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Materials Today: Proceedings 4 (2017) 40494060 www.materialstoday.com/proceedings

5th International Conference of Materials Processing and Characterization (ICMPC 2016)

Recent developments in Nanoparticles Synthesis, Preparation and

Stability of Nanofluids
Veeresh Fuskelea, R. M. Sarviyab
a
Research Scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, MANIT, Bhopal (M.P.)-462003, India
b
Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, MANIT, Bhopal (M.P.)-462003, India

Abstract

Nanofluids are dilute colloidal suspensions of nanoparticles in a base fluid that show excellent enhancement in heat transfer
performance in various applications. However, nanofluids preparation and stabilization are indeed a matter of concern since the
properties of nanofluids are dependent on the stability of the suspensions. For the last decade numerous research and
development works have been done on the preparation and stability of such materials. In this contribution, a brief review has
been presented to provide an update on the synthesis of nanoparticles and preparation of stationary nanofluids. Various types of
nanoparticles with different base fluids are investigated.
2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of Conference Committee Members of 5th International Conference of Materials
Processing and Characterization (ICMPC 2016).

Keywords: Nanoparticles, Nanofluid preparation, Nanofluid stability.

1. Introduction

The innovative material technology has made it possible to produce new class of heat transfer fluids known as
nanofluids. Nanofluids are solid-liquid composite materials engineered by suspending solid nanometre-sized (1
100nm) materials (nanoparticles, nanofibers, nanotubes, nanowires, nanorods, nanosheet, or droplets) in base fluids
[1, 2]. The nanoparticles can be metallic, non- metallic, oxide, carbide, ceramics, carbonic, mixture of different
nanoparticles (hybrid nanoparticles) and even nanoscale liquid droplets.

E-mail address:rpurohit73@gmail.com

2214-78532017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Selection and peer-review under responsibility of Conference Committee Members of 5th International Conference of Materials Processing and
Characterization (ICMPC 2016).
4050 Veeresh Fuskele et al/ Materials Today: Proceedings 4 (2017) 40494060

The base fluid may be a low viscous liquid like water, refrigerant or a high viscous liquid like ethylene glycol,
mineral oil or a mixture of different types of liquids (EG/water, water/propylene glycol etc.) [3]. Over the past two
decades nanofluids have attracted great interest because researchers have reported about its enhanced thermo
physical properties, stability, and heat transfer coefficients compared to those of base fluids [2, 4, 5]. Further, during
flow only a very small pressure drop is induced as nanofluids do not block flow channels, leading to reduced overall
consumption and costs of various heat transfer applications. Nanofluids have demonstrated great potential
applications in many fields. The most important criterion of nanofluids is stability of suspension for the duration of
usage. There are two phenomena that are critical to the stability of nanofluids, aggregation and sedimentation.
Synthesis of nanoparticles and preparation method of nanofluids play an important role in the stability of nanofluids.
A few review papers [3, 6-8] have discussed on the preparation methods and stability of nanofluids (up to 2014). In
this paper, we will review the recent (2015-16) progress in the synthesis of nanoparticles and methods for preparing
stable nanofluids and summarize the stability mechanisms.

2. Synthesis of Nanoparticles

Synthesis of nanoparticles is the first step for the preparation of nanofluids (mainly for two step method).
Nanoparticles can be synthesized using various approaches including chemical, physical, and biological. Various
approaches to synthesize nanoparticles have been discussed in brief.

B. Ajitha [9] synthesized spherical shaped silver nanoparticles through chemical reduction method using tri
sodium citrate as reducing agent and PVA as surfactant. It was found that size of the nanoparticles can be tuned by
simply varying pH of the reaction system. Ruchi Deshmukh [10] suggested a new method to synthesize well
dispersed Cobalt (Co) needle shaped (acicular) nanoparticles in water by a room temperature chemical reduction
route. A. Shahsavar et al [11] synthesized ferrofluid based on reacting iron (II) and iron (III) ions in an aqueous
ammonia solution to form magnetite, Fe3O4, as shown in Eq. 1.

