Economic Geology

Vol. 73, 1978, pp. 21-28

Sourcelines,
Sourceregions,
and Pathlinesfor Fluids in
HydrothermalSystemsBelated to CoolingPlutons
DENIS 2*ORTON

Abstract

Simulationof hydrothermalsystemsby numericalmethodsperinits computationof tile

initial positions(sources) of all fluids in the system.The locusof thesepositions,which
are sourcelines,definesan essentiallink between the theories of irreversible mass trans-
fer and those of thermally driven fluid flow. The conceptof a fluid sourcelineis intro-
ducedto facilitate the quantitativedescriptionof the initial compositionof fluids which
ultimately circulate through rocks in the vicinity of hot plutons.
The mathematicaldefinition of fluid sourcelinesand pathlinesfor hydrothermal systems
permits the quantitative prediction of the initial position and, hence, initial composi-
tions of all fluids which circulate through rocks in the vicinity of an igneousintrusion
and the variations in temperature, pressure, and rock type along floxv paths and, hence,
the changesin compos. ition of the fluid as it floxvsfrom its source to a position of
interest in the system.
Examples of fluid sourcelines,sourceregions,and pathlinesdefinedfor inert fluids in
an idealized hydrothermal system indicate the predominantsource of fluids flowing
through permeablehot plutons is from host rock enviromnentsadjacent to and above
the pluton. These sourceregionsin two dimensionsinclude rocks from a 50-km2
region as far as 5.5 kin away from a 2.7-kin-wide and 4.5-kin-tall pluton.

Introduction rock alterationassociated

xvithplutonseraplacedinto
FLUIDconvection appears to be a universalprocess both the upper continentaland oceaniccrusts;how-
relatedto igneous
andvolcanic activityin theupper ever, only a few typical examples are mentioned
crust. Furthermore, the flow of fluids from one herein. Compositionaland mineralogical
changesin
geologicenvironlnent into anotheris suggested by carbonate and noncarbonaterocks around plutons
observationsof activegeothermal (Lapwood, have been noted several kilometers away from the
systems
1948; Elder, 1965; Wooding, 1957; Donaldson, phitons(Cooper,1957; Brown and Ellis, 1970), as
1962),stable-light
isotope data(Taylor,1974),gains well as in the plutonsthelnselves(Xielson, 1968;
and lossesof major and minor COlnponents from Gustarsonand Hunt, 1975). Extensive alterations
host rocks,and changesin mineralogy(Meyer, ot rock compositionclearly occur as a consequence
whichsimu- of the large massesof reactive fluids circulating
1950; Villas, 1975). Also, calculations
lateinteractionsbetweenfluidsandrocks(Helgeson, through the rocks.
1970; Norton, 1971) and fluid convectionaround The simulationotrock alterationprocesses,
using
cooling plutons(Nortonandt(night,1977)indicate reasonable estimatesof initial fluid compositions,
that thoroughredistribution of fluids further supportsthe conceptof extensivefluid cir-
of largemasses
is a natural feature of these environments. culation and reactions between fluids and rocks in the
Fluids in the Wairakei geothermalsystemare telnperaturerange from 25 to 350C (Helgeson,
estimatedto havecirculatedthroughpermeablerocks 1970). Analogous studiesothe circulationprocess
for distancesof tensof kilolnetersduringthe active have describedthe styleof fluid motion (Wooding,
thermalhistoryof this region (Elder, 1965; Grind- 1957; Ribandoet al., 1976; Nortonand Cathles,in
ley, 1965). Similarly,meteoricwater circulationto press;Henley,1973)andhaveprovided
somenotion
depthsof severalkilometersis calledupon to ac- of the massesof fluid in the hydrothermalsystems.
count for the oxygen isotope values measuredin The descriptionof actualfluid flowpathsand effec-
numerousplutons (Taylor, 1974). The circulation tive fluid:rock ratios related to coolingplutonshas
paths of meteoricwater throughvarioushost rock provided
quantitative
heuristic
modelsof thesesys-
environments,at moderate temperatureswithout tems(NortonandKnight,1977). The process of
fluid circulation and concomitantreaction with rocks
significant isotopic changes,ultimately flow into
many plutons, where exchangereactionsresult in is, however,not well enoughunderstoodto enable
the depletionof the O contentof the igneousrocks. ore deposit
geologists eitherto testhypotheses
re-
There are numerous references in the literature to gardingthe sourcesof fluidsandore-formingcorn-
21
22 .DENIS NORTOV

