Herbal Cures - Patil (Ed) (2008)

HERBAL CURES: TRADITIONAL APPROACH
Dr. D.A.Patil did his M.Sc. and Ph.D. in Botany from Dr.Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada
University (Aurangabad, M.S.) with Angiosperm as a subject of specialization in 1978 and 1983
respectively. He has about 29 years of research and teaching experience at graduate and post-
graduate classes. His major research interest includes Taxonomy and Anatomy of Angiosperms,
Floristics, Ethnobotany and Etymology. He has authored (i) Key to the Angiospermic Families
of North Maharashtra, (ii)Flora of Dhule and Nandurbar Districts (Maharashtra), (iii) Origins
of Plant Names, and co-authored, (iv) Ethnobotany of Nasik District (Maharashtra), (v)
Ethnobotany of Jalgaon District (Maharashtra) and (vi) Forest Flora of Jalgaon District
(Maharashtra). He has also edited a proceeding, 'Plant Diversity and Biotechnology'. He has
132 research papers to his credit published in national, international journals and journals of
CSIR, India. Apart from his participation in several national and international conferences and
symposia in India and abroad, many students in botany received his guidance for Ph.D. and
M.Phil. degrees. He is member of Editorial Boards of four national journals and acted as
a referee for Ph.D. and M.Phil. degrees for other universities. He has been awarded: (i) Dr. M.s.
Swaminathan Award (1996) by Indian Botanical Society, (ii) Scientist of the Year 2004 by National
Environmental Science Academy, (iii) Jivaka Ayurved Vishwa Sanman (2006) by International
Academy of Indian Medicine and (iv) Life Time Education Achievement Award 2007 by Health
and Education Development Association. He is ex-Dean, Faculty of Science, North Maharashtra
University, Jalgaon, M.S. and also Ex-Chairman, Board of Studies in Botany of the same
university. He is member of many prestigious academic and scientific bodies and societies.
He also contributes for Marathi Daily news papers and creates interest about plants by delivering
talks especially for younger generation.
HERBAL CURES
TRADITIONAL APPROACH
Editor
Dr. D.A. PatH
M.Sc., Ph.D. (Botany)
Reader
Post-Graduate Department of Botany
S.S.V.P. Sanstha's L.K. Dr. P.R. Ghogrey
Science College, Dhule-424 005 (Maharashtra)
Aavishkar Publishers, Distributors

Jaipur 302 003 (Raj.) India
First Published in 2008 by
Prem C. Bakliwal for
Aavishkar Publishers, Distributors
807, Vyas Building, Chaura Rasta
Jaipur 302 003 (Raj.) India
Phone: 0141-2578159
e-mail: aavishkarbooks@hotmail.com
Dr. D.A. Patil
ISBN 978-81-7910-250-3
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be

reproduced or copied for any purpose by any means, manual,
mechanical or electronic, without prior and written permission
of the copyright owner and the publishers.
Printed at

Sheetal Printers
Jaipur (Raj.) India
PREFACE
The science of medicine, whether traditional or folkloric, has undergone a

phenomenal growth with a concomitant increase of interest among the plant scientists,
ethnobotanists, anthropologists, pharmacologists, medicinal chemists and druggists.
Medicine differs materially from other branches of knowledge like algebra, trigonometry,
astronomy and the like. In other branches, independent development of each would
be required before the principles of one be applied to the purposes of the other. But
this is not the case in medicine. Medicine is developed from a desire from within,
and not from any foreign impetus. Ailment! disease is not separate companion of life.
The desire springs with the ailment simultaneously which soon turns into the effort
to heal. It is this effort that has gone by the name of 'medicine' in every society, whether
primitive or advanced. Also the origin of medicine cannot be traced to one man. It
is natural and traditional in origin. The traditional communities living close to the
nature acquired knowledge about the use of plant species. After a long period of
observation and analysis, trial and errors, experimentation, apart from intuitive method,
the innovative individuals of societies select and realize usefulness of the flora in their
ambience. Their plantlore passes over generations. The development of medicine starts
from tapping the traditional/indigenous wisdom after establishing rapport with the
indigenous people. Bioassay-guided fractionation and determination of molecular
structure are necessary. The task does not end with these in recent times. The IPR
and benefit-sharing completes the success story of drug development. Thus a synergetic
effort is needed involving the scientists from different disciplines, technologists and
legal advisers.
The present book 'Herbal Cures : Traditional Approach' includes total 22 articles
on traditional plant uses in family welfare, wound care, diabetes and skin afflictions,
ethnobotanical or ethnomedicinal plants from West Rarrh (West Bengal). Jharkhand,
North Gujarat and Western Orissa, ethnotherapeutic leads from tribals of Orissa,
ethnomedicinalleads from modern drug development programmes, parasitic angiosperms
from mythology to medicine, graphic review of ethnbotany in Chhatisgarh and
vi
veterinary medicines of Gond tribals (Madhya Pradesh). It also covers topics on

development and standardization of herbal medicine, methods of tribal drug purification,
ethnomedicinal uses of Neem plant and traditional knowledge with particular emphasis
on ethnomedicines/traditional medicines. Articles on recent approaches in phytochemical
and biological importance of Calendula officinalis, in vitro regeneration and phytochemical
screening, antibacterial activity and hypoglycaemic effects of Ocimum sanctum.
This book is the outcome of efforts of the experts. Their ideas, experience,
thoughts and opinions shaped the book significantly and would be valuable immensely
to its users. It will help popularize the subject of traditional medicine and provide
instructions for the learners. I thank heartly to all honourable experts/ authors for
contributing in such a scientific pursuit. The opinions and text contained herein are
those of the contributors. The book will cater to the immediate needs of students,
teachers and research workers. I would appreciate to pass on comments and suggestions
from the users of this book which will help improve the future edition or print.
Throughout its preparation, well wishers and colleagues freely gave their help
and advice. It is thankfully acknowledged. I particularly appreciate and acknowledge
the painstaking effort of Mr. Akshay Jain of Aavishkar Publishers, Distributors aaipur,
Rajasthan) for publishing this book with full zeal and zest.
Dhule (Maharashtra) Dr. D. A. Patil

CONTENTS
Preface v
Contributors ix
Lit of Colour Plates xiii
1. Traditional Use of Plants in India in Family Welfare 1
- Priyadarshan Sensarma
2 Development and Standardization of Herbal Medicines :
An Overview of Current Status 41
- c.P. Malik, Bhavneet Kaur, Aman Verma and Chitra Wadhwani
3. Plants Used in Wound Care 76
- Richa Deo and Usha Mukundan
4. Traditional Knowledge : Views, Necessity and Prospects 105
-D.A. Patil
5. Ethnomedical Leads and Good Raw Drug Handling Practices
for Modern Drug Development Programme 115
-M. Brahmam
6. Ethnotherapeutic Leads from the Tribals of Orissa (India) to Control
Diabetes mellitus 129
-M. Brahmam
7. In vitro Regeneration, Phytochemical Screening, Antibacterial
Activity and Hypoglycemic Effect of Ocimum sanctum L. 145
- N. Chandrakala, E. Jennifer Nancy Rani, M. Prabakaran and M. Ayyavoo
8. Ethnomedicinal Plants of North Gujarat Part-I 158
- N.K. Patel, I.c. Patel, A. R. Seliya and D.N. Parmar
viii
9. Ethnomedicinal Plants of North Gujarat Part-II 197

- N.K. Patel, I.C Patel, A. R. Seliya and D.N. Parmar
10. Folk Remedies against Skin Afflictions in Maharashtra 218
- Shubhangi Pawar, M. V. Patil and D.A. Patil
11. Ethnomedicinal Plants of Jharkhand, India 248
- Harish Singh
12. The Parasitic Angiosperms: From Mythology to Medicine 264
- R.B. ladhav, S.P. Bhatnagar and 5.1. Surana
13. In vitro Anthelmintic Activity of Some Medicinal
Plants of Genus Buhinia Linn. 285
- Ravindra G. Mali, Shailaja G. Mahajan and Anita A. Mehta
14. Medicinal Uses of Plants as Revealed from Tribal Communities
in Purulia District, West Bengal 295
- Sujit Kumar MandaI and Ambarish Mukherjee
15. Indigenous Knowledge of Veterinary Medicines among Gond
Tribals of Noradehi Wildlife Sanctuary (M.P.) 302
- Anjali Rawat, Arti Gupta and T.R. Sahu
16. Ethnobotany of Western Orissa, India 316
-L.M. Behera and S. K. Sen
17. Ethnobotanical Survey in West Rarrh for Natural Health
Care and Green Belt Movement 332
- Ashis Ghosh
18. Ethnobotany in Chhattisgarh (India) : A Graphic Review
and Future Directions 340
- Amia Tirkey
19. Neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss.) : A Panacea 348
- M. V. Patil, Shubhangi Pawar and D.A. Patil
20. Phytochemical and Biological Importance of Calendula officinalis L. 368
- Madhurima, S.H. Ansari, Md. Sohail Akhtar and Prawez Alam
21. Methods of Purification of Tribal Drugs in India 387
-D.C Pal and CR. Paul
22. Ethnobotanical Heritage on Traditional Drug Practices Relating to
Diabetes in Magadh Region (Bihar) 390
- R.K. Goel, Rajul Goel, B.K. Prasad and D.K. Yadav
CONTRIBUTORS
Akhtar, Md. Sohail

Department of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, Jamia Hamdard, (Hamdard
University), New Delhi-110 062.
Alam, Prawez
University), New Delhi-l1O 062.
Ansari, S.H.
Ayyavoo, M.
Sri Gowri Biotech Research Academy, Nagai Main Road, Thanjavur-613 001,
Tamil Nadu, India.
Behera, L.M.
P.G. Deptartment of Botany, G.M. (Auto.) College, Sambalpur-768 001.
Bhatnagar, S.P.
Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, BirIa Institute of Technology, Mesra,
Ranchi-835 215.
Brahmam, M.
Regional Research Laboratory (C.S.I.R.), Bhubaneswar-751 013, Orissa.
ChandrakaIa, N.
P.G. & Research Department of Microbiology, Ponnaiyah Ramajayam College,
Thanjavur-614 904 Tamil Nadu.
x
Deo, Richa
Plant Biotechnology Research Laboratory, Ramniranjan Jhunjhunwala College,
Ghatkopar (W), Mumbai-400 086.
Ghosh, Ashis
Saraswati Vidyamandir, P.O. Midnapore, District-Paschim Medinipore-721 101,
W. Bengal.
Goel, R.K.
Environmental Biology Laboratory, University Department of Botany, Magadh
University, Bodh-Gaya-824 234, Bihar.
Goel, Rajul
University, Bodh-Gaya-824 234, Bihar.
Gupta, Arti
Department of Botany, Dr. H.S. Gour University, Sagar-470 003 (M.P.).
Jadhav, R.B.
Bioecology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacognosy, R.c. Patel College of
Pharmacy, Shirpur-425 405, Maharashtra.
Kaur, Bhavneet
Institute of Biotechnology and Allied Sciences, Seedling Academy of Design,
Technology and Management, Jaipur, Rajasthan.
Madhurima
Mahajan, Shailaja G.
Department of Pharmacology, L.M. College of Pharmacy, Navrangpura,
Ahmedabad-380 009.
Mali, Ravindra G.
Department of Pharmacology, L.M. College of Pharmacy, Navrangpura,
Ahmedabad-380 009.
Malik, c.P.
MandaI, Sujit Kumar
Department of Botany, Burdwan University, Golapbag, Burdwan-713 104,
W. Bengal.
Mehta, Anita A.
Department of Pharmacology, L.M.College of Pharmacy, Navrangpura,
Ahmedabad-380 009.
xi
MUKherjee, Ambarish
Department of Botany, Burdwan University, Golapbag, Burdwan-713 104,
W. Bengal.
Mukundan, Usha
Plant Biotechnology Research Laboratory, Ramniranjan Jhunjhunwala College,
Ghatkopar (W), Mumbai-400086, Maharashtra.
Pal, D.C
Retd. Botanist, Industrial Section, Indian Museum, B.S.!., 1, Sudder Street,
Kolkata-700 016, W. Bengal.
Parmar, D.N.
Sheth M. N. Science College, Department of Life Sciences, Hemchandracharya
North Gujarat University, Patan-384 265, Gujarat.
Patel, I.C
Department of Biology, Sheth M. N. Science College, Department of Life Sciences,
Hemchandracharya North Gujarat University, Patan-384 265, Gujarat.
Patel, N.K.
Department of Biology, Sheth M. N. Science College, Department of Life Sciences,
Hemchandracharya North Gujarat University, Patan-384 265.
PatiI, D.A.
P.G. Department of Botany, S.s.V.P. Sanstha's L.K. Dr. P.R. Ghogrey Science
College, Dhule-424 005 (M.S.).
PatiI, M.V.
Department of Botany, GET's Arts, Science & Commerce College, Nagaon-424
004, District Dhule (M.S.).
Paul, CR.
48, Pioneer Park, Maa Sarada Road, Borasat (N), Kolkata-700 124, West Bengal.
Pawar Shubhangi
Department of Botany, Pratap College, Amalner-425401, District Jalgaon (M.s.).
Prabakaran, M.
P.G. & Research Department of Zoology & Biotechnology, A.V.V.M Sri Pushpam
College (Autonomous), Poondi-613503, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu.
Prasad, B.K.
University Bodh-Gaya-824 234, Bihar.
Priyadarshan Sensarma
Retd. Professor, 8/9, Chandra Mondal Lane, Kolkata-700 026.
xii
Rani, E. Jennifer Nancy

