Preconception Sex Selection;

The Moral Debate

C. Thirlwell & L. Heesom
Table of Contents

Project Overview ................................................................................................................................... 3

What is Preconception Sex Selection? ................................................................................................... 3

How was the technology of Preconception Sex Selection developed, and how is it currently being

implemented? ....................................................................................................................................... 4

What are the moral arguments for and against Preconception Sex Selection? ..................................... 7

What views do the general public have on Preconception Sex Selection? ............................................15

Is Preconception Sex Selection morally correct? .................................................................................. 17

Additional Parts of Paired Research Project ........................................................................................ 18

Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................ 19

2
Project Overview
This project strives to make an objective decision about the morality of Preconception Sex Selection

through the following research questions:

1. What is Preconception Sex Selection?

2. How was the technology of Preconception Sex Selection developed, and how is it currently being

implemented?

3. What views do the general public have on Preconception Sex Selection?

4. What are the moral arguments for and against Preconception Sex Selection?

5. Is Preconception Sex Selection morally correct?

Initially, this project will discuss the science behind Preconception Sex Selection, before moving on to

the morals and ethics behind the topic, public views surrounding Preconception Sex Selection and

finally an objective judgement about the morality of Preconception Sex Selection.

What is Preconception Sex Selection?

In this project, Preconception Sex Selection is defined as any medical procedure carried out by a

medical professional that is undertaken in an attempt to influence the biological sex of an unborn

child.

Throughout this project, it is also necessary to understand the difference between the sex and the

gender of an individual. Sex refers to whether a person is biologically male or female, whereas gender

is primarily used in reference to characteristics that a society or culture defines as masculine or

feminine.

3
How was the technology of Preconception Sex Selection developed, and how is it
currently being implemented?
Scientific Preconception Sex Selection techniques were first developed in the 1970s, and have since

developed drastically. Some methods involve separating male-and female producing sperm, while

others involve the implantation of a fertilised embryo of the desired sex. While the techniques are still

somewhat expensive, they have slowly become more effective and have been increasing in popularity.

Specific methods include:

Preimplantation Genetic Testing

What is it?
Preimplantation Genetic Testing is a procedure that can be completed during IVF, which involves

removing one or two cells from developing embryos and testing them for genetic and chromosomal

disorders (Baby Centre, L.L.C., 2017). There are two types of Preimplantation Genetic Testing,

Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis (PGD) and Preimplantation Genetic Screening (PGS). One test is

used over another depending on the reason for Preconception Sex Selection, however both can be

used to screen the embryos and determine its sex.

PGD is commonly used for parents who are carriers of inheritable genetic disorders to prevent the

child from having the same condition. In certain circumstances, it can be important to determine the

sex of an embryo to prevent sex-related inherited genetic disorders that mainly affect a particular sex.

For example, Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy can only be passed down the male line, so the male

embryos would not be implanted in the embryo.

4
PGS is mainly used to screen parents who are presumed to have a normal number of chromosomes for

chromosomal disorders such as Down syndrome. PGS also has the ability to screen embryos for sex,

and so can be used for nonmedical reasons.

Both PGD and PGS are nearly 100% accurate in determining the sex of the embryo.

How is it done?
Preimplantation Genetic Testing is started with a cycle of IVF. The mothers eggs are fertilised with

sperm in a petri dish. After 3-5 days, one or more cells is removed from the embryos and tested

thoroughly for possible genetic disorders and sex determining X or Y chromosomes.

Doctors then implant healthy embryos into the uterus. In PGD or PGS, fewer embryos are usually

implanted than in IVF due to the more thorough screening process.

What are the Advantages and Disadvantages?

Advantages:
If pregnancy is successful, PGD and PGS ensures an almost 100% chance of having a baby of

the desired sex.

Remaining embryos can be frozen after PGD or PGS and can be used in the future.

Disadvantages:
Preimplantation Genetic Testing can cost more than $20,000.

The procedure is invasive, removing eggs can be painful and the drugs used can cause

uncomfortable side effects including weight gain, bloating, swelling, and blurred vision.

Multiple births are likely as multiple embryos can be implanted, however the risk is slightly less

than normal IVF as often, only one embryo is implanted.

In women younger than 35, there is only a 46% chance of a live birth, and that percentage

decreases with age.