FeCl2(aq) +2FeCl3(aq) +8NH3(aq) +4H2O(l) Fe3O4(s) +8NH4Cl(aq) (1)

Chia-Chang Lin [12] prepared CuO nanoparticles in rotating packed bed (RPB) by precipitation method which
involves the following chemical reactions. Firstly precursors (Cu2(OH)2CO3 ) are formed according to Eq. (2) by a
liquidliquid rapid precipitation reaction in a continuous mode in a RPB (Fig. 1). Subsequently, the precursors are
decomposed by calcination to form CuO nanoparticles, according to Eq. (3).

2CuSO4 + 2Na2CO3 + H2O Cu2(OH)2CO3 + 2Na2SO4 + CO2 (2)

Cu2(OH)2CO3 2CuO + CO2 + H2O (3)

Fig. 1 Photograph of RPB with blade packing [12] Fig. 2 Synthesis of Tween stabilized Fe3O4 and Fe3O4@Au nanoparticles [13]

Hendritte van der Walt [13] synthesized Polysorbate (tween) stabilised iron oxide and gold coated iron oxide
nanoparticles using the high temperature solution phase reaction of iron (III) acetyl acetate, Fe(acac)3, with 1,2-
hexadecanediol and long chain alcohols (Fig.2). I.Mitra [14] synthesized silica nanoparticles by oil-in-water micro
emulsion method using commercially available olive oil as the oil phase. Isolation of chlorophyll was done by
column chromatography. The ethanolic extract of chlorophyll was added to the oil phase during micro emulsion
 Veeresh Fuskele et al / Materials Today: Proceedings 4 (2017) 40494060 4051

formation. Bhagyashree Pani [15] used the leach liquor of a low grade silver ore containing 0.5% Ag to produce two
varieties of metallic silver nanoparticles. A. Guzman [16] synthesized Cu nanoparticles by polyol method via
microwave. Ascorbic acid (AA) was dissolved in ethylene glycol (EG), then was added polyvinylpyrrolidone PVP;
the solution formed was stirred and heated at a constant heat flux by microwave heating with addition of a solution
of anhydrous copper acetate CuAc2 in ethylene glycol. Cu nanoparticles in solution are centrifuged to obtain a
reddish powder. Angel Huminic [17] synthesized FeC nanopowders using the laser pyrolysis technique from iron
pentacarbonyl vapours carried by ethylene (laser energy transfer agent). Nanoparticles emerge from a flame which is
a result of orthogonal intersection of the CO2 continuous wave laser beam with the reactive gas mixture and are
collected on a porous filter. Zhuowei Liu [18] synthesized -ZrP nanoplatelets by the hydrothermal method in which
a solution made by dissolving zirconyl chloride octahydrate in deionised (DI) water was vigorously stirred put into
an autoclave. The resulting crystalline -ZrP disks were collected by centrifugation and then grounded with a mortar
and pestle into fine powder. Hamdi E. Ahmed [19] used physical vapour synthesis method for producing Al2O3 and
SiO2nano-powder. R.K. Sahu [20] synthesized copper nanoparticles using mechanical micro-machining technique.
Rajesh Purohit [21] discussed various techniques used for growth of CNTs. Three popular methods are arc
discharge, laser ablation, & chemical vapour deposition (CVD). The common characteristic of these techniques is to
provide energy to a carbon source for the creation of Carbon atoms that generate CNTs.

3. Preparation of nanofluids

Preparation of nanofluids is the key step to the experimental studies of nanofluids. Two kinds of methods have
been employed in producing nanofluids. One is a single-step method and the other is a two-step method. A brief
discussion on nanofluids preparation processes is given in 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3.

3.1 Single-step direct evaporation method

In this method, the direct evaporation and condensation of the nanoparticulate materials in the base liquid are
obtained to produce stable nanofluids. Several single-step methods have been arrived for nanofluids preparation.
M.A. Akhavan [22] used chemical vapour deposition (CVD) process to produce multi-walled carbon nanotubes
(MWCNTs) nanofluids with deionised water. Morteza Khoshvaght [23] and Milad Rakhsha [24] prepared CuO
nanofluids using electrical explosion of wire (EEW) in liquid media which turns the bulk metal to nanoparticles. H.
Bahremand [25] prepared nanofluids with silver nanoparticles and water as the base fluid using Plasma Nano
Colloid maker (PNC) as special equipment by EEW technique in the liquid media. R.K. Sahu [20] synthesized
copper nanofluids using a developed -EDM experimental setup. In -EDM material is removed from both the
electrodes through melting and evaporation. The block diagram of the tailor made -EDM experimental setup is
shown in Fig. 3.

