Chapter 2 Geography, Society & Culture Overview Chapter 1 dealt with society as providing the framework for culture. Culture, with its social institutions, organizations, cultural values and norms, develops within a confined geographical space, called its society. The culture that develops is geography-specific and the society's material and non-material culture must necessarily relate to the problems and potentials that are understood by members of that geographic space. However, culture is not something that can be studied satisfactorily by separating out one component such as geographic background, even though that is an important component. One must always be aware that attitudes and responses to the environment, are historically conditioned. In this chapter, therefore, Caribbean space is understood as being both geographically and historically configured. Objectives’ By the end of this chapter, you will be able to: 1, describe how geography, history and human ecology, help us to understand Caribbean society and culture; 2. appreciate perceptions and conceptions of space on the part of Caribbean people; 3. explain the cultural responses of Caribbean society to plate tectonics, landforms, soils, coral reefs, hurricanes, ocean currents and winds; 4. develop an awareness of, and sensitivity to, the fragility of the environment; 5. recognize that Caribbean identity is shaped by both the diverse and common cultural responses of people to their environment. ' These objectives refer to those of Module 1, specific objective 4, of the Caribbean Studies syllabus. 23Introduction ‘The cuitural responses of Caribbean people to various aspects of their environment are remarkably consistent across the region. Such responses could be thought of as constituting a basic component of the Caribbean identity. While that may be so, as Caribbean people we also know that there is a great deal of diversity within the various societies of the region. We can study these themes — identity, commonality, diversity — through the relationships that have been fashioned between Caribbean people and their environment. The most fruitful way of unearthing these themes is through expanding our geographical Knowledge of the Caribbean. Geography, as a field of study, emphasizes the relationship between human society and the physical environment. Human society is a product of a people’s history. Thus, the geographic study of any area must incorporate its history. Human ecology, perhaps, provides us with the best synthesis of how to study the impact of geography on Caribbean society and culture. Human ecology refers to the interrelationships that are forged between a people and their environment. The sense they make of this environment is how they understand the place of people in nature. Human ecology refers to the lived experiences of a people (Unwin, 1992). It refers to how they perceive space, their sense of place. In order to understand the impact of features of the environment on Caribbean society and culture, the chapter takes into consideration historical and human ecological influences on Caribbean cultural responses. We should be able to discern commonality and diversity across the region and so better understand the Caribbean identity Responses to Geographic Hazards ‘An environmental hazard refers to a natural event having the potential to threaten man’s life and property (Nagle, 1998). In the Caribbean, the occupation of a particular geographic space, makes the region vulnerable to a number of geological and meteorological hazards. Hazards refer to the threat or the risk of damage to life and property, whereas an environmental disaster refers to the realization of such a hazard. 24The human ecology of the region demonstrates how people perceive and respond to threat and disaster. If we are examining cultural responses (material and non-material), they must necessarily have occurred over time and, thus, this discussion has an historical dimension to it. ATLANTIC OCEAN Converged EI Margin Fig. 1 - The Caribbean Plate Geologic Hazards ‘The geographical area known as the Caribbean is situated on a geologic feature known as the Caribbean Plate which has boundaries or margins with other plates nearby (Fig. 1). A plate is large piece of crust (on which there may be both land and ocean) and it moves in relation to other plates, largely propelled by currents in the heated mantle below the crust. On the whole, the surface of the globe is made up of six or seven large plates and many smaller ones. The Caribbean Plate is a small plate. 8The theory of plate tectonics is an explanation of how plates move in relation to each other, thereby, creating certain tectonic activities at their margins. It is generally believed that plates meet each other at three kinds of margins, each with distinctive characteristics, These margins are described below. 1. The divergent (or, constructive margin), where magma upwells from the ‘mantle on to the crustal surface. The plates move away from each other being Pushed by this upwelling and diverging movement from below. This results in gentle volcanic eruptions and some earthquake activity, but on the whole such ‘margins are not associated with severe environmental hazards. The Hawaiian Tslands are situated on such a margin. In the Caribbean a very small divergent margin may be developing west of Jamaica (Sealey, 1992). 