Investigating Issues in the Caribbean Lecture 3

Data can be presented in a number of ways. The researcher chooses the presentation according
to (a) the type of data (e.g. whether in the form of text or numbers), and (b) what he or she
wants to highlight (usually trends, patterns or statistical relationships).

Tabular Presentation

Tables are most of used for statistical data.

Statistics are figures that illustrate something which

happens in the real world.

Most table are used to present figures but some may be used to compare concepts or as a type
of summary, especially in qualitative research. Tables are also use to show a simple
relationship.

Using table to show the numerical data offers the following advantages:

The figures are exact and can be read as they stand. Any calculations you wish to make
or conclusions you wish to draw can be easily followed by the reader.
Tables are easy to compare with each other, as long as the data are comparable.
Tables are adapted to show exactly what you want them to show.

NB. The more complex you make your table the harder it is for your reader to glean the
information you want to present. So it is probably wise to keep the tables relatively simple.

Graphic Organizers

A graphic organizer may be anything from a bar graph to a line graph to a flow chart, a Venn
diagram or a Y- Chart. Different types of graph may have different uses when presenting your
findings. For examples:

Line Graph show trends well.

Histograms or bar charts allow comparison
Pie Charts show proportional relationships.
Divided bar graphs can effectively combine a bar chart with a pie chart.
Pictograms (this combines artwork with a diagram) give a human dimension.
Venn diagrams are useful when you want to show how groups overlap.
Flow charts illustrate a process or system of cause and effects involve in it. The classic
flow chart uses a number of boxes and arrows going in different directions to show
choices and their consequences.
 Other diagrams use combination of arrows, lines and boxes or circles, including cloud,
tree, chain, continuum and cycle of diagrams. You can be creative and invent your own
versions of any of these to help present research data. Matrices, T-charts (a type of
table) and Y-charts are also useful for presenting and organizing verbal data.

Verbal data describes information given in words rather than in

figures, which is particularly useful for qualitative research.

Maps

Maps may come in handy for certain types of research e.g. geographical or historical projects, a
map may be much better than text description for presenting, or even just illustrating the
information being presented. Additionally, the use of maps could be employed in:

In a case study for climate changes especially with a historical dimension.

Changes in the land use or population density/distribution
Tourism venues or cruise-ship port or routes could be clearly shown using maps.

Text

Text introduces other types of presentation such as tables, charts and maps, and develops the
angles or argument which the writer wants to put forward so as to pursue the reader to his or
her point of view.

In qualitative research, text is what the researcher has to present, analyze and report on the
data. Writers manipulate the text in many ways to illustrate the data just as quantitative
researchers use a variety of graphical forms to present numerical data. In much qualitative
research today, the authors voice is deliberately interwoven with the other voices of the
participants in the form of verbatim excerpts. The qualitative researcher employs thick
description to portray participants and the context as well as events, cultural practices and
social life.

Deliberate use is made of different genres of writing styles to enliven the report and to better
convey the lived experiences of the participants. In many instances the metaphors bring out the
essence of a phenomenon better than descriptive language.
Analyzing data

Data analysis involves two processes.

After analyzing the data several times, the researcher should think about the
information in relation to the research questions and how it can be organized to show
its relevance to them. He or she should also classify responses from the respondents
and consider whether comparison can be made.
The second step is to present the range of data collected in the research report and this
varies according to the approach to the research adopted. In mainstream social science
research this approach normally uses quantitative methods of data analysis where the
data are organized and presented in the form of tables and statistical diagrams.
In quantitative studies the Presentation of Findings uses little text or discussion of
issues. In such studies the following section is described as Interpretation of Findings,
where the researcher indicates what the finding means- in relation to the research
questions and research problem.
In alternative and radical approaches to research (qualitative research), where data is
mainly in the form of text (from interviews, observations, diaries and field notes), data
analysis is somewhat different. It consists of organizing chunks of the data into
categories or themes which seem to relate to the research questions and looking for
reoccurring or new themes.

Conclusion and Recommendations

The researcher will summarize the main findings and there implications and state how those
findings relate to the studies already done on this problem. Example, the findings may disagree
with or support previous work or extend knowledge gained by these earlier studies. At this
point the researcher could mention some factors considered to be limitations of the study.

This may include (not intended to be exhaustive):

The sample might have been small;

A significant population might have been left out which would have impacted differently
on the findings (those of a certain age, socioeconomic group or occupation).
The data collection might have taken place over a short period, where time may have
mattered to the outcome of the study.
Recommendations.

Conclusion ends with some recommendations which the researcher believes are appropriate
and could have a significant impact on the problem, but the recommendation must be relevant
to what the study revealed about the problem.

