FOR LONGITUDINAL TENSION
304, 304L,
409 1.4003 430 S31803
316 316L
Initial elastic modulus Eo GPa 195 195 185 195 185 200
Yield stress fy MPa 205 205 205 280 275 430
RambergOsgood parameter n 7.5 7.5 11 9 8.5 5.5
Proportional limit fp MPa 140 140 155 180 195 245
Ultimate strength fu MPa 520 485 380 435 450 590
TABLE B1(B)
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES FOR LONGITUDINAL COMPRESSION
304, 304L,
409 1.4003 430 S31803
316 316L
RambergOsgood parameter n 4 4 9.5 7.5 6.5 5
TABLE B1(C)
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES FOR TRANSVERSE TENSION
304, 304L,
409 1.4003 430 S31803
316 316L
RambergOsgood parameter n 5.5 5.5 16 11.5 14 5
Ultimate strength fu MPa 520 485 380 460 450 620
TABLE B1(D)
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES FOR TRANSVERSE COMPRESSION
304, 304L,
409 1.4003 430 S31803
316 316L
RambergOsgood parameter n 7 7 16 11.5 15 5.5
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TABLE B1(E)
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES FOR SHEAR
304, 304L,
409 1.4003 430 S31803
316 316L
Initial elastic modulus G GPa 75 75 75 75 75 75
Yield stress f yv MPa 115 115 130 130 165 255
RambergOsgood parameter n 6 6 13 10 11 5.5
B2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WELDS

Many different welding processes may be used to joint stainless steels. Table B2 gives
tensile properties which can be used for mechanical design of welds made by the manual
metal arc (MMAW) welding process.
Other welding processes such as gas metal arc welding (GMAW), gas tungsten arc welding
(GTAW) and flux cored arc welding (FCAW) are frequently used with corrosion resistance
productivity.
Welding consumables for these processes are available, which give tensile strengths at least
equivalent to the tensile strengths given in Table B2.
Consult suppliers of welding consumables for design properties of weld deposits made by
these processes.
AS/NZS 1554.6 specifies methods for the selection of welding consumables, details of
welded connections, qualifications of procedures and personnel, workmanship, quality of
welds and inspections.
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TABLE B2
TENSILE PROPERTIES OF DEPOSITED WELD METAL
FOR ALL-WELD-METAL SPECIMENS COVERED ELECTRODES
FOR MANUAL METAL ARC WELDING (MMAW)
Minimum tensile strength Minimum elongation

Designation Heat treatment
MPa %
E209-XX 690 15 None
E219-XX 620 15 None
E240-XX 690 15 None
E307-XX 590 30 None

E308-XX 550 35 None
E308H-XX 550 35 None
E308L-XX 520 35 None

E309Mo-XX 550 35 None
E308MoL-XX 520 35 None
E309-XX 550 30 None

E308Nb-XX 550 30 None

E309MoL-XX 520 30 None
E310-XX 550 30 None

E310Nb-XX 550 25 None
E312-XX 660 22 None

E316-XX 520 30 None

E317-XX 550 30 None
E318-XX 550 25 None

E320-XX 550 30 None
E320LR-XX 520 30 None
E330-XX 520 25 None

E347-XX 520 30 None
(continued)
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TABLE B2 (continued)
Minimum tensile strength Minimum elongation

Designation Heat treatment
MPa %
E49 690 25 None
E383 520 30 None
E385 520 30 None
E410 450 20 (See Note 1)

E410NiMo 760 15 (See Note 2)
E430 450 20 (See Note 3)
E630 930 7 (See Note 4)

E16-8-2 550 35 None
E2209-XX 690 20 None
E2553-XX 760 15 None
NOTES:
1 Specimen shall be heated to between 840C and 870C, held for 2 h, furnace-cooled at a rate
not greater than 55 K/h to 595C and air-cooled to ambient temperature.

2 Specimen shall be heated to between 595C and 620C, held for 1 h, and air-cooled to
ambient temperature.
3 Specimen shall be heated to between 760C and 790C, held for 2 h, furnace-cooled at a rate
not greater than 55 K/h to 55C and air-cooled to ambient temperature.
4 Specimen shall be heated to between 1025C and 1050C, held for 1 h, air-cooled to less
than 15C, and then precipitation-hardened at 610C to 630C, held for 4 h, and air-cooled
to ambient temperature.
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APPENDIX C
STAINLESS STEEL PROPERTIES
(Informative)
C1 INTRODUCTION
This Appendix gives general guidance only on the use of stainless steels in structures.
Specialist advice should always be obtained in relation to specific applications to ensure
that all relevant factors have been properly accounted for.
Figure C1 shows schematically the processes that are used to produce cold-formed
structural members. The steel thickness in these members is generally limited by the
capacity of cold-forming equipment to about 6 mm.
NOTE: BA (2R) finish designations are in accordance with ASTM A480/AS1449, with EN 10088 designation
shown in parentheses.
FIGURE C1 PRODUCTION PROCESSES AND SURFACE FINISHES

FOR COLD-FORMED STAINLESS STEEL STRUCTURES
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C2 STAINLESS STEEL GRADES

C2.1 Introduction
There are many grades of stainless steel, as defined in various national and international
standards. Many of these steels are effectively equivalents, the slight differences in
specification between different specifying authorities generally being negligible.
Stainless steels can be classified into five groups in accordance with their microstructure,
which results primarily from their chemical composition. Each group has different
properties, particularly in respect of strength, corrosion resistance and ease of fabrication.
FIGURE C2 CLASSIFICATION OF STAINLESS STEELS

BY THEIR CHROMIUM AND NICKEL CONTENT
C2.2 Classification of stainless steels by microstructures

The five groups can be summarized as follows:
(a) Austenitic stainless steels These are the most commonly used stainless steels. They
have an austenitic microstructure at room temperature, stabilized by relatively high
amounts of nickel (greater than 7%). Cast austenitic stainless steels may contain
significant amount of ferrite. Austenitic stainless steels have high ductility, are easily
formed, are readily weldable, and offer good corrosion resistance. Their strengths are
reasonable when compared to carbon steel, but they can only be hardened, i.e. made
stronger, by cold-working, not by heat treatment. Considerable strength levels can be
achieved in austenitic stainless steels by cold working. Austenitic stainless steels are
available in all product forms. Steels of this group are the most common in structures,
particularly grades 304 and 316 and their low carbon variants, 304L and 316L. These
steels are based on 18% chromium and 8% nickel, 316 being slightly leaner in
chromium but with an addition of 2% molybdenum to give higher resistance to
localized corrosion.
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The low carbon L variants of grades 304 and 316 contain a maximum of 0.03%
carbon. This greatly reduces their susceptibility to sensitization by the heat of
welding (see Paragraph C6.3.5). The use of L grades generally gives no significant
advantage for section thicknesses less than about 6 mm.
(b) Ferritic stainless steels The ferritic stainless steels contain relatively little nickel
and have a ferritic microstructure, as do plain carbon and carbon manganese steels.
They are readily available in flat rolled and cast forms. Strength in the annealed
condition is similar to austenitic grades, but ductility, formability and weldability are
not as good as in the austenitic steels. Although generally not as corrosion resistant as
the austenitic grades, their resistance to stress corrosion cracking is superior. As with
austenitic grades, they can be hardened by cold working, not by heat treatment, but
the strength achieved is much less than for the austenitic grades. It is generally
difficult to produce reliable structural welds in ferritic stainless steels. An exception
are a group of corrosion resistant steels containing ~12% chromium, conforming to
1.4003 (EN 10088), which are widely used in mildly corrosive environments for non-
decorative applications in machinery and rail wagons for minerals; however,
specialist assessment of suitability for specific application and fabrication processes
is still required.
(c) Martensitic stainless steels These steels can be hardened by heat treatment. They are
readily available in flat rolled and cast forms. Great strengths can be achieved.
Toughness may not be adequate for structural application and should be considered in
design. They are not normally used structurally in welded fabrication. They are used
for bolts, connecting nodes and as wear components.
(d) Duplex (austenitic-ferritic) stainless steels These steels have a mixed microstructure
of austenite and ferrite, and combine some of the best properties of the austenitic and
ferritic groups. They are readily available in flat rolled and cast forms. Compared to
the austenitic group, they have higher mechanical strengths, slightly inferior
weldability, lower formability and similar or higher corrosion resistance especially
with respect to stress corrosion cracking. They can be hardened by cold-working.
Several of the grades in this group have higher alloy content and hence better
corrosion resistance than the most common austenitic grades, 304 and 316. The most
common duplex grade in structures is UNS S31803 (1.4462 in EN 10088), which
contains 22% chromium, 5% nickel and 3% molybdenum.
(e) Precipitation hardening stainless steels These offer the highest strengths, obtained
by suitable heat treatments, which precipitate second phase particles which increase
strength. They are readily available in cast rolls and vast forms. Very high strength
levels, with yield stress greater than 1000 MPa, may be obtained in some grades.
Precipitation hardening stainless steels may have an austenitic or ferritic matrix. They
are not normally used in welded fabrications, as they require heat treatment and
surface finishing after welding. The most common grade of precipitation hardening
stainless steel is UNS S17400, also known as grade 630.
Further information on the various groups and types of stainless steels may be found in
standard texts (e.g. Ref. 1 given in Paragraph C9). Table C1 gives the availability of
stainless steel products by grade.
C2.3 Effect of product form
This Appendix applies mainly to the wrought forms of the selected alloys. Cast forms
generally have corrosion resistance equivalent to the wrought forms, but several differences
exist. One of the more important is that the microstructure of cast austenitic stainless steels
generally contains more ferrite than the wrought form. This facilitates the casting process
and weld repair, and also increases the resistance to stress corrosion cracking
(see Paragraph C7.3.7). Cast steels also differ in mechanical properties, physical properties
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and chemical composition. Because of the formation of larger grain sizes and other
differences in microstructure, mechanical properties of cast steels exhibit a wider range and
may be inferior to wrought steels. Cast stainless steels are often manufactured for a specific
application, and properties may vary to suit the application. Note that Standards are
available for cast stainless steels and should be referred to.
TABLE C1
AVAILABILITY OF STAINLESS STEEL PRODUCTS BY GRADE
Plate, sheet and coil Circular and Hot-rolled

Rod and Welded
Grade rectangular hollow angles and Fasteners
Hot-rolled Cold-rolled bars tubes
sections shapes
304
304L
310
316
316L
409
1.4003
430
S31803
C3 EFFECT OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS IN STAINLESS STEELS