P.G. & Research Department of Microbiology, Ponnaiyah Ramajayam College,
Thanjavur-614904 Tamil Nadu.
Rawat, Anjali
Department of Botany, Dr. H.S. Gour University, Sagar-470 003, (M.P.).
Sahu, T.R.
Department of Botany, Dr. H.S. Gour University, Sagar-470 003, (M.P.).
Seliya, A.R.
Sheth M. N. Science College, Department of Life Sciences, Hemchandracharya
North Gujarat University, Patan-384 265, Gujarat.
Sen, S.K.
Department of Botany, Panchayat College, Bargarh-768 028.
Singh, Harish
Central Botanical Laboratory, Botanical Survey of India, P.O.-Botanic Garden,
Howrah (West Bengal) 711 103.
Surana, S.J.
Bioecology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacognosy, R.C Patel College of
Pharmacy, Shirpur-425 405.
Tirkey, Amia
School of Life Sciences, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur- 492 010, (CG.).
Verma, Aman
Wadhwani, Chitra
Yadav, D.K.
University Bodh-Gaya-824 234, Bihar.
LIST OF COLOUR PLATES
1. Abrus precatorius 177

2. Abutilon indicum 177
3. Acalypha indica 177
4. Achyranthes aspera 177
5. Adhatoda zeylanica 177
6. Aerva lanata 177
7. Andrographis paniculata 177
8. Arachis hypogaea 177
9. Argyreia nervosa 178
10. Aristolochia bracteolata 178
11. Bacopa monnieri 178
12. Boerhavia diffusa 178
13. Brassica juncea 178
14. Kalanchoe pinnata 178
15. Calotropis gigantea 178
16. Canavalia gladiata 178
17. Cannabis sativa 179
18. Cassia italica 179
19. Catharanthus roseus 179
20. Cayratia tri/olia 179
21. Celosia argentea 179
22. Cephalonoplos segetum 179
23. Chenopodium album 179
xiv
24. Cicer arietinum 179

25. Cichonlm intybus 180
26. Cissus quadrangula 180
27. Cleome viscosa 180
28. Clitoria ternatea 180
29. Coccinia grandis 180
30. Commelina diffusa 180
31. Corchonls aestuans 180
32. Crotalaria retusa 180
33. Ctenolepsis cerasiformis 181
34: Cucumis sativus 181
35. Cuscuta reflexa 181
36. Cymbopogon citratus 181
37. Cyamopsis tetragonoloba 181
38. Cynodon dactlJlon 181
39. Cype.nlS rotundus 181
40. Echinops echinatus 181
41. Eclipta prostrata 182
42. Enicostema axillare 182
43. Euphorbia neriifolia 182
44. Evolvlllus alsinoides 182
45. Fagonia eretica 182
46. Gloriosa superba 182
47. Glycine max 182
48. Gymnema sylvetre 182
49. Indigofera tinctoria 183
50. Ipomoea nil 183
51. Jatropha curcas 183
52. Lablab purpllreus 183
53. Lagenaria siceraria 183
54. 'Leptadenia reticulata 183
55. Leucas aspera 183
56. Luffa acutangula 183
57. Luffa cylindrica 184
58. Lycopersicon esculentum 184
59. Momordica charantia 184
xv
60. Momordica dioica 184