Fig.3 -EDM experimental setup [20]

4052 Veeresh Fuskele et al/ Materials Today: Proceedings 4 (2017) 40494060

3.2 Two-step method

In this method, first the nanoparticles are obtained by different methods and then are dispersed into the base
liquid with or without surfactant. S. Venkatachalapathy [26] used two-step method to obtain homogeneous and
stable suspensions of CuO nanoparticles mixed with de-ionized water without any surfactants and the suspension
was placed in ultrasonic homogenizer for 60 min duration. Mohsen Nazari [27] and M.H.U. Bhuiyan [28] used
two-step method to prepare Al2O3/water nanofluids without any surfactant. Paisarn Naphon [29] used ultrasonic
method for preparation of Titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanofluids without surfactant. Jian Liu [30], R. Sajedi [31],
Saleh Salavati Meibodi [32] and E. Sadeghinezhad [33] used the same method for preparing graphene/ionic liquid,
SiO2/water, SiO2/water+EG and grapheme nanoplatelets (GNP) nanofluids respectively. Hyun Jin Kim [34]
manufactured acetone-based Al2O3 nanofluids using the two-step method with the sphere-, brick-, and cylinder-
shaped nanoparticles (Fig. 4) without any surfactants or additives.

(a) Sphere (b) Brick (c) Cylinder

Fig.4 TEM images of the nanoparticles [34]

Ehsan Ebrahimnia-Bajestan [35] prepared nanofluids by adding little by little TiO2 nanoparticles to the solution
of the cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB) and deionised water. The mixture was then sonicated
continuously inside an ultrasonic bath for approximately 35 h. The suspensions were found stable for the duration
of about 3 months without visually observable sedimentation. Z. Said [36] prepared TiO2/distilled water (DW)
nanofluids using a highly pressurized homogenizer. M.M. Sarafraz [37] prepared the nanofluids by sonicating and
stirring the dispersion of TiO nanoparticles into the DI water as a base fluid. L. Colla [38] also prepared TiO2
nanofluids using the two-step method. P.V. Durga Prasad [39] prepared the nanofluids by dispersing Al2O3
nanoparticles in distilled water and stirring the mixture with SDBS (Fig. 5). Mohammad Hemmat Esfe
[40], Hemant Kumar Gupta [41] and Deepak Kumar Agarwal [42] used the two step method for preparing Al2O3-
water and kerosene-Al2O3 nanofluids respectively.

Fig. 5 Preparation of bulk quantity Al2O3 nanofluid [39]

Soner Gumus [43] prepared nanodiesels by direct mixing of CuO, Al2O3 nanoparticles and diesel fuel as base
fluid and ultrasonicated for 1 h at 40 Hz ultrasonicator. Ammonium Polymethacrylate and sodium silicate
 Veeresh Fuskele et al / Materials Today: Proceedings 4 (2017) 40494060 4053

(Na2O7Si3) were used as dispersants for preventing particle agglomeration during formation of nanofluids. M.
Karami [44] used CuO nanoparticles with PVP (Polyvinylpyrrolidone) as dispersant to prepare the CuO nanofluid in
water and EG as base fluids. An ultrasonic agitator was used to stir thoroughly the nanofluid mixture for 30 min. V.
Nikkhah [45] employed two-step method to prepare CuO/DI nanofluid with SDS as surfactant. Qinbo He [46] and
K. Goudarzi [47] also used same method for preparing CuO nanofluid. Hamdi E. Ahmed [19] used two-
step method for preparation of SiO2+DW nanofluid. Arun Kumar Tiwari [48] prepared four nanofluids by mixing
Cerium Oxide (CeO2), Aluminum oxide (Al2O3), Titanium Oxide (TiO2) and Silicon Oxide (SiO2) in distilled water.
Ultrasonic vibrator was used for proper and stable mixing.