ponemsor to 1)redictthe occurrenceof subsurface where T is the temperature; q, the scalar stream-
ore depositson the basis of limited surfaceor drill function; q the fluid flux; 1t, p, and v are the en-
hole data. thalpy, density, and viscosity of the fluid; k is the
The purposeof this communicationis to describe permeabilityof the rock; the therlnal conductivity
and y the volumetricheat capacityof the fluid satu-
the conceptsthat perufit quantitativedescriptionof
rated media; R the Rayleigh number; t the time;
the sourcesand flow pathsof inert fluidswhich cir-
culate in the vicinity of coolingplutons. These the gradientoperator;and y the horizontaldistance
perufit the quantitativedescriptionof the in the tvo-dimensional
concepts sectionto which theseequa-
initial positionsof all fluidswhichultimatelycircu- tionsapply. The conservation of massis explicitly
latethroughrocksin the vicinityof an igneousintru- includedin equations(1) and (2). Equations(1)
sionand the pathsalongwhichthe fluidsflow (in- and (2) are approximatedby finite differencenu-
cludingthe temperature, pressure,and compositionalmericalequationswhich permit the computationof
variationsof the path) from the fluid sourceto any the values of the dependentvariables at discrete
positionof interestin the system. Quantitative pointsin the domainfrom the initial and boundary
description of reactivecirculation
andmineralzoning valuesspecifiedfor the system.
in hydrothermal systemsfollowssimplyfrom the The physicalmeaningof equations(1) and (2) is
concepts presented below,whenthey are coupled apparentif oneconsiders that the fluiddensitygradi-
with those of irreversible mass transfer between ents,on the right-handsideof equation(2), result-
fluidsandrocks(Helgeson, 1970). Thesources and ing from a thermalanomalycausefluid circulation;
redistributionof the chemicalcomponents in reactive e.g.,theydefinegradientvaluesof the streamfunction
fluids will form the basisof a future communication. and, therefore,fluid flux sinceq =-0/0y and
q.= 0/0z. The fluid flux, , in turn transports
Fluid Circulation around Cooling Plutons heatawayfromthethermalanomaly, i.e.,the second
term on the left of equation(1); at the sametime,
Hydrothermalfluid flow is causedby lateral
density perturbations in the fluidsconfined within thermal
anomaly,
energyis conducted
the right-hand side
awayfromthe thermal
in equation(1). Both
the flowporosity of rocks. Fluiddensityanomalies
resultingfromtheruralandconcentration effectsare of these processes give rise to a decrease in tem-
relatively common perature with respect to time and, therefore,
in uppercrustalrocks,especiallythe horizontalfluid densitygradients;and, conse-decrease
thelargethermalperturbations whichoccurin plu-
ton enviromnents. Therefore, it is reasonableto ex- quently,the thermalanomaly is decreased by the
combined convective and conductive heat transfer.
pectfluidcirculation to bea characteristic
featureof The coupled solution of (1) and (2) is achieved by
theseenvironments, if the rock permeability
is suf-
ficiently large.
a series of steady-state computations at explicitly
Fluid circulationin naturalsystemsis not easily stabletime steps,therebydefiningthe temperature
and fluid flux as a functionof time. The pressureis
studiedby directobservation sinceeventhe most in turn computed at eachsteady-state stepby inte-
thoroughly exploredgeothermal systemsarea small
sampleof the total systemand the durationof grationof the Darcy equation,
fieldstudiesrepresents onlya smallfractionof the k
time duration of the thermal anomalies. The lack of q = -- -[VP + og], (3)
a quantitative understanding of fluidcirculation
is,
therefore,not surprising. in whichthefluidproperties,
v andp, areexpressed
However,the fluid flow in plutonenvironmentsas a functionof temperature and pressure,
P, and
canbe effectivelyscaled andrepresented
by partial thegravitational forcevector,g, is constant.Fluid
differentialequations
whichdescribethe conserva- velocities are then determined from
tion of mass,momentum, andenergyfor the fluid-
rocksystem (NortonandKnight,1977): g = q/.. (4)
0T Numericalshnulation
of the equationsquantita-
v + = v.vT tivelypredictsthenatnreof hydrothermal fluidflow
andprovides theoredeposit geologistwitha keyto
(conservation
of energy) (1) understanding howtheseprocesses operated in the
and past.Thereliabilityof thesecomputations andtheir
Op
applicability
to specific
locations
is a directfunction
of the degreeto whichthoseparameters thataffect
F<v.F< = R-- heatandmasstransportin the hydrothermal
system
of momentum) (2)
(conservation (e.g.,permeability,
flowporosity,
heatsource
geome-
 FLUID SOURCEL[NES,
SOURCEREGIO.VS,
AND P.4THL[NES' 23
I
try, and transportpropertiesof the fluid and rock)
are known. The permeabilityof fossilhydrothermal 2