61. Mukia maderaspatana 184
62. Nicotiana tabacum 184
63. Ocimum tenuiflorum 184
64. Passiflora foetida 184
65. Pergularia daemia 185
66. Phaseolus vulgaris 185
67. Phyllanthus amarus 185
68. Physalis minima 185
69. Pithecellobium dulce 185
70. Pongamia pinnata 185
71. Portulaca quadrifida 185
72. Psidium guajava 185
73. Pterocarpus marsupium 186
74. Raphanus sativus 186
75. Rosa damascena 186
76. Sapindus laurifolia 186
77. Saraca asoca 186
78. Semecarpus anacardium 186
79. Sesbania grandiflora 186
80. Sida orientalis 186
81. Syzygium cumini 187
82. Syzygium malaccense 187
83. Tamarindus indica 187
84. Terminalia bellirica 187
85. Terminalia catappa 187
86. Terminalia chebula 187
87. Thespesia populnea 187
88. Trichosallthes dioica 187
89. Triticum aestivum 188
90. Typha domingensis 188
91. Vigna radiata 188
92. Vigna unguiculata 188
93. Viola cinerea 188
94. Vi tis vinifera 188
95. Withania somnifera 188
96. Xanthium strumarium 188
"This page is Intentionally Left Blank"
TRADITIONAL USE OF PLANTS IN
INDIA IN FAMILY WELFARE
PRIYADARSHAN SENSARMA
Chapter Outline
1. Introduction
2. Methodology
3. Enumeration of information
3.1 Increasing the vitality and ensuring better sexual life
3.2 Treatment of semen
3.3 Treating leucorrhoea and menorrhagia
3.4 Infertility of woman
3.5 Ensuring easy delivery
3.6 Prevention of pregnancy
3.7 Termination of pregnancy
4. Discussion and conclusions
5. Summary
6. Appendix A & B
7. Suggested Readings
1. INTRODUCTION
The expression 'Family Welfare' with special reference to this subcontinent implies
'Family Planning'. This is perhaps inescapable in the context of population explosion
and increasing poverty of the larger section of the society. But can the economically
backward societies, plagued with lack of education, afford to respond positively to the
measures of population control, unless their conjugal life is made more pleasant with
cheap but effective steps? It is a hard fact of life tl:at poor people have very limited
opportunities of enjoying life, either in physical or mental or in both spheres.
Better conjugal life is seldom enjoyed by the poor for various factors and reasons.
One of the major reasons is the great increase in the number of children-which enhances
2 PRIYADARSHAN SENSARMA
poverty and other problems. In such situation it becomes imperative on the scientists
to suggest cheap but hygienic measures to improve upon the quality of conjugal life
of the poor and backward people. This idea persuaded the present author to search
the traditional use of plants in India for various aspects of family welfare.
India is a country of diversity-The land mass may be divided into almost all the
known climatic zones, and there are two groups of islands situated in Indian Ocean
and Arabian Sea. Being rich in biodiversity this country has been included in the list
of the 12 mega diversity centres of the world. There are more than 400 scheduled tribes
of different ethnicity residing in various ecological niche, besides the inheritors of the
Vedic and Pre-Vedic cultures. It is obvious that the spectrum of knowledge about the
life and the universe and the skill of utilizing the resources vary among these
communities of men. It is only natural that there will be divergence among them in
the use of plants-it may be remembered that normally men like to utilize the resources
available in their ambiance. In this condition to get an idea about the traditional use
of herbal course of different diseases in India, the ethnic societies and literary works
should be studied. It needs to be mentioned here t1}at there are numbers of literary
works written in Sanskrit, Pali, Tamil, Persian, and some other languages. Further in
additional to the texts on medical science (Ayurveda) there are many other works, in
Sanskrit, which contain reckonable volume of information about the traditional approach
towards the plants and their use. Hence, the job of collecting data about the traditional
use of the herbal cures in India is vast and complex. But an humble beginning can,
perhaps, be made with some selected texts and ethnic societies. Being guided by this
idea the present ethnobotanical venture has been made.
The ethnobotanical exploration in India was perhaps initiated by Mitra (1913-1916,
1919, 1922, 1933 to 1939), subsequently a great philip was given by Bodding (1925, 1927,
1940); since the last half of the 20th century Jain (1956, 1963a, 1963b, 1964, 1965, 1966,
1967, 1979, 1971, 1975, 1981, 1991), Maheshwari (1961, 1980, 1986), Pal (1970, 1972, 1973,
1980), Pal and Jain (1998), and many others are carrying out methodical studies among
the tribals of India, but the vast literary sources of India are still awaiting through
investigations. Albeit some efforts have been made by Majumdar (1938), Basu (1966),
Karnick (1975), Sensarma (1984, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1995 etc.), Manilal (1988) and
others. Hardly any attempt has been made to correlate the information collected from
the tribal studies with the same gleaned from the literary sources. For obtaining a
comprehensive idea regarding the traditional use of plants in this subcontinent
corroboration and correlation of information are important.
Before accepting or rejecting the ethnobotanical information for practical application
in the modern society, the veraity of the same is to be ascertained. In accomplishing
this important but great task, the ethnobotanist is dependent on the cooperation of
phytochemist and pharmacologist. A preliminary effort, in ascertaining the veracity of
the ethnobotanical information, collected from textual and tribal sources, however, may
be made by comparing the same with the Ayurvedic and Yunani Pharmacopias on one
hand, and the chemical properties of the contents of the concerned plants on the other.
This exercise of verification will not help to draw the conclusive inference, but may
be a significant supportive step towards the objectives.
TRADmONAL USE OF PLANTS IN INDIA IN FAMILY WELFARE 3
Keeping the above in view, the present attempt has been made : (i) to correlate
the textual and tribal information regarding the use of plant materials in the physiology
of human reproduction, and (ii) to compare the same with the Ayurvedic and Yunani
systems of medicines as also with the chemical data available from authentic sources.
2. METHODOLOGY
The textual information have been collected from five non-ayurvedic texts, viz.,
Agni Purana, Garuda Purana, Indrajala Tantra, Prayoga Cintamani and Vijacintamani
Tantra. Information regarding uses of plants by three tribes, viz., the Bhats, the Bhils
and the Santals, have been obtained from published works and the field surveys. The
medicinal and chemical information have been gathered from The Indigenous Drugs of
India (1896/1984) of K.L. Dey, Indian Medicinal Plants (4 Vols. 1918/1981) by Kirtikar
and Basu, Second Supplement to GlossanJ of Indian Medicinal Plants with Active Principles
(1992) by L.V. Asolkar, K.K.Kakkar and O.J.Chakre and from Wealth of India published
by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, India.
The ethnobotanical information have been classified into following groups :
(i) Increasing vitality and ensuring better sexual life, (ii) Treatment of the semen,
(iii) Treatment of leucorrhoea and menorrhagia, (iv) Treatment of infertility of women,
(v) Ensuring easy delivery, (vi) Preventing pregnancy, and (vii) Termination of
pregnancy.
Generally the botanical names of the plants have been used, and the Sanskrit
names have been given parenthetically in case of textual sources, and in those cases
where the botanical equivalents of the Sanskrit names could not be ascertained the
Sanskrit names have been put in capital letters. In case of tribal sources also the Sanskrit
equivalents of the botanical names, wherever possible, have been mentioned in
parenthesis.
3. ENUMERATION OF INFORMATION
3.1 Increasing the vitality and ensuring better sexual life
(a) Textual sources
The Agni Purana states that (i) application of the sap of Anthocephalus chinensis
(Lamk.) Rich. ex Walp (kadamba) along with honey and cane-sugar over the sex-organs
in beneficial for conjugal life, (ii) the sap of Limonia acidissima L. (kapittha), Madhuca
longifolia (Koenig) Mcbride (madhuka), Magadhi (many botanical equivalents have been
suggested, e.g. Dioscorea bulbifera L., Jasminum officinale L., Piper longum L.), mixed with
honey also serve the same purpose. (iii) the sexual vigour of a man increases immensely
by regular consumption of milk in which the following have been boiled : the decoction
of fruits of Terminalia chebula Retz.(haritaki), Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. (vahera),
and Emblica officinalis Gaertn. (amalaki), wood of Santalum album L. (candana), juice of
Bacopa monnirei (L.) Wettst. (bhrnga), and Marsilea quadrifolia L. (cuncuka), HEMA (Datura
metel L. or Mesua nagassarium (Burm. f & Kosterm), and DOSHA (Curcuma longa L.?),
(iv) man who consumes equal quantities of powdered grains of Vigna radiatus (L.)
Wilczek (syn. Phaseolus radiatus L. var. roxburghii) (masa), Hordeum vulgare L. (yava), Piper
peepuloides Wall. (pippali), Triticum aestivum L. (godhuma), and a variety of OnJza sativa
L. (sali), boiled with Piper peepuloides Wall. (whole plant?), and drinks milk with cane-
sugar, can have longer duration of copulation, (v) if a man applies the paste of Wedelia
calendulacea Less. (bhrngaraja), Biophytum sensitivum L. (lajjaluka) and Adansonia digitata
L. (goraksa) externally over the penis, he can keep the woman extremely satisfied; (vi)
the woman who washes her sex organs with the extract of Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.)
Roxb. (vahera), Terminalia chebula Retz. (harikati) and Emblica officinalis Gaertn. (amalaki)
can win her husband completely.
(b) Tribal sources
To increase the potency of a man the Bhils (Maheshwari, Kolakoti and Lal,
1986) give him (i) to drink the water containing root paste of Asparagus racemosus Willd.
(satavari) for fifteen days in the morning; (ii) the seedling roots of Bombax ceiba L.
(salamali) to chew; and (iii) administer ghee mixed with root paste of Curculigo orchioides
Gaertn. (musali).
To treat the impotency of man the Santals (Bodding, 1925/1986, p.357) administer,
for a period of one month, pills made by pestling the roots of Themeda gigantea Hackel
and Tragia involucrata L. (vrscikali) along with camphor.
3.2 Treatment of the Semen
(a) Textual sources
The Agni Purana states that (i) the quantity of sperms can be increased by
consumption of ghee either boiled with the juice of Asparagus racemosus Willd. (satavari)
or along with the grains of Vigna radiatus (L.) Wilczek (masa) and Ipomoea aquatica Forsk.
(kalamvi); (ii) the use (specific method not mentioned) of Santalum album L. (canadana),
Aganosma dichotoma (Roth) K. Schum. (malati), Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. (laksa)
and Plectranthus barbatus Andi. (girimrttika) can help curing the deformed sperms.
The Vijacintamani Tantra contains a long list of herbal medicines. According to
this text, (i) consumption of 2 tola powder of sundried Cressa cretica L. (rudanti) before
lunch for a period of one month improves the quality of sperms-the text, however,
adds that for the particular month, the lunch of the patient should be constituted of
rice and milk only; (ii) the entire vegetative plant of Wedelia calandulacea Less.
(bhrangaraja) along with its roots should be dried in sun, powdered, and consumed
along with stale rice for a period of six months to treat the defective sperms and to
increase the quantity of the healthy sperms, but during those six months the patient
should eat only rice and milk and must not consume any salted food; (iii) consumption
of equal quantities of powdered fruits of Embelia ribes Burm. f. (vidanga) and Barringtonia
acutangula (L.) Gaertn. (hijjala) mixed with honey and oil (seasame? ) makes the sperms
effective; (iv) consumption of sundried and powdered roots of white variety of Boerhavia
diffusa L. (punarnava) along with milk for a period of one month, makes the sperm
healthy.
(b) Tribal sources
The Bhils (Maheshwari et al., ibid (i) chew 5 or 6 leaves of Grewia rhamnifolia Roth
TRADITIONAL USE OF PLANTS IN INDIA IN FAMILY WELFARE 5
for 20 days to concentrate the semen; and (ii) to treat the nocturnal pollution, they
consume the flowers of Bombax ceiba L. (salmali).
3.3 Treating leucorrhoea and menorrhagia
(a) Textual sources
According to the Agni Purana a lady should consume (i) white or red flowers
of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Gapa) for treatment of the white or red discharge; (ii) Mimosa
pudica L. (samanga), flowers of Grislea tomentosa Roxb. (dhataki), Symplocos racemosa
Roxb. (lodhra), and Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. (nilotpala) with milk.
The Prayoga Cintamani prescribes the following herbal medicines for the treatment
of leucorrhoea: (i) the paste of root bark of Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) Parker
(rohitaka) or the seeds of Emblica officinalis Gaertn. (amalaki) should be consumed along
with sugar and honey; (ii) consumption of fruits of Emblica officinalis Gaertn. along with
honey stops the white discharge; (iii) consumption of roots of Gossypium herbaceum L.
(karpasa) along with the water, in which sun-dried rice has been washed, cures the
disease; (iv) the sap of Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers. (guduchi) or the extract of
roots and leaves of Adhatoda zeylanica Medic. (vasaka) along with honey make a good
medicine for this disease; and (v) a good medicine is obtained by pasting the roots
of Eragrostis cynosuroides Beauv. (kusa) in the water in which sundried rice has been
washed.
(b) Tribal sources
In leucorrhoea the Bhils give the stem-bark extract of MitragtJna parvifolia (Roxb.)
Korth. (dhulikadamba) with sugar to ladies till cure (Maheshwari, Kalakoti & Lal, 1986).
The Santal women take root-powder of Smilax perfoliata Lour. with rice powder
in the form of cake to cure white and blood discharge with urine (Mudgal & Pal, 1980).
Bodding (pp.359-362) records a long list of medicines used by the Santals for
treatment of menorrhagia. The herbal ones are as follows : (i) the flowers of Hibiscus rosa-
sinensis L. Gapa), Nymphaea lotus L. (kamal), Erythrina indica Lam. (paribhadra), Pterospermum
acerifolius Willd. (karnikara), the roots of Helianthus annuus L. (survyyamukhi), the flesh
of the fruits of Diospyros embryopteris Pers. (tinduka), the flowers and leaf or bark of
Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. (sephalika), should be boiled together, and the liquid thus
obtained should be given to the patient to drink daily till the discharge gradually ceases;
(ii) the flowers of Nymphaea lotus L. (kambala), Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Gapa), Pterospermum
acerifolium Willd. (Karanikara), the roots of Helianthus annnus L. (suryyamukhi), and the
wood of Pterocarpus santalinus L. f (raktacandana) should be pestled together, and pills
made from this paste should be consumed daily by the patient till cure; (iii) pills made
from the paste obtained by grinding the flowers of Abutilon indicum (L.) Sw. (atibala),
barks of Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. ex G. Don (kutaja) and Streblus asper
Lour. (sakhotaka) along with some opium should be consumed by the patient with the
juice of roots of Ficus glomerata Roxb. (udumbara) daily; (iv) twenty one pills should be
made from the paste obtained by grinding the flowers of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Gapa),
Nymphaea lotus L. (kambala), flesh of the fruits of Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Sw.
(nagaranga), along with twelve black peppercorns, the patient should swallow the pills
three times a day with about an ounce of spirit; (v) the patient should daily consume
a pill made from the paste obtained by grinding together the flowers of Nymphaea lotus
L. (kambala), Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Gapa), Nerium indicum Mill. (karavira), Pterospermum
acerifolium Willd. (karanikara), roots of Abutilon indicum (L.) Sw. (atibala), Helianthus annuus
L. (suryyamukhi), and little opium; (vi) a liquid medicine is prepared by boiling the paste
of the roots of Michelia champaca L. (campaka), Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz. (dhataki),
flesh of the fruit of Diospyros embryopteris Pers. (tinduka), and the wood of Pterocaropus
santalinus Lf. (raktacandana), a mixture of saltpetre and Anthemis pyrethrum should be
added, and then the patient should drink it; (vii) the roots of Indigofera pulcheUa Roxb.,
Desmodium triflorum DC. (tripadi), and Commelina suffruticosa Bl. should be grinded with
the rice made from sundried grain of a variety of black paddy, this paste should be mixed
with the refuse of molasses-the same should be consumed by the patient; (viii) the patient
should drink for fifteen days the medicine obtained by boiling in water the paste of the
roots of Michelia champaca L. (campaka), flowers of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Gapa), Nymphaea
lotus L. (kambala), and a little wood of Pterocarpus santalinus Lf. (raktacandana), (ix) the
patient should consume daily the pill made with the bulb and flower of Nymphaea lotus
L. (kambala), flower of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Gapa), roots of Helianthus annuus L.
(suryyamukhi), and a little opium; (x) pills made with the roots of Abutilon indicum (L.)
Sw. (kankatika), Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. ex G.Don (kutaja), Bombax ceiba
L. (salmali), bark of Streblus asper Lour. (sakhotaka), and a little of opium should be taken
regularly by the patient.
3.4 Infertility of Woman
(a) Textual sources
The Agni Purana states that if the lady, who often suffers from miscarriage,
consumes the root of Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. (padma), Sesamum orientale L. (ilia),
Madhuca longifolia (Koenig) Mcbride (madhuka) and sugar the conception becomes
secure.
For treating the infertility of women, the Garuda Purana states that (i) plant of
Vernonia cineria (L.) Less. (sahadevi) along with its roots should be collected on some
particular day; the same should be dried in shade and powdered, this powder should
be consumed twice daily with milk of one-coloured cow for few days.
According to the Indrajala Tantra, a sterile lady should consume the root of Clitoria
ternatea L. (aparajita) with goat's milk for a few days.
The Prayoga cintamani prescribes the following herbal medicines for the treatment
of a barren lady. The patient should consume (i) the paste of young leaves of
Cardiospermum helicacabum L. Gyotismati) with ghee, or (ii) flowers of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis
L. Gapa), with stale rice, or (iii) the roots of red variety of Gossypium herbaceum L. (rakta-
karpasa) and Artemisia nilagirica (C.B.Clarke) Pamp. (nagadamani) specially during the
period of menstruation, or (iv) equal quantities of paste of roots of Sida cordifolia L.
(bala) and Piper nigrum L. (marica) for three days, and (v) a medicine obtained by pestling
Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (asvagantha), roots or Mandragora officinarum Berlt.