5
Sperm Sorting
What is it?
Sperm Sorting involves separating female producing X and male producing Y chromosome sperm.

There are two methods by which to do so, sorting by centrifugation or flow cytometry. Centrifugation

causes particles in a fluid to separate into layers based on the density of their particles. The spinning

causes the less dense Y sperm and more dense X sperm to separate. Flow cytometry separates

chromosomes by staining sperm with a fluorescent dye, at which point they can be separated based

on their varying reactions to the dye. The sperm is then placed into the uterus through Artificial

Insemination (AI), another form of infertility treatment similar to IVF, which should produce a child of

the desired sex (Baby Centre L.L.C.).

Sperm Sorting is 78-85% effective when choosing boys and 73-75% effective when choosing girls.

How is it done?
First sperm cells are separated from seminal fluid and abnormal sperm is filtered out. A sample of

sperm is then divided through centrifugation or dyed to promote colour change. The sperm is then

separated based on their position or colour and AI is used to implant the sperm that will help conceive

a child of the desired sex. The higher concentration of the desired chromosome will increase the

chances of the desired sex in the embryo.

What are the advantages and disadvantages?

Advantages:
Inexpensive and non-invasive compared to other methods.

Relatively safe

Advantages:
Less successful compared to Preimplantation Genetic Testing.

AI is not as effective as IVF, and may take multiple cycles to achieve a pregnancy.

6
What are the moral arguments for and against Sex Selection?
To come to a conclusive study about whether Preconception Sex Selection was ultimately moral or

immoral, the project studied the negative and positive factors of Preconception Sex Selection as well

as conducting a survey to find out the views of the public on the topic.

Despite the many negative connotations surrounding the issue, there are some positive aspects of

Preconception Sex Selection, though most are based on subjective reasons rather than objective ones.

Certain positive aspects that this study could pinpoint involved limiting the population, saving lives,

restoring imbalance of the sexes countries and prevention of inherited genetic disorders. Many people

have the belief that by allowing Preconception Sex Selection, the population will not increase as

largely as it would without. This is due to cases where people have multiple children in the hope of

receiving a certain sex, which plays an integral role in population increase. However, if Preconception

Sex Selection were available, parents would have the option of choosing the sex of their child instead

of having more children in an attempt to conceive a child of the desired sex. This could help decrease

the likelihood of overpopulation and the need for child restriction, which is currently occurring in

China. The introduction of Preconception Sex Selection in countries where it is presently illegal could

prevent the extreme infanticide that occurs, save the lives of dozens of children that get aborted each

year due to being the wrong sex. Despite this occurring primarily in Asian countries where boys are

seen as the better sex, sex-selective abortion also occurs in many 1st world countries. In a study done

by the 2011 national census, it was found that one tenth of all 190,000 abortions performed in England

and Wales occurred after the parents found out their babys sex. If Preconception Sex Selection were

allowed, parents would be able to have a child of a sex they desire instead of aborting a child of the

7
unwanted sex. This would effectively put a stop to infanticide in all countries where Preconception Sex

Selection was legalised. Experts argue that Preconception Sex Selection could allow sex imbalanced

countries such as China to regain balance between the sexes. However, this would only occur if all

children were born through Preconception Sex Selection, and restrictions were placed on the number

of children born a certain sex. The most relevant argument supporting Preconception Sex Selection is

to prevent inherited genetic diseases. Some couples that select the sex of their child do this to avoid

certain genetic diseases that are passed down through a certain sex. This includes muscular

dystrophy, which affects boys and rickets in the case of girls. This would mean that the amount of

people with genetic diseases would decrease. When parents choose to undergo Preconception Sex

Selection, they can also find out the likelihood of their child inheriting a genetic disease. This could

mean that the couple selects a certain sex to prevent inheritance of genetic diseases. The more

personal reasons include: family-balancing and reproductive rights. Some people believe that parents

should be allowed to select the sex of their child if they have multiple children of the same sex and

want one of the opposite sexes to prevent family imbalance caused more children of one sex. There

are cases where a couple with multiple boys continue trying for a girl, resulting in families of up to 6

boys and 2 girls simply due to a parental desire for a child of a certain sex. If Preconception Sex

Selection is legalised for personal, non-medical reasons then families will have the ability to choose

the sex of their child without conceiving multiple of the opposite sex. The other argument for

Preconception Sex Selection that is largely argued by many people is one of human and reproductive

rights. Some advocates state that sex selection is an expression of reproductive rights that is pursued

by women and is a sign of female empowerment, (National Centre for Biotechnology

8
Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine, 2010). They also argue that it will minimise child

neglect. All of these reasons, all though occasionally subjective or personal, are positive aspects of

Preconception Sex Selection that promote its usually hidden benefits. It is through ideas such as

limiting overpopulation, preventing sex-selective abortions and stopping the inheritance of genetic

diseases in children that the outcomes of Preconception Sex Selection seem overwhelmingly positive.