Chromium is the alloying element by which stainless steels are defined, a minimum of
about 10.5% chromium is required. The principal function of chromium is to confer
corrosion and high temperature oxidation resistance; both properties arise from the strong
affinity of chromium with oxygen. When in contact with aqueous media, chromium
contributes to the development of a chromium rich passive layer on the surface. In high
temperature environments, chromium contributes to the formation of a protective, slow
growing chromium-rich oxide layer on the surface.
Nickel is added to stainless steels mainly to counteract the tendency of chromium to
stabilize the ferritic crystal structure. Nickel promotes the formation of the more ductile and
weldable austenitic crystal microstructure, and about 8% of nickel is required to ensure a
fully austenitic microstructure in the most common stainless steels, which contain about
18% chromium. Higher levels of nickel may be added to promote resistance to stress
corrosion cracking.
Molybdenum is added in small amounts (up to about 7%) to stainless steels principally to
improve the resistance to corrosion. It is particularly effective in improving resistance to
pitting and crevice corrosion. Molybdenum also increases the high temperature strength of
austenitic grades, and increases room temperature strength and tempering resistance of
martensitic grades.
Carbon is always present in stainless steels. The carbon content is controlled for an
optimum balance of strength to which it contributes, and corrosion resistance and
weldability, which it may impair if present at excessive levels. Some grades intended for
service at high temperatures or for high strength or wear resistance may have a minimum
level of carbon.
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Nitrogen behaves in a similar way to carbon in stainless steels, although the same content of
nitrogen is less damaging than carbon to corrosion resistance and weldability.
Elements such as titanium, niobium and tantalum may be added, particularly to the
austenitic and ferritic grades, to reduce susceptibility to sensitization and hence
intergranular corrosion particularly in the welded condition. This approach to the
improvement of corrosion properties has largely been superseded in the austenitic grades by
limitation of the carbon content to a maximum of 0.03%. This can be readily achieved by
modern steelmaking equipment, and is sufficiently low to avoid sensitization even in
welded heavy sections of the austenitic grades.
Elements such as sulphur, selenium and calcium may be added to improve machinability,
although this may be at the expense of corrosion and oxidation resistance. The deleterious
effect of calcium is less than that of sulphur.
C4 SURFACE FINISH
In many applications, surface finish and appearance are important. Manufacturers offer a
range of standard finishes, from mill finish through dull finishes to bright polish. They may
also offer proprietary textured finishes. Mill finishes result from the operations used to
produce the product form, while decorative finishes are applied afterwards. Mill finishes are
often difficult to repair after damage or fabrication, while decorative finishes can generally
be matched satisfactorily.
The most common mill and decorative finishes on cold-formed structural sections are 2B
and No. 4 respectively. 2B finish results from the sequence of operations used to produce
the section (see Figure C1). No. 4 is produced by a further surface finishing operation,
using abrasive grit with a particle size of about 120 to 150 grade. It may be applied either to
the flat product used to manufacture cold-formed sections, or to the cold-formed sections.
It should be noted that although the various finishes are standardized, variability in
processing introduces differences in appearance between manufacturers and even within a
single producer. Bright finishes are frequently used in architectural applications and it
should be noted that bright finishes will exaggerate any out-of-flatness of the material,
particularly on panel surfaces. Rigidized, embossed, textured, patterned, or profiled sheets
with a rigid supporting frame will alleviate this tendency.
Stainless steel may also be given colour, either chemically, or by painting.
Consult stainless steel suppliers for the full range of finishes available.
C5 MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR AND DESIGN VALUE OF PROPERTIES

C5.1 Basic stress-strain behaviour
The stress-strain behaviour of stainless steels differ from that of carbon steels, such as
grade 300 structural steel, in a number of respects (see Figure C3).
C5.1.1 Non-linearity
The most important difference between stainless and carbon steels is in the shape of the
stress-strain curve. Carbon steel typically exhibits linear elastic behaviour up to the yield
stress and a plateau before strain hardening is encountered, while stainless steel has a more
rounded response with no well-defined yield stress (see Figure B1 of Appendix B).
Therefore, stainless steel yield stresses are generally quoted as a proof strength defined
for a particular offset permanent strain, typically 0.2% strain, as shown in Figure B1.
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NOTE: Structural steel strain hardens at larger strains than show.
FIGURE C3 TYPICAL INITIAL STRESS-STRAIN CURVES FOR STAINLESS STEELS

AND GRADE 300 STRUCTURAL STEEL (FOR LONGITUDINAL TENSION)
C5.1.2 Non-symmetry of tensile and compressive behaviour

Stainless steel may exhibit quite different stress-strain behaviour in tension and
compression.
This is especially the case for austenitic grades, where the compressive yield stress is often
substantially lower than the tensile yield stress, particularly in the temper-rolled condition.
C5.1.3 Anisotropy
Stainless steel often has different stress-strain behaviour for test coupons aligned parallel
and transversely to the rolling direction; i.e. it may be anisotropic. For the austenitic grades
transverse tensile tests tend to be weaker than longitudinal tests. This is recognized by
product codes, where transverse coupons are normally specified for proving tests; however,
for duplex grades the transverse tensile strength is greater than the longitudinal strength (by
about 5%).
Thus, when non-linearity, non-symmetry and anisotropy are considered, material behaviour
is characterized by four stress-strain curves. This leads to relatively complex design. This
subject is covered in detail in Appendix B.
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C5.2 Factors affecting stress-strain behaviour

There are factors that can change the form of the four basic curves for any given grade of
stainless steel. These factors are to some extent interdependent and include the following:
(a) Cold working Strength is increased by cold working, such as during cold-forming
operations including roller levelling/flattening. The reduction in ductility associated
with the increase in strength is normally unimportant as the initial ductility is high,
especially in the austenitic stainless steels. All stainless steel products should meet
minimum ductility requirements, as specified in product Standards.
The 0.2% proof strength is typically increased by about 50% in cold-formed corners
of cross-sections. However, the effect is localized and the increase in member
capacity is dependent on the location of the corners within the section; e.g. in a beam
little benefit would be obtained for corners close to the neutral axis. The strength
enhancement more than offsets any effect due to thinning of the material at cold-
worked corners.
Cold working, which is normally applied unidirectionally, affects the four basic
curves to different extents, though all curves are enhanced.
Subsequent welding of the member will partially anneal the heat-affected zone,
reducing the strength increase arising from cold working. Hence, if members are to be
welded, annealed or heat treated, the increase in strength resulting from cold-forming
can only be used if tests of the structural elements are conducted in accordance with
Section 6.
(b) Strain-rate sensitivity, creep and cyclic stressing Strain-rate sensitivity is more
pronounced in stainless steels than in carbon steels; that is, a proportionally greater
strength can be realized at fast strain rates for stainless steel than for carbon steel.
Conversely, the effects of strength reduction at very low loading rates, including the
effects of room temperature creep under static loading, should be recognized.
For strain rates differing by two orders of magnitude, over the range used in tensile
coupon testing, there is no evidence that the relationship between the four basic
curves is altered.
Since strength limit states normally correspond to short-term overload conditions,
creep need only be considered for high levels of long-term serviceability loads. Creep
may be manifested by increased beam deflection. If long-term deflection is an issue,
it is tentatively recommended to restrict the long-term serviceability stresses to
0.6 0.2 , where 0.2 is the actual 0.2% proof stress of the material. For very long-term,
say 100 years, an even lower figure may be applicable, say 0.5 0.2 .
At high levels of cyclic stressing, stainless steel may exhibit ratcheting, with the
strain incrementing, though at a decreasing rate, on each cycle. This phenomenon will
only rarely be a consideration for structural applications and to a large extent it is
accounted for in the partial factors of safety.
(c) Effects of temperature The austenitic grades are used for cryogenic applications,
where they remain tough and ductile. They also retain higher strengths than carbon
steel at elevated temperatures; however, the design of structures subject to long-term
exposure at cryogenic or elevated temperatures is outside the scope of this Standard.
Nevertheless, the short-term properties may be of importance, for instance when
considering fire resistance. For further information on the design of fire, see
Appendix G.
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C6 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Typical room temperature physical properties of some grades in the annealed condition are
given in Table C2. Physical properties may vary slightly with product form and size but
such variations are usually not of critical importance to the application.
In structures, an important physical property is the coefficient of linear expansion (CLE).
The CLE of austenitic grades is considerably higher than that for carbon steel
(12 10 6/ 0 C). The effects of differential thermal expansion should be considered in design
and fabrication.
The austenitic grades are usually considered non-magnetic, but may show low levels of
ferromagnetism (magnetic susceptibility greater than or equal to 1.003) due to the presence
of delta ferrite or martensite. The former is usually present in castings and weld metals, the
latter may be induced by cold work, such as levelling or forming strains, or at sheared
edges. Where non-magnetic properties are important, care should be exercised in selecting
appropriate grades and welding consumables, or a post-weld heat treatment applied. It is
recommended to obtain further advice for non-magnetic applications.
TABLE C2
TYPICAL ROOM TEMPERATURE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOME

STAINLESS STEELS IN THE ANNEALED CONDITION
Mean coefficient of linear Thermal Specific Electrical

Density
Grade UNS No expansion conductivity heat resistivity
kg/m3 10 6 / oC W/m. oK J/kg.oK .m

n
0 100 o C 0 315 o C 0 540 o C 100 o C 500 o C
303 S30300 8000 17.2 17.8 18.4 16.2 21.5 500 720
304 S30400 8000 17.2 17.8 18.4 16.2 21.5 500 720
304L S30403 8000 17.2 17.8 18.4 16.2 21.5 500 720
310 S31000 8000 15.9 16.2 17.0 14.2 18.7 500 780
316 S31600 8000 15.9 16.2 17.5 16.2 21.5 500 740
316L S31603 8000 15.9 16.2 17.5 16.2 21.5 500 740
321 S32100 8000 16.6 17.2 18.6 16.1 22.2 500 720
409 S40900 7800 11.7 12.0 12.4 24.9 460
1.4003 S41003 7800 10.8 11.3 12.0 31.0 32.0 480 570
410 S41000 7800 9.9 11.4 11.6 24.9 28.7 460 570
430 S43000 7800 10.4 11.0 11.4 26.1 26.3 460 600
S31803 7800 13.7 14.7 19.0 480
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C7 DURABILITY CORROSION
C7.1 Introduction
In most stainless steel structural applications, corrosion resistance is of primary importance,
for appearance, minimal maintenance or long-term durability. Hence, corrosion resistance is
often the main consideration in choosing a grade. Because stainless steels are usually used
in corrosion conditions that are challenging, appropriate design of the structure may be
required, to minimize or eradicate corrosion. If careful consideration is given to this aspect
of design, in addition to the mechanical considerations required for other materials, long
and economic lives can be achieved, often in service conditions that would give limited life
or more expensive maintenance, replacement or repair requirements for other materials.
Stainless steels are generally very corrosion resistant and will perform satisfactorily in most
environments. The limit of corrosion resistance of a given stainless steel depends on a
number of factors but in general the higher the alloy content, particularly chromium and
molybdenum, the higher the resistance, and cost.
Careful selection of the appropriate grade for a given application is, therefore, of economic
importance. The maintenance and repair schedules should also be resolved at the design
stage.
As with all metals, stainless steel can be subject to corrosion under specific conditions and
details of the major individual types of corrosion are given in the following section. It
should be emphasized that the presence of moisture, including that due to condensation, is
necessary for corrosion to occur. For atmospheric corrosion, the time of wetness is a critical
variable for the extent of corrosion experienced. There is a critical relative humidity of the
atmosphere, below which condensation will not form on the metal surface, and hence
corrosion cannot take place. The actual critical relative humidity will change, depending on
the surface condition of the metal. The presence of dust particles and other contamination
on the surface will reduce the critical relative humidity, usually to about 50 to 70%.
In some cases, the corrosion mechanism itself may not be as significant as consequences
arising from it. For example, corrosion pitting would directly limit the life of pipework, but
may not be a problem in a structure unless the pits also affect fatigue life. Where stainless
steels are used for their appearance, minor corrosion can produce stains, which constitute
failure in a structure of unimpaired integrity.
The existence of corrosion mechanisms does not imply that the stainless steels are unduly
restricted in use, or that they are delicate materials, but simply that these sophisticated
materials demand intelligent use in order to avoid certain well-known conditions, and to get
the most out of their very considerable advantages. In nearly all cases, grade selection and
the design of the structure are the keys to good performance, and appropriate selection and
features will eradicate or minimize corrosion. With intelligent use, stainless steels can give
long and economic lives, often in service conditions that would give limited life or more
expensive maintenance and repair requirements for other materials.
C7.2 Mechanism of corrosion resistance
The corrosion resistance of stainless steels results from a passive surface film, which, with
adequate access to oxygen or oxidizing agents, is self-healing when damaged. This film is
rich in chromium, and the corrosion resistance is strongly related to the chromium content
of the steel. The addition of nickel and other alloying elements can substantially enhance
the protection offered by the film. In particular, a few percent of molybdenum improves the
pitting resistance (see Paragraph C7.3.3) of the steel.
Corrosion initiates when the passive film is damaged, by electro-chemical attack or by
mechanical damage. Corrosion resistance is promoted by conditions that facilitate repair of
the passive film,
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C7.3 Types of corrosion and performance of steel grades