(ll}kamana), and the young prop roots of Ficus benghalensis L. (vatavyala) along with
milk-consumption of this medicine for seven consecutive nights would surely make a
women fertile.
(b) Tribal sources
The Santals have some medicines to treat the barrenness in women-but they are
not purely herbal in nature. These are complex mixtures of chemicals, plants and animals
(Bodding, p.357).
3.5 Ensuring Easy Delivery
(a) Textual sources
To facilitates smooth delivery of the child, the Agni Purana gives two prescriptions.
The first one states that the paste of Datura metel L. (dhustura), Vernonia cinerea (L.)
Less. (sahadevi), Cardiospermum helicacabum L. (rudrajata) and Biophytum sensitivum L.
(lajjaluka) should be applied externally over the womb. According to the second one,
if the paste of any of the following plants-Solanum nigrum L. (kakamci), Gloriosa superba
L. (languli) or Justicia gendarussa Burm. f (atarusaka) is applied on the lower side of
the naval region of the pregnant, the delivery will be smooth and easy.
The Garuda Purana also contains similar idea-it states that if the paste of any
\one of the following plants is plastered to the lower side of the naval region and in
the mouth of vagina of the pregnant lady, the delivery will be smooth and painless-
Gloriosa superba L. (languli), Achyranthes aspera L. (apamarga), Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-
Ham.) Wall. ex G. Don (kutaja) and Stephania elegans Hk. f & T. (patha).
The Indrajala Tantra contains the following three observations (i) introduction of
the powdered roots of Boerhavia diffusa L. (punarnava) into the vagina at the time of
delivery makes the process easy and painless; (li) affixing the roots of Vernonia cinerea
(L.) Less. (sahadevi) on the waist of the pregnant serves the purpose, and (iii) tying
the 'north extending roots' of Adhatoda zeylanica Medic. (vasaka) with seven threads on
the waist of the pregnant ensures smooth and easy delivery.
According to the Prayoga cintamani, the paste of anyone of the following plants
is useful : Stephania elegans Hk. f & T. (patha), Gloriosa superba L. (languli), Rajata
(Achyranthus aspera L. ?) and Adhatoda zeylanica Medic. (sinhasya).
(b) Tribal sources
The Bhils (Maheshwari et al., 1986) have the following two recipes: (i) the stem-
bark of Dillenia pentagyna Roxb. (aksikiphala) is powdered, mixed with water, filtered,
sugar candy is added to the filtrate, and this mixture is given to the ladies two times
a day for three weeks, and (li) the root of stem (about 8 cm long) of Echinops echinatus
Roxb. (tiksnagra) is crushed and the paste mixed with water is given once to the pregnant
lady.
The Santals (Boding, p. 363) use the following methods : (i) stick the root or the
entire plant of Achyranthes aspera L. (apamarga) into the top of the doorway before
delivery but remove it immediately after delivery; (li) insert the roots of Ocimum sanctum
L. (tulasi) (pulled out by one breath) into the pregnant's hair of the head; (iii) extract
of the root Calotropis gigantea (Linn.) R. Br. (arka) should be mixed with black pepper
corns-some amount of this liquid should be drunk by the pregnant and a portion should
be warmed and applied over her abdomen.
3.6 Prevention of Pregnancy
(a) Textural sources
No herbal medicine for this purpose could be gleaned from the texts under the
present study.
(b) Tribal sources
The Bhats (La! and Lata, 1980) give the ladies to consume (i) the leaves of Lycium
barbatum L., Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (yastimadhu), roots of Sida spinosa L. (nagabala), anthers
of Mesua forrea L. (nagakesara), and galls of Pistacia integerrima L. (karkatasmgi), mixed
with honey, cow's milk and ghee daily; (i) powdered leaves of Ficus arnottiana (Miq.) Miq.
(plaksa) and fruits of Cuminum ClJminum L. Giraka) with water after menstruation; (iii)
young leaves of Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. (palasa) homogenously mixed with cow's
milk as a slow sterilizer; (iv) the decoction of equal quantity of fruits of Cleorodendron
indicum (L.) Kuntze (bharangi), Sesamum orientale L. (tila), Moringa oleifera Lamk. (sigru),
Piper nigrum L. (marica) and molasses for 20 days; (v) the powdered seeds of Citrus medica
L. (matulunga) along with the milk of a cow having recent male offspring as a strong
sterilizer; (vi) decoction of leaves of Sphaeranthus africans L. (mundi), fruits of Xanthium
strumarium L. (sankhapuspi) and Tinospora malabarica Lamk. (amrta) in the morning for
14 days.
The Santals and some other tribes of Mayurbhanj (Mudgal and Pal, 1980) use
the following to prevent pregnancy : (i) stem-bark decoction of Bridelia crenulata Roxb.
with country liquor is given after menstruation; (li powdered seeds of Butea monosperma
(Lamk.) Taub. (palasa) mixed with country liquor is given for three days after
menstruation; (iii) powdered stem-bark (or decoction of the same) of Dendrophthoe falcata
(Lf) Etting (vrksadani with liquor of Madhuca longifolia (Koen.) Macbr. (madhuka) after
three days of menstruation, and (iv) flower-paste of Thysanolaena maxima (Retz.) Kuntze
Guma) is given with country liquor after menstruation.
3.7 Termination of Pregnancy
(a) Textural sources
No information could be obtained from the texts under study.
(b) Tribal sources
The Bhat women (Lal and Lata, 1980) consume anyone of the following as
abortifacient: (a) equal quantity of leaves of Ficus religiosa L. (asvattha), fruits of Embelia
ribes Burro. J. (vidanga), borax with cow's milk, (b) ash of seeds of Butea monosperma
(Lamk.) Taub. (palasa) with latex of Ferula alliacea Boiss. (bahlikam) and cow's milk.
The Bhils (Maheshwari, Kolakoti and Lal, 1986) with pulp of heartwood of Borassus
flabellifer L. (tala) to ladies one or two times only.
The Santals (a) use fresh roots (about 3 cm long) of Achyranthes aspera L. (apamarga)
as mechanical means for causing abortion, (b) apply bruised roots and nuts of Semecarpus
anacardium L. f (bhallataka) to uterus of 3 to 5 months pregnant woman for abortion,
and (c) give seed-powder of Annona reticulata L. (ramphala) with that of Piper nigrum
L. (marica) for causing termination of pregnancy upto 3 to 4 months.
4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The number of plants, mentioned in the texts and used by the tribes for each
purpose, vary to a considerable extent (Table-I). This deviation may be an index of the
extent of knowledge of the sources studied with regard to the use of plants for these
purposes.
The textual sources, studied for the present work, do not reveal any information
on the use of plants in preventing and terminating pregnancy (Table-II). It may be
mentioned in this connection that Ayurvedic works like Caraka Samhita and Susruta
Samhita also do not throw light on these aspects, but they contain instructions about
better sexual life, treatment of penis, semen, leucorrhoea, menorrhagia, menstrual
disorders, etc. (Appendix-A). All these texts were prepared either in ancient or in
medieval ages. During those period the problem of population control did not arise,
rather in those periods every clan could get greater dominance and influence with its
numerical increase. This idea derives strength even by analyzing the studies made on
the tribals at different decades of the twentieth century; as for example, the Santal
Medicine and connected folklore (1925, 1927, 1940) monumental contribution of Bodding,
who spent nearly thirty years amongst the Santals earlier, do not contain much
information in this regard, while most of the modem studies of the tribes bring out
some information on this important aspect. And some of the later Ayurvedic works
mention about the use of vegetal materials in preventing and terminating pregnancy
(Appendix-B). In this connection it must be admitted that the information regarding
the use of plants by the Bhats is incomplete, the community which uses a large number
of plants for prevention and termination of pregnancy must be utilizing some plants
of for other purpose of family welfare too.
Amongst the textural sources, the Agni Purana mentions maximum number of
plants for all aspects of conjugal life, while the Garud Purana, Prayoga Cintamani, and
Indrajala Tantra concentrate only on the ailments of females. Should it be imagined that
those texts were ignorant/ indifferent about the ailments of the males, or ailments among
the males were comparatively less then? More investigations are required to get the
appropriate answer.
Though more than one hundred plants have been referred to' in this article, only
seven plants viz. Achyranthes aspera L., Asparagus racemosus Willd., Embelia ribes Burm.
f, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L., Holarrhena pubescens Buch.-Ham.) Wall. ex G. Don, Nelumbo
nucifera Gaertn., and Sesamum orientale L., are common in the lists of plants in the texts
and tribes; all these seven plants are also not used for the same purpose in the texts
and by the tribes (Table-Ill). Generally speaking, the method of using plants by the
tribes differs from the same mentioned in the texts. It may be argued that since the
tribals represent the Laukika culture and the texts belong to the Sastriya culture
(Saraswari, 1970), the difference is only natural. But this hypothesis does not hold good,
as divergence in use of the plants exists among the tribes themselves, and in between
the textual sources too (Table -IT). These differences among the tribes may be caused
by ecological factors, at least to some extent ; the Bhils live in Madhya Pradesh, the
Bhats in Rajasthan, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh, while the Santals live in Bihar, Orissa
and West Bengal. There may be other contributing factors. To assess the nature, extent,
and reason (s) of these differences ethnobotanists need the cooperation of
phytoanthropologists (Sensarma and Ghosh, 1995). It appears that a through probe into
these divergences by competent investigators may bring out new information about the
history of utilization of plant vis-a-vis the socio-cultural evolution from the plant
perspective.
It is interesting to note that most of the plants mentioned in this article are
recognized by the Ayurveda and Allopathy system as medicinal plants, while the Yunani
and Homeopathy systems acknowledge the therapeutic properties of many of them.
All these systems utilize the plants as medicines for purposes other than those mentioned
in this article, and seldom use of the plants in the physiology of reproduction is met
with. The therapeutic uses prescribed by different systems of medicine of the seven
species of plants, common in the lists of texts and tribes, along with the chemical contents
of the same have been shown in Table- IV. Information regarding the use of the species
of plants, mentioned in this article, as could be gathered from investigations conducted
by different scholars on some ethnic communities and literary sources of India, has been
separately enumerated (Table -Y). This observation brings out clearly the necessity of
verification of the textual and tribals information, as stated earlier, by both the methods,
viz., phytochemical and pharmaceutical analysis, and proving. It may, however, be said
on the basis of the information mentioned in this paper that the ethnobotanical studies
of texts and tribes may help in finding out the utilities of easily available herbal materials
with efficacy for various aspects of family welfare.
Any ethnobotanical study not only brings out new information about the man-
plant relationship, but the same also indicates new areas of research in plant science,
and involved socio-cultural history of man. Thus the importance of ethnobotany is not
limited to its utilitarian significance, this branch of scientific persuasion also helps to
comprehend the progress of human civilization.
5. SUMMARY
The author has shed light on traditional medicinal plants used for family planning
in India. The traditional drugs or drug yielding plants have been evaluated comparatively.
Textural information from five non-ayurvedic texts viz., Agni purana, Garuda purana,
Indrajala Tantra, Prayoga Cintamani and Vajacinatamani Tantra, as well as Indian
folklore of three tribes viz., the Bhats, Bhils and Santals have been analyzed critically.
The information is also discussed alongwith the data from Ayurvedic, Unani, Siddha
and Allopathy. The author has pointed out some aspects which are not covered by
the monumental works in Ayurveda and causes of divergence in using plants by the
tribes studied and the textual sources, apart from new areas of research.
To facilitate the analysis of the materials, four Tables have been prepared; and
for the sake of brevity abbreviations used have been used in the Tables
Abbreviation Full Denomination
AP Agni Purana
GP Garuda Purana
IT Indrajala Tantra
PC Prayoga Cintamani
VC Vijacintamani Tantra
I Increasing vitality and ensuring better sexual life
II Treatment of semen
III Treatment of leucorrhoea and menorrhagia
IV Treatment of infertility of women
V Ensuring easy delivery
VI Prevention of pregnancy
VII Termination of pregnancy
MOD Medicine for other disease(s)
TABLE 1
Number of species of plants mentioned in the sources for various purposes
Sources PURPOSES
I II III IV V VI VII
Agni Purana 17 06 05 05 07
Garuda Purana 01 04
Indrajala Tantra 01 03
Prayoga Cintamani 06 09 04
Vijacintamani Tantra 05
Bhat 16 04
Bhil 05 02 01 02 01
Santal 02 22 03 04 04
TABLE-2 t-I
N
Table Use of Plants in Family Welfare
Purposes
Sources Better Sexual Life Treatment of Treatment of Infertility Ensuring Easy Prevention Tennination
Semen Leucorrhoea and Delivery of of
Menorrhagia Pregnancy Pregnancy
Agni Purana Adansonia digitata, Aganosma Grislea tomentosa, Madhuca Biophytum Nil Nil
Anthocephalus dichotoma, Hibiscus longifolia, sensitivum,
chinensis, Bacopa Asparagus rosasinensis, Nelumbo Cardiospermum
monnieri, Bjophytum racemosus, Butea Mimosa pudica, nucifera, helicacabum,
sensitivum, Hordeum monosperma, Nelumbo nucifera, Sesamum Datura me tel,
vulgare, Limonia Ipomoea Symplocos orientale Gloriosa superba,
acidissima, Madhuca aquatica, racemosa Justicia sp.,
longifolia, Marsilea Santalum album, Solanum nigrum,
quadrifolia, Oryza Vigna radiata Vernonia albicans
sativa, Piper
peepuloides, Emblica
officinalis, Santalum
album, Termiinalia
bellirica, Terminalia
chebula, Triticum
aestivum, Vigna
radiata, Wedelia
chinensis ~
Garuda Nil Nil Nil Vernonia Achyranthes Nil Nil
Purana albicans aspera, Gloriosa ~
tl
superba, >
Holarrhena 'en"
il:
pubescens, >
Z
Stephania elegans C/l
Prayoga Nil Nil Adhatoda Artemisia Achyranthes Nil Nil rrl
Z
Cintamani zeylanica, nilagirica, aspera, Adhatoda en
Aphanamixis Cardiospermum zeylanica,
>
'~"
>
Contd ...
... Contu. ~
:=
I II III
Desmostachya
IV
helicacabum,
V
Gloriosa superba,
VI VII
--
>
t:j
'"'l
0
bipinnata, Ficus Stephania elegans ~
r"'
Gossypium bengalensis, c::
herbaceum, Gossypium CIl
!!'l
Emblica officinalis, herbaceum, 0
"rl
Tinospora Hibiscus rosa-
I-d
cordifolia sinensis, r"'
Mandragora
~
officinalis,
Piper nigrum,
Sida cordifolia,
-
CIl
....Z
Vijacintamani Barringtonia Nil Nil
Withania
somnifera
Nil
->-~
Z
Tantra acutangula, Boerhavia Nil Nil Nil ~
>
diffusa, Cresssa cretica,
Embelia ribes, Wedelia
chinensis
-
;s::
~
Indrajal Nil Nil Nil Clitoria Adhatoda Nil Nil ~