There are a wide range of negative aspects that have been considered and discussed by critics of

Preconception Sex Selection. These include; discarding of unused embryos, imbalance of the sexes,

encouragement of discrimination based on sex, sex ratio distortion and the promotion of sexism. In

some methods of Preconception Sex Selection, the child is selected from a variety of embryos. This is

one of the many moral and ethical debates. Remaley, author of The Original Sexist Sin states that;

certain individuals and religious groups believe that life begins at fertilisation. These people believe

and argue that embryos deserve more respect due to their potential as human life. If Preconception

Sex Selection were to be legalised, many human embryos would be discarded and wasted. Remaley

also highlights that the legalisation of Preconception Sex Selection would most likely cause a sex

imbalance in the population. Already, India and parts of Asia have experienced mass declines in the

number of female children being born due to Preconception Sex Selection, resulting in a largely male

dominated society. In places such as China the ratio of boys to girls is as high as 5:1. This is providing

further information about the negative effects Preconception Sex Selection is having on society

worldwide. One such country in which sex discrimination occurs, is India. India remains a society

where women are marginalised and denied basic rights and education. The falling sex ratio in India

provides evidence towards their bias towards men over women, with many more males than females

9
being born. In places where Preconception Sex Selection is available, there has been a large increase

in violence and discrimination against women. Men from certain areas are unable to find young or

marriageable women in their own regions or communities. Consequently, they will have to try to find

wives from areas where the sex ratio is more balanced. This in turn means that female trafficking will

occur from both rural areas as well as neighbouring countries. A fall in the number of females in

society is highly likely to increase sex-related crimes against women. This can include bride selling,

trafficking and prostitution. Currently the male to female sex ratio is balanced in most countries.

However, the introduction and common use of Preconception Sex Selection would mean that the

ratio would become distorted and unbalanced. This is due to a strong male preference in most

countries. This would mean a large increase of the male population and a decrease or only slight

increase of the female population. Preconception sex selection could also promote cases of sexism

against women in parts of the world where there is a strong male preference. Preconception Sex

Selection technology is being used to restrict female births. Many girls in Asian countries that are born

are subjected to lower quality health care and poor care due to this inequality and discrimination. In

one study that was done in the city of Pune, India, of the 450 women who were told that they were

having a daughter chose to have an abortion, whereas all 250 women that were told they were going

to have a boy kept their pregnancies. This highlights the massive imbalance of the sexes that occurs in

the world, particularly in Asian countries such as China and India. These negative aspects prove that

Preconception Sex Selection technology is fuelling sexism, discrimination against women, distortion

of the sex ratio, and maltreatment of embryos after Preconception Sex Selection procedures.

10
Positives - Why it is positive -

Population Preconception sex selection would help prevent overpopulation.

limitation If Preconception Sex Selection were available, parents would have the option

of choosing the sex of their child rather than having multiple children in the

hope of conceiving a certain sex.

This would reduce the amount the population and decrease the need for birth

restriction.

Saving lives Could save the lives of thousands of children each year that are sex-selectively

aborted.

Sex-selective abortion occurs throughout the world due to their being a major

preference for male children.

If Preconception Sex Selection was allowed then families could have the

gender of the child they wanted without having to abort.

Restoring sex Experts argue that Preconception Sex Selection could allow sex imbalanced

imbalanced countries to regain balance between the sexes.

countries This could only occur if all children were born through Preconception Sex

Selection and restrictions were placed on the number of children born a

certain sex.

11
Prevent inherited Preconception sex selection can allow couples to choose the sex of their child

genetic diseases to stop genetic diseases that are only passed down through a certain sex.

Family balancing Some people believe that parents should be allowed to choose the sex of their

child if they have multiple children of the same sex and want one of the

opposite sex

In cases where couples keep trying for a child of a certain sex because they

have multiple of the other sex families can end up with 6 boys and 2 girls

simply due to a parental desire for a child of a certain sex. If Preconception Sex

Selection is legalised for personal, non-medical reasons then families will have

the ability to choose the sex of their child without conceiving multiple of the

opposite sex.