2. The transform margin (sometimes referred to as a fault), where plates slide Past each other, generating earthquakes as the rocks move to release the stress of movement and friction with the other plate. The San Andreas Fault, along the west coast of North America, passing through San Francisco, is such a margin. In the Caribbean two major transform margins delineate the northem and southem boundaries of the Caribbean Plate (see Fig. 1) — note, the Cayman Trench, the site of many strong earthquakes, A majority of epicentres are associated with these two transform margins. An epicentre is the Point on the surface of the earth where an earthquake is felt most intensely. This is because it is directly above the deep-seated origin of the earthquake, the focus. Earthquakes then pose an environmental hazard to Caribbean countries along the transform margins. 3. The convergent (or, destructive margin), where plates collide with each other forcing one back down into the mantle. This margin poses two kinds of environmental hazards — voleanic and seismic. For our purposes, we will emphasize the eastern edge of the Caribbean Plate, a convergent margin along the line of the Lesser Antilles. You will notice from Fig. 1 that the westem edge of the Caribbean Plate lies in the Pacific Ocean and affects Central America in a similar fashion. 262 Vineentena Mt, Soulnde | CARIDDEAN 22a, 1 Le vichin neat o Fig. 2- The Convergent Margin Volcanic Activity In direct contrast to the volcanoes created at divergent margins, the volcanoes along the convergent margins have the potential to be destructive. . Fig. 2 shows how the oceanic plate is forced down into the mantle, a process known as subduction. This is accompanied by friction of plate grinding against plate, generating heat intense enough to ‘melt the rocks back to their original molten form, magma. Through cracks and faults in the surface rocks, some of this magma bubbles to the surface, to form voleanoes ‘The lava comprising these volcanoes varies in quality but tends to be much more viscous than the lava generated at divergent margins. (Once magma cools at the surface to from rocks, as in the formation of volcanoes, it is called lava). Viscous lava congeals quickly to form rock and seals the voleanic pipe (Fig. 2) so that the upwelling of more magma’ from below is blocked. Gases in the upwelling magma develop pressures high enough to forcibly eject the plug of old lava blocking the pipe. When this happens the situation is ripe for a disaster. The force of the eruption takes large pieces of the voleano itself into 27the air breaking up as pyroclastic materials (clouds of hot ash, lava, debris and poisonous gases), and lava pours out as well to cover the surrounding areas. The theory of plate tectonics describes the dynamic nature of plate margins as going through a history themselves. The Greater Antilles were once situated on a convergent margin and experienced volcanic activity and seismic activity much like the Lesser Antilles today. Over time the margin changed to a transform margin. Today only extinet volcanoes occur along the margin of the Greater Antilles. Active and potentially dangerous volcanoes are Mt. Soufriere in St. Vincent, Mt. Pelee in Martinique, the Soufriere Hills in Montserrat but there are many other active volcanoes present in the Lesser Antilles. Kick em Jenny is an underwater volcano off Grenada. It is believed that volcanic activity may be dying out in the extreme north of the archipelago (Saba) and the extreme south (Grenada). However, the recent volcanic disasters in Montserrat may caution us to prefer to think in terms of volcanoes being dormant rather than extinct. ‘Retivity 2a ‘+ Consuit a geography textbook to ind out he range of voleani¢ phenomena that occur inthe Caribbean, What are the volanc features which oocur in your county? What geological reasons can you offer i ‘here is no volcanic activity, past or present, in yout county? * Name the counties, the voleanoes, and dates of volcanic eruptions that have occured inthe Eastern Caribbean over the lst century. possible, nd eye-winess accounts ofa least one eruption. What was the response ike tots csastor? * During a volcanic eruption, death and destruction can occur in different ways. Investigate some of those ways. (Hint: nuee ardente, volcanic bombs). Seismic Activity Along the convergent margin of the Lesser Antilles earthquakes are a common ‘occurrence, Scientists have been able to show that earthquakes originating deep within the earth (130 km or 80 miles) are felt along the line of convergence, associated with subduction. Earthquakes in both the Greater and Lesser Antilles have not been particularly severe, compared with those in Central America along the western margin of the Caribbean Plate. There, subduction is believed to be occurring at a much greater rate than in the eastem Caribbean, and both volcanic and seismic activity are