systemsis poorly known and difficultto estimatebut 4r. ,.-SOURCELINE

is requisiteknowledgefor understandingthe ore-
forming process. As a consequenceof the inade-
quate data base, especiallywith regard to perme-
/
ability, computerstimulationrequiresestimationof
these data; numerical results are therefore obtained
for geologicallyreasonableranges of parameters.
The reliabilityof the computations
transportparameters depends
for a givenset of
directlyon the number
of discretepoints usedand on the convergence and
...ROCK
'"'"-..____---VOLU
(R) PATHLINES(I -4)

Fro. l. A schematic of fluid pathlies ad sourcelies.

stabilityof the numericalalgorithm. Pathlinesare defi.ed by equafio. (d) for n = 4 fluid packets
Analysis of idealizedpluton environmentsusing wherethe box indJcates the [itial position,7. 0, of each
the aboveprocedureindicatesthat in systems where fiuJd packet at time 0, and their respective positions are
indicated by tic marks which represe.t equal elapsed times.
permeabilitiesare greater than 10-4 cm convective The variation in distance between the tics alon a pathline
fluid circulationaccountsfor 10 percentor more of reflects the fluid velodty variations. The fluid packets ow
the total heat transport. Permeabilitiesof this order sequentially through a commo rock volume J this schematic
example; however, this is a special case. The He corn
are realized in fractured rocks where the fracture nectJn the orisJnal poskions, boxes, of this special set of
frequencyis on the order of one fractureper meter pathlines de6nes the fluid sourcdne for the rock volume,
The sourcdie may be computed dkectly from equatio (9)
and the fracture apertureis ' 2 /m. The abun- or 4. Note that the sourcelJe for the rock volume de-
danceof fracturescommonlyobservedin plutonen- 6nes the fiuJd source,but the sourcelineis slsni6cantly
vironmentssuggests ferent from the paths oHowedby the fiu[ds rom their sources
that manyof theserocksare host to the rock volume. nce tht simulation Js computed Jn two
to extensive fiuid circulation. The most significant d[mensJons,
the rock volume has an arbJtrary unit depth.
aspectof thesecompnterexperiments for the subse-
quentdiscussionis thatthefiuidflux andvelocity(of environmentare determinedby geologicdata.There-
inert fluids, e.g., fluid approximatedby the 1-120 fore,the reactionhistoryof eachfluid packetmay be
system)can be quantitativelydeterminedfor ideal- explicitlydeterminedon the basisof its initial com-
ized pluton environments. position and subsequentflow path. However, as a
packetmovesfrom one positionto anotherit flows
The Sourceline Concept in Hydro-
throughrockswhichmay havealreadyreactedwith
thermal Systems
fluid which flowed through earlier and probably
Fluid velocitiesmay be computedfor thermal or alteredthe initial composition or mineralogyof the
soluteperturbationsthat causefluid flow in geologic rock. This requires,then, a conceptby which to
systems for whichrockpermeabilities are knownor simulatethe flow-reaction processesat discretepoints
can be estimated. These fluid velocities in turn in the systeminsteadof followingthe fluid circula-
permitthequantitativedescription of fluidpathlines. tion.
Considera fluid packetof somearbitrarypositionin The conceptof a fluid sourceline
is introducedin
the system,thenthe fluid path is definedby order to studythe circulation-reactionprocesswith
dt= Vdt, (5) respect to fixed positionsin the system. A fluid
sourcelineis the locusof pointsof all fluid packets
where\- is the Darcyvelocityand(1is the incre- whosepathlineintersecta fixed positionof interest
mental distancealongthe path traveledduring time in the system. Considersucha positionin a rock
interval, dt. Since the velocityis known as a func- volume,R (Fig. 1). The positionvectorgij, of a
tion of time from equations(1), (2), and (4), equa- fluid sourceline for this positionis definedin terms
tion (5) may be integrated for the nth such. fluid of the individualfluid packetpositionvectors:
packetduringtimeintervalt - to in the system,
i=l,N-1 (7)
',=f,''n(t)dt, (6)wherei and?+arethepositionvectorsfor thefluid
0