C7.3.1 General (uniform) corrosion
The passive chromium-rich surface film makes general corrosion much less severe in
stainless steels than for carbon steels. General corrosion on stainless steels normally takes
the form of surface staining rather than bulk substrate dissolution.
This form of corrosion is not a problem for most austenitic and duplex grades in onshore
structural applications and for grades 316 and duplex S31803 in marine applications.
Ferritic grades should not be used in environments where they can become wet unless they
are protected by painting, or surface staining can be tolerated.
Where stainless steel is used aesthetically in exposed locations, routine maintenance by
washing is normally sufficient to retain the surface finish.
Stainless steels are resistant to many chemicals; they are often used for their containment.
For these applications, reference should be made to tables in manufacturers literature, or
the advice of a competent corrosion engineer should be sought (see Paragraph C8).
C7.3.2 Abrasion corrosion
Where there is flow of abrasive particles across a stainless steel surface, the rate of removal
of the passive film may exceeds its re-formation. Erosion-corrosion results, and loss rates of
the steel can be relatively high. However, the corrosion resistance and strength of stainless
steels are higher than many other materials, and they are especially useful where problems
have been encountered with abrasion corrosion of other materials.
C7.3.3 Pitting corrosion
Pitting corrosion occurs as localized pits. It results from local breakdown of the passive
layer, normally by chloride ions, although the other halides, sulphates and other anions can
have a similar effect.
Since the chloride ion is by far the most common cause of pitting, coastal and marine
environments are rather aggressive. Besides the chloride content, the probability of a
particular medium causing pitting depends on factors such as the temperature, acidity or
alkalinity and the presence of the oxidizing agents needed to maintain the passive film. In
most structural applications, the extent of pitting is likely to be only superficial and
reduction in section negligible.
Stainless steels containing molybdenum have higher resistance to this form of corrosion
and, where pitting cannot be tolerated, are recommended for aggressive marine, coastal, and
industrial areas.
The pitting resistance of a stainless steel is dependent on its chemical composition.
Chromium, molybdenum and nitrogen all enhance the resistance to pitting.
An approximate measure of pitting resistance is given by the pitting index or pitting
resistance equivalent (PRE) defined as follows:
(a) PRE = wt% Cr + 3.3(wt% Mo) + 30(wt% N) for austenitic stainless steels.
(b) PRE = wt% Cr + 3.3(wt% Mo) + 16(wt% N) for duplex stainless steels.
The PRE of a stainless steel is a useful guide to its ranking with other stainless steels, but
has no absolute significance.
The 12% chromium ferritic steels, and the austenitic grades that do not contain
molybdenum have lower PRE and are not suitable for architectural applications in marine
environments except for internal structural components effectively shielded from sea spray
and mist. These grades may also show unacceptable levels of pitting in severe industrial
atmospheres. Austenitic grades containing molybdenum (316, 316L) or duplex grades are
preferred.
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C7.3.4 Crevice corrosion

Crevice corrosion occurs in the same environments as pitting corrosion. Corrosion initiates
more easily in a crevice than on a free surface because the diffusion of oxidants necessary
for maintaining the passive film is restricted. The severity of a crevice is greatly dependent
on its geometry; the narrower the crevice, the more severe the restriction of diffusion of
oxidants. Corrosion conditions are more severe, and chlorides may concentrate in the
crevice.
Crevices may result from a metal to metal joint, a gasket, biofouling, deposits and surface
damage such as deep scratches. Every effort should be made to eliminate crevices, although
it is often not possible to eliminate them entirely. In particular, intermittent or partial
penetration welds should be avoided.
There are similar equations to those for pitting corrosion relating crevice corrosion
resistance to the contents of the alloying elements chromium, molybdenum and nitrogen,
and the ranking of grades for resistance to crevice corrosion is similar to pitting corrosion.
C7.3.5 Intergranular corrosion (sensitization)
Where parts of the microstructure are depleted of chromium, the protective passive layer
can prove ineffective. This can occur when precipitates form, usually in the range of
sensitization temperatures 450 to 850o C, which could be due to the heat of welding, or due
to service in that temperature range.
Sensitization depends on carbon content and time, and occurs as a result of diffusion of
chromium atoms to chromium carbide precipitate particles. These form preferentially at
grain boundaries, and in the early stages of formation the grain boundaries are surrounded
by a layer of material of lower chromium content. On exposure to corrosive environments,
these chromium-depleted zones may suffer preferential attack, and intergranular corrosion
results.
Intergranular corrosion has been avoided by using steels containing small additions of
elements which are stronger carbide formers than chromium, preventing the formation of
chromium carbides. Titanium, niobium and tantalum have been commonly used. This
approach may still be used for steels that are used in the sensitization temperature range;
however, with modern steel making plant, carbon levels in austenitic stainless steels are
generally low, 0.05% or less, and sensitization due to welding is rarely encountered when
proper advice from the steel supplier is obtained and followed.
The low carbon L grade versions of austenitic stainless steels are limited to 0.03% carbon
maximum, and are even less susceptible to sensitization. They are used where plate
thicknesses of about 6 mm or greater give thermal conditions during welding, which induce
sensitization.
Prolonged holding times at elevated temperatures can eventually lead to sensitization in L
grades. Thus, these grades should not be used continuously at temperatures greater than
about 425C if full corrosion resistance is to be retained.
Intergranular corrosion (sensitizaton) is a complex subject, and a specialists advice
should be sought regarding stabilization and sensitization issues, as they affect both
austenitic and non-austenitic stainless steels.
C7.3.6 Galvanic corrosion
When two dissimilar metals are in contact and are connected by an electrolyte, i.e. an
electrically conducting liquid such as water, rain or condensation, a current flows from the
anodic metal to the cathodic or nobler metal through the electrolyte. As a result, the less
noble metal corrodes.
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This form of corrosion may occur when stainless steel is joined to carbon or low alloy
steels. It may also occur, though to a much smaller degree, between different types of
stainless steel. For welded joints, it is important to select welding consumables to give weld
metal that is at least as noble as the parent material. In corrosive environments such as
heavy industrial atmospheres, marine atmospheres, and where immersion in brackish or sea
water may occur, martensitic and ferritic bolts should be avoided for joining austenitic
stainless steels unless suitably insulated.
Galvanic corrosion need not be a problem with stainless steels, though sometimes its
prevention can require precautions which at first sight might seem surprising. Galvanic
corrosion can be avoided by preventing current flow by
(a) insulating dissimilar metals, i.e. breaking the metallic path; or
(b) preventing electrolyte bridging, i.e. breaking the electrolytic path by paint or other
coating.
The risk of corrosion attack is greatest if the area of the more noble metal, e.g. stainless
steel, is large compared with the area of the less noble metal, e.g. carbon steel. Special
attention should be paid to the use of paints or other coatings on the carbon steel. If there
are any small pores or pinholes in the coating, the small area of bare carbon steel will
provide a very large cathode/anode area ratio, and severe pitting of the carbon steel may
occur. This will be most severe under immersed conditions. For this reason, it is preferable
to paint the stainless steel; any pores will lead to small area ratios. In practice, it is normal
to paint the carbon steel for protection from general corrosion, and to continue the paint
over the weld metal and a strip of stainless steel to prevent galvanic corrosion.
In some industries, e.g. petrochemical industries, all parts of the structure may need to be
earthed to inhibit spark formation. Necessarily, there can be no electrical isolation at the
earthing connection. If galvanic corrosion is a potential problem, i.e. if long periods of
wetness or immersion are envisaged, consideration may be given to special thickening of
the carbon steel to allow for galvanic corrosion in the vicinity of the earthing connection.
Solutions containing dissolved copper salts, such as copper corrosion products, should not
be allowed to contact stainless steel, as they will tend to auto-plate copper onto the surface,
occluding the self-repair of the passive film.
C7.3.7 Stress corrosion cracking
Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) results from the joint action of tensile stresses in the steel
and a specific corrosive environment, in conditions where neither singly would cause
cracking. The stresses may be applied or they may be internal or residual, and they need not
be high in relation to the proof stress. Internal stresses may result from cold working,
welding or thermal gradients in service. They may also arise from the wedging action of
corrosion products growing in a crack.
SCC is a delayed failure process, in which cracking initiates after an incubation time.
Propagation of the cracks is fast. SCC is rarely encountered at room temperature for
austenitic stainless steels, but may occur at temperatures above about 60 o C in environments
having high chloride concentrations. Nevertheless, SCC has been known to occur at
temperatures below 60 o C, e.g. in swimming pool atmospheres. SCC can be caused by
concentration due to evaporation of solutions with low chloride concentrations, which,
hence, may occur at the liquid/air interface; however, SCC is unlikely to be significant in
many structural applications.
In most media, the resistance to SCC of duplex stainless steels is superior to austenitic
stainless steels of about the same alloy content, e.g. expressed as PRE. This relative
immunity is due to the mixture of austenite and ferrite in the microstructure. Ferrite is much
less susceptible to SCC than austenite. Careful selection of consumables and welding
procedures is needed to ensure the appropriate microstructural mix in the weld metal for
retention of SCC resistance.
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Shot peening, which imparts residual compressive stresses in the surface layer of the steel,
is beneficial in reducing or preventing SCC. Clearly, any subsequent process that relieves
these residual compressive surface stresses will remove the benefit. Note that shot-
containing iron or steel should be avoided, to prevent surface contamination and subsequent
corrosion of the stainless steel.
Resistance to SCC is of particular interest in the selection of high-strength stainless steels
for fasteners. SCC should be considered when quench-hardened martensitic stainless steels
or precipitation-hardening stainless steels are used in marine or industrial locations in
which chlorides are present. The martensitic steels are liable to stress corrosion failure in a
wide variety of corrosive media if heat treated to strengths greater than about 1050 MPa.
Below this strength level, they are very resistant to cracking.
Ferritic stainless steels have good resistance to stress corrosion cracking but are not
immune.
C7.3.8 Effect of welding on corrosion resistance
Welding and other fabrication processes can have adverse effects on the corrosion
resistance of stainless steels, through mechanisms such as pitting, sensitization, galvanic
action, stress corrosion cracking and the like. Specialist advice should be sought regarding
the effects of fabrication processes on corrosion resistance for specific applications.
C7.4 Corrosion in selected environments

C7.4.1 Air
The effects of atmospheres on stainless steels vary. Rural atmospheres, uncontaminated by
industrial fumes or coastal salt, are very mildly corrosive to stainless steels, even in areas of
high humidity. Industrial and marine atmospheres are considerably more severe. Ambient
temperatures also have a very strong effect. Table C3 gives the most common structural
grades of stainless steel, 304(L), 316(L) and S31803, used in atmospheric service
environments.
The most common causes of atmospheric corrosion are particles of metallic iron or steel
contamination, arising from fabrication and transport operations, and chlorides originating
from the sea, from industrial processes or from calcium chloride in cement. Deposited
particles, although inert, may absorb weak acid solutions of sulfur dioxide from the
atmosphere, which may locally break down the passive film, or may occlude the surface,
preventing self-repair of the passive layer.
The general appearance of exposed stainless steel is affected by surface finish, the smoother
the better, and whether or not regular washing down is carried out, either intentionally or by
rain.
It is commonly assumed that stainless steels will not corrode in atmospheric conditions, and
the occurrence of corrosion is taken to indicate imminent failure; however, the general
atmospheric corrosion rates of the 18% chromium grades are at least one thousand times
slower than for carbon steels, so the useful properties of the stainless are maintained for an
extended period, albeit with an impaired appearance. Even in aggressive marine and
industrial conditions, where pitting corrosion of stainless steels but not of carbon steels
takes place, the life of membranes (roofs, gutters) of stainless steel is several times that of
carbon steel of the same thickness.
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TABLE C3
A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO SELECTING GRADES OF STAINLESS STEEL
Location Rural Urban Industrial Seaside