Derakhshan [49] used heat transfer oil and multi-walled carbon nano-tubes (MWCNTs) for preparing nanofluids
by an ultrasonic processor and an electrical blender. Di Yang [50] prepared nanorefrigerants by mixing MWCNTs
directly to the refrigerant and vibrating the mixture in the ultrasonic shaker with the dispersant Span-80. Thierry
Mar [51] and Mansoor Farbod [52] prepared stable MWCNT nanofluids by dispersing MWCNT in a mixture of DI
water. Meibo Xing [53] used both the physical and chemical methods for preparation of SWCNTs-nanofluid. A.
Shahsavar [11] introduced a new concept of hybrid nanofluids, incorporating CNTs in a Fe3O4 containing ferrofluid
with an aim to increase the thermal conductivity of the fluids. The aqueous mixture of ferrofluid and CNTs is
homogenized using ultrasonication technique to prepare hybrid nanofluids. Due to the interaction between the
tetramethylammonium hydroxide (TMAH) coated magnetic nanoparticles and gum arabic (GA) on the surface of
nanotubes they are physicadsorbed. Mohammad Hemmat Esfe [54] prepared hybrid nanofluids by mixing
nanoparticles of CNTs and Al2O3 with DI water. Gawe Zya [55] prepared yttrium aluminium garnet (Y3Al5O12
EG) nanofluids by two-step method with mechanical stirring and ultrasonication. Luo Zhichao [56] adopted
conventional two-step method to prepare the nano-enhanced phase change material (NePCM) with nano-titania
nanoparticles and Erythritol as phase change material (PCM). You Young Song [57] used stainless steel 316L
nanopowder with distilled water as base fluid in two step method for production of nanofluids. M. Sadeghalvaad
[58] prepared nano-enhanced water-based drilling fluid (NWBF) by mixing TiO2/PAM nanocomposite with
distilled water and stirring at 11000 RPM while adding bentonite. Sampo Saarinen [59] prepared nanoemulsion by
emulsifying a mixture of Sorbitane trioleate and Polysorbate 20 (Tween 20) used as surfactants, droplet material (n-
decane), and the base fluid by an ultrasonic mixer and magnetic stirring. T. Parametthanuwat [60], D. Cabaleiroa
[61] and Haoran Li [62], Mohammad Hemmat Esfe [63], Xiaoke Li [64], Irfan Javed [65] used two step method to
prepared silver, zinc, magnesium Silicon carbide and heptanes nanofluids respectively. Angel Huminic [17] used the
same method for preparing FeC nanofluids with double ultrasonication.

3.3 Other methods

There are some other literatures where different approaches were expressed. Mohammad Goharkhah [66]
synthesized ferrofluid via the co-precipitation process. Briefly, stoichiometric amounts of FeCl2.4H2O and
FeCl3.6H2O are dissolved in DI-water and degassed via Argon gas purging. Then, NH4OH solution is gradually
added into the iron solution under the mechanical stirring until pH reaches 12. The black precipitate is removed
from the liquid phase via centrifugal and magnetic separation. The obtained solid product is redispersed in DI-water
and TMAH under stirring until the stable ferrofluid is obtained. Esmaeil Shahriari [67] produced silver nanofluids
by irradiation process. Silver nitrate (AgNO3) was added into PVA solution and stirred magnetically. The mixture
was then irradiated with -radiation (reducing agent). This -irradiation produces hydrated electrons that reduce the
silver ions to silver atoms, which then distributed in the solution. Ahmad Amiri [68] developed an electrophilic
addition reaction under microwave irradiation as a promising, quick and cost-effective approach to functionalize
Graphene Nanoplatelets (GNP) with ethylene glycol (EG) (Fig. 6).
4054 Veeresh Fuskele et al/ Materials Today: Proceedings 4 (2017) 40494060

Fig. 6 The experimental procedure for chemical-assisted functionalization of GNP with EG [68]

4. Stability of nanofluids

Nanofluids can lose their ability to transfer heat due to their proneness to agglomeration. The stability of
nanofluids is a critical factor in the evaluation of nanofluids that can alter the thermo-physical properties of
nanofluids for applications. This section contains the stability evaluation methods for nanofluids and stability
enhancement processes.