morewidespread and intense. On the whole though seismic activity represents a continuing environmental hazard to the people of the Caribbean. Activity 2:2. = Explain what is an earthquake? '* [tis widely known that the Richter Scale is used to record the magnitude of earthquakes. The Mercalli ‘Seale is used to measure intensiy. What is the difference between the two? "= Which Caribboan counties have experienced the most severe earthquakes? When? What arethe responses to such disasters over time? * Responses to earthquake disasters are often complicated by secondary hazards. Give examples of ‘secondary hazards. ‘* Name a least one landform resutng from earthquake activity. Diversity If you look closely at Fig. 1 on page 26 you will realize that both Guyana to the south and the Bahamas to the north are some distance away from the instability associated with the margins of the Caribbean Plate. In both these areas volcanoes and earthquakes are virtually unknown. In fact, Guyana is situated on the Guiana Shield ~ a shield is an area of very old hard rocks - that underlie parts of Venezuela and neighbouring areas. Volcanic eruptions are not a feature of life in the Greater Antilles, while both volcanoes and earthquakes plague the Lesser Antilles. Trinidad and Tobago is influenced by the transform margin which forms the southemn boundary of the Caribbean Plate. The islands are, therefore, prone to earthquakes. From this you realize that the perception of risk or hazard associated with earthquakes or volcanoes will differ from country to country within the region. This is simply because one becomes aware of a risk or hazard if a disaster has happened before. If it is not likely to happen in your country, or prediction is difficult, chances are that such hazards are relegated to the periphery of your awareness. This is an example of the understandings that spring from human ecology. A specific geographic space is perceived according to the relationships people forge there and the experiences they have. The perception of ‘living’ space or place to many Caribbean people is focused on their territory or society. For example, while the disaster in Montserrat appalled everyone, to many people in the 29Caribbean living far away from Montserrat, or whose territory is non-voleanic, there was something of a spectacle about it. The realization that this was a disaster that destroyed a society and scattered its people, and which continues to be a nightmare, may not have touched many that closely. Activity 2:3 = Consider the archipelagic nature of Caribbean islands and the scattered, isolated distribution of the ‘mainland tertories. Do you believe that the study of human ecology can offer insights ito the diticutes ‘ofthe integration process inthe Caribbean? ‘The diversity of responses to hazards mentioned above can be summarized in the box below. Box 1 - How do people cope with environmental hazards? ‘At an individual level there are three important influences upon an individual's response: "Experience - the more experience of environmental hazards the better the adjustment to the hazard * Material well-being - those who are financially better off have more choice about the hazard = Personality ~ is a person a leader or a follower, a risk-taker or risk-minimiser? URimately there are three choices - do nothing and accept the hazard; adjust to the situation of living in a hazardous environment; leave the area. It is the adjustment to the hazard that Is of interest. The level of adjustment will depend, in part, upon the risks ‘caused by the hazard. This includes:- ‘= Identification of the hazard "= Estimation of the risk (probability) of the hazard Evaluation of the cost (loss) caused by the hazard ‘The adjustment to the hazard includes three main options:~ 1. Modify the loss burden - spread the financial burden, for example. insurance, disaster relief. 2. Modify the hazard event — building design, building location, land-use zoning, flood relief schemes, seawalls, avalanche shelters and emergency procedures ~ efforts have been made to control extreme events including flood relief schemes, seawalls and avalanche shelters. 3. Modify human vulnerability to hazard - emergency procedures, forecasting, warning. Source: Nagle (1998), p. 9.The excerpt in Box 1 is a generalized model used to understand the impact of hazards on society and culture, Rather than limiting the impact to only material effects such as life and property loss, the model attempts to go deeper and probe the options people believe they have about hazards in their environments. Thus, people are not mere puppets. They have beliefs, values and experiences, which prompt them to be vigilant, fatalistic or imbued with a sense of urgency. The impact of a disaster then relates to perceptions, abilities, and possibilities, operating at both the societal and personal level. ‘Activity 2:4 Having read the extract in Box 1, analyze the ways in which an earthquake or a volcanic eruption impacts on society and cuture in the Caribbean. You can use a specific occurrence in an identified county. The folowing suggestions may help in organizing your answer = What are