Grade I L M H I L M H I L M H I L M H
430 O O X X X X X X X X X
304(L) O O O O O O O O O
316(L) O O O O O O O O O O O O O
S31803 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O
NOTES:
1 I: Indoors.
2 L: Least corrosive conditions within each location (low temperature, low humidity).
3 M: Medium, typical of each location.
4 H: Highly corrosive conditions within each location (high temperature, high humidity, air pollution).
5 O: Suitable.
6 : Unsuitable; however, usable if a smooth surface finish material is used and washed frequently.
7 X: Unsuitable.
C7.4.2 Sea water

Sea water, including brackish water, contains high levels of chloride and may be very
corrosive. In particular, pitting corrosion of grade 304(L) may occur under particles
deposited in pipes, which obstruct the maintenance of the passive surface layer. This may
occur in stagnant conditions, or when stream velocities are below about 1.5 m/s.
Grades 304(L) and 316(L) can also suffer attack at crevices, whether resulting from design
details or from fouling organisms such as barnacles.
Satisfactory performance may be obtained from a grade of lesser resistance, for example, by
draining a pipeline while not operating.
Salt spray may be more aggressive than immersion, as high chloride concentrations may
develop by evaporation.
Since sea water is highly conductive, galvanic corrosion should be considered if stainless
steel is used with other metals in sea water.
C7.4.3 Other waters
The austenitic stainless steels usually perform satisfactorily in distilled, potable or boiled
water. Where acidity is high 316(L) may be required, otherwise 304(L) is usually sufficient.
316(L) may also be more suitable where there are minor amounts of chloride present, to
avoid possible pitting and crevice corrosion problems. River water needs special
consideration; biological and microbiological activity can cause pitting in austenitic
stainless steels within a comparatively short time, particularly where anaerobic bacteria
metabolize sulfur species to produce the reducing sulfuric and sulfurous acids.
The possibility of erosion-corrosion should be considered for waters containing abrasive
particles.
C7.4.4 Chemical environments
The range of application of stainless steel in chemical environments is wide and it is not
appropriate to grade selection in this Standard. The advice of a specialist corrosion engineer
should be sought.
Charts published by manufacturers showing results of corrosion tests in various chemicals
should be used with caution. Although giving a guide to the resistance of a particular grade,
service conditions such as temperatures, pressures, concentrations, and the like, vary and
will generally differ from the test conditions. Impurities, temperature fluctuations and the
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degree of aeration can have a marked effect on results. It is also essential to consider all
parts of the operational cycle, including cleaning practices and downtimes in selecting
grades for severe corrosion service.
C7.5 Design for corrosion control
Careful attention to detailing is also important for realizing the full serviceability of
stainless steels. Anti-corrosion requirements should be considered in planning and in
design.
The following check list should be considered:
(a) Avoid dirt entrapment by (see Figure C4)
(i) orienting angle and channel profiles to minimize dirt retention;
(ii) providing drainage holes, sufficiently large to prevent blockages;
(iii) avoiding horizontal surfaces;
(iv) specifying a small slope on nominally horizontal gusset stiffeners;
(v) using tubular and bar sections;
(vi) sealing tubes with dry gas or air where harmful condensates may form; and
(vii) specifying smooth finishes.
(b) Avoid crevices by (see Figure C4)

(i) using welded rather than bolted connections;
(ii) using full penetration welds;
(iii) using closing welds or mastic fillers;
(iv) dressing/profiling welds to a smooth finish; and
(v) preventing biofouling.
(c) Reduce the likelihood of stress corrosion cracking in those specific environments
(where it could occur) by
(i) minimizing fabrication stresses by careful choice of welding sequence; and
(ii) inducing compressive surface stresses by shot or bead peening (avoiding the
use of iron/steel shot).
(d) Reduce likelihood of pitting by
(i) removing weld spatter and associated surface oxide;
(ii) pickling welds to remove high temperature oxides by using a pickling bath or
paste, containing a mixture of nitric and hydrofluoric acids;
NOTE: Welds that are not cleaned up will have inferior corrosion resistance.
(iii) avoiding pick-up of carbon steel particles (e.g. use workshop areas and tools
dedicated to stainless steel, protect from carbon steel lifting gear, jigs and
fixtures); and
(iv) following a suitable surface maintenance/cleaning program.
(e) Reduce the likelihood of galvanic corrosion by (see Figure C5)
(i) electrically insulating unlike metals from each other;
(ii) using paints appropriatelythe more active metal and the joint with the more
noble metal should be painted;
(iii) minimizing periods of wetness; and
(iv) using metals that are close to each other in electrical potential.
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Not all items on the check list will give the best detail from a structural strength point of
view, and neither are the items intended to be applied to all environments. In particular, in
environments of low corrosivity or where regular maintenance is carried out, many will not
be required.
FIGURE C4 DESIGN DETAILS TO AVOID DIRT ENTRAPMENT AND CREVICES
NOTE: The insulating material chosen for the washer, bush and gasket should be structurally adequate to carry
the design loads and should be non-porous.
FIGURE C5 DESIGN DETAILS TO AVOID GALVANIC CORROSION

AT BOLTED CONNECTIONS
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C8 GRADE SELECTION
C8.1 Introduction
The selection of the correct grade of stainless steel should take into account the
environment of the application, the fabrication route, surface finish and the maintenance of
the structure. The maintenance is usually minimal, and no more onerous than for other
metals in decorative applications; merely washing down the stainless steel, even naturally
by rain, will markedly assist in extending the service life.
The first step is to characterize the service environment, including reasonably anticipated
deviations from the main design conditions. In categorizing atmospheric environments,
special attention should be given to highly localized conditions such as proximity to
chimneys venting corrosive fumes. Possible future developments or change of use should
also be considered. The surface condition of the steel and the temperature, and the
anticipated stress, could also be important parameters. Candidate grades can then be chosen
to give satisfactory corrosion resistance in the environment.
The selection process should consider which possible forms of corrosion might be
significant in the operating environment in accordance with Paragraph C6, which outlines
the broad principles underlying the corrosion of stainless steels, and indicates conditions
where the use of stainless steels should be free of undue risk and complication. It is also
intended to illustrate general points of good practice, as well as the circumstances where
stainless steels may have to be used with caution. In these latter conditions, specialist
advice should be sought. In many cases, the steels can still be successfully used.
The suitability of grades is best evaluated from experience of stainless steels in similar
applications and environments, and scrutiny of structures on neighbouring sites is
warranted.
Caution should be exercised when considering the use of free-machining stainless steels
for fasteners. The addition of sulfur in the composition of these steels, commonly
designated 303 in the austenitic class, reduces their corrosion resistance, especially in
industrial and marine environments. This applies particularly to fasteners specified in
ISO 3506, grade A1 materials (see Appendix D).
C8.2 Grade selection
There are many grades of stainless steel. Paragraphs C8.2.1 to C8.2.8 refer to some of the
more common grades, which are readily available in some product forms, particularly the
flat products from which cold-formed products are usually made. Further information on
other grades is available from the references listed in Paragraph C9, or from steel suppliers.
Because of the range of factors that can affect grade selection, specialist advice should
always be obtained for specific applications and fabrication processes.
C8.2.1 Ferritic grade 409
Ferritic grade 409 is suitable for use in mildly corrosive environments, where some staining
and thickness loss due to corrosion can be tolerated. It is generally not available in
thicknesses greater than 2 mm, and is not weldable for structural purposes. The main use of
this grade is in automotive exhaust systems and in industrial equipment.
C8.2.2 Ferritic grade EN 10088 1.4003
Ferritic grade EN 10088 1.4003 is widely available, and can be used in mildly corrosive
environments, where some staining due to corrosion can be tolerated. It is available in a
range of thicknesses, and is weldable for structural purposes where proper procedures are
followed.
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C8.2.3 Ferritic grade 430

Ferritic grade 430 is widely available, and is used primarily for decorative purposes in dry,
indoor environments, and in white goods. It cannot be welded reliably for structural
purposes, and is only available in thinner gauges, up to about 1.6 mm, and usually in BA or
No. 4 finish.
C8.2.4 Austenitic grade 304
Austenitic grade 304 is the most widely used stainless steel, giving the best combination of
strength, corrosion resistance, ductility, fabricability and cost. It is the most widely
available in different product forms. This grade can be used in most atmospheric locations
(see Table C2), and in many applications with water of chloride content up to about
200 ppm. It may be susceptible to SCC in the presence of chloride at temperatures in excess
of about 60 oC. Grade 304 is readily weldable, requiring no preheat, postheat or post-weld
heat treatment. The lower carbon grade 304L may be preferred where sensitization issues
are of concern.
Austenitic grade 316 is also widely available, and is used where the corrosion resistance of
grade 304 is inadequate, particularly in the presence of chloride. The molybdenum content
improves resistance to pitting and crevice corrosion, but the SCC performance of grade 316
is similar to that of grade 304. The lower carbon grade 316L may be preferred where
sensitization issues are of concern.
Austenitic grade 301 is a slightly leaner austenitic grade, which can be temper rolled to
high strengths. It is used particularly in transport applications, and in wear applications
where a combination of high strength and ductility gives good resistance to abrasive wear.
The higher strength tempers are available only in limited thicknesses, and generally on mill
enquiry only.
C8.2.7 Martensitic grade 420C
Martensitic grade 420C is used for wear components, as it can be heat-treated to very high
hardness and strength. It is difficult to weld, and is rarely welded structurally.
C8.2.8 Duplex grade S31803
Duplex grade S31803 is the most corrosion resistant of the commonly used grades, due to
the high chromium (22%) and molybdenum (3%) contents. It is also significantly higher in
strength than the austenitic grades in the annealed condition, and may be used in lighter
sections, to offset the higher cost. This grade is especially useful in higher chloride, high
stress environments where there is a risk of SCC with the austenitic grades, and where there
is a risk of pitting and crevice corrosion. The grade is widely available, although mainly in
flat products.
C9 REFERENCES
1 Properties and selection, Irons, steels and high-performance alloys, Metals Handbook,
10th Edition, Volume 1, American Society for Metals, Ohio, 1990.
2 Australian stainless reference manual, 3rd Edition, Australian Stainless Steel
Development Association, Brisbane, 1998.
3 WTIA Technical Note 13Stainless steels for corrosive environments, WTIA,
Sydney, 1983.
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APPENDIX D
STAINLESS STEEL FASTENERS
(Informative)
D1 INTRODUCTION
Fasteners are available in a wide range of forms, meeting several Australian and overseas
Standards.
The most widely available fasteners meet ISO 3506, designated A2 and A4, which
corresponds to grades 304 and 316 respectively. Care should be exercised in the use of
grade A1(303) as it has markedly inferior corrosion resistance compared to grade A2(304).
Other grades available include the following:
(a) SS2343 Known as Moly plus in Europe. This grade has high strength, greater
than 800 MPa tensile strength, with greater than 2.5% molybdenum and
less than 0.03% carbon.
(b) 310 Used particularly in high-temperature applications, such as furnaces.