where V(t) is the averagevelocityof the nth packets at an initialtime,to,whichflowthroughthe

timeinterval/xt(Fig. 1). rockvolume,andj is an interpolation
particleduringthediscrete factorwhich
Along the nth suchpath,variationsin temperature variescontinuously from0 to 1 asj increases.The
and pressureare also definedfrom the transport individual vectorsare in turn definedby equation
equations (1) and (2), andvariationsin the rock (6), but sincewe are tracingbackalongthe flow
24 D.VI._S
TM3,fORTON

path,the integrationlimitsare reversedwith respect I

CONDUCTIVE:
i i
NO FLOW
i i i
to equation(6): 2KM

VOLCANIC k = Io-Ilcm2
ROCKS
h = g?i(t)dt, (8) VzTo = 20oC/km
i

whereti is the time at whichparticlei was at the SEDIMENTARY

positionof interest,R. The sourceline
positionvec- ROCKS k=IO-Icm2
tor in equation(7) becomes ol

gij = [i(t) q- (i+(t) -- i(t))j-]dt. (9) BASEMENT =iO-17crn2 k= 10-12cm2

ROCKS

The definitionof a sourceline,

for an arbitrary
time interval prior to the end of a thermal event,
followsdirectlyfrom equation(9) (Fig. 1).
A_fluid sourcelinemay be definedat eachdiscrete
point in the systemat which the variation in fluid
velocity is known for the elapsedtime interval of
interest. Since hydrotherlnalfluid velocitiesaround
coolingplutonstypically vary over severalorders of
magnitudethroughoutthe coolingevent, sourcelines
may accordinglybe very sinuouslines.
Examples of Sourcelinesand Pathlines
Fluid pathlinesand sourcelines
for a hydrothermal
systemin the region of a coolingpluton which was
eraplacedinto a stratified permeablehost rock en-
vironmenthavebeencalculated.A.lthoughthe concept
of sourcelinesand pathlinesis quite independentof
extenuatinggeologiccircumstances, the extensionof
this conceptto naturalsystemsis not. Therefore,the
followingexampleis merely a first approximationto
nature. One natural analog to this system is the
stratified host rock environment in southeastern
are considered. The lengthand shapeof thesecircu-
Arizona that many plutonshave intruded (Fig. 2A). lation paths are directly related to the spatial and
The thermal history of this system,for a periodof temporal variation in the fluid velocities. The fluid
- 2 X 10 years,has beensilnulatedby the methods
summarizedabove. The details of this analysisare
thoroughlydescribedin Norton and Knight (1977).
Thoseaspectsof the systemrelevantto this discus-
sion are the initial and boundary conditions(Fig.
2B) and the time variation of the pluton perme-
ability (Fig. 3). The fluid velocitiescomputedat
discretetime intervalspermit the calculationof fluid
pathlinesand sourcelines of the inert fluid assumed
to be in the system.
First we examine examplesof pathlines in the
A iTp:9200C
INSULATING: NO FLOW
FG. 2. 2k two-dimensionalcross sectionof pluton en-
vironment. A. Hypothetical geologic units representing
stratified host rocks around magma initially at 920C. B.
Initial and boundary conditionsappropriate for an idealized
systemfor which host rock permeabilitieswere assignedon
the basis of estimates,Norton and Knapp (1977). The
level of emplacementof the pluton was selectedby an
analog to Tertiary plutons which occur in southeastern
Arizona. The bottom boundary conditions for flow and
energy simulate decreasesin permeabilityand increasesin
temperaturewith depth,and the conditionsat the top of the
system simulate conductiveenergy loss and no loss of fluid
to surface hot springs. Side boundaries are selected for
convenience and do not significantly affect the results dis-
cussed herein. Pluton permeability is 10-* cm, or ef-
fectively zero, in order to represent an initially unfractured
magma. The domain is symmetrical with respect to a verti-
cal centerline through the pluton. The domain was dis-
cretized into 144 points for the numerical solution of equa-
tions, resulting in a spatial error on the order of 5 percent
of the system height. Discrete time steps were computed
such that the computationsconverge to within approximately
ten percent of the true value defined by the differential
equations.
2
a_
o
_1