the typical responses of people in that county tothe threat ofa disaster? In other words what are their perceptions of risk? What factors gover this perception of risk? For example, ifthe experionce is that ony shalow tremors occur in that county, then the ikelhood is they have a reduced perception of the risk of a malor earthquake. This factor is important when discussing the impact ofa disaster on a specific country. ‘= From such a discussion, you may be able to identity certain cuttural values adopted towards the ‘environment. You could make the point thatthe understandings and experiances people have of tei land ‘gover ther rolationships wi it, their way of thinking about ft. Thus, values underpin the human ecology of anarea. However, these values may not be enightened or enabling. Rather, they could be complacent and iresponsibl, The best examples tend to be places that are at risk but have not as yet experienced a major disaster. ‘The model given above can be used to study any environmental hazard, for example, a hurricane, in its impact on Caribbean society and culture. Again, diversity of experience may be a significant factor in the eventual impact of a hurricane on a particular country. While we are all at risk some countries have experienced rather more hurricanes than others. However, countries near the Equator are not likely to experience a hurricane because the Coriolis Force is not well developed in this area. From this statement you understand that to examine the impact of a hazard across the Caribbean, some basic geographical knowledge about itis necessary. atConceptions of Space and Place Landforms In geography, the stady of landforms is referred to as geomorphology. Landforms are also known as physical features. They refer to familiar landscapes such as mountains, slopes, valleys, plains, volcanoes, plateaux, and coastal features such as bays, headlands, cliffs, beaches and coral reefs. Landforms have impacted on society and culture in the Caribbean largely through their influence on the location of different systems of production and the siting of settlements. In the study of landforms and the impact on society and culture we can see clear historical links. For the most part, the areas settled by the aboriginal inhabitants do not correspond with the major areas of settlement and production today. Our societal and cultural forms tend to be overwhelmingly represented in the areas favoured by colonial authorities. European settlers in the Lesser Antilles preferred the leeward coasts, offering sheltered locations, coastal plains, and wide river valleys, for the protection of shipping, the growing of crops and the building of settlements. The mountainous backbone of these countries became the hiding places and sites of resistance for the aboriginal peoples. ‘The influence of landforms on systems of production, such as peasant or commercial farming, displays a remarkable degree of eommonality across the Caribbean. Much the same can be said for settlement pattems. The wide, coastal plains of all countries but particularly, Jamaica, Trinidad, Belize, Puerto Rico, Cuba and Hispajiiola, as well as the rolling landscape of Barbados, provided ideal conditions for the development of the plantation system of economic production. Many a traveler in the Caribbean has been amazed at the sameness in the landscape when visiting the sugar cane fields of Belize, Guyana or Trinidad. The flat land and coastal proximity ensured that raw materials could be easily exported to metropolitan countries and manufactured goods imported. Even today, centuries later the plantation economy continues with its major features intact and the largest settlements, the capital cities, are mainly the old European ports of call. 32However, diversity has been introduced. The freed African population often preferred to cultivate small plots of land for themselves than continue to work on the estates. This was possible in larger territories where they could retreat to hilly interiors and marginal lands to escape harassment. In smaller territories, this was not possible. Many islands of the Lesser Antilles abandoned sugar cane production as conditions had never been ideal there for plantations. The sugar economy had been forced onto a landscape ill suited to it. Today they have diversified agricultural production, to suit the hilly terrain by planting many crops and rearing animals on small plots of land. Hence, in many territories today there is a strong tradition of peasant agriculture associated with the production of food crops. Developing alongside this, was the growth le to see in the Caribbean, instances of of a free and independent spirit. Thus, it is pos: where people have wrested back from the Europeans forms of life closer to their ancestral roots, aided by the physical features of the environment, The Maroons are a classic example. However, equally strong is the European tradition in areas where the landscape has been judged ideal for the plantation economy. Aspects of human ecology Itis possible to see in the account above two differing conceptions of land and space. The European tradition translates