r"'
Tantra ternatea zeylanica, "rl
>
Boerhavia :=
!!'l
diffusa,
Vernonia albicans
Bhat Nil Nil Nil Nil Lycium barbatum Butea Butea
monosperma, monosperma,
Citrus Embelia
medica, ribes,
Clerodendrum Ferula
indicum, alliacea,
Cuminum Ficus
Contd ... I-l

(,jJ
...Contd. ~
~
cyminum, religiosa,
Ficus Oercxiendrum
arnottiana, indicum
Gly.cyrrhiza
glabra, Lycium
barbarum,
Mesua ferrea,
Moringa
oleifera, Piper
nigrum,
Pistacia
chinensis sub
sp.
integerrima,
Sesamum
orientale, Sida
spinosa,
Sphaeranthus
africanus,
Tinospora
sinensis,
Xanthium :P
strumarium ~
t::l
Bhil Asparagus racemosus, Bombax ceiba, Mitragyna paruifolia Nil Dillenia Nil Borassus
>
flabellifer
Bombax ceiba,
Curculigo orchioides
Gre111ia
rhamnifolia
pentagyna,
Echinops
'::t::"
CIl
>
Z
echinatus.
r:J)
Santal Themeda gigantea, Nil Abutilon indicum, Nil A chyranthes Borassus Achyranthes ttl
aspera, Z
Tragia involucrata Anthemis pyrethrum, aspera, Boerhavia flabellifer, CIl
>
Contd ...
'"
~
>
...Contd.
Bombax ceiba, diffusa, Bombax Bridelia Annona

Borassus flabellifer, ceiba, Calotropis crenulata, reticulata,
Citrus aurantium, gigantea, Ocimum Butea Gloriosa
Commelina sanctum monosperma, superba
suffruticosa, Dendrophthoe
Desmodium falcata,
triflorum, Diospyros Madhuca
malabarica, longifolia
Erythrina indica,
Ficus racemosa,
He/ianthus annuus,
Hibiscus
rosasinensis,
Holarrhena
pubescens,
Indigofera
cassioides, Michelia
champaca, Nelumbo
nucifera, Nerium
indicum,
Nyctanthes
arbortristis,
Pterospermum
acerifolium,
Pterocarpus
santalinus, Smilax
perfoliata, Streblus
asper, Woodfordia
jruiticosa, Marsilea
quardifolia
TABLE 3
Complete list of plants and their uses
Sr. Name of the Plant Family Uses prescribed by
No. Texts Tribes
1. Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet Malvaceae Sant:III
2. Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae GP:V SantV, VII
3. Adansonia digitata L. Bombacaceae AP:I
4. Adhatoda zeylanica Medic Acanthaceae PC:III,Vi
IT:V
5. Aganosma dichotoma (Roth) K. Schum. Apocynaceae APII
6. Annona reticulata L. Annonaceae Sant:VII
7. Anthemis pyrethrum L. Asteraceae Sant:III
8. Anthocephalus chinensis (Lam.) Rich. Rubiaceae AP:I
9. Aphanamyxis polystachya (Wall.) Parker Meliaceae PC:III
10. Artemisia nilagirica (Clarke) Pamp. Asteraceae PC:IV
11. Asparagus racemosus Willd. Liliaceae AP:II
12. Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst. Scrophulariaceae AP:I
13. Barringtonia acutangula (L.) Gaertn. Myrtaceae VC:II
14. Biophytum sensitivum L. Oxalidaceae AP:I,Vi IT:V
15. Boerhavia diffusa L. Nyctaginaceae VC:II
16. Bombax ceiba L. Bombacaceae Bhil:I,IIi
Sant:III
17. Borassus flabellifer L. Arecaceae Bhil:VII
18. Bridelia crenulata Roxb. Euphorbiaceae SantVI
19. Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. Fabaceae AP:II
20. Calotropis gigantea (L.) R.Br. Asclepiadaceae Sant:V
21. Cardiospermum helicacabum L. Sapindaceae AP:Vi
PC: IV
22. Citrus aurantium L. Rutaceae Sant:III
23. Citrus medica L. Rutaceae Sant:III
24. Clerodendron indicum (L.) Ktze. Verbenaceae Bhat:VII
25. Clitoria tematea L. Fabaceae IT:IV
26. Commelina suffruticosa B1. Commelinaceae Sant:III
27. Cressa cretica L. Convolvulaceae VC:II
28. Cuminum cyminum L. Apiaceae Bhat:VI
29. Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Amaryllidaceae Bhil:I
30. Datura metel L. Solanaceae AP:V
31. Dendrophthoe falcate (Lf.) Etting Loranthaceae Sant:VI
32. Desmodium triflorum DC. Fabaceae Sant:III
33. Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf. Poaceae PC: III
Contd ....
... Contd.
No. Texts Tribes
34. Dillenia pentagyna Roxb. Dilleniaceae Bhil:V
35. Diospyros malabarica (Descr.) Kost. Asteraceae Sant:III
36. Echinops echinatus Roxb. Asteraceae Bhat:V
37. Embelia ribes Burm. f. Myrsinaceae VC:II
38. Erythrina variegata 1. Fabaceae Sant:III
39. Ferula alliacea Boiss. Apiaceae Bhat:VII
40. Ficus amottiana (Miq.) Miq. Moraceae Bhat:VI
41. Ficus benghalensis 1. Moraceae PC:IV
42. Ficus racemosa 1. Moraceae Sant:III
43. Ficus religiosa 1. Moraceae Bhat:VII
44. Gloriosa superba 1. Liliaceae AP:V, GP:V,
PV:V
45. Glycyrrhiza glabra 1. Fabaceae SantVII,
Bhat:VI
46. Gossypium herbaceum 1. Malvaceae PC:I1I, IV
47. Grewia rhamnifolia Heyne Tiliaceae Bhil:II
48. Grislea tomentosa Roxb. Lythraceae AP:III
49. Helianthus annuus 1. Asteraceae Sant:III
50. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis 1. Malvaceae AP:III, Sant:III
PC:lV
51. Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Apocynaceae GP:V Sant:III
Wall. ex G. Don
52. Hordeum vulgare 1. Poaceae AP:I
53. Indigofera cassioides RottI. ex DC. Fabaceae Sant:III
54. Ipomoea aquatica Forsk. Convolvulaceae AP:II
55. Justicia gendarussa Burm. f. Acanthacee AP:V
56. Limonia acidissima 1. Rutaceae AP:I
57. Lycium barbatum 1. Solanaceae Bhat:V
58. Madhuca longifolia (Koenig) Mcbride Sapotaceae AP:I,IV
59. Mandragora officinalis 1. Solanaceae PC:IV
60. Marsilea quardrifolia 1. Marsileaceae AP:I Sant:I1I
61. Mesua ferrea 1. Clausiaceae BhatVI
62. Michelia champaca 1. Magnoliaceae Sant:III
63. Mimosa pudica 1. Mimosaceae AP:I1I
64. Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth. Rubiaceace Bhil:III
65. Moringa oleifera Lamk. Moringaceae Bhat:VI
66. Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. Nelumbonaceae AP:III,IV Sant:III
67. Nerium indicum Mill. A pocynaceae Sant:III
Contd ....
... Contd.

No. Texts Tribes
68. Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. Oleaceae Sant:III
69. Ocimum sanctum L. Lamiaceae Sant:V
70. Oryza sativa L. Poaceae AP:I
71. Emblica officinalis Gaertn. Euphorbiaceae AP:I,
PC: III
72. Piper nigrum L. Piperaceae Bhat:VI
73. Piper peepuloides Roxb. Piperaceae AP:I
74. Pistacia chinensis Bunge subsp. Pistaciaceae BhaT:VI
integerrim L. (Stew.) Rech. F.
75. Pterospermum acerifolium Willd. Sterculiaceae Sant:III
76. Pterocarpus santalinus Linn. f Fabaceae Sant:III
77. Santalum album L. Santalaceae AP:I, II
78. Semecarpus ana cardium L.f Anacardiaceae Sant:VII
79. Sesamum orientale L. Pedaliaceae AP:IV Bhat:VII
80. Sida cordifolia L. Malvaceae PC:IV
81. Sida spinosa L. Malvaceae Bhat:VI
82. Smilax perfoliata Lour. Smilacaceae . Sant:III
83. Solanum nigrum L. Solanaceae AP:V
84. Sphaeranthus africanus L. Asteraceae Bhat:VI
85. Stephania elegana HK. f & T. Menispermaceae GP:V,
PC:V
86. Streblus asper Lour. Moraceae Sant:II1
87. Symplocos racemosa Roxb. Symplocaceae AP:III
88. Terminalia belllrica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Combretaceae AP:I
89. Terminalia chebula Retz. Combretaceae AP:I
90. Themeda gigantea Hackel Poaceae Sant:I
91. Thysanolaena maxima Ktze. Poaceae Sant:VI
92. Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers. Menispermaceae PC:III
93. Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr. Menispermaceae Bhat:VI
94. Tragia involvucrata L. Euphorbiaceae Sant:I
95. Triticum aestivum L. Poaceae AP:I
96. Vernonia albicans DC. Asteraceae GP:IV
97. Vigna radiata (L.) R.Wilo Fabaceae AP:I, II
98. Wedelia chinensis (Osbeck) Merr. Asteraceae VC:II
99. Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal Solanaceae PC:II
100. Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz. Lythraceae Sant:III
101. Xanthium strumarium L. Asteraceae Bhat:VI
TABLE 4 ~
Therapeutic uses of seven species of plants in different systems of medicine