systemand the temperature-pressure variationsen- I

2
I
4
I
6 B
I
I04
counteredalongthe flow paths. Pathlinesfor fluid
TIME (YEARS)
packets(Fig. 4), 1, whichoccursin the relatively
permeablerocksand is initially severalkilometers Fro. 3. Permeability variations with respect to time in
the upper portion of the pluton, Figure 1, points 1 and 2.
away laterally and abovethe pluton, 2, which is Values ot k: 10- cm= are equivalent to a millidarcy.
adjacentto the pluton near the contactbetweenlow Instantaneous permeability variations were used to simulate
and high permeability rocks, and 3, which is fracturing of pluton as it crystallizes and cools to below
solidus temperatures, circa 800C. These variations are in
adjacentto the plutonin the low permeabilityrocks accord with the observationthat plutons in these types of
near the plutonsidecontactand deepin the system, systems are thoroughly fractured.
 FLUID SOURCELL\'ES',StOUI?CEREGIO%5'.
A_VD .ITIILI.\,E.9 25

paths are initially through host rock elvironnelltS TEMPERATURE (C)

then into the pluton,wherepacket3 remainsfor the I00 200 300 400 500
2 x 105-year duration of the event while 1 and 2
move out the pluton top and through host rocks
2 I I I
again. The Darcy velocitiesof the fluids along their
--

20 Vapor)
respective pathsraingefroman averageof 10 scm/sec
for packet2 to < 10-s cm/secfor packet3. 200

Representingthe path of the fluid packetsthrough

temperature-pressure spacevith respectto the phases
in the H20 systemperinitsquantitativepredictionof
the solutionpropertiesof the circulatingfluid packets
(Fig. 5). Packet 1 flows downwardalong a nearly 400
--

normal temperature-pressuregradient, then its teln-

perature increasesat constantpressureas it flows --

into the pluton. The pluton temperature by this

time has decreasedto 200C. This packet then
600
flows out the pluton top and upward into overlying
host rocks subparallelto a nearly normal gradient.
Packets2 and 3 have similar paths exceptthat they
are initially at higher pressuresthan they subse-
quently encounteralong their paths. The solution
propertiesof liquidand supercriticalfluid alongthese
types of paths vary in a manner that undoubtedly Fro. 5. Fluid pathlinesafter 2 X l-years elapsedtime,
has a profound affect on fluid-rock reactionsalong 1-3, from Figure 4 projected onto a temperature-pressure
section of the HO system, illustrating variations in condi-
the path (HelgesonandKirkham, 1974a,1974b). tions encounteredalong flow paths with respectto the liquid-
Sourcelinesfor fluids which fioxv through posi- vapor surface. Arrows represent direction of flow and tic
tions 1 and 2 in the pluton indicatethat during the marks represent 25,000-year time increments.
initial 5,000- to 15,000-yearcooling period fluid
sourcesoccurred entirely within the solidifiedand filled with fluidsderivedfrom the lnagmacrystalliza-
permeable pluton,but thatat tinms> 10* yearsfluids tion process.These fluids are analogousto maglnatic
were derived from the surrounding host rocks fluids but are approximatedby the I-I20 system.
(Fig. 6A). An implicitassumption in the computa- Relativelylarge concentrations, > 15 weight percent,
tion is that the fractureswhich form in the pluton are of dissolvedcomponentsin this fluid phase might
temporarilyalter the flow pattern as a result of the
CONDUCTIVE: NO FLOW
higher densityof thesefluids with respectto lower
concentrationsin the surroundinghost rock fluids.
[ '2KM'' 2' The importantpoint here is that during the cooling
period fluids derived from the host rock environ-
mentsare the predominantfluids which flow through

.....
the pluton. Fluid sources within the host rocks,
however, occur as far as 2 km above and 5 km
laterally away from the pluton (Fig. 6A, sourceline
1, sourcepoint M) but are dominantlyfrom within
,! , the 2.7-kin-thick permeablelayer. The inflectionsin
sourceline1 betweenposition(1) and the tic mark at
--