Reproductive Advocates state that Preconception Sex Selection is an expression of

rights reproductive rights that is pursued by women and is a sign of female

empowerment

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Negatives - Why it is negative -

Discarding of In some methods of Preconception Sex Selection, the child is selected from a

unused embryos variety of embryos.

Certain individuals and religious groups believe that life begins at fertilisation.

These people believe and argue that embryos deserve more respect due to

their potential as human life.

If Preconception Sex Selection were to be legalised, many human embryos

would be discarded and wasted.

Imbalance of the Legalisation of Preconception Sex Selection would most likely cause a sex

sexes imbalance in the population.

Many countries have experienced mass declines in the number of female

children being born due to Preconception Sex Selection. This is due to a strong

male preference in most countries. This would mean a large increase of the

male population and a decrease or only slight increase of the female

population.

Sex ratio Currently the male to female sex ratio is balanced in most countries. However,

distortion the introduction and common use of Preconception Sex Selection would mean

that the ratio would become distorted and unbalanced.

This is due to the well-known preference of boys to girls

13
Promotion of Preconception Sex Selection could also promote cases of sexism against

sexism women.

In parts of the world where there is a strong male preference, Preconception

Sex Selection technology is being used to restrict female births.

Many girls in Asian countries that are born are subjected to lower quality

health care and neglect due to this inequality and discrimination.

14
What views do the general public have on Preconception Sex Selection?
This project conducted a survey to find out the global

opinions surrounding Preconception Sex Selection. The

survey found that 47.1% of people surveyed did not

believe that parents should be able to undergo

Preconception Sex Selection, however 32.4% of people surveyed, did approve of Preconception Sex

Selection. This shows that, although there is a preference against Preconception Sex Selection, there

is still a reasonably large amount of people that want to be able to choose the sex of their child.

This survey asked a range of questions that included the issues of family balancing, sex-selective

abortion and genetic issues. Family balancing is the act of choosing your childs sex to balance out

your family. The majority of people surveyed (79.4%) said that this wasn't an acceptable reason to

choose the sex of a child. However, there were still 20.6% of people that believed it was an acceptable

reason to undergo Preconception Sex Selection. This led the project to try to found out why these

answers were apparent. There are some people that believe that the act of family balancing will

decreases the amount of unwanted children and give families an even balance of both male and

female children, and so approve of Preconception Sex

Selection in the case of family balancing. Sex-selective

abortion occurs all over the world despite, more often

than not against female children. 81.8% of people

believed that it was better to undertake Preconception Sex Selection, rather than aborting a child

based on its sex. The last main question that the project asked was about the morality of

15
Preconception Sex Selection in the prevention of passing down genetic diseases. Certain inherited

genetic diseases can only be passed down through certain sexes, like Muscular Dystrophy can only be

passed down through the male line. 91.2% of people agreed that Preconception Sex Selection used in

the prevention of inheritance of Genetic Diseases was good, with one outlier disagreeing and two

people being unsure. This shows that despite the

downsides of Preconception Sex Selection many

people believe that there are positive aspects of it,

which can be put to good use.

The majority of people who partook in this survey believed that Preconception Sex Selection should

be illegal, however, over 90% acknowledged that in medical cases, such as that of muscular

dystrophy, which can only be passed down through the male line, that Preconception Sex Selection

should be an option for carrier parents. As well as highlighting the positives of Preconception Sex

Selection such as preventing inherited diseases; the survey also proved the unquestionable imbalance

of the sexes that would be prevalent in a society where Preconception Sex Selection was readily

available, with 83% of those surveyed opting for the same sex of child. Should this become a reality,

there could be a sex displacement as high as 66%. The results of this survey prove, that despite having

profoundly positive effects on society including the limitation of inherited genetic diseases, should

Preconception Sex Selection become readily available, there would be a detrimental effect on the

balance of the sexes globally.

16
Is Preconception Sex Selection morally correct?
Should Preconception Sex Selection be legalised in Australia?
This project concludes that though there are many positives and negatives associated with

Preconception Sex Selection, it is extremely hard to decide whether Preconception Sex Selection

should be legalised. The best-foreseen outcome is to only legalise Preconception Sex Selection for

genetic or other medical reasons. This is due to the genuine need for Preconception Sex Selection to

prevent inherited genetic diseases, rather that the personal and opinionated reason of simply wanting

to have a child of a certain sex. However, the problem with placing a complete ban on Preconception

Sex Selection for non-medical reasons could lead many desperate couples deciding to break the law in

order to have a child of the desired sex. From this, the project decided that Preconception Sex

Selection should be legalised, however there should be many restrictions placed on those who were

eligible to use it. Funding for Preconception Sex Selection would be reduced or ceased entirely, apart

from in medical cases, to increase the personal expense and discourage illegal usage. Taxes would be

introduced for adults wanting to use the service in an attempt to deter them from undergoing

Preconception Sex Selection for personal reasons. In conclusion, this project finds that Preconception

Sex Selection should remain illegal for personal reasons, however should be legalised for legitimate

medical reasons.