1::0
Sr.
No. Name of the Plant Texts Tribes Ayurveda Unani
Uses Prescribed by
Homoeopathy Allopathy
Chemical
contents of the
-=l
0
Z
>
t"'"
plants e[J'l
tT1
1. Achyranthes aspera L. GP:V, Santal:V, MOD MOD MOD The plant is rich in
0
(Amaranthaceae) PC:V VII potash 'Tl
~
t"'"
2. Asparagus racemosus AP:II Bhil:I The root is The root is MOD MOD >
~
3.
Willd. galactagogue,
and MOD
galactogogue,
and useful in
gonorrhoea
--
[J'l
Embelia ribes Burm f

(Myrsinaceae)
VC:II Bhat:VII Cures urinary
discharges,
and MOD
MOD MOD MOD The drug contains
embelin, quercitol,
christembine, a
--
Z
0
>
Z
resinoid, tannins, ~
fatty ingredients,
and minute
-
s::
~
quantities of
volatile oil.
~
t"'"
'Tl
4. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis AP:III, Santal:III The buds are Some parts The flowers >
::=
tT1
L. (Malvaceae) PC:IV used to treat of the plant contain moisture,
uterine and are nitrogen, fat, crude
vaginal demulcent fibre, calcium,
discharges, phosphorus, iron,
seminal thiamine,
weakness, and riboflavin, niacin,
flowers fried and ascorbic acid.
in ghee are The leaves contain
used to check carbotone.
excessive
menstruation. ~
Contd... .\C
..Contd. I-.J
0
Sr. Uses Prescribed by Chemical

No. Name of the Plant Texts Tribes Ayurveda Unani Homoeopathy Allopathy contents of the
plants
5. Holarrhena pubescens GP:V Santal:1II MOD The bark checks MOD The bark The therapeutic
(Buch.-Ham.) Wall. excessive and seeds value of this lant
ex G. Don menstrual flow; are is due to the
the leaves are antiperiodic, presence of
useful to they are alkaloids which
regulate used after occur as tannate.
menstruation, delivery to The principal
and MOD give proper alkaloid is
tone to conessine; there
vagina are seventeen
other alkaloids. In
addition to
alkaloids it
contains gums,
resins, tannins,
some types of
alcohols
6. Nelumbo nucifera AP:III, IV Santal:1II Anthers are The root is good MOD
Gaertn. sedative to to treat
I-c:I
(Nelumbonaceae) the uterus; spermatorrhoea; liI:l
seeds are seeds are tonic ~
0
sedative to to the uterus,
>
liI:l
the pregnant useful in til
uterus, and menorrhagia and ::r:
>
Z
all parts are leucorrhoea, and
MOD many parts are C/l
ttl
MOD Z
til
>
liI:l
Contd... ==
>
... Contd.
Sr. Uses Prescribed by Chemical
No. Name of the Plant Texts Tribes Ayurveda Unani Homoeopathy Allopathy contents of the
plants
7. AP:IV BhatVI The roots and MOD The seeds yield