25,000 years reflect both the fracture of the pluton,

I and the shift in the fluid densityperturbationupward
INSULATING: NO FLOW
Fro. 4. Fluid pathlines 1-3 after 2X l-years elapsed
time: 1, for fluids whose initial positions are in relatively
permeable host rocks and far away from the pluton; 2, in
low permeability host rocks, near the side contact of the
pluton and adjacent to the portion of the pluton which has
time dependent permeability; and 3, near the base of the
system adjacent to the pluton. Tic intervals along the path-
lines are at 25,000-year increments,and arroxvs represent the
direction of fluid packet motion.
sinrelatedby a suddenincreasein its permeability,
as the rocks and fluids above the pluton become
heated.
Sets of sourcelinesdefinedfor the pluton describe
a sourceregionfrom which all fluids circulating
through the pluton for some time interval were
derived. The sourceregionin the host rocks for
fluids which flowed through the example pluton ex-
tends over a 50 kn cross-sectionalarea (Fig.
26 DENIS NORTON

i
CONDUCTIVE:
i
NO FLOW
i i 1
circulatesback through 4 in 4 x l0 ' years. This
recirculationis characteristicof horizontallystrati-
fied host rocks within confined permeable units.
M
-- I00%-- Positionsdirectly abovethe pluton, 5, 6, and 8, have
sourcelineswhich indicate a portion of the fluids
were derived from sourceswithin the pluton; how-
50% ever, a predominanceof these fluids is from sources
i iI
I 1, ' within host rocks. Becauseof the thorough redis-
- .... 4 -- -- --/ 1 tribution of fluids from host rocks adjacent to the
_ / pluton to regionsabovethe pluton,the effectof fluids
//
from magmaticsourcesis probably obscured.
i/
Sources for hydrothermal fluids in natural sys-
o
i

A a tems analogousto the model systemanalyzed herein

I

INSULATING: NO FLOW
are predictedto be predominantlyfrom the hostrocks
REGIONS adjacent to and above the pluton. These source-
Fxc. 6. Sourcelines and sourceregionsfor fluids which
regionsencompass rocksup to 5.5 km awayfrom the
flow through the pluton. A. Sourcelinesfor positions 1 sideof the pluton. A portionof the fluidsis derived
and 2 for the system in Figure 2, for all fluids which flow from within the pluton, but it only accountsfor less
through these positions in 2 X 105 years elapsed time. Tic
marks on the sourcelinesare at 2.5 X 10*-yearintervals,start-
than a few weight percentof the total fluid massthat
ing at the end of the line marked with the position number. ultimatelycirculatesthrough the pluton. The com
Position 3 representsa region of effectively zero perme- positionsof thesefluidsare a functionof conditions
ability and therefore cools predominautly by conductive heat
transfer for comparisonwith 1 and 2. The box, {. repre- at their sourcesprior to pluton eraplacement,as well
sents the fluid source farthest from position 1 and coincidesas temperature-pressure variationsand the composi-
with M in Figure 4 on pathline 1. Note the difference be- tions of fluids and rocksalong their pathlines.
tween the sourcelines and the actual pathlines that fluids
flow along. The regions around the positions (indicated by The nature of fluid sourcelinesin other types of
dashed lines) denote the effective volume (1.25 kma and systems,such as those with uniformly permeable
1 cm deep) used in computingmassflux in the vicinity of a host rocks, vertical fracture zones over the pluton,
respective position. B. Sourceregions for all fluids flowing
through the pluton. Regions are delimited by contours impermeable plutons,and boundaryconditions open
depicting100 and 50 percentof those fluids whose sourceare to flow, have been examined. The sourcelinesin
in the host rocks and were defined by 25 independentsource-
lines. thesesystems are similarto the modelsystems dis-
cussed. However,in systems with imperlneableplu-
6B). During the initial 5 X 104-yearcoolingperiod tons,k < 10- cm2, a minor amountof fluidscircu-
the fluid mass that circulatesthrough the pluton late throughthe hot plutons. Variationsin bound-
from host rock sourcesis derived entirely from ary conditions, permeabilities(for values:> 10-
betweenthe 50 percentcontourand the pluton mar- cm2), andplutongeometry resultin variations
in the
gins, Figure 6B. The fluid from these sources shape
of thesourcelinesandpathlines,
butthe over-
amountsto approximately95 percent of the fluid
flowingthroughthe upper2 km of the pluton during CONDUCTIVE: NO FLOW
the 5 X 104-yeartime interval; the other 5 percent ' 2KM' ' '
of the fluid flowing through the upper 2 km of the
pluton was derived from sourceswithin the pluton.
At an elapsedtime of 2 X 10 years, only 2 per-
cent of the fluid was derived from sources within the
pluton, and 98 percent was derived from between
the 100 percenthost rock contourvalue and the
plutonmargins. Also, more than 75 percentof the
fluid flowing through the upper 2 km of the pluton
was derivedfrom the permeablestratigraphicunit in z
--

the host rocks.