(c) 321 Some sizes of imperial continuously threaded rod are available, as well as
some imperial sizes of bolts.
(d) 301,431,420 Commonly used for smaller items where spring strength is required,
e.g. circlips, crinkle washers, rolled spring pins and spiral pins.
Fasteners have also been made to order in other grades, but are generally not stocked.
D2 IDENTIFYING STAINLESS STEEL FASTENERS

D2.1 General
Metric and imperial sizes that are made to different standards and identification marks for
these fasteners, while sometimes similar, may not be the same. Most fasteners available
include the manufacturers identification mark and the steel grade.
Metric fasteners are usually identified in accordance with ISO 3506, including steel grade,
property class and manufacturers identification mark; however, this is a European
specification and should be used as a guide only, as it does not describe all fasteners.
Most imperial fasteners are made for the large American market and carry a manufacturers
identification and the AISI steel grade, e.g. 304 or 316. A recent common practice is to use
the UNS number instead of the AISI, e.g. S31600 or S30400.
Markings generally occur only on hexagon bolts, set screws, socket cap screws and
hexagonal nuts of M5 diameter and greater.
Fasteners without markings should not immediately be dismissed as unsuitable. Standards
may not require such stringent controls or the supplier may be able to furnish a
manufacturers certificate with the goods to indicate their grade and authenticity.
In most cases, it is sufficient only to specify the grade of stainless steels; however, for
critical applications, a compliance certificate or letter of conformance is recommended. Full
chemical and mechanical certificates are available from reputable suppliers; however, there
may be an extra charge associated with these more detailed reports. Certificates should be
requested at the point of inquiry and stated on the purchase order. It is normal practice to
provide goods without certificates or letters of conformance.
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 102
D2.2 Identifying stainless steel fasteners to ISO 3506

Hexagon bolts and screws, and hexagon socket head cap screws of size M5 and greater,
shall be marked with steel grade, property class and manufacturers identification. Hexagon
nuts of size M5 or greater shall be marked with steel grade and property class if necessary,
and with the manufacturers identification where possible.
Fasteners not marked or marked only with the stainless steel grade are assumed to
correspond with the lowest stainless steel property class.
For example, screws marked A2-70 have a tensile strength of 700 MPa. Unmarked screws
or those marked A2 or A4 are assumed to be class A2-50 having a tensile strength of
500 MPa (see Figures D1 and D2).
The selection of the steels is at the manufacturers discretion, provided the steels used
correspond with the permitted composition and guarantee
(a) the required physical and mechanical properties; and
(b) an equivalent corrosion resistance.
Alloys specified in ISO 3506 and their equivalent common grade designations are given in
Table D1.
FIGURE D1 MARKING OF BOLTS AND SCREWS
FIGURE D2 MARKING OF NUTS AND ALTERNATIVE MARKING PRACTICE
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TABLE D1
EQUIVALENT ALLOYS
Stainless steel grades Equivalent alloys Approximate composition

A1 303 18% Cr, 8% Ni, 0.25% S
A2 302, 304,304L, 321, 347 18% Cr, 8% Ni
A4 316, 316L, 317, 317L 18% Cr, 8% Ni, 2-3% Mo
C1 410, 420 12% Cr
C3 431 16% Cr, 1.5% Ni
C4 416 12% Cr, 0.12% C
F1 430 17% Cr
The flow chart shows stainless steel grades suitable for use in accordance with ISO 3506.
The manufacturer, however, has the option to use other stainless steels provided they meet
the requirements of ISO 3506.
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APPENDIX E
FLEXURAL MEMBERS SUBJECTED TO POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE
BENDING
(Informative)
E1 GENERAL
If the geometrical properties of flexural members are based on the effective design width
accounting for flange curling and such a member is subjected to positive and negative
bending moments, e.g. in the case of a continuous beam or a rigid frame, Paragraphs E2
and E3 may apply, subject to the limitations specified in Paragraph E4.
E2 LOAD-CARRYING CAPACITY [STRENGTH]

The bending moments and the support reactions may be determined assuming constant
section beams or frames, provided that the ratio of section moduli for positive and negative
bending moments does not exceed the values specified in Paragraph E4. The maximum
design bending moments (M *) so determined should not exceed the nominal member
moment capacity (Mb) times b calculated in accordance with Paragraph E1 for positive or
negative bending moment, as appropriate.
E3 DEFLECTIONS
Deflections may be determined assuming constant section beams or frames, and are based
on a mean second moment of area, provided that the ratio of second moments of area for
positive and negative bending moment does not exceed the value specified in Paragraph E4.
E4 LIMITATIONS
For the purpose of Paragraphs E2 and E3, the ratios of geometrical properties of a member
for positive and negative bending moments, determined in accordance with this Standard,
should not exceed the following:
(a) Section moduli:
(i) Continuous beams.....................................................................................1.35.
(ii) Rigid frames .............................................................................................1.25.
(b) Second moment of area:
(i) Continuous beams.....................................................................................1.20.
(ii) Rigid frames .............................................................................................1.16.
For the purpose of this Paragraph, the section property with the greater value should be
taken as the numerator of the ratio.
For members with ratios outside the limits specified in this Paragraph, a rational analysis
approach may be developed based on testing.
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APPENDIX F
FATIGUE
(Informative)
F1 GENERAL
The information in this Appendix pertains to the high cycle fatigue properties of structural
stainless steel used at or near room temperature, and not in a corrosive environment. It only
applies to grades of stainless steel listed in Clause 1.5.2.1.
Euro Inox Design Manual (Ref. 1) and Eurocode 3 (Ref. 2) are two Standards which make
recommendations for the fatigue of stainless steel. Euro Inox Design Manual and
Eurocode 3 utilize well established fatigue rules for carbon steels and apply them, with
some restrictions, to stainless steels. The fatigue provisions of Euro Inox Design Manual,
and in particular Eurocode 3 are similar to AS 4100 (Ref. 3) or NZS 3404 (Ref. 14). It is,
therefore, recommended that AS 4100 be used for the fatigue design of stainless steel
structures, within the limits of applicability specified in Paragraphs F2, F3, F4 and F5.
F2 WELD FATIGUE
Fatigue is the process by which cracks are initiated and propagate through a structure under
cyclical loading until failure. Failure may occur through the component becoming
unserviceable because of the size of the resulting fatigue cracks, or alternatively because
the component catastrophically fails, i.e. fractures. Fatigue failures may occur without
warning and may seriously compromise the capacity of a structure to carry its design load.
A further consideration is that fatigue failure will initiate from seemingly minor details in
the component. Consequently design and construction to withstand fatigue loadings requires
control of all aspects of the design, fabrication and use of a structure throughout its service
life.
Generally, fatigue failure of structural steelwork does not occur since the loadings are
largely static. Usually the dead load of a structure is large relative to its live load and so the
normal strength design is governed by this dead load. In this case the cycling live load
stresses would be small and fatigue failure probably would not occur. It is important for the
designer to identify when significant cyclical loading are applied to the structure and design
for fatigue accordingly. Significant cyclical loadings may be applied to members supporting
lifting appliances, rolling loads or vibrating machinery, or for wind-induced oscillations
(Ref. 1).
Fatigue is normally broken into two regimes depending on the magnitude of the applied
stresses. Structural steelwork is normally fatigue loaded in the high cycle regime, whereby
the applied stresses are low, and the life of the structure is greater than about 104 stress
cycles. This is the regime covered by Euro Inox Design Manual and Eurocode 3, as well as
AS 4100. In the high cycle regime, the bulk of the structure behaves elastically, and the
fatigue design is carried out with references to a stress-life diagram (S-N diagram). At
higher stresses there is significant plasticity adjacent to the crack or stress concentration
and the strain-life diagram (-N diagram) provides a more discriminating measure of the
fatigue history of a structure. Low cycle fatigue is not normally relevant to structural steel
work and is not considered in Euro Inox Design Manual, Eurocode 3 and AS 4100.
For high cycle fatigue in an unwelded component, cracks are usually initiated at stress
concentrations. The magnitude of the stress concentrations in an unwelded component are
usually such that this crack initiation phase occupies a large fraction of the components
life. The fatigue life of an unwelded component depends on the applied maximum principal
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stress range, the magnitude and orientation of the stress concentrating feature, thickness,
material, material strength, and the presence and sign (tension or compression) of any mean
stress. The compressive part of any applied stress state (mean plus applied range) is not
damaging in unwelded components and is ignored in a fatigue assessment.
Fatigue of welded components differs fundamentally from fatigue of unwelded components
(Ref. 4). The differences can be attributed to the following:
(a) The presence of a high tensile residual stress state (high mean stress), typically of
yield magnitude in the welded component.
(b) The high stress concentration factor adjacent to the weld.
(c) The presence of weld defects.
(d) The insensitivity of crack propagation rate on mean stress for structural steels.
Unless special precautions are taken to reduce the high stress concentration around the weld
in a welded component, the initiation phase of crack growth is typically short. There also
may be pre-existing crack like weld defects in the structure. Normally the bulk of the
fatigue life of a welded component is spent on propagating a crack to failure.
The presence of the high tensile residual stresses of yield magnitude means that when a load
is superimposed, the stress range seen by the component effectively cycles from the yield
stress downwards by an amount equal to the applied stress range. This means that any mean
component of an applied stress range may be ignored, and that even fully compressive
stress ranges are as damaging as the equivalent fully tensile stress ranges. A further factor
is that the crack propagation rate is largely insensitive to the applied mean stress.
Another consideration is that in high cycle fatigue of welded structures, the strength of the
material is largely irrelevant. Ref. 4 indicates that the S-N curves of welded components up
to around 800 MPa UTS are similar. This is in direct contrast to the situation in an
unwelded component, where the fatigue life improves with increasing strength. Most
structural fatigue Standards contain provisions for fatigue of components with specified
yield strengths up to about 700 MPa.
The relevant carbon steel high cycle fatigue Standards such as Euro Inox Design Manual,
Eurocode 3 and AS 4100 take the above into account when formulating their
recommendations. Design for fatigue using these Standards requires identification of the
relevant fatigue detail classification. Various types of welded joints are classified into
groups according to their capability of resisting fatigue loads. Each of these groups are
assigned a unique S-N curve, and this then becomes the fatigue detail classification for the
detail or group of details. These detail classifications have been selected based on a large
number of fatigue tests on typical welded details. Since this is the case, the fatigue detail
classifications typically include the following effects:
(i) Local stress concentration.
(ii) Typical defects present.
(iii) Metallurgical effects such as weld metal composition and parent plate composition.
(iv) Direction of applied loadings.
(v) Failure location.
(vi) Residual stress effects.
(vii) Joint preparation and some joint fabrication quality issues.
Typically the relevant fatigue Standards also provide guidance on the following:
(A) Reduction in fatigue strength due to plate thickness effects.
(B) Treatment of variable amplitude cycles (Miners rule).
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(C) Endurance (constant amplitude) limit.

(D) Limitations or restrictions on fatigue in corrosive environments.
(E) Limitations or restrictions on fatigue at high or low service temperatures.
(F) Maximum material strength limitations.
(G) Fatigue strength enhancement (if any) due to stress relief.
(H) Definition of failure and relevant safety factors.
The relevant high cycle fatigue Standards also specify that the fatigue stress analysis should
be elastic only, with no allowance made for load redistribution effects through yielding.
Other effects that cause load redistribution are usually taken into account, (e.g. shear lag).
It should be noted that the highest fatigue strengths, or the highest fatigue detail
classifications, are obtained when the effects of stress concentrations and weld defects are
minimized. It is instructive to consider potential crack initiation sites and whether the
applied loading would open a crack that initiates. A further consideration is that the fatigue
life is a strong function of the applied loading. A small reduction in stress range will result
in a large increase in fatigue life.
Given the large numbers of variables that are taken into account when testing for and
formulating fatigue recommendations for carbon steel structures, it is surprising that Euro
Inox Design Manual and Eurocode 3 treat stainless steel high cycle fatigue in a similar
manner, and utilize similar S-N curves to carbon steels. Communication with research
groups in Europe has indicated that stainless steel fatigue research is ongoing and more
extensive fatigue data for stainless steel should be available shortly.
Controlling fatigue failure requires control of all details of design, fabrication and use of a
component, and even seemingly minor details may act as crack initiation sites causing
fatigue failure. In this context it should be noted that stainless steel structures are
sometimes fabricated differently to carbon steel structures. The low thermal conductivity
and high coefficient of thermal expansion of austenitic stainless steels, compared with
carbon steels, results in differing welding techniques to control distortion, compared with
the equivalent carbon steel fabrication. Often much more attention is paid to minimizing the
amount of welding by using discontinuous welds, which may mean a differing fatigue detail
classification for a stainless steel weldment compared with the equivalent carbon steel
component. Stainless steels are often utilized for corrosive conditions, while carbon steel
fatigue Standards exclude fatigue assessment in corrosive conditions, or alternatively
severely derate the fatigue detail classification. Fatigue assessment of stainless steel
structures in corrosive conditions is precluded from Euro Inox Design Manual, Eurocode 3
and AS 4100.
F3 FATIGUE DESIGN IN ACCORDANCE WITH EURO INOX