4.1. Stability evaluation methods for nanofluids

4.1.1. Zeta potential analysis

Based on the electrophoresis theory the zeta potential () indicates the repulsion force between two particles (Fig.
7). This zeta potential can be increased by controlling the pH of the fluid. It is pronounced that the absolute Zeta
potential value over 60 mV show excellent stability, above 30 mV are physically stable, below 20 mV has limited
stability and lower than 5 mV are evident to agglomeration [9]. A lot of researchers have gone through zeta potential
test of nanofluids for stability analysis.

Fig.7 Zeta potential of nanofluids [73] Fig. 8 Zeta potential values of GNP nanofluids as a function of pH value [33]

Z. Said [36] employed a Zeta-seizer Nano ZS to examine the average size of the nanoparticles in the base
medium, along with the zeta potential value. Nanofluids with high zeta potential value of 41.8 mV were obtained
after 30 days. S. Venkatachalapathy [26] showed that stability of nanofluids depends on its electro-kinetic
properties. To ensure the stability of nanofluids, Zeta potential test is conducted by a Zetasizer indicating +31.4 mV
value, which confirms the nanofluid to be stable. V. Nikkhah [45] used the DLS analyzer to measure the zeta
potential of CuO nanoparticles in water. Results showed that for stabilizing the nanofluids, pH of nanofluids must be
smaller or higher than 9.45. E. Sadeghinezhad [33] showed that zeta-potential measurements are a convenient
approach to characterize the stability of nanofluids. Zeta potential value of 37.8 mV for the natural pH suggested
that the stability of GNP nanofluids were acceptable for heat transfer applications (Fig. 8). Xiaoke Li [64] Zeta
PALS 190 Plus instrument was used to check the zeta-potential of SiC nanofluids. It was found that the zeta
potential values of test samples were between 53 and 54 mV approximately. S.S. Khaleduzzama[69] performed Zeta
potential analysis to quantify the stability of Al2O3-water nanofluids and Zeta potential value was found to be 53.6
mV. The nanofluids were found to be stable for 30 days.
 Veeresh Fuskele et al / Materials Today: Proceedings 4 (2017) 40494060 4055

4.1.2. Sedimentation method

It is the most basic method for stability evaluation of nanofluids [14]. The stability of nanofluids is indicated by
the weight or the volume of sediment. If the supernatant particle concentration remains constant with time then
nanofluids are generally considered to be stable. Soner Gumus [43] investigated the sedimentation stability of
various nanodiesels by maintaining the pH to determine iso-electric point. The drop in dispersion volume of
interface as a function of time was also observed. Xiaoke Li [64] performed the sedimentation experiment for EG-
based SiC nanofluids and found that the nanofluids was homogeneous and stable even after one month. E.
Sadeghinezhad [33] performed a visual inspection of sedimentation in the GNP nanofluids and it was indicate that
the GNP nanofluids were stable even after the heat transfer run. S.S. Khaleduzzama [69] examined the stability of
the nanofluids by observing the sedimentation photographs of the nanofluids captured after 30 days of preparation.
Xuefeng Shao [70] classified the nanofluids as stable and unstable by observing TiO2-H2O nanofluids containing
different ratios of Titanium nanotubes and nanosheets (TiNTs and TiNSs). Sedimentation velocities of nanoparticles
of nanofluids of different concentrations were indicated by measuring sedimentation heights (Fig. 9) variations with
time. It was found that binary nanofluids stabilities could be improved effectively when concentration ratios of
TiNTs to TiNSs are at suitable range compared with TiNTs or TiNSs alone.

.
Fig. 9 Pictures of stable nanofluid (a) unstable nanofluids (b) and sedimentation heights of stable nanofluid (c) unstable nanofluid (d) [70].