Sesamum orientale L. The seeds seeds cure edible oil and
(Pedaliaceae) galactogogue, menorrhagia, important as a
useful in and MOD source of protein for
urinary human nutrition.
concretions, The seeds also
and MOD contain
carbohydrates, oxalic
acid, calcium,
phosphorus, and
other mineral
matters
TABLE 5
Use of the species of plants by other tribes and texts in family welfare
1. Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet
Birhor : Leaf decoction is used as wash for vaginal infection and dried seed
powder as abortifacient. In Ayurvedic and unani systems of medicine, it is used
as anti-inflammatory agent of genital organs, and in spermatorrhoea, besides
many other diseases. In allopathic system, the species is considered as medicinal.
2. Achyranthes aspera L.
Tribes of Chotanagpur and Bastar : Root is as abortifacient. Ethnic communities
of Arunachal Pradesh and Tharus employ root to women for treatment of anti-
fertility. Ethnic communities of Orissa and Sagar (Madhya Pradesh) use root in
bleeding in delivery. Asurs, ethnic Communities of Meghalaya and Orissa use root
for fascilitating childbirth. Since the time of the Atharvaveda this species is
regarded as medicinally important, and in Ayurvedic system it is used for
treatment of many diseases. In homoeopathic system, it is used in menorrhagia.
In allopathic system, too different parts of the plant are used for treatment of
various diseases.
3. Adansonia digitata L.
In Ayurvedic system, the fruits are used for treatment of many other diseases.
In allopathic system leaves are used as diaphoretic, and also as polyphylactic
against fever.
4. Adhatoda zeylanica Medic.
It is an important medicinal plant in Ayurvedic and allopathic systems, but no
part of the plant is used in family welfare.
5. Aganosma dichotoma (Roth) K. Schum.
In tribal, Ayurvedic and allopathic systems various parts of the plant are used
in treatment of different diseases, but not for any purpose of family planning.
6. Annona reticulata L.
Different parts of the plant are used as antidysenteric and anthelmintic in the
folk and allopathic systems.
7. Anacyclus pyrethrum (L.) DC. (Santal : Akor Kora)
According to Bodding, Santals use the plant (Santal name : Akor Kora) as an
ingredient of the medicines of puerperal fever and menorrhagia.
8. Anthocephalus chinensis (Lam.) Rich.
Ethnic communities of Orrissa use bark in antifertility. In Sukla Yajurveda : bark
extract is noted in rectifying defects of semen. Later Ayurvedic works mention
roots and flowers as abortifacient; and in allopathic system stem bark extract is
used as anthelmintic and hypoglycaemic.
9. Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) Parker
Ethnic communities of Chhotanagpur employ bark in pain after child birth. Totos
use various parts of the plant in different diseases, but not in family welfare.
Contd...
Contd ...
Later Ayurvedic works note decoction of root-bark in menorrhagia, while
according to Caraka Samhita stem bark and flowers are useful in many diseases.
In homoepathic and allopathic systems different parts of the plant are used in
various diseases, including cancer.
10. Artemisia nilagirica (Cl.) Pamp.
Garhwalis employ the plant in menstrual disorders. Totos, Garos, and ethnic
communities of Dehradun (Uttaranchal), Kashmir, Khed Taluka (Maharashtra) use
the whole plant and different parts of the same for various other diseases. In
allopathic system the herb, leaves and flowers are used as anthelmintic,
antispasmodic and stomachic.
11. Asparagus racemosus Willd.
In tribal, Ayurvedic and unani systems the plant, its roots and leaves are used
in many deficiencies and diseases, but not in the physiology of reproduction,
though roots and leaves are regarded as galactogogue. In allopathic system the
root is used in impotency and azcospermea besides other diseases.
12. Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst.
Nayadis, Bhils, ethnic communities of Arunachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Maharashtra
use the herb as tonic and different parts in many diseases but not in family welfare.
According to Atharva Veda the herb improves the quality of semen; in Ayurvedic
system it is used for invigorating sex and in many disabilities and diseases; in
unani and allopathic systems the herb is considered useful in low adynamic
conditions and many other diseases.
13. Barringtonia acutangula (L.) Gaertn.
Mikirs, Santals,. and some ethnic communities of Orissa find different vegetative
parts useful for various ailments, but not in family welfare. The Ayurvedic works
as well as unani and allopathic systems recognize the utility of this species in
some other ailments.
14. Biophytum sensitivum L.
Rural folk of Orissa and ethnic communities of Sagar district consider the plant
as antiexcitant. Bhils use root to decrease sexual vigour; and the ethnic communities
of Ratan Mahal Hills (Gujarat) maintain that smoking dried leaves with tobacco
reduces the reproductive capabilities of man, and excessive use of the same renders
him impotent. Kasis, Jaintias and Santals find different parts of the plant beneficial
for diverse diseases. The medicinal usefulness of the leaves has been reCOgnized
by the allopathic system.
15. Boerhavia diffusa L.
. Ethnic communities of eastern Rajasthan, Dahanu forest use leaf in child birth,
whereas tribes of Sagar district employ root in treatment of gonorrhoea. Leaves
and other parts are used in the treatment of a number of diseases by many ethnic
communities of India. The medicinal importance of this species has been
Contd...
Contd ...
recognized since the days of the Rigveda: it is being used in Ayurvedic, siddha,
unani, homoeopathic and allopathic systems of medicine for treatment of a wide
range of diseases.
16. Bombax ceiba L.
Rural folk of Assam use leaf to treat infertility; Santals find seedling spermatorrhoea.
Garhwalis and tribes of Dahanu forest use root to treat impotency. A large number
of tribal societies use different parts of the plant for treatment of many diseases.
In Ayurvedic system the root of sapling is used in the treatment of weakness of
sex, insufficiency of sperms, gonorrhoea, and lOot-bark in menorrhagia.
17. Borassus flabellifer L.
Santals employ many parts for treatment of various ailments and diseases. The
medicinal importance of the species has been recognized since the days of the
Atharva Veda. Different parts of the plant are used in Ayurvedic, siddha and
allopathic systems of medicine.
18. Bridelia crenulata Roxb.
Ethnic communities of Orissa use the stem-bark for treatment of antifertility.
19. Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub.
Ethnic communities of Mayurbhanja (Orissa) use seeds as contraceptive, whereas
ethnic societies of Kannanore (Kerala) employ flowers in infertility. Many tribal
communities of India use different parts of the plant for treatment of many
diseases. According to the Atharva Veda, the extract of stem is beneficial for sperms
and helps securing conception. In Ayurvedic system the leaves are regarded as
sex stimulant and useful in menorrhagia, while flowers as sex stimulant. Further,
different parts of the plant are considered of medicinal importance in Ayurvedic,
siddha, unani, and allopathic systems of medicine. In modern medicine the
usefulness of alcoholic extracts of bark, flower in the physiology of reproduction
is acknowledged.
20. Calotropis gigantea (L.) R. Br.
Nagas administer root-decoction in leucorrhoea. Sfu'ltals do so in post-natal
complaints. Irulars use the latex as abortifacient. Miris, Nagas, Lodhas, Oraons,
Santals, Tharus, Kumaonis, Dangs and Vasavas use different parts of the plant
in many diseases. This species is considered medicinal in homoepathic and
allopathic systems.
21. Cardiospermum halicacabum L.
Lodhas, Mundas, Oraons use root and leaves in the treatment of some diseases.
The species is ti~ed in unani and allopathic systems of medicine.
22. Citrus aurantium L.
Traditionally different parts of the plant are used in some gastro-intestinal ..
problems. In allopathic system extracts of stem and leaf are used mainly as
antimicrobial, but the peel of fruits against antifertility.
Contd...
TRAomONAL USE OF PLANTS IN INDIA IN FAMILY WELFARE 25
Contd ...
23. Citrus medica L.
Traditionally ripe fruits are considered effective in amenorrhoea and
dysmenorrhoea. The species is regarded as medicinal in unani system.
24. Clerodendrum indicum (L.) Ktze.
Ethnic communities of Chhotanagpur use the root as abortifacient. In Ayurvedic
and allopathic systems different parts of the plant are used for treatment of many
diseases but not for family welfare.
25. C[itoria ternatea L.
Ethnic communities of Cannanore (Kerala) use the roots as abortifacient.
26. Commelina suffruticosa B1.
No other information could be obtained.
27. Cressa cretica L.
Some ethnic communities of Orissa eat the plant as vegetable.
28. Cuminum ClJminum L.
Irulars, Kotas and Todas use seeds to reduce labour pain, while ethnic communities
of Chhotanagpur use the same to accelerate child delivery. Tribal societies of Sagar
(Madhya Pradesh) employ fruits in inflammation of testicles and breasts. In
Ayurvedic, unani, and allopathic systems different parts of the plants are used
for various diseases.
29. Curculigo orchioides Gaertn.
Ethnic communities of Purulia (West Bengal) use roots in venereal diseases. Tribes
of Hazaribagh Gharkhand) employ roots in leucorrhoea. Ethnic communities of
East Rajasthan find useful roots in impotency. The species is considered medicinally
important in tribal, Ayurvedic, siddha, unani, and allopathic systems, and different
parts are used for various purposes.
30. Datura metel L.
Santals and ethnic communites of Sagar use leaf in gonorrhoea and syphilis.
Different parts of the plant are used in tribal, Ayurvedic, and allopathic systems
for treatment of many diseases.
31. Dendrophthoe falcata (Lf) Etting
Ethnic communities of Tejpur (Assam), Chhotanagpur Gharkhand), Mayurbhanja
(Orissa) employ the plant in antifertility, while the tribals of Bastar (Chhatisgarh)
use the same for treatment of impotency. The plant is recognized as medicinal
in Ayurvedic and allopathic systems.
32. Desmodium trijlorum DC.
Different parts of the plant are used by the Mundas in a number of diseases.
In allopathic system of medicine too this species is considered important.
Contd...
Contd...
33. Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf.
While Cakradatta holds roots beneficial in menorrhagia, almost all Ayurvedic
authors prescribe different parts of the plant for treatment of a number of
diseases.
34. Dillenia pentagyna Roxb.
Totos of West Bengal, ethnic communities of Orissa and Abujhmarh reserve area
find different parts of the plant useful for diverse diseases.
35. Diospyros malabarica (Descr.) Kost.
While ethnic communities of Madhya Pradesh, and some ancient Sanskrit works
recommend the use of fruits mainly for the treatment of diarrhoea, dysentery and
some skin diseases. Later Ayurvedic works recommend aqueous extract of green
fruit in menorrhagia.
36. Echinops echinatus Roxb.
Ethnic communities of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh use the parts of the
plant in some diseases, and in allopathic system alcoholic extract of the plant is
considered as spasmogenic.
37. Embelia nOes Burm. f
Ethnic communities of Garhwal, Kamrup and North East India use fruits and seeds
in a few diseases. Some Sanskrit works, including the ayurvedic texts, recommend
use of different parts of the plant for a large number of diseases, but not for
anything connected with family welfare. .
38. Erythrina variegata L.
Medicinal importance of the species is recognized by some ethnic communities
and in many Ayurvedic works. In the Ayurvedic system the stem-bark and leaves
are recommended in dysmenorrhoea.
39. Ferula alliacea Boiss.
It is considered by some modern botanists as an economically important species.
40. Ficus arnottiana [Miq.] Miq.
According to some Ayurvedic works this species is beneficial for semen and in
vaginopathy.
41. Ficus benghalensis L.
Bhoxas and ethnic communities of eastern Rajasthan use latex in spermatorrhoea;
while many other tribal societies use different parts of the plant for various
diseases. In ayurvedic system the bark is used in seminal weakness, leucorrhoea
and gonorrhoea. In modern science the bark decoction is considered for
antifertility.
42. Ficus racemosa L.
While many communities use different parts of the plant in treatment of various
diseases. Manipuries use the juice of pith in menorrhagia and spermatorrhoea.
Contd...
Contd ...
In Ayurvedic, siddha and allopathic systems the species in considered medicinally
important, while Madana nighntu states that it is useful in antifertility.
43. Ficus religiosa L.
Manipuris and ethnic communities of Sagar (Madhya Pradesh) employ the bark
in gonorrhoea. The Ayurvedic works state that different parts of the plant are
useful in sex-debility, night pollution, and to cure disorders in the female sex
organs. In allopathic system also the species is treated as medicinal.
44. Gloriosa superba L.
Mundas and Oraons use tuber for antifertility purpose. Santals and Garhwalis
and ethnic communities of Orissa use tuberous roots for abortion. Rajanigantu,
Madangnighantu and Bhavaprakasa consider it as abortifacient, while Cakradatta
maintains that application of root-paste ensures easy delivery of child. According
to Susruta the plant is useful in post-natal complaints. Allopathic system also
recognize the medicinal importance of the species.
45. Glycyrrhiza glabra L.
Medicinal properties of the species have been enumerated in many Ayurvedic
works, and according to modern science the root-extract is estrogenic.
46. Gossypium herbaceum L.
Ethnic communities of Hazaribagh and Ranchi districts (Jharkhand) find root-bark
and seed useful as abortifacient. The Ayurvedic system also consider the roots
and seeds as abortifacient. In modern science, gossypol-a chemical obtainable from
root, stem, and seed is a safe antifertility drug for male.
47. Grewia rhamnifolia Heyne
No further information could be collected.
48. Grislea tomentosa Roxb.
49. Helianthus annuus L.
Manipuris and the ethnic communities of Salsette island (near Mumbai) use
different parts of the plant for various purposes, and in modern system of medicine
too it has many applications but not for any purpose of family welfare.
50. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L.
Manipuris employ juice of flowers in amenorrhoea. Bodos, use root in menstrual
complaints and gonorrhoea. Ethnic communities of Kamrup (Assam) use flowers
as contraceptive, whereas ethnic communities of Hazaribagh (Jharkhand) use
flowers in impotency, and also to accelerate child birth; ethnic communities of
Ranchi (Jharkhand) use bark as abortifacient, ethnic communities of Saurashtra
(Gujrat) employ flowers in menorrhagia. In Ayurvedic system roots and flowers
are used in seminal weakness, menorrhagia, and venereal diseases; in unani system
too flowers are utilized in menorrhagia. In siddha and allopathic systems also
the species is considered as medicinally important.
Contd ...
Contd ...
51. Holarrhena . pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. ex G. Don
Mundas use root and leaf iI1' excessive hemorrhage after child birth. Ethnic
communities of Abujh-Marh (Madhya Pradesh) find bark useful in menstrual
difficulties. Many tribal communities of India use different parts of the plant in
various diseases. In Ayurvedic, siddha, and unani systems the species is used
against wide range of diseses. In allopathic system, alcoholic extract of fruits is
used to regulate menstruation and in many other ailments.
52. Hordeum vulgare L.
Santals, Garhwalis and Kashmiris use the grains in various diseases. In ayurveda,
unani and allopathy systems the species in considered important medicinally.
53. Indigofera cassioides Rottl. ex DC.
Many ethnic communities of India eat the flowers as vegetable. In modern science
the alcoholic extract of root is regarded as antiviral and spasmolytic.
54. Ipomoea aquatica Forsk.
Ethnic communities of Hazaribagh and Ranchi (Jharkhand) employ stem is
gonorrhoea, whereas ethnic communities of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra
find stem, leaf and flowers beneficial for treatment of some diseases. In Ayurvedic
system stem extract is used in gonorrhoea and a galactagogue, while other parts
in treatment of different diseases. In modern science, the alcoholic extract of the
plant is considered as spasmolytic.
55. Justida gendarussa Burm. f
Mikirs and Nayadis use leaf in bone dislocation and fracture. It is used in
Ayurvedic system for orthopedic purposes.
56. Limonia addissima L.
Ethnic communities of Jharkhand, Oriassa and Madhya Pradesh use various parts
of the plant in different diseases.
57. Lydum barbatum L.
58. Madhuca longifolia (Koen.) Mcbride
Various parts of the plant are used by diverse ethnic communities of India in
a number of other diseases. In Ayurvedic systems flowers are used in menorrhagia.
59. Mandragora offidnalis L.
No information could be collected.
60. Marsilea quadrifolia L.
In ayurveda it is considered as a medicinal plant fit for treatment of many other
diseases.
61. Mesua ferrea L.
Bodos, Khasis, and some other ethnic communities of Assam and West Bengal
use different parts of the plant in various ailments.
Contd...
Contd ...
62. Michelia champaca L.
Ethnic communities of Orissa and Madhya Pradesh : roots in menstrual
complaints and stem-bark as abortifacient. Powder of stem-bark is prescribed
in ayurveda for treatment of amenorrhoea.
63. Mimosa pudica L.
Some ethnic communities of West Bengal use the root for facilitating child-birth,
whereas some tribal societies of Assam find the root beneficial in antifertility. In
ayurveda, decoction of the plant is used in wounds in vagina and for vaginal
plugging. Seed-oil is utilized in strengthening the erectile muscle of penis.
64. Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth.
Ethnic communities of Madhya Pradesh consider bark as contraceptive, while
Dangs use the same in syphilis.
65. Moringa oleifera Lamk.
Todas , Kotas, Irulars, and ethic communities of Jharkhand use bark and gum
as abortifacient, whereas bark and leaf are used in menstrual complaints by
Nayadis. Many other ethnic communities apply different parts of the plant in a
number of ailments and diseases. In Ayurvedic and unani systems too all the parts
of the plant are treated as medicinally important.
66. Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.
Ethnic communities of Sagar (Madhya Pradesh) use flowers in diarrhoea and
cholera, whereas many other communities eat different parts of the plant as
vegetable. In ayurveda, decoction of root is prescribed in irregular menstruation,
and leaves in prolapse of uterus.
67. Nerium indicum Mill.
Ethnic communities of Jharkhand employ stem and root as abortifacient; while
some tribal societies of West Bengal and Haryana use latex in various diseases.
In ayurveda, different parts of the plant and latex are used in a number of ailments.
68. Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L.
This species occupies important position in Ayurvedic and tribal systems as
medicine for many other diseases.
69. Ocimum sanctum L.
Ethnic communities of Jharkhand apply leaf as abortifacient. This species occupies
an important position in tribal and Ayurvedic systems of medicines mainly for
its antibacterial properties.
70. Oryza sativa L.
Some ethnic communities of Bihar use flowers in antifertility. In ayurveda, the
grains are used in many other diseases.
Contd...
Contd ...
71. Emblica officinalis Gaertn.
Some ethnic communities of Jharkhand apply fruits in vaginal complaints. In
ayurveda, the fruits are used to treat semens and leucorrhoea. The fruits have
wide application in tribal and Ayurvedic systems in many diseases.
72. Piper nigrum L.
Nayadis apply stem and leaf to facilitate child birth. Assamese use fruits in
antifertility. In ayurveda, the fruits are used in gonorrhoea and also to improve
the quality of semen.
73. Piper peepuloides Roxb.
In Sikkim and Darjeeliing root, stem and fruits are used in leprosy and cough.
74. Pistacia chinensis Bunge ssp. integerrima (Stew. ) Rech. f
Garhwalis use kernel in dysentery and as antidote to bites of scorpion and snake.
In ayurveda, the species is used in few diseases.
75. Pterospennum acerifolium Willd.
In tribal and Ayurvedic systems bark, leaf, and flowers are used as medicine
of other diseases.
76. Santalum album L.
Ethnic communities of Sagar district use seeds are abortifacient. In tribal and
Ayurvedic systems, the wood is used in many diseases.
77. Semecarpus anacardium L. f
Ethnic communities of Mirzapur district apply root in impotency. Ethnic
communities of Ranchi and Hazaribag disricts use bark in gonorrhoea. In tribal
and Ayurvedic systems this species is used in many other diseases.
78. Sesamum orientale L.
Ethnic communities of Ranchi and Hazaribag districts apply seeds as abortifacient.
Seeds of the plant are used in many diseases in ayurveda and by some tribal
societies of India.
79. Sida cordifolia L.
Ethnic communities of Ranchi, Hazaribag and Varanasi districts consider the plant
useful in venereal diseases. Ethnic communities of Delhi area use seeds in
spermatorrhoea and gonorrhoea. In Ayurvedic system root-extract is used in
leucorrhoea and menorrhagia. Different parts of the plant are used in many other
diseases in Ayurvedic and tribal systems.
80. Sida spinosa L.
In ayurveda, the species is recognised as medicinal.
81. Smilax perfoliata Lour.
Garos use flowers in child birth, whereas some ethnic communites of Madya
Pradesh apply roots in veneral diseases. Ethnic communities of Jaintia, Mayurbhanj,
Contd...
Contd ...
Sagar and Dehradun districts use different parts of the plant in many other
diseases.
82. Solanum nigrum L.
Garhwalis and ethnic communities of Sagar district use leaf to treat inflammation
of testicles. Leaves and fruits of the species are widely used in tribal and Ayurvedic
systems.
83. Sphaeranthus africanus L.
84. Stephania elegans HK. f. & T.
85. Streblus asper Lour.
Different parts of the plant are used in many diseases in tribal and Ayurvedic
systems.
86. Symplocos racemosa Roxb.
Stem of the plant is used by some ethnic communities of Jharkhand to prevent
miscarriage. Bark is used in ayurveda to prevent miscarriage and in treatment
of leucorrhoea. Besides these, different parts of the plant are used in ayurveda
for treatment of various ailments.
87. Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn. ) Roxb.
Ethnic communities of diverse regions of India use the fruits in many diseases
but not in the physiology of reproduction. In Ayurvedic system the kernel of seed
is used to treat the semen, and fruits are used in many other diseases.
88. Terminalia chebula Retz.
Some ethnic communities of Mirzapur use the fruits in menstrual complaints,
while in the tribal and Ayurvedic systems of medicine the fruits have wide
application in many other diseases.
89. Themeda gigantea Hack.
Santals use different parts of the plant for many other diseases; no other
information about the medicinal use of the species could be collected.
90. Thysanolaena maxima Ktze.
Ethnic communities of Bastar use the seeds as abortifacient, whereas ethnic
communities of Mayurbhanja employ flowers to treat antifertility. Tribal societies
of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh apply the root for the same purpose.
91. Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers.
Ethnic communities of Mirzapur use the stem to increase vitality and ensuring
better sexual life. Ethnic communities of Salsette islands employ the plant in
menstrual disorder, while ethnic communities of Purulia use the plant in veneral
Contd ...
Contd...
complaints. Different parts of the plant are used by various ethnic communities
of India as medic'ne in many other diseases. Extract and decoction of this plant
are used in many diseases in Ayurvedic systems.
92. Tino~pora sinensis (Lour.) Merr.
Ethnic communities of Santal Parganas apply the stem as galactagogue, whereas
tribal societies of Jaintia Hills and Terai region use stem and leaf for other diseases.
The species is regarded as medicinal in Ayurvedic system.
93. Tragia involucrata L.
Ethnic communities of Medinipur employ the roots as galactagogue. Ethnic
communities of Meghalaya, Assam, Jharkhand, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh use
different parts of the plant as medicines for many other diseases. In Ayurvedic
.
system too various parts of the plant are used in many diseases .
94. Triticum aestivum L.
While straw is used to make soles of grass shoes by ethnic communities of Lahul.
The grains have medicinal use in the Ayurvedic system.
95. Vernonia albicans DC.
Ethnic communities of Dhasan Valley find the root beneficial in leucorrhoea. Some
ethnic communities of Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and Kerala use different parts
of the plant in many diseases. In Ayurvedic system the extract of stem is given
in irregular menstruation.
96. Vigna radiata (L.) Wilc.
Some ethnic communities of Maharashtra and Goa eat the seeds.
97. Wedelia chinensis (Osbeck.) Merr.
It is an important plant in Ayurvedic system. Extracts of leaf and stem are used
in many diseases.
98. Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal
Roots and leaves are used by many ethnic communities as medicines in many
other diseases. In Ayurvedic system, powder of root is used for improvement of
semen and in many other diseases.
99. Woodfordia fruiticosa (L.) Kurz.
Some ethnic communities of Orissa and Madhya Pradesh use flowers in treatment
of ailments related to pregnancy. Ethnic communities of Bhagirathi Valley and
Dhasan Valley employ flowers in menorrhagia, whereas many ethnic communities
of India use various parts of the plant in a number of diseases. In Ayurvedic
system flowers are used in treatment of semen and menorrhagia besides some
other diseases.
100. Xanthium strumarium L.
In tribal medicines, different parts of the plant are used in many diseases, but
not in the ailments connected with physiology of reproduction.
APPENDIX : (A) CARAKA ON USE OF PLANTS IN THE PHYSIOLOGY