The Euro Inox Design Manual stainless steel fatigue recommendations (Ref. 1) are based on
a limited range of stainless steel fatigue tests which were then compared with carbon steel
curves from BS 5400 (Ref. 6), and the Offshore Installations Guide (Ref. 7). This
comparison indicated that some joints in stainless steel were inferior in fatigue to a similar
joint in carbon steel. The recommendation of Euro Inox Design Manual was then that all
details in stainless steel be derated one fatigue detail classification from the equivalent
detail in carbon steel.
Communication with European fatigue researchers indicates that the current perception is
that the fatigue properties of stainless steel are not inferior to carbon steel. For this reason
Eurocode 3 does not derate the stainless steel fatigue detail classification.
Euro Inox Design Manual also contains data on crack propagation rates in stainless steels. It
is noted that the crack propagation rates in stainless steels are similar to crack propagation
rates in carbon steels.
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F4 FATIGUE DESIGN IN ACCORDANCE WITH EUROCODE 3

Eurocode 3 (Ref. 2) uses carbon steel fatigue curves from Eurocode 3 Part 1-1 (Ref. 8), but
does not derate the fatigue detail classification when transitioning from a carbon steel joint
to a stainless steel joint. Eurocode 3s fatigue recommendations are based on the ECCS
fatigue Standard (Ref. 5). The ECCSs fatigue requirements are also the basis for the
fatigue requirements of AS 4100. In general, the fatigue provisions of AS 4100 and
Eurocode 3 are similar.
The major difference between AS 4100 and Eurocode 3 is that Eurocode 3 gives more
extensive guidance on selection of safety factors for fatigue loading. AS 4100 nominates
capacity factors for redundant and non-redundant structural elements based on the
probability of global structural collapse because of failure of the weld in question. The
capacity factors specified in AS 4100 are also used to account for variations in in-service
inspection procedures as well as highly variable loading histories, i.e., where Miners Rule
may not apply. Eurocode 3 uses partial safety factors on the loading and fatigue strength
to account for the same variables that AS 4100 specifies. The relevant partial safety factors
are the inverse of the equivalent capacity factor. The partial safety factors for fatigue
strength used in Eurocode 3 are contained in Table F1. The partial safety factors for the
applied fatigue loads are set to 1.0, i.e., no factor is applied to the loading.
National Application Documents (NADs) are the mechanism whereby various member
countries of the Eurocode organization convert Eurocodes back into national Standards. The
Eurocode 3 NAD for Finland (Ref. 12) utilizes the above partial safety factors for fatigue of
stainless steels with the following conditions:
(a) Building structures must not use partial safety factors from the fail-safe component
column.
(b) Where no periodic inspections are carried out, the appropriate partial safety factor is
1.6.
TABLE F1
PARTIAL SAFETY FACTORS FOR FATIGUE STRENGTH
IN ACCORDANCE WITH EUROCODE 3
Fail-safe Non fail-safe

Inspection and access
components components
Periodic inspection and
maintenance. Accessible 1.00 1.25
joint detail
Periodic inspection and
maintenance. Poor 1.15 1.35
accessibility
F5 FATIGUE IN ACCORDANCE WITH AS 4100 WITH APPLICATION TO

STAINLESS STEEL
The fatigue design of stainless steel structures should comply with the provisions of
AS 4100 (Ref. 3). All limitations that are specified in AS 4100 or AS 4100 Supp. 1
(Ref. 11) are to be followed. When designing for fatigue of stainless steel structures in
accordance with AS 4100, the following are to be considered:
(a) No corrosion or immersion The fatigue recommendations of AS 4100 are restricted
to mildly corrosive conditions, where mildly corrosive is defined as equivalent to
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protected steelwork in a normal atmospheric environment. Since stainless steel is

typically used unprotected, this requirement should be modified. The design of
stainless steel in fatigue-loaded applications is restricted to grades of stainless steel
appropriate to withstand the corrosive conditions. Note that AS 4100 does not apply
to stress corrosion cracking.
(b) High cycle fatigue only AS 4100 does not apply for stress cycles less than
105 cycles, or stress ranges greater than 1.5 y. The maximum design stress is limited
to y. Note that the stress evaluation must be based on elastic analysis or on measured
load histories.
(c) Thermal fatigue AS 4100 only applies to structures that operate at temperatures
lower than 150C.
(d) Welding AS 4100 requires that detail categories 112 and lower be performed to
AS/NZS 1554.1 (Ref. 9), category SP. For detail category 125, AS 4100 requires
welding to AS/NZS 1554.5 (Ref. 10). AS/NZS 1554, Parts 1 and 5 are carbon steel
welding Standards. Fatigue design of stainless steel structures in accordance with
AS 4100 should have equivalent weld defect acceptance and weld inspection criteria
as specified in AS/NZS 1554, Parts 1 and 5. Accordingly, in dynamic load situations
where AS 1400 requires detail category 112 or lower, weld imperfections should meet
the requirements of category 1B in accordance with AS/NZS 1554.6. Where detail

categories greater than 112 are applicable, weld surface imperfections should meet
the requirements of Class A in accordance with AS/NZS 1554.6 and weld internal
imperfections should meet the requirements of AS/NZS 1554.5. In some
circumstances, it may be appropriate or necessary to carry out a fracture mechanics
assessment in accordance with BS 7910, provided any defects present do not
adversely affect the corrosion resistance of the structure, or conflict with the surface
finish requirements of the component.
(e) Capacity [strength reduction] factor for the weld fatigue The capacity factor in
AS 4100 for the weld fatigue strength equals 1.0 assuming the following criteria are
met:
(i) The detail is located on a redundant load path, in a position where failure at that
point alone will not lead to overall collapse of the structure.
(ii) The stress history is estimated by conventional methods.
(ii) The load cycles are not highly irregular.
(iii) The detail is accessible for, and subject to, regular inspection.
The capacity factor is reduced if any of Items (e)(i) to (iii) do not apply. A capacity
factor of 0.7 or lower is nominated if the detail is located on a non-redundant load
path. Further guidance on the selection of capacity factors lower than 0.7, given the
above criteria, may be made with reference to the partial safety factors of Eurocode 3
and the relevant NADs (e.g. Ref. 12).
(f) Thickness correction for plates thicker than 25 mm ECCS (Ref. 5) recommends
caution when applying the fatigue rules to plates thicker than 25 mm, since at the
time of publication of ECCS, only a limited range of fatigue tests had taken place on
plates thicker than 25 mm. These tests were limited to transversely welded details in
joints between equal thickness plates. ECCS gives guidance on the applicability of
fracture mechanics for resolving such situations.
It may be that there are some situations where the use of the standard S-N curve approach to
fatigue is not adequate, and a fracture mechanics approach may be more applicable. In this
situation the requirements from ECCS (Ref. 5) may be followed.
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Situations that may require consideration of fracture mechanics include the following
(Ref. 5):
(i) When the remaining fatigue life of a cracked structure is assessed.
(ii) When fitness for purpose is assessed.
(iii) When plate thicknesses is greater than 25 mm and there is doubt as to the
applicability of the fatigue curves.
(iv) When the effect of varying one or more geometry or stress parameters is being
considered for a given detail.
(v) When in-service inspection intervals are being fixed.
(vi) When an unusual stress direction, not comparable with any detail category, is being
assessed.
F6 REFERENCES
1 Euro Inox Design Manual for Structural Stainless Steel, Nickel Development
Institute, 1994.
2 Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures, Part 1-4: General rulesSupplementary rules

for stainless steels, CEN, 1996.
3 AS 41001998, Steel Structures, Standards Australia, 1998.
4 Gurney T. R., Fatigue of Welded Structures, Cambridge University Press, 1978.
5 Recommendations for the Fatigue Design of Steel Structures, ECCS Technical
Committee 6 Fatigue, European Convention for Constructional Steelwork, 1985.
6 BS 5400, Part 10:, Steel, concrete and composite bridges, Part 10: Code of practice
for fatigue, British Standards Institution, 1980.
7 Offshore Installations: Guidance on design, construction and certification, Health and
Safety Executive, 4 th Edition, 1990.
8 Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures, Part 1-1: General rules and rules for
buildings, CEN, 1992.
9 AS/NZS 1554.1: Structural steel welding, Part 1: Welding of steel structures,
Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand, 2000.
10 AS/NZS 1554.5: Structural Steel Welding, Part 5: Welding of steel structures subject
to high levels of fatigue loading, Australian Standards/Standards New Zealand, 1995.
11 AS/NZS 1554.6: Structural steel welding, Part 6: Welding stainless steels for
structural purposes, Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand, 1994.
12 AS 4100: Steel structures, Standards Australia, 1998.
13 AS 4100 Supplement 1 1999, Steel StructuresCommentary, Standards Australia,
1999.
14 NZS 3404.1: Steel structures Standard, Part 1: Steel structures Standard, Standards
New Zealand, 1997.
15 NZS 3404.2: Steel structures Standard, Part 2: Commentary to the Steel Structures
Standard, Standards New Zealand, 1997.
16 Draft National Application Document for prestandard Eurocode 3: Design of steel
structures, Part 1-4: General rules Supplementary rules of stainless steels, National
Building Code of Finland, 1998.
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APPENDIX G
FIRE
(Informative)
G1 GENERAL
At this stage, Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand is not in a position to provide
design rules for determination of the period of structural adequacy (PSA) for stainless steel
structures.
This Appendix outlines the approach to the design of steel building elements required to
have a fire resistance level (FRL), currently adopted by some overseas Standards.
G2 PROPERTIES OF STAINLESS STEELS

It has long been recognized that some stainless steels retain their mechanical properties, e.g.
stiffness and strength, at elevated temperatures better than carbon steels. For this reason,
stainless steel elements in buildings may be able to achieve a required FRL with less fire
protection than would be required for the equivalent carbon steel element, or in some cases
with no fire protection.
Fire tests may be used to determine the PSA for a specific element, provided the test
accurately reflects the conditions in the actual structure; however, fire tests are expensive
and hence may only be feasible for large projects.
The use of calculation methods to determine the PSA for carbon steel elements is well
established in several Standards, such as AS 4100 and Eurocode 3; however, this is not the
case in relation to stainless steels, in that the advantages of stainless steel are not yet
formally recognized in Standards such as Eurocode 3.
Research in Finland and the UK has focused on the fire performance of some of the more
commonly used austenitic stainless steels. The results of this research has resulted in
recommendations for the fire design of stainless steel elements in the current draft of the
Finnish national application document for Eurocode 3 and is expected to be more formally
incorporated into the relevant section of Eurocode 3 when it is upgraded from a pre-
Standard (ENV) to a Standard (EN).
G3 OTHER STANDARDS
This Standard has been mainly based on ANSI/ASCE-8-90, Specification for the Design of
Cold-Formed Stainless Steel Structural Members, which contains no guidance on the fire
design of stainless steel members.
ENV 1993-1-4: Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures, Part 1-4: General rules
Supplementary rules for stainless steel states that for structural fire design, reference should
be made to ENV 1993-1-2, which is Eurocode 3Design of steel structures,
Part 1-2: General rules, Structural fire design. However, this Part of Eurocode 3 applies to
the fire design of carbon steel. Reference is also made in ENV 1993-1-4 to EN 10088
Stainless steels, which is the stainless steel materials Standard, for information on the
properties of stainless steels at elevated temperatures.
The current draft of the National Application Document for Finland, for use in conjunction
with Eurocode 3, contains specific data for the reduction factors for stainless steels at
elevated temperatures, for a range of austenitic stainless steels. This data, in conjunction
with ENV 199-1-2, enables the relevant calculations for the fire design of stainless steel
members to be carried out.
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Pending the release of EN 1993-1-4, the Draft National Application Document for
prestandard SFS-ENV 1993-1-4, forming part of the National Building Code of Finland,
used in conjunction with ENV 199-1-2, appears at this stage to contain the most specific
guidance on the fire design of stainless steel members manufactured from certain specific
grades of austenitic stainless steel.
G4 POST-FIRE PERFORMANCE
Where temperatures in the range of 350 to 850C are experienced, various precipitates may
form, which may adversely affect corrosion resistance, i.e. sensitization or toughness, due
to embrittlement.
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APPENDIX H
SECTION PROPERTIES
(Normative)
H1 SHEAR CENTRE DISTANCE (m), TORSION CONSTANT (J) AND WARPING