4.1.3. Spectral analysis method

Spectral analysis via UV- vis spectrophotometer is a very useful method to evaluate the stability of nanofluids as
it gives quantitative results corresponding to concentration of nanofluids. Mansoor Farbod [52] investigated the
stability of refluxed and unrefluxed carbon nanotubes (CNTs) by UVvis absorption spectra and the nanofluids were
found to be stable for 80 days. E. Sadeghinezhad [33] verified the stability of the graphene nanoplatelets (GNP)
nanofluids by measuring periodically reflective index (absorption) from UVvis spectrophotometer and indicated
that the nanofluids were stable up to 30 days (Fig. 10). 2015 Di Yang [50] evaluated the stability of nanorefrigerants
using transmittance method with visible spectrophotometer. It was shown (Fig. 11) that the transmittance decreased
as the mass fraction increased and addition of the dispersant can improve stability. As time passes, stability
decreases as the transmittance increases.

Fig.10 Relative particle concentration of nanofluids with sediment time [33] Fig. 11 The stability of nano-refrigerants: Transmittance [50]
4056 Veeresh Fuskele et al/ Materials Today: Proceedings 4 (2017) 40494060

4.1.4. Electron microscopy and light scattering methods

Measurement of particle size distribution by microscopy and light scattering techniques are two general methods
for observing particle aggregation. Very high resolution microscope such as TEM and SEM are applied to capture
the digital image of nanoparticles, known as electron micrograph. Xiaoke Li [64] observed the microstructure of SiC
nanofluids by the scanning electron microscope (SEM) after 24 h (see Fig. 12). S.S. Khaleduzzama et al. [69]
captured the microstructure and particle distribution of Al2O3-water nanofluid using TEM. Good dispersion of
particles has been observed in Fig. 13 within the range of 100 nm scales. Nevertheless, few overlapping of
nanoparticles have also been observed. Hyun Jin Kim [34] quantitatively evaluated the suspension stability of Al2O3
nanofluids using a laser-scattering method (Fig. 14). The laser scattering method measures the intensity of light
transmitted by each nanofluids solution. Nanoparticles suspended in nanofluids both scatter and absorb
electromagnetic waves such as lasers. As a result, the suspension stability of nanofluids can be quantified by
detecting the intensity of light transmission as a function of time.

Fig.12 SEM image of SiC/EG nanofluids [64] Fig.13 TEM image of Al2O3-water nanofluid [69] Fig.14 Laser-scattering method [34]

4.2. Stability enhancement procedures

Preparing stable suspension of nanoparticles in the base liquid is the first step in applying nanofluids for heat
transfer enhancement. Normally, there are three effective methods used to attain stable suspension of the
nanoparticles, which are controlling the pH value of the suspensions, adding surface activators or surfactants and
using ultrasonic vibration. All of these techniques aim at changing the surface properties of suspended nanoparticles
and suppress the formation of clustering particles in order to obtain stable suspensions.

4.2.1. Addition of surfactants

Stabilization of the nanofluids is done by adding surfactants to the base fluids to lower its surface tension and
increase the immersion of the particles, thus avoiding fast sedimentation. In researches, several types of surfactant
had been utilized for different kinds of nanofluids. Y.L. Zhai [71] used Sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) as surfactant
to increase the stability of the Al2O3+H2O nanofluids. Z. Said [36] found no sign of aggregation for a period of a
month for TiO2 nanofluids as the surrounding face of the TiO2 nanoparticles is absorbed by the Polyethylene Glycol
(PEG) molecules, creating a compressed layer around the particles. Arun Kumar Tiwari [48] used Cetyl Trimethyl
Ammonium Bromide (CTAB) surfactant to ensure better stability and proper dispersion without affecting nanofluids
thermo-physical properties. Sampo Saarinen [59] showed that emulsions exhibit long term stability only if both
Ostwald ripening and coalescence are hindered. Nonionic surfactant mixtures of sorbitan trioleate and polysorbate
have shown to be effective stabilizers of n-decane/water emulsions due to steric effects of their large, polar head
groups. P.V. Durga Prasad [39] found that sodium dodecyl benzene sulphate (SDBS) surfactant is best suitable for
long-term stability of nanofluids. Additionally surfactants may increase the thermal resistant between the
nanoparticles and the base fluids which may lead diminish the enhancement in the thermal conductivity [2].
 Veeresh Fuskele et al / Materials Today: Proceedings 4 (2017) 40494060 4057

