Material science 1

Assignment 1 MehulBansal

1(a) (i) Liquid solubility: it is the ease with which two metals dissolve together in the liquid state.
Examples: Iron- gold and Silver- gold are completely miscible in their liquid states.

(ii) Solid solubility: It is the ease with which two metals are mutually soluble over the whole
range of composition in the solid state as well as the liquid state. Such a mixture is considered to be
a solution rather than a compound because the crystal structure of the solvent remains unchanged
by addition of the solutes, and exist in a single homogeneous phase.
Examples- Solid solutions of copper-nickel and gold-silver.

(iii) Solid insolubility: This occurs when two metals are soluble in the liquid state but insoluble in the
solid state.
Examples- Be-Cd and Zn-Sn are insoluble in their solid states.

(b) (i) Eutectic alloy:  The melting point of an alloy of two or more solids depends on the
relative proportions of its ingredients. A eutectic alloy is a mixture at such proportions that
the melting point is a local temperature minimum, which means that all the constituents
crystallize simultaneously at this temperature from molten liquid solution. 

(ii) Proportions of iron- carbon alloy for-

Eutectoid composition: 95.7% iron and 4.3% carbon

Eutectic composition: 99.23% iron and 0.77% carbon

(iii) Critical cooling rate for carbon steel: If plain carbon steel in the austenitic state is quenched to
room temperature, it changes very quickly to martensite. However quenching to temperatures in
the 250o – 550oC range, give structures intermediate between martensite and pearlite since there is
insufficient atomic mobility to form the cementite laminations of pearlite. The carbide is then
precipitated as fine platelets.

In each case there is a time lag or incubation period before the austenite starts to transform, and the
transformation itself takes a definite time. This is shown by an isothermal transformation diagram
which is the critical cooling rate. The slower the critical cooling rate the better is the hardenability of
the steel.

2.(a) How do normalising and annealing differ in effect? For what purpose are they used?
Ans) Normalising produces maximum grain refinement and the tensile strength, ductility
and toughness are greater than can be obtained by annealing.

Process annealing is used on cold worked low carbon steel to induce softness and relieve
internal stresses.

Full annealing is used on hot worked and cast steel to relieve internal stresses and to refine
the crystal structure.

Normalising is used to avoid excessive softness from the annealing of steel. It gives a fine
pearltic structure, and a more- uniform structure. Normalized steel has a higher strength
than annealed steel; it has a relatively high strength and ductility.

(b) Mass effect: Plain carbon steels have a high critical cooling rate and cannot be hardened
throughout if their thickness exceeds 9mm because the centre parts cannot lose heat quickly
enough. The effect of section thickness is therefore an important factor in heat treatment and is
known as the mass effect.

(c) Work hardening in low carbon steel: Work hardening is caused due to the deformation processes
such as rolling, drawing and bending which elongate the grains in the direction of metal flow.

Effect: It makes the carbon steel harder to deform further. There is a general rise in the U.T.S.,
hardness and a drop in the percentage elongation. Eventually a point is reached where further
deformation becomes uneconomical or the metal starts to crack.

How to relieve: The hardness can be heavily reduced by softening the metal at intervals and this is
done by annealing.

(d) Hot Working: When a metal is hot worked, it is shaped while it is above its re-crystallisation
temperature. In these circumstances, annealing takes place while the metal is worked rather than being a
separate process. The metal can therefore be worked without it becoming work hardened. Hot working is
usually carried out with the metal at a temperature of about 0.6 of its melting point.

Finishing it at a temperature too high makes the grains grow in size by absorbing other which are
less stable, and finishing at a temperature too low causes work hardening.

3.(a) Objects in steel making: Steel being a very versatile metal, its every grade has different
properties. For every application a different grade of steel is required which should be able to adapt
itself to its environment without failure. Steel making is a practice of synthesising different grades of
steel which meet the needs of a wide range of customers using different steel making processes.
(b) What determines whether the acid process or the basic process is used in the production of
steel?

Ans) It depends on whether an acid (siliceous) or basic (limey) slag is used .

An acid slag necessitates the use of an acid furnace lining (silica); a basic slag, a basic lining
of magnesite or dolomite, with line in the charge. With an acid slag silicon, manganese and
carbon only are removed by oxidation, consequently the raw material must not contain
phosphorus and sulphur in amounts exceeding those permissible in the finished steel.

In the basic processes, silicon, manganese, carbon, phosphorus and sulphur can be removed
from the charge, but normally the raw material contains low silicon and high phosphorus
contents.

(c) Why are the sulphur and phosphorus contents of steel strictly limited?

Ans) Phosphorous: Its detrimental to toughness and shock resistant properties of steel. It forms iron
phosphide which lowers the melting point of steel and also tends to produce hardness and
brittleness. That is why its quantity is rigidly controlled, the maximum allowable content being about
0.05%.

Sulphur: It forms iron sulphide which is brittle and has a low melting point. The iron sulphide collects
at the grain boundaries which makes the steel “cold-short” (unsuitable for cold working) due to
brittleness, and “hot-short” (unsuitable for hot working) because the iron sulphide melts at hot
working temperature causing the steel to crumble. Therefore the maximum allowable content is
about 0.05%.

(d) Fully killed steel: It is the steel that has been completely deoxidised by the addition of an
agent such as silicon or aluminium, before casting, so that there is practically no evolution of
gas during solidification. Killed steels are characterised by a high degree of chemical
homogeneity and freedom from porosity.

(e) What is the range of the carbon content of steel, and how does the variation in carbon content
affect the harden- ability?

Ans) The carbon content in steel ranges from 0.07% to 1.5%.

When the carbon content of steel increases, so do the strength and hardness, but at the same time
the ductility decreases.

As the carbon content is varied, different compounds of iron and carbon are formed, and these
compounds mix and combine in different ways. It is the varying properties of these compounds
which influence the behaviour of steel.