into our modem world of increased economic utilization of resources and urbanization. This is the modernization road to progress that we have adopted based on the Western model. Relationships with the land are characterized by exploitative means of production. Land is valued for its economic worth. Land that is labelled unfit for economic exploitation, is often abandoned, used as a dump, or left unprotected to the elements. Moreover, little attention is paid to steep, forested terrain taken over by squatters. We often detect undercurrents of these values when people describe a place as primitive or ‘not developed’, actually meaning that it should be put ‘right’. These are referred to as mainstream values about the man-land relationship. (On the other hand, small-scale peasant farmers who own land value it for other reasons. It is tied to family values and inheritance norms. Often it is family land and thus valued, not as one person's property but as a source of sustainable livelihood for many members 33of the family, which is eventually given as a productive legacy to the younger generation. It is valued as a continuing source of independence for a people who had to win it with struggle. Human ecology helps us to see that peasant farmers” relationships with their land are bound up with the historical need of their ancestors for freedom (from the cultural values of the oppressor). And, bound up with the kind of landscapes that were available to them - lands that were marginal for cultivation, hilly, and in the interior. ‘Thus, we see again history and geography shaping the human ecology (cultural values about land) of the Caribbean. The Caribs and Creoles of Dominica ‘The cultural landscape seen through aboriginal eyes offers a third and different view. The aboriginal concept of land and the impact of landforms on their society and culture are often ignored today and there is the persistent myth that they have been largely exterminated. But, Palacio in 1995 reported that “... there are over 75, 000 aboriginal peoples in the CARICOM countries of Dominica, St. Vincent, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana and Belize” (p. 25). We can learn much about the human ecology of aboriginal landscapes through a study carried out by Honeychurch (1995) amongst the Caribs and creoles of Dominica. ‘As Fig. 3 shows Dominica is sandwiched between, and within sight of, two territories of France ~ Martinique and Guadeloupe. Both the Dominican and the French governments have sought to regularize the sea borders between their states. However, the Caribs of northeast Dominica for centuries now have established informal trading, smuggling and family ties with the descendants of the African population, the Creoles, in Guadeloupe, Marie Galante, Desirade, and Les Saintes. The language, Creole, is spoken on both sides. ‘The dugout canoe of the Caribs has facilitated fast and easy access across the international divide as it has done for hundreds of years. Honeychurch refers to landforms as a crucial consideration in understanding the human ecology of the Caribs, not only in northern Dominica, but in neighbouring islands as well From Grenada to Guadeloupe the islands of the Lesser Antilles are marked by a high, rugged, central range. This was convenient to the Caribs in their centuries of resistance to 34the Europeans. Small pockets along the windward coasts became their strongholds, away from the Eurocentric economies and settlement patterns developing on the leeward side of the island. The islands actually came to reflect in miniature the core-periphery nature of dependent economies with metropolitan countries - modern influences in the capital cities directly communicating with the metropole, and the wild, isolated, windward coasts, where knowledge dating from pre-Columbian times comprised the folk culture. Gzew 6 | Grnbber : FHlen tic Sec owe Ccean | Scat: — SH! 1, a150,00° & Laas ewaut Fig. 3 Dominica & the Overseas Departments of France DY - Mourtainous | backbone The human ecology of aboriginal society differ from those of the ‘Europeanized’ governments of the islands. In the eyes of a hunter, gatherer, fisherman, warrior, basket weaver, smuggler, the Caribbean was configured very differently. There was no respect, for artificial borders that now officially separated friends, relations customer and kin, speaking a common language even across the sea. Actually, because the land was so inhospitable to a sedentary way of life, this particular human ecology developed of outward looking to others across the channel who were similarly marginalized by the geography of their own island. 