4.2.2. Surface modification techniques

This is the surfactant free method. Long term stability can be provided to the nanofluids by injection of
functional nanoparticles directly into the base fluids. Soner Gumus [43] showed that in order to make nanoparticles
to be stable in a base fluid, it should be evolved to surface modification. In addition, well-dispersed suspension can
be obtained with high surface charge density to generate strong repulsive forces. The surface charge density can be
affected by the pH of the nanodiesels suspension which was controlled using hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) in analytical grade. Mansoor Farbod [52] found that surface modification and the reduced length
of the CNTs, improved the stability of the nanofluids with no significant sedimentation observed after 80 days.

4.2.3. pH control of nanofluids

Stability of nanofluids is directly related to its electro-kinetic properties; therefore, pH control of them can
increase stability due to strong repulsive forces. V. Nikkhah [45] employed pH control method in order to stabilize
the test nanofluids using the HCl + NaOH to control the pH of nanofluids. A new combinational method was
employed involving the three steps of pH control/Stirring/sonication. Stability for about 1080 h at any concentration
of nanofluids can be achieved.

4.2.4. Ultrasonic agitation

2016 Mohammad Mehdi Derakhshan used an ultrasonic processor without any surfactant for 6 h generating
pulses of 400 W at 24 3 kHz to disperse the MWCNTs nanoparticles into the base oil and to break large
agglomerates of nanoparticles in the fluid and make stable suspension. Y.L. Zhai [71] used the ultrasonic vibrator to
vibrate the nanofluids and found that the vibration with 8 h can effectively avoid nanopowders sediment. To obtain
stable SiO2/water nanofluids R. Sajedi [31] used an ultrasonic cleaner of 240Wand 50 Hz along with a magnetic
stirrer.

4.2.5 Stirring

Jong Sung Lee [72] confirmed that the dispersion stability can be obtained by stirring the nanofluids for 1 h. Fig.
15 show the cluster size variations of SiO2 and Al2O3 nanoparticles in time with and without stirring as a function
time, respectively.

(a) (b)
Fig. 15 Cluster size of (a) SiO2 nanoparticles (b) Al2O3 nanoparticles as a function of time with/without stirring [72].
4058 Veeresh Fuskele et al/ Materials Today: Proceedings 4 (2017) 40494060

5. Conclusions and future work

This paper covers a brief overview of the recent investigations in the field of nanofluids with focus on
preparation and stability of the same. Various methods for synthesis of nano particles have also been studied.
Chemical process is found to be fast but the chemicals used in the process are toxic and lead to non-ecofriendly by
products. Eco-friendly biological approach shall be studied in future. It is understood that the two-step preparation
method is accepted by the major portion of the researchers as it is simple and economic. Also, most of the metal
oxide based nanofluids are produced by two step methods because of its better stability than single step method.
Having studied so many preparation methods, it is still a challenge to make homogeneous and long-term stable
nanofluids with negligible agglomeration and without affecting the thermophysical properties to meet practical
engineering requirements. Some researchers prepared their nanofluids without using surfactants or adjusting pH
since they aim at changing the thermo-physical properties of nanofluids. Therefore, it is unavoidable to prevent
particle sedimentation without using dispersants or pH control. However, an optimum amount of surfactant and pH
value can be found to keep the physical properties constant. Furthermore, the timing for the ultrasonic process is not
optimized properly with respect to different nanoparticles and base fluids. The long-term stability of nanofluids is a
key issue for both scientific and practical application. It can be mentioned that different nanoparticles need their own
stability method. Sometimes, these methods have to be combined together while in other cases just one method
would be adequate to obtain the preferred stability. To date, the long-term stability of most studied nanofluids is not
confirmed and more basic theoretical and experimental work is required for improving the stability of nanofluids.
Hybrid nanofluids have shown promising improvement in thermophysical properties and further work on the same
can be carried out in future.

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