CONSTANT (I w)
Values of m, J and I w for certain sections are shown in Figure H1.
For I w of sections other than those given in Figure H1, I w shall be taken as zero for box
sections.
H2 MONOSYMMETRY SECTION CONSTANTS

Monosymmetry section constants are calculated as follows:

x
=
l
Ix
( A x 2 yd A + A )
y 3 d A 2 yo . . . H2(1)
y =
l
Iy
( A xy 2 d A + A )
x 3 d A 2 xo . . . H2(2)
Where the x-axis is the axis of symmetry (see Table H1)

x = 0 . . . H2(3)
w + f + L
y = 2 xo . . . H2(4)
Iy
NOTES:
1 For doubly symmetric sections, x = 0 and y = 0.
2 In the calculation of y using the value of x o , determined from Table H1, x o and x- are to be
taken as negative.
Where the y-axis is the axis of symmetry, interchange x and y in the equations for the x-axis
of symmetry and Table H1.
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FIGURE H1 SHEAR CENTRE DISTANCE, TORSION CONSTANT AND WARPING

CONSTANT FOR CERTAIN SECTIONS
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NOTES TO FIGURE H1:

bt 3
1 For all open section: J = .
3
wf t 3
2 For members cold-formed from a single steel sheet of uniform thickness: J = where wf is the feed width of
3
the flat sheet.
3 For the box and rectangle sections, Iw is negligibly small in comparison to J.
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TABLE H1
CERTAIN MONOSYMMETRIC SECTIONSCENTROID AND SHEAR-CENTRE DISTANCES AND MONOSYMMETRY
SECTION CONSTANTS
Section x xo w f L
2 3b2 2 1
t b + x x +
l
12
( ) ()
4 4

b b t x a 3 + t ( x )3 a
+
( ) ()
0
l 2
a t b + x x
a + 2b a + 2b 6b + a 12 2 2
4
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bt (b + 2c ) bt
l
()
t (b + x )4 x +
4 ( )3 + 23 t (x + b)
2 ct x + b
b ( b + 2c) + 1 2
A 12 I x t x a 3 + t ( x )3 a a a
( ) ()
3 3
a + 2b + 2c
(6 ca 2
+ 3 ba 8 c
2 3
) 12 l 2
4
2
a t b+ x x
2
2

+ c
2
l
( ) ()
t b + x x +
4 4 ( )3 + 23 t (x + b)
2 ct x + b
b (b + 2c) bt (b + 2c ) bt 1 12
+ t x a 3 + t ( x )3 a a 3 a
( ) ()
3
a + 2b + 2c A 12 I x 12 l 2 2 2
a t b+ x x c
(6 ca 2
+ 3 ba 2 8 c 3 ) 4 2 2
AS/NZS 4673:2001
LEGEND:
s.c. = shear centre
c.g. = centre of gravity
117 AS/NZS 4673:2001
APPENDIX I
UNSTIFFENED ELEMENTS WITH STRESS GRADIENT
(Normative)
TABLE I1
PLATE BUCKLING COEFFICIENTS (k) AND EFFECTIVE WIDTHS (b e )
Stress distribution
Effective width (b e )
(compressive positive)
For 1 > 0:
be = b
For < 0:
b
be = bc =
1
= f 2* / f1* +1 0 1 +1 1
Plate buckling coefficient (k) 0.43 0.57 0.85 0.57 0.21 + 0.07 2
For 1 > 0:
be = b
For < 0:
b
be = bc =
1
= f 2* / f1* +1 1>>0 0 0 > > 1 1

Plate buckling coefficient (k) 0.43 0.578 1.70 1.70 5 + 17.1 2
23.8
+ 0.34
NOTE: f1* and f 2* are web stresses calculated on the basis of the full section.
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 118
APPENDIX J
HOLLOW SECTION LATTICE GIRDER CONNECTIONS
(Normative)
J1 GENERAL
This Appendix provides rules to determine the static design capacity of uniplanar joints in
lattice structures composed of rectangular, square or circular hollow sections, or
combinations of these hollow sections with open sections.
The static design capacities of the joints are expressed in terms of maximum design axial
resistances for the brace members.
This Appendix applies to both, hot-rolled and cold-formed hollow sections.
The welds shall be designed to have sufficient capacity and ductility to allow redistribution
of non-uniform stress distributions and to allow redistribution of secondary bending
moments.
The nominal wall thickness of hollow sections shall be greater than or equal to 2.5 mm but
less than or equal to 25 mm, unless special measures have been taken to ensure that the
through thickness properties of the material will be adequate.
The joint capacity [strength reduction] factor ( ) shall be taken as 0.9.
J2 DEFINITIONS
The definitions below apply to this Appendix.
J2.1 Gap (g)
The distance measured along the length of the connecting face of the chord, between the
toes of the adjacent members (see Figure J1).
J2.2 Uniplanar joint
A connection between members that are situated in a single plane and which transmit
primarily axial forces.
ov)
J2.3 Overlap (
q
ov = 100% (see Figure J1)
p
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119 AS/NZS 4673:2001
FIGURE J1 GAP AND OVERLAP JOINTS

J3 FIELD OF APPLICATION
This Appendix may be used only where all of the following conditions are satisfied:
(a) Members shall have compact cross-sections as specified in Clauses 3.6.2 and 3.6.3 for
rectangular and circular hollow sections respectively.
(b) The angles between the chords and the brace members, and between adjacent brace
members shall not be less than 30.
(c) Moments resulting from eccentricities may be neglected in calculating the resistance
of the joint, provided that the eccentricities are within the following limits:
(i) 0.55do e 0.25d o
(ii) 0.55ho e 0.25h o
where
e = eccentricity as shown in Figure J2
d o = diameter of the chord
h o = depth of the chord, in the plane of the lattice girder
(d) Members at a joint shall have their ends prepared in such a way that their
cross-sectional shape is not modified.
(e) In gap-type joints, the gap between the brace members shall not be less than (t 1 + t 2 ),
to ensure that the clearance is adequate to form satisfactory welds.
(f) In overlap joints, the overlap shall be sufficient to ensure that the interconnection of
the brace members is adequate for satisfactory shear transfer from one brace to the
other.
(g) Where overlapping brace members have different thicknesses, the thinner member
shall overlap the thicker member.
(h) Where overlapping brace members are of different strength grades, the member with
the lower yield stress shall overlap the member with the higher yield stress.
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 120
FIGURE J2 ECCENTRICITY OF JOINTS

J4 ANALYSIS
The axial force distribution in a lattice girder may be determined on the assumption that the
members are connected by pinned joints.
Secondary moments in the joints caused by the actual bending stiffness of the joints may be
neglected, provided that
(a) the joint geometry is within the range of validity given in Tables J6.1, J7.1 or
Table J8.1, as appropriate; and
(b) the ratio of the length of the system to the depth of the members in the plane of the
girder is not less than
(i) 12 for chord members; and
(ii) 24 for chord members.
Eccentricities that are within the limits specified in Paragraph J3 may be neglected.
The joints are predominantly statically loaded.
J5 WELDS
In welded connections, the connection shall be established around the entire perimeter of
the hollow section by means of butt or fillet welding, or combinations of both. In partially
overlapping joints, the hidden part of the connection need not be welded.
The design resistance of the weld per unit length of the perimeter shall not be less than the
design tensile resistance of the cross-section of the member per unit length of the perimeter.
For Class B fillet weld, this requirement can be met provided the throat thickness (t t )
satisfies the following:
tt fy
1.875
. . . J5(1)
t1 f uw
The requirement of this Paragraph may be waived where smaller weld sizes can be justified
with regard to the resistance and to the deformation capacity or rotation capacity, or both.
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121 AS/NZS 4673:2001
J6 WELDED JOINTS BETWEEN CIRCULAR HOLLOW SECTIONS

The design internal axial forces, in both the brace members and in the chords, shall not be
greater than the design resistances of the members determined in accordance with Section 3.
In addition, for brace members, the design internal axial forces shall not be greater than the
resistances of the joints.
Provided that the geometry of the joints is within the range of validity given in Table J6.1,
the design resistances of the joints shall be determined using the equations given in
Table J6.2.
For joints outside the range of validity given in Table J6.1, a detailed analysis shall be
made. This analysis shall take account of the secondary moments in the joints caused by the
bending stiffness of the joints.
TABLE J6.1
RANGE OF VALIDITY FOR WELDED JOINTS
BETWEEN CIRCULAR HOLLOW SECTIONS
0.2 d i/d o 1.0

5 d i/2tI 25
5 d o /2to 25
5 d o /2to 20
(for X-joints)
ov 25%
g t 1 + t2
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 122
TABLE J6.2
DESIGN RESISTANCES OF WELDED JOINTS
BETWEEN CIRCULAR HOLLOW SECTIONS
Design resistance
Type of joint
(i = 1 or 2)
Chord plastification
N l n =
f yoto2
sin1
( 2.8 + 14.2 )2 0.2
kp
0.9
f yoto2 5.2
N l n = kp
sin1 (1 0.81 ) 0.9
f yoto2
N l n = 1.8 + 10.2 d1 kp kg
sin1 d
o 0.9
sin1
N 2 n = N1n

sin 2
T, Y and X joints, and K, N and KT joints with a gap Punching shear
f yo 1 + sin i
When di d o 2to N l n = tod i
2sin 2 0.9
3 i
where
kp = 1.0 for n p 0 (tension)
(
kp = 1 0.3 np 1 + np ) for n p 0 (compression)
For kp 1.0
0.024 1.2
k g = 0.2 1 + (see Figure J3)
exp (0.5g / t o ) 1.33) + 1
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123 AS/NZS 4673:2001
FIGURE J3 VALUES OF FACTOR (k g )
J7 WELDED JOINTS BETWEEN HOLLOW SECTION BRACE MEMBERS AND