The appendix

This will contain additional information which is pertinent to the research but which is
considered too detailed to go in the text. Example in the study of river pollution, a map showing
the entire river for the region may be relevant. Appendices are usually labeled by a letter, as
Appendix A, Appendix B, and so on.

References

An important aspect of scholarly work is the list of references at the end of the study. This
serves several purposes. The most important however, for citing works used is to acknowledge
the authors and their ideas and thus avoid charges of plagiarism.

One common style used to organize a reference list is American Psychological Association (the
APA system. NB. There is sometimes confusion as to whether references or bibliography is
the correct term for the list. Normally bibliography includes works which was consulted as
background and extended or further reading, while the list of references includes only those
text or sources which are normally mentioned in the paper.

Please see and study and know document called APA reference Handout under MOD(3) on
website Burnett virtual classroom (YCHS).
Principles of Ethical Conduct

Commitment to ethical research.

This includes commitment to:

Treating the respondents or participants as human beings deserving of respect;

Conducting the research in a truthful and trust worthy manner;
Respecting the work of other researchers.

If you do not observe these procedures which allows for truth and avoiding errors, then you will
be fabricating results and misleading the public or the audience to whom this research is
important.

Ethical dilemmas most often occur in qualitative research, where you are dealing with the real
people and sensitive situations. Particularly in action research and participant observation, the
researcher becomes identified with the group he or she is researching, and must be careful to
maintain an ethical a mental distance if not a physical one.

Areas of ethical research include:

Gaining access to the site. Proper channels must be followed in gaining access to the
sites.
Dealing with minor. If students or children are involved in a study, permission must be
sought from parents or guardians.
Introducing the study to the respondents. The participants should be given enough
information about the study so that they can make up their mind about participating.
Collecting the data. There are several important consideration here:
a) Information should be confidential and if it is to be disclosed then it should be
discussed with the participants
b) Participants must be treated with respect- if they refuse to answer a particular
question then that should be respected.
c) Permission is to be sought if the session is to be audio-taped.
d) There should be strong justification for any unobtrusive or secretive measures.
 Leaving the site. In some cases, especially where the research is conducted in an
organization, members who participated should be given indication of findings of the
study or a copy of it.

Other ethical research includes:

Presenting findings without attempting to change or alter data given by the

participants.

Consent
One of the fundamental principles of ethical research is what is known as informed consent.
This occurs where participant give their consent after the researcher has explained the
following, whether in person or using a written information sheet:

The nature and the purpose of the research;

The use to which it will be put;
The proposed collection data method.

Ethical dilemma can arise where there are good reasons for not having the consent of
participants. You could justify this technique by convincing others that there is a possibility that
a questionnaire or interview might not yield truthful data in that instance. Survey data may also
require you to disguise the identity of the respondents.

Privacy and Confidentiality

Like consent, privacy and confidentiality are important.

Privacy. Use pseudonyms or otherwise disguising respondents identity, persons may request
anonymity where research impacts colleague or relatives.

Confidentiality. This involves keeping completely private any information or opinion which
respondents given during the course of the data collection.
There should also be transparency and integrity in any research being conducted. Integrity
refers to moral position, and implies honesty and correct, up right attitude towards the work
being done. Whereas transparency involves openness and an avoidance of the cover-ups,
secrecy and falsity.

WHAT IS PLAGIARISM?
Many people think of plagiarism as copying another's work or borrowing someone else's
original ideas. But terms like "copying" and "borrowing" can disguise the seriousness of the
offense:

ACCORDING TO THE MERRIAM-WEBSTER ONLINE

DICTIONARY, TO "PLAGIARIZE" MEANS
to steal and pass off (the ideas or words of another) as one's own
to use (another's production) without crediting the source
to commit literary theft
to present as new and original an idea or product derived from an existing
source
In other words, plagiarism is an act of fraud. It involves both stealing someone else's work
and lying about it afterward.

BUT CAN WORDS AND IDEAS REALLY BE STOLEN?

According to Jamaican laws, the answer is yes. The expression of original ideas is
considered intellectual property and is protected by copyright laws, just like original
inventions. Almost all forms of expression fall under copyright protection as long as they are
recorded in some way (such as a book or a computer file).

ALL OF THE FOLLOWING ARE CONSIDERED PLAGIARISM:

turning in someone else's work as your own

 copying words or ideas from someone else without giving credit
failing to put a quotation in quotation marks
giving incorrect information about the source of a quotation
changing words but copying the sentence structure of a source without giving
credit
copying so many words or ideas from a source that it makes up the majority of
your work, whether you give credit or not (see our section on "fair use" rules)
Most cases of plagiarism can be avoided, however, by citing sources. Simply
acknowledging that certain material has been borrowed and providing your audience with
the information necessary to find that source is usually enough to prevent plagiarism. See
our section on citation for more information on how to cite sources properly.