95‘The human ecology of aboriginal society encouraged a view of the Caribbean that did not stop at the sea border because the canoe was an integral part of their culture. They were more adept on the sea than negotiating the mountainous ridges of their islands. It did not stop at international frontiers, first imposed by European invaders and then sanctioned by the newly independent Caribbean states, because those frontiers divided their kith and in. “For them the intervening sea channels are a continuous territory which transcends the physical and legislative confines of landform and nation state; it is the all- encompassing geocultural space of their wider Creole world” (Honeychurch, 1995, p. 69). The impact of landforms on aboriginal and Creole society and culture in these ~ islands has been and continues to be fundamental in understanding the human ecology of the area. It contributes to the diversity of culture in the region. Accommodations to the Environment. Soils, Winds & Ocean Currents One way of understanding the human ecology response to the environment is to view it as accommodating to what the environment has to offer. We can use this interpretation in developing an understanding of how soils and winds and ocean currents have influenced Caribbean society and culture and continue to do so. Activity 2:5 ‘+ Use an atlas to craw a soilmap of your county. Find out the characteristics ofthe principal sol type. Contrast he soll map with one showing land use. This tem refers to how man has used the land ~ agricuture, setlement, roads, unused land ~ and, therefore, rlats to the production ofa cuftural landscape. ‘= Analyze the information to explain the influence of so type on the cultural practices ofthe society. "Can you detect the role of cultural values in how soil has been utilized in your country? In a similar fashion, we can investigate the impact of winds and ocean currents on the development of Caribbean society and culture. The prevailing wind in the Caribbean region is the North East Trades. Prevailing winds refer to strong and constant winds that blow all the year round. The combination of these winds and ocean currents were 1g the Europeans this far west and led them to believe they had ‘discovered’ a ‘new’ world when they landed in the Bahamas in 1492. In the days of sail influential in brin,nc Caribtcan and only rudimentary forms of navigation, the winds and ocean currents region, facilitated European voyages further than they had ever gone before in open sea. Hurricanes are critical to any study of winds in the region. The north-east trades bring weather disturbances, formed off the coast of Africa, westwards into the Caribbean. These may begin as easterly waves and weak tropical depressions. A few will develop into full-blown tropical storms and intense low-pressure systems known as hurricanes, Accommodating to the incidence of hurricanes is a feature of Caribbean society and culture, Activity 2:6 ‘+ Rellect on the various ways in which winds in the Carbbean have infuenced material cuture. For ‘example, in your county are bung styles (of rofs and other structures) a response to winds? * What about settlement patfems onthe whole? There is a particular typeof rainfall that is caused by moist winds being forced to rise over coastal mountains. Find out about tis kind of rainfall. Does it have the potential o influence setlement pattems in your county "= How do fishermen adjust othe patterns of winds and curents nearshore? (Hin: consul a geography text about land and sea breezes). Attitudes to the Environment Coral Reefs Almost all the islands of the Caribbean, and the territory of Belize, are fringed by coral reefs. The clear, warm, shallow waters allow coral polyps to thrive. The massive structure of the reef is built up over thousands of years. Fringing reefs and atolls are the more common reef structures in the Caribbean. However, the second largest barrier reef in the world is found off Belize. ‘The complex nature of reefs provides habitats, shelter and food for thousands of species of marine flora and fauna. This is referred to as the rich biodiversity of coral reefs, They also offer great potential for producing new forms of medicines. This is because the many organisms comprising the reef produce different chemicals for self-protection which are presently being researched by scientists. o7Reefs are extensive structures that break the force of waves approaching shore. They enable coastal harbours and beaches to be protected especially during storms and high waves. The survival of swamps, mangroves and wetland ecosystems can also be attributed to the prevalence of reefs. Reefs are economically valuable to human populations. Fishing is productive because of the rich biodiversity. Reefs are a major eamer of the tourist dollar. They offer varied underwater experiences such as snorkelling, scuba diving, game fishing, and photography. They are also visited by many spectators who view the corals through glass bottomed boats. The corals and:shells of the reef have decorative value and are used by craftsmen to fashion jewellery and other items to sell to tourists. Threats to Coral Reefs. Itis precisely because reefs are so abundant in species and spectacular in themselves that they have come under direct threat from man. In indirect ways too man has threatened the life of coral reefs. Not too long ago reefs were threatened only by storm damage and the unlikely events of volcanic eruptions or climatic changes over vast periods of time such as the ice ages. ‘Activity Below is a ist of various ways man has threatened the survival of reefs. Collect information about these threats