SQUARE/RECTANGULAR HOLLOW SECTION CHORDS
J7.1 General
The design internal axial forces, in both the brace members and in the chords, shall not be
greater than the design resistances of the members determined in accordance with Section 3.
In addition, for brace members, the design internal axial forces shall not be greater than the
resistances of the joints.
J7.2 Square or circular brace members and square chords
Provided that the geometry of the joints is within the range of validity given in Table J7.1,
the design resistances of the joints shall be determined using the equations given in
Table J7.2.
For joints outside the range of validity given in Table J7.1, see Paragraph J7.3.
J7.3 Rectangular sections
The design capacities of joints between rectangular hollow sections, and of joints between
square hollow sections outside the range of validity given in Table J7.1, shall be based on
the following criteria, as applicable:
(a) Plastic failure of the chord face or the chord cross-section.
(b) Crack initiation leading to rupture of the bracings from the chord (punching shear).
(c) Cracking in the welds or in the bracings (effective widths).
(d) Chord wall bearing of local buckling under the compression bracing.
(e) Local buckling in the compressive areas of the members.
(f) Shear failure of the chord.
The modes of failure relevant to Items (a) to (f) are given in Figure J4.
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AS/NZS 4673:2001
TABLE J7.1
RANGE OF VALIDITY FOR WELDED JOINTS BETWEEN SQUARE OR CIRCULAR HOLLOW SECTION BRACE MEMBERS
AND SQUARE HOLLOW SECTION CHORDS
Joint parameters (i = 1 or 2, and j = overlapped brace)
bi d b1 + b2
or i or
Type of joint ti ti 2b1
bi or d i bo
bi t Gap or overlap
bo bo to and i
bj tj
Compression Tension
bi bo
T, Y or X joint 0.25 0.85 10 35
bo to
bi Eo
1.25
b ti Fi
0.5 (1 )
bi g
K gap joint 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.01 o a
bo
124
to
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bo and
bo b1 + b2
and bi 15 35 0 .6 1.3 g
1.5 (1 )
35 bi to 2b1 but
ti 35 bo
N gap joint bi
0.35 ti and g t1 + t2
bo
ti
1.0
K overlap joint bi bi Eo bo tj
0.25 1.1 40 25% ov 100%
N overlap joint bo ti Fi to bi
0.75
bj
Circular brace di di Eo di
0 .4 0.8 1 .5 50 As above but replace b 1 with d 1
member bo ti Fi ti
NOTE: Outside these parameter ranges, the resistance of the joint may be determined as for a joint with a rectangular chord section (see Paragraph F7.3).
124
125 AS/NZS 4673:2001
TABLE J7.2
DESIGN RESISTANCES OF WELDED JOINTS BETWEEN SQUARE
OR CIRCULAR HOLLOW SECTION BRACE MEMBERS
AND SQUARE HOLLOW SECTION CHORDS
Design resistance
Type of joint
(i = 1 or 2, j = overlapped brace)
Chord face yielding 0.85
f yo t o2 2
N ln = + 4 (1 ) 0.5 k n
(1 )sin i sin1 0.9
Chord face yielding 1.0

8.9 f yo t o2 b1 b2 0.5
N ln = kn
sin i 2bo 0.9
Effective width 25% ov< 50%

N ln = f yi ti ov (2hi 4ti ) + beff + be.ov
50 0.9
Effective width 50% ov < 80%

N ln = f yi ti [2hi 4ti + beff + be.ov ]
0.9
Effective width ov 80%

N ln = f yi ti [2hi 4ti + bi + be.ov ]
0.9
Circular braces Multiple the above design resistances by /4.
Replace b 1 and h 1 with d 1.
Replace b 2 and h 2 with d 2.
Functions
0.4n
For n 0 (tension): k n = 1.0 For n 0 (compression): kn = 1.3 - but kn 1.0

10 f yo to 10 f yi t j
beff = b but b b
f yiti i eff i beff = b but b
e.ov bi
bo to bj t j f yiti i

NOTE: Only the overlapping brace needs to be checked. The brace member efficiency, i.e. the design resistance of
the joint divided by the design plastic resistance of the brace, for the overlapped brace should be taken as less than
or equal to the overlapping brace.
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 126
FIGURE J4 MODES OF FAILURE RECTANGULAR HOLLOW SECTIONS
J8 WELDED JOINTS BETWEEN HOLLOW SECTION BRACE MEMBERS AND

I-SECTION CHORDS
The design internal axial forces in the brace members and in the chords shall not be greater
than the design capacity of the members determined in accordance with Section 3.
In addition, the design internal axial forces in the brace members shall also not be greater
than the design capacities of the joints.
In gap-type joints, the tensile design capacities (t Nto ) of the chords allowing for shear force
transferred between the brace members by the chords and neglecting the relevant secondary
moments shall be determined as follows:
Vo*
(a) For 0.5 : . . . J8(1)
vVvo
N to = f yo Ao t . . . J8(2)
t = 0.85
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127 AS/NZS 4673:2001
Vo*
(b) For 0.5 < 1.0 : . . . J8(3)
u Vno
2V *
2

N to = f yo Ao Avo 1
. . . J8(4)
V
v v
t = 0.85
where v and V v shall be determined in accordance with Clause 3.3.4 and A vo is the
web area of the chord transferring the shear force.
Provided that the geometry of the joints is within the range of the validity given in
Table J8.1, the design capacities of the joints shall be determined using the equations given
in Table J8.2.
For joints outside the range of validity given in Table J8.1, a detailed analysis shall be
made. This analysis shall take account of the secondary moments in the joints caused by the
bending stiffness of the joints.
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AS/NZS 4673:2001
TABLE J8.1
RANGE OF VALIDITY FOR WELDED JOINTS BETWEEN HOLLOW SECTION BRACE MEMBERS AND I-SECTION CHORDS
Joint parameter (i = 1 or 2 and j = overlapped brace)

bi hi d i
Type of joint hi bj dw bo , ,
ti ti ti
bi bi tw to
Compression Tension
dw Eo
1.2
hi tw f yo
X joint 0.5 2.0
bi and hi E
1.1 o hi
d w 400 mm ti f y1 35
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ti
T joint bo Eo bi E bi
0.75 1.1 o 35
Y joint hi to f yo ti f y1 ti
= 1.0 dw
1.5
Eo
128
bi di
K gap joint tw f yo di Eo 50
1.6 ti
N gap joint and ti f y1
K overlap joint hi bd dw 400 mm

0.5 2.0 0.75
N overlap joint bi bi
129 AS/NZS 4673:2001
TABLE J8.2
DESIGN RESISTANCES OF WELDED JOINTS BETWEEN HOLLOW SECTION
BRACE MEMBERS AND I-SECTION CHORDS
Type of joint Design resistance (i = 1 or 2 and j = overlapped brace)
Chord web yielding
f yo t w bw
N1n =
sin 1 0.9
Effective width

N1n = 2 f y1 t1beff
0.9
Chord web stability Effective width check not required if

f yo t w bw
(20 28 ) ;
g
N1n = (a)
sin 1 0.9 tf
(b) (1.0 0.03 ) ;
Effective width d1
0.75 1.33 for CHS; and
(c)
d2
N1n = 2 f y1 t 1beff
0.9 b1
(d) 0.75 1.33 for RHS.
b2
Chord shear
f yo A v
N1n =
3 sin 1 0.9

N1n = f yi t i ov (2hi 4t i ) + beff + be.ov
50 0.9

N1n = f yi t i [2hi 4t i + bi + be.ov ]
0.9
Effective width ov 80%

N1n = f yi t i [2hi 4t i + bi + be.ov ]
0.9
Functions
For RHS:
+ 5 (tf + r ) Av = Ao (2 a ) botf + (tw + 2r ) tf

hi
(a) bw =
sin 1
0.5
bw 2ti + 10 (tf + r )
1
(b) For RHS brace: a=
(
1 + 4 g 3tf
2 2
)

For CHS:
+ 5 (tf + r )
di
(a) bw =
sin 1 For CHS brace: a=0
(b) bw 2ti + 10 (tf + r )
f yo 10 f yj t j
beff = tw + 2r + 7 t but b b be.ov = b but b
e.ov bi
f yi f eff i bj t j f yi ti i

NOTE: Only the overlapping brace needs to be checked. The brace member efficiency, i.e. the design resistance of the joint
divided by the design plastic resistance of the brace, for the overlapped brace should not be greater than the overlapping
brace.
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 130
APPENDIX K
DETERMINATION OF THE CAPACITY [STRENGTH REDUCTION] FACTOR
(Normative)
This Appendix applies to situations where statistical data is available for the mean (M m) and
coefficient of variation (V M ) of the ratio of measured yield stress to nominal yield stress. It
provides the reduction in capacity [strength reduction] factor ( ), which shall be applied
when the design is based on the measured yield stress.
Where the design shall be based on the mean value of measured yield stress, M m shall be
taken as unity.
Where applied to the production of cold-formed members, where the yield stress is
enhanced by the forming process and the nominal yield stress of the finished product shall
be used for design, M m and V M are the mean and coefficient of variation of the ratio of
measured yield stress to nominal yield stress of the finished product respectively.
When VM is less than or equal to 0.15, the reduced capacity [strength reduction] factor shall
be determined by substituting the statistical values of M m and V M into
=
Mm
M mo
(
1 + cVMo
2
)( )
1 cVM2 o o . . . K1(1)
where o is the capacity [strength reduction] factor given in this Standard, and
M mo = 1.1
V Mo = 0.1
c = 5.0 for members
c = 6.5 for fasteners
The capacity [strength reduction] factor ( ) shall not be greater than the reference value
( o).
When V m is greater than 0.15, the reduced capacity [strength reduction] factor shall be
determined by substituting the statistical values of M m and V M into
exp VMo
Mm
= 2
+ VFo2 + VPo2 + VQo
2
V M2 + VFo2 + VPo2 + VQo
2
. . . K1(2)
M mo
o o
where o is the capacity [strength reduction] factor, and

M mo = 1.1
V Mo = 0.1
F mo = 1.0
V Fo = 0.05
V Po = 0.15
V Qo = 0.21
= 3.0 for members
= 4.5 for fasteners
The capacity [strength reduction] factor shall not be greater than the reference value ( o ).
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Accessed by UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN QUEENSLAND on 14 Nov 2017 (Document currency not guaranteed when printed) AS/NZS 4673

Australian/New Zealand Standard

Cold-formed stainless steel structures

The following interests are represented on Committee BD-086:

Welding Technology Institute of Australia

Keeping Standards up-to-date

This Standard was issued in draft form for comment as DR 00011.

Australian/New Zealand Standard

Cold-formed stainless steel structures

First published as AS/NZS 4673:2001.

SECTION 1 SCOPE AND GENERAL

AN EDGE STIFFENER OR ONE INTERMEDIATE STIFFENER .......................... 32

SECTION 4 STRUCTURAL ASSEMBLIES

STANDARDS AUSTRALIA/STANDARDS NEW ZEALAND

Australian/New Zealand Standard

S EC TION 1 S C OP E AND G E NER A L

1.2 REFERENCED DOCUMENTS

1.3.7 Capacity [Strength reduction] factor

1.3.12 Effective design width

1.3.19.1 Limit state, serviceability

1.3.30 Segment (in a member subjected to bending)

1.3.43 Tensile strength

the stress at 0.2% plastic strain. (See Appendix B.)

FIGURE 1.1 BENDS

NOTE: The member illustrated consists of the following nine elements:

FIGURE 1.2 ELEMENTS

FIGURE 1.5 EXAMPLES OF SECTION SYMMETRY

Symbol Description Clause reference

A se effective area of a stiffener 2.4.1

TABLE 1.4 (continued)

Symbol Description Clause reference

d depth of a section; or 2.1.3.2, 2.4.1

TABLE 1.4 (continued)

Symbol Description Clause reference

tensile or compressive strength of the connected part in the

f* design stress in the compression element calculated on the basis 2.2.1.2

TABLE 1.4 (continued)

Symbol Description Clause reference

f d* design compressive stress in the element being considered 2.2.1.3

component element behaves as a stiffened element

TABLE 1.4 (continued)

Symbol Description Clause reference

Mc critical moment 3.3.3

N* design concentrated load or reaction; or 2.6.1, 3.4.1

TABLE 1.4 (continued)

Symbol Description Clause reference

N f* design tensile force in the connected part 5.3.5

N ft* design tensile force on a bolt 5.3.7.4

Rt target test loads for the number of units to be tested 6.2.2.2

Rb* design concentrated load or reaction 3.3.6

TABLE 1.4 (continued)

Symbol Description Clause reference

VM coefficient of variation of the ratio of the measured yield stress Appendix K

V* design shear force 3.3.2.3

Vb* design bearing force at a bolt 5.3.6

Vf* design shear force per bolt 5.3.4

Vfv* design shear force for bolts loaded in shear 5.3.7.2

TABLE 1.4 (continued)

Symbol Description Clause reference

t capacity [strength reduction] factor for members in tension 3.2

C = for compression members, ratio of the total bend cross-sectional

1.6 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

determined by a plastic analysis.

1.7 NON-CONFORMING SHAPES AND CONSTRUCTION