Is Preconception Sex Selection morally correct?

This project concludes that Preconception Sex Selection is morally incorrect, unless undertaken due to

medical circumstances, such as for the prevention of the inheritance of genetic diseases that can only

be passed down to a child of a particular sex.

17
Additional Parts of Paired Research Project
Blog
The blog detailing the entirety of the research project can be found under the blog tab at the following

website:

www.caitlinlarapairedresearchproject.weebly.com

Research Proposal
The Research Proposal can also be found at the above website, under the Research Proposal tab:

www.caitlinlarapairedresearchproject.weebly.com

Presentation
As with the Blog and Research Proposal, the slideshow used during the presentation can be found at

the initial website, under the presentation tab:

www.caitlinlarapairedresearchproject.weebly.com

18
Bibliography
Annotated Bibliography
Leigh, S. (2015, April 18). Choosing your baby's sex: What the scientists say. Retrieved

November 10, 2017, from https://www.babycenter.com/0_choosing-your-babys-sex-what-

the-scientists-say_2915.bc

Currency - 4/5
o Written on 18th April 2015 but was reviewed by the Baby Centre Medical Advisory board in 2017

o Recent information was required and was delivered by the source

Relevance - 5/5
o This website provided necessary information that helped to answer the first research question

o The source was very in depth and detailed

o All of the information was complete

o The intended audience is for people that want to know about pregnancy and Preconception

Sex Selection

Authority -
o The publisher is Us based company, Baby Centre L.L.C.. The Baby Centre Medical Advisory

Board, which is made up of a team of doctors and professionals who specialise in

preconception, pregnancy, paediatrics and parenting review every article on the website.

o There is contact information available for professionals and specialists who are members of the

company

o The authors have written many other articles on the same range of topics

Accuracy -
o This source is supported by both facts and evidence

19
 o Many articles have been written to provide information about all areas of pregnancy and child

bearing. There are also articles about the disadvantages and advantages of procedures that

can be undertaken including Preconception Sex Selection

o There were no spelling or grammar errors to be seen in this source

o There is a bibliography available for every article

Purpose -
o The authors aim to share information about pregnancy and various procedures that can be

undertaken

o The author doesnt have a biased point of view

o This source consists primarily of facts

ScienceDirect. (2010, May 18). Is preconception sex selection necessarily sexist? Retrieved

November 10, 2017, from

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1472648310605470

Currency - 3/5
o This book/journal was published in 2007

o It is the 15th volume with more volumes continuing after it

Relevance - 3/5
o This source is relevant as it provides information about the moral arguments for and against

preconception sex selection

o It is an abstract from Reproductive Biomedicine online

o The information is vague due to the source being an abstract

o The intended audience for the source is researchers, practitioners, academics and patients

Authority - 5/5

20
 o Laura Purdy is the author of the preconception sex selection part of the source

o Her qualifications include

o She has a PhD from Stanford University

o Laura is a professor of Philosophy and Humanities

o Her areas of specialisation include ethics, bioethics, feminism and reproductive ethics

o Her contact details can be found

o The source has been cited in books and websites by over 20 people

o The source was published in a book

Accuracy - 3/5
o The source was published in a book

o The information is supported by evidence from global surveys

o There are many other sources with similar information

o Laura Purdy is biased as she uses personal pronouns and is very against preconception sex

selection. This is shown in the source

o There is a reference list that shows her sources

o There are no spelling or grammar errors

Purpose - 3/5

o The purpose of this source was to bring public attention to new research being done and its

ethical and moral issues

o Laura Purdy is very against the idea of preconception sex selection because of its known

harmful effects

o It was published by a large number of scientists and clinicians working in related fields of study

21
 o The source is made up of both facts and opinion

Overall - 17/25
o It is a useful source as it provides reliable information about preconception sex selection.