Sourcelinesfor fluids which flow through posi-
tions in the host rocks are considerablymore di- INSULATING: NO FLOW
versified than for fluids through positionsin the
pluton. At positionsin the relatively permeable FG. 7. Sourcelines for fluids which flow through host
rocks. The sourcelinesfor positions4-8, marked by small
host rocks,typifiedby 4, Figure 7, a considerablecircles,indicatea diversityof sourcelines
and sourceregions
amount of fluid recirculationis evident, even to the in the domain and a thorough mixing of fluids. Tic marks
degreethat fluid originatingin the vicinityof 4 occur at every 2.5 X 10 years.
 FLUID SOURCELINES,SOURCEREGIONS,.4ND P.4THLINES 27
iooo
all conclusions discussedaboveare not significantly 3

differentfor othersystems.
The natureof fluid-rockreactionsmaybepredicted 800

if the temperature,pressure,fluid velocity, and o

amount of fluid flowing through the positionsof 600

interestare known. Therefore,thesevariableswere
definedfor regions in the pluton coincidentwith
sourcelinespositions,as representedin Figure 6A. 00
The temperaturevariationwith time at position3 in J

the pluton is includedsinceit is analogousto a plu- oo

ton which coolsby simple conduction,whereasthe

variationsat positions1 and 2 are affectedby the o
, I I , i I
large convectiveheat transport (Fig. 8A). At o 5 10 I5 20 X IO 4

TIME (YEARS)
position1, Fignre 6A, temperatures decrease rapidly
to 250C at -'6 x 102 years, coincidentvith a
15
secondfracture event. At position2 temperatures
decrease to < 400Cat > 3 x 104years,suggesting
that relativelylow temperaturesare commonfor the
major portionof the coolingtime in relativelyperme-
able plutons (Fig. 8A). [In general,the increasein
pluton permeability to >_ 10-xz cm2 results in the
rapid coolingof the upperportionof the pluton to a
few tens of degreesabovethe regionaltemperature
at the corresponding depth. Pressuredoesnot vary
significantlyduring the cooling event and tends to
remainat abouthydrostaticpressure. However, the
2'--''''__
fluid velocity increasesrapidly in responseto the x tO-7
o I I I i I I I
initial conditionsandthepermeabilitychanges. Darcy o 5 I0 15 20 x 104
B
velocitymaximumsof 5 x 10- cm/secand 5 X 10- TIME (YEARS)

cm/secare realizedat positions1 and 2, respectively,

Figure 8B. A subsequentdecreasein velocity fol-
lows this initial peak and then a gradual increaseto
a second maxima. This second maxima in velocities
occursat -, 3 x 104 years, as a consequence
of fluid
transportproperties(Norton and Knight, 1977). As
a consequence of theselarge velocities,60 percentof
the fluid whichcirculatesthroughtheseregionsdoes
so in , 10 yearselapsedtime (Fig. 8C).
Conclusions

The redistributionof fluids in hydrothermalsys-

tems can be effectively estimated on the basis of x I0-2
numericalsolutionsto partial differentialequations O0 5 I0
i I
15
I
20 x 104
which simulatethe coolingof a pluton. The amount C TIME (YEARS)
and velocityof the fluid flowing througha reference
positionin the systemcan also be simulated. The FIG. 8. Transient values for transport variables in the
source and flow path of all the fitlid which flows region around sourcelinepositions1, 2, and 3 in the pluton,
Figure 6A; note tic marks on the ordinate occur at 2.5 X
throughthe referencepositioncan be quantitatively 10'-year increments,similar to sourcelinetics. A, tempera-
determinedfrom the numericaldata and the concept ture, B, Darcy velocity, and C, mass flux as a function
of fitlid pathlinesand sourcelines.Theseconcepts of time through a 1.25 km-areaaround a respectiveposition.
The velocity and mass flux for position 3 plot along the
are applicablein anv environmentwhere finids circu- ordinate at the scale of these plots. The maxima on the veloc-
late throughrocksbut appearparticularlyusefulin ity and mass flux plots near 3 X 10a years result from the
eraplacementof the pluton. The subsequentdecreaseis a re-
studiesof hydrothermalsystems. A detailedap- sult of the permeabilityincreaseof the pluton. The maxima
proximationof the sourcelines in real systemsob- around3 X 10 years are the result of the systemevolvingto
viously requiresestimationsof 1)ulk rock perme- temperature-pressure conditionsat which the transport prop-
ertiesof the fluid are optimized.Massflux is computed for 1
al)ility,a geometricdescription
of the geologicmits, cm depth extent into cross section.
28 .DENIX NORTON