OF REPRODUCTION
Caraka's prescriptions about the use of herbal materials in various aspects of
physiology of reproduction are briefly enumerated below
1. Treatment of semen
To improve the quality of semen, drugs having sweet taste (madhurausadha)
should be administered to a man (Sarirasthana, ch.8, sloka 4).
2. Regimens for a son of excellent qualities
Caraka states that if a lady desires to procreate a son having the following
quaJities-(i) a massive body, (ii) fair complexion, (iii) strength like that of a lion, (iv)
vigour, (v) strong mind, then she should eat a thin gruel (mantham), prepared by boiling
white barley with the milk of a white cow having a white calf, for a period of one
week starting from the first day of her purificatory bath after the menstruation (Sa.8.9).
Caraka states that for this purpose some Vedic rites too should be performed by
the couple desiring the child. In this rite, the priest should offer the wood of Butea
monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. (palasa), Balanites aegyptica Delile (ingudi), Ficus racemosa
1. (udumbara) or Madhuca longifolia (Koen.) Macbr. (madhuka) as oblation to the god
Agni.
Sticks of Butea monosperma (palasa) should be used to bind the limits of the alter
of the yajna, while stems of Desmostachya bipinnata Stapf. (kusa) should cover the alter
(Sa.8.24).
3. Pumsavana
Pumsavana is a sacrament performed by a pregnant lady out of the desire of
having a male child. Caraka states that the pregnant lady should be administered
pumsavana therapy before the manifestation of the sex of foetus. There are many steps
in the pumsavana therapy, but only those steps which involve use of vegetal materials
are enumerated below.
(A) During the conjunction of pusya star with moon, the lady should be made
to drink curd mixed with either two grains of Phaseous radiatus L. (dhanyamasa),
or white variety of mustard (sarsapa) endowed with excellent qualities along
with two buds (sunga) of Ficus benghalensis L. (nyagrodha) growing on grazing
ground of cow (gostha).
(B) The lady should drink milk in which anyone or two or three of the following
has/have been boiled-Achyranthes aspera L. (apamarga), Barleria cristata L.
(sahacara), JIVAKA (Trema orientalis Blume or Malaxis acuminata D. Don, or
Pentaptera tomentosa Bedd., or Terminalia alata Heyne ex Roth, or Terminalia
arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) W. & A., and RSABHAKA (Mucuma pruriens (L.)
DC. ?).
(C) The lady, during pusya conjunction, should inhale the steam emanating from
the paste of grains of Oryza sativa L. (sali) during roasting of the same. She
should also drop the juice, extracted from the paste of Sali rice after adding
water to it, in her right nostril with the help of a cotton swab (Sa.8.19).
4. Measures for maintenance of pregnancy
According to Caraka (Sa.8.20), a pregrant lady should wear the following
medicines on her head or right hand in the form of a talishman for maintenance of
pregnancy-Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. (aindri), Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst. (brahmi),
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. (sataviryajsahasravirya), Stereospennum colais (Buch.-Ham. ex
Dillwyn) Mabb. (amogha), Terminalia chebula Retz. (avyatha), SIVA (Curcuma longa L.
or Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce or Terminalia chebula Retz.), ARISTA (Azadirachta indica
A. Juss. or Melia azedarach L. or Sapindus emarginatus Vahl or Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora
Pennell or Xanthium strumarium L.), Sida cordifolia L. (vatyapuspi), ana Aglaia elaeagnoidea
Guss.) Benth. (visaksenakanta). Caraka continues that during pusya conjuction the lady
should take bath in water boiled with these articles. Further, she should consume milk
or ghee in which drugs have been boiled. She should also use, in the above manner,
all the medicinal elements mentioned under jivaniya (vitalizing) group.
5. Management of miscarriage
Sometimes during the forth month of pregnancy or there-after bleeding starts from
the genital tract of the pregnant lady. If immediate attention is not given to rectify this
abnormality, it may lead to miscarriage. Caraka suggests (Sa. 8.24) certain procedure
to be adopted for termination of bleeding and maintenance of pregnancy. The steps
which involve the use of vegetal materials are outlined below:
(A) After laying the pregnant lady with her lags upwards and the headside
downwards, a cool cotton Swab, dipped in ghee and mixed with the powder
of Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (Yastimadhu), should be placed over the vagina.
(B) The entire body of the lady, below the navel, should be sprinkled with
extremely cold cow milk, decoction of Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (Yastimadhu), and
the same of Ficus benghalensis L. (nyagrodha).
(C) After bathing her with cold water, cotton swabs, dipped in the latex of latex
of laticiferous trees and the juice of trees having astringent taste (Ksirinam
Kasayadrumanam), should be placed inside the vagina.
(D) The lady may be given milk or ghee boiled with the bud (sunga) of Ficus
benghalensis L. (nyagrodha) to consume in the dose of an aksa (approx. 12m!.).
(E) Pollens of Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. (padma), Nymphaea alba L. (Kumuda),
Nymphaea caerulea Savign. (utpala) along with honey and sugar may be given
to her to liCK.
(F) Seeds of Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. (puskara), Scirpus grossus Lf. (kaseruka) and
fruits (?) of Trapa bispinosa Roxb. (srngataka) should be given to her to eat.
(G) She may be given to drink the milk in which buds of Ficus benghalensis L.
(nyagrodha), cut and dried fruits of Ficus racemosa L. (udumbara), rhizome
of Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. (saluki), blue variety of Nymphaea alba L.
(sitotpala), and PRIYANGU (Aglaia elaeagnoidea ijuss.) Benth. I Callicarpa

macrophylla Vahll Prunus mahaleb L. have been boiled.
(H) She may be give to eat soft, fragrant and cold rice of red variety of Oryza
sativa L. (sali) along with honey and sugar, mixed with the milk in which
the following have been boiled-Sida cordifolia L. (bala), ATmALA (Abutilon
hirtum (Lam.) Sweet I Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet I Sida rhombifolia L.),
Saccharum officinarum L. (iksu) , roots of SASTIKA (a variety of OnJza sativa
L.) and KAKOLI (Fritillaria roylei Hook. I Lilium 'polyphyllum Doni Zizphus
napeca Willd.).
6. Regimens for a pregnant lady
For ensuring appropriate growth of the foetus within the womb and for
maintenance of proper health of the pregnant lady, Caraka prescribes monthwise regimen
for the entire period of pregnancy (Sa. 8.32). The lady should consume wholesome food,
constituted of adequate quantity of milk and rice, twice daily. Gradually drugs having
sweet taste, honey, ghee, butter, etc. should be added to the milk. During the seventh
month, Caraka observes, Kikkisa (white abdominal lines ) appear on the skin of abdomen
of the pregnant lady, because of the pressure of the growing foetus. Caraka prescribes
the following measures for the management of such a condition :
(A) She should be given one tola (approximately 12g ) of butter boiled with certain
selected sweet drugs (madhurausadhi) along with decoction Zizyphus mauritiana
Lam. (Kola) to drink regularly.
(B) The following should be applied over her breast as ointment : (i) paste of
Santalum album L. (candana) and the stalk (mmala) of lotus (Nymphaea nouchali
Burm. f. ?) , (ii) powder of Albizia lebbeck Benth. (sirisa), Woodfordia fruticosa
(L.) Kurz. (dhataki), Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (madhuka), and SARSAPA (Brassica
napus L. I Brassica nigra (L.) Koch.), or (iii) paste of Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-
Ham.) Wall ex G. Don (Kutaza), seeds of Ocimum basilicum L. var. basilicum
(arjaka), Cyperus rotundus L. (musta), Curcuma longa L. (haridra), or (iv) past
of Azadirachta indica A. juss (nimba), Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. (Kola), SURASA
(it appears that in Sanskrit the word Surasa has been used to designate many
species, some of them are mentioned here-Aloe barbadensis Mill. I Bacopa
monnieri (L.) Wettst. / Cinnamomum tamala Nees & Ebem. I Ocimum basilicum
L. var. basilicum I Ocimum tenuiflorum L. and Rubia cordifolia L. (manjistha).
(C) Oil, in which leaves of Nerium indicum Mill. (karavira) have been boiled, should
be gently massaged over the abdomen.
(D) Mfusin should be given with water boiled with Aganosma dichotoma (Roth)
K. Schum. (malati) and Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (madhuka