especially in relation to reefs near you. = Overishing ‘= Extracting corals, sand and fimastone ‘= Tourist trafic (walking on the corals, uel from boats, dropping anchors) = Coastal development = Potltion = Bleaching * Cyanide Fishing The quote below discusses some interrelationships in complex ecosystems, such as the coral reef. It shows that a succession of destructive events is put in train when natural systems are over-exploited by man.In the Caribbean decades of overfishing has led in many places to very low levels of grazing fish species. Because of this, herbivorous sea urchins have played an increasingly important role in keeping algal growth down, In the early 1980's, huge numbers of these urchins succumbed to disease. Without grazing fish or urchin populations, and spurred on in many areas by organic pollution, algae quickly dominated the reefs, inhibiting coral settlement and sometimes overgrowing living corals. In areas such as Jamaica, hurricanes further compounded the damage, reducing coral to rubble. Formerly thriving reefs were replaced by low-diversity and low-productivity algal systems. (Bryant et al, 1998, p.12). This proclivity of man to destroy the environment should be studied in some depth. Interrogating issues such as this ought to go a long way in helping Caribbean people develop more enabling and empowering attitudes to the land and its resources. The study described below may be used as a starting point. Potter (1992) in a study carried out in Barbados, found that people's perceptions of the environment and land were bound up in its economic importance. He refers to Lowenthal’s (1961) earlier work where he stated that the ... “view that land is valueless save as commodity persists in many aspects of West Indian life today” (Potter, 1992, p.236). He goes on to say that — “The reasons given by Lowenthal for the disinclination to adopt non-economic and non-commercial perspectives on land in the Caribbean, basically involve the influence of slavery and colonialism. Thus, writing in the mid 1980's, his analysis initially stresses that the Caribbean is a place and not a people, due largely to ihe heterczeneity of the population, which it was argued giv-s rise to a lack of attachment between Caribbean lands and their inhabitants.” (p. 236). In an earlier section of this chapter we described these attitudes as mainstream, Activity 2:8 "Discuss Lowenthal’s ideas about the instrumental value land and environment seems to have for | Caribbean people. Think of any arguments that show a different side to this analysis. Potter in his later analysis indicted Caribbean governments, rather than Caribbean people, in pursuing policies for quick economic benefit. He says that: 39what may be described as the basically uncritical promotion of tourism has occurred in many Caribbean territories despite the most visible ecosystem degradation, including the destruction of coral reefs, mangroves and wetland areas, coastal marine pollution and loss of biodiversity (p. 242). Coral reefs have been incorporated into the cultural activities of Caribbean people as a source of livelihood and a means of recreation. The wider uses of coral reefs in marine protection and as a source of medicines have not been generally recognized. Mainstream attitudes to the environment tend to prevail and there is considerable evidence that Caribbean governments allow such practices to take place for economic gain. The impact of coral reefs on Caribbean society and culture then can largely be attributed to the cultural value of understanding the environment in an instrumental way. Indeed in some countries it is now illegal to remove coral. Today there is evidence in most countries that mainstream attitudes to the environment are gradually being infused with environmentalist values. These relate to an appreciation of the fragility of the environment, the usefulness of the environment in supporting our way of life, and the understanding that at even our present levels of technology there are aspects to the environment that we cannot replace. Summary Various disciplines contribute to an understanding of the evolution of Caribbean society and culture. Geography, history and human ecology provide the main concepts in developing an appreciation of the perceptions and conceptions of space on the part of Caribbean people. The areas of emphasis chosen in this chapter to discuss material and ‘non-material cultural responses to the landscape were plate tectonics, landforms, soils, coral reefs, hurricanes, ocean currents and winds. We learned that values attached to the landscape are to a certain extent historically conditioned and that there is much scope for continuing to develop our awareness of, and sensitivity to, the fragility of the environment, There is evidence of commonality in the impact of the environment on Caribbean people's way of life. However, because of differences in history and, landscape, variations also occurred from place to place in the human ecology response of Caribbean societies and cultures. This overlay of commonality underlying diversity is thought to be characteristic of the Caribbean identity. 40