However, it is found to be slightly biased and the information doesnt go into enough detail

o The source helped the project come to a conclusion about the moral arguments for and against

preconception sex selection

Teitelbaum, M. S. (2017, August 30). Population. Retrieved October 27, 2017, from

https://www.britannica.com/science/population-biology-and-anthropology

Currency - 5/5
o The information was published and updated in 2017

o This source needed to be recent otherwise the statistics would be wrong and it could be

different in a different time

Relevance - 5/5
o This source helps provide the project with information about why the sex ratio is more males to

females

o This source is an in-depth summary

o The information is complete

o The intended audience is anyone that is interested in the sex ratio and gender imbalance such

as demographers (the study of populations)

Authority - 4/5

o The author of the source is Michael Teitelbaum

22
 o Michael is a senior research associate at the Labour and Worklife Program at Harvard Law

School. He is a demographer that specialises on the demography and economics of young

scientists and people globally

o Michael Teitelbaum has written many articles and published a book about populations

o Michael Teitelbaum is recognised for his contribution to demography globally. He won person

of the year in 2013 from Science Careers

Accuracy - 4/5
o The information is supported by evidence and facts from global surveys and studies

o There are other sources with similar information about gender imbalance

o The source is unbiased and free from any personal opinions

o There is a reference list for the source

o The source has no spelling of grammar errors

Purpose - 3/5
o The purpose of Encyclopaedia Britannia is to inform people about various issues and topics

o There is no clear point of view in this source

o The source is primarily based on facts

Overall - 21/35
o This was due to the well-known reliability of both the author and site

Bibliography
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https://www.babycenter.com/prkit-advisoryboard

Baby Centre L.L.C. (2017). Company Information. Retrieved November 30, 2017, from

https://www.babycenter.com/about

23
 BabyCentre, L.L.C. (2017). The science behind sex selection. Retrieved November 10, 2017, from

https://www.babycenter.com.au/a1014303/the-science-behind-sex-selection

Boada, M., Carrera, M., Iglesia, C. D., Sandalinas, M., Barri, P. N., Veiga, A., & Journal of Assisted

Reproduction and Genetics. (1998, May). Successful Use of a Laser for Human Embryo Biopsy in

Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis: Report of Two Cases. Retrieved October 27, 2017, from

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023%2FA%3A1022548612107

Bredenoord, A., Dondorp, W., Pennings, G., Die-Smulders, C. D., Smeets, B., Wert, G. D., &

European Journal of Human Genetics. (2009, May 27). Preimplantation genetic diagnosis for

mitochondrial DNA disorders: Ethical guidance for clinical practice. Retrieved October 30, 2017,

from https://www.nature.com/articles/ejhg200988

Dahl, E., Beutel, M., Brosig, B., & Hinsch, K. (2003, October 1). Preconception sex selection for

nonmedical reasons. Retrieved October 30, 2017, from

https://academic.oup.com/humrep/article/18/10/2231/622790

Dahl, E., Beutel, M., Brosig, B., & Hinsch, K. (2003, October 01). Preconception sex selection for

nonmedical reasons:a representative survey from Germany | Human Reproduction | Oxford

Academic. Retrieved November 27, 2017, from

https://academic.oup.com/humrep/article/18/10/2231/622790/Preconception-sex-selection-for-

non-medical

Elsevier, B. V. (2017). The Ethics of Sex Selection. Retrieved October 23, 2017, from

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0015028209004725

24
 Elsevier, B. V. (2017). Procreative Liberty - The Case for Preconception Sex Selection. Retrieved

October 27, 2017, from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1472648310618809

Elsevier Ltd. (2010, May 18). Procreative liberty: The case for preconception sex selection.

Retrieved November 10, 2017, from

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1472648310618809

Gender Select. (2017). Gender Select, LLC. Retrieved November 3, 2017, from

http://chooseagender.com/

Gender Select LLC. (nd). Methods of Gender Selection. Retrieved November 10, 2017, from

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Genea. (2013). Sex Selection. Retrieved November 3, 2017, from https://www.genea.com.au/my-

fertility/i-need-help/fertility-treatments/sex-selection

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Heikkila, A. (2016, May 3). Choosing Your Child's Gender Before Birth: A Woman's Choice or the

New Eugenics? Retrieved November 12, 2017, from

25
 https://www.elephantjournal.com/2016/05/choosing-your-childs-gender-before-birth-a-womans-

choice-or-the-new-eugenics/

Hesketh, T., & Xing, Z. W. (2016, July 17). Abnormal Sex Ratios in Human Populations. Retrieved

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consequences. Retrieved November 25, 2017, from

http://www.pnas.org/content/103/36/13271.full#sec-5

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