and equationsof state for salinefluids. There ap- Cooper, John R., 1957, Metamorphism and volume lossesin
carbonate rocks near Johnson Camp, Cochise County,
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in naturalsystemsexceedthe 10 TM Donaldson, I. G., 1962, Temperature gradients in the upper
cm2 minimumin manyinstances, but by how nmch layers of the earth's crust due to convective water flows:
Jour. Geophys.Research,v. 67, p. 28-48.
is unknown. The scantydata on salinefluids sug- Elder, J. W., 1965, Physical processesin geothermal areas,
gestthat, as the concentrations
of saltsapproach3 chap. 8, in Lee, W. H. K., ed., Terrestrial heat flows:
Geophys. Mon. Set. No. 8, Baltimore, Am. Geophys.
molal, significantvariations in circulation patterns Union, 276 p.
may be expected,but theseeffectsare highly de- Grindley, G. W., 1965, The geology, structure, and exploita-
pendenton the initial distributionof the fluids. The tion of the Wairakei geothermal field, Taupo, New
Zealand: New Zealand Geol. Survey Bull. 75, p. 131.
importanceof obtainingdata on the transportprop- Gustason, L. B., and Hunt, John P., 1975, The porphyry
ertiesof natural systemsis clearfrom the theoretical copperdepositat E1 Salvador, Chile: Ecos'. Go.., v. 70,
considerations discussed above. p. 857-912.
Helgeson, H. C., 1970, A chemical and thermodynamic
The exampleplutonsystelnanalyzedsuggests that model of ore deposition in hydrothermal systems: Min-
manynotionsregardingthe sourceof fluidin hydro- eralog. Soc. America Spec. Paper 3, p. 155-186.
Helgeson, H. C., and Kirkham, D. H., 1974a, Theoretical
thermal systelnscan be quantitativelytested. In behavior of aqueous electrolytes at high pressures and
particular,the quantityof fluid derivedfroln outside temperatures: I. Summary of thermodynamic/electronic
the plutonsvhichcool in permeablehost rocksand propertiesof the solvent: Am. Jour. Sci., v. 274, p. 1089-
1198.
are themselves
permeableappearsto be evengreater -- 1974b, Theoretical behavior of aqueouselectrolytes at
than hasbeenindicatedby stableisotopedata. Per- high pressures and temperatures: II. Debye-Hiickel
parameters for activity coefficients and relative partial
hapsthisis because thesedataclearlyindicatewhere molal properties: Am. Jour. Sci., v. 274, p. 1199-1261.
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through,but once fluid and rock are in isotopic Inst. 3,fining Metallurgy Trans., v. 2, sec. B, p. B1-B8.
Lapwood, E. R.. 1948, Convection of a fluid in a porous
equilibrium the isotopes
are no longera viabletracer. medium: CambridgePhilos. Soc. Proc., v. 44, p. 508-521.
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Cong., 24th Montreal, sec. 10, p. 237-244.
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Acknowledgments Inc.
Norton, D., and Knapp, R., 1977, Transport phenomenain
This researchwas supportedby NSF-GA41136 hydrothermalsystems: Nature of porosity: Am. Jour.
and its continuation, Sci., v. 277, p. 913-936.
EAR74-03515A01. The topic Norton, D., and Knight, J., 1977, Transport phenomenain
of thismanuscripthasenjoyedthe critiqueof several hydrothermalsystems: Coolingplutons: Am. Jour. Sci.,
colleagues,
particularly
R. Beane,S. R. Titley,and v. 277, p. 937-981.
Ribando,R. J., Torrance, K. B., and Turcotte, D. L., 1976,
R. Capuano.I am gratefulto J. Knight,R. Knapp, Numerical models for hydrothermal circulation in the
and B. Moskowitzfor their thoroughdiscussions
and oceaniccrust: Jour. Geophys.Research,v. 81, p. 3007-
numerons contributions and to L. McLean for her 3012.
Taylor, Hugh P., Jr., 1974,The applicationof oxygen and
editorialassistance
in preparingthe manuscript. hydrogen isotope studies to problems of hydrothermal
alteration and ore deposition: Ecoa. GEo..,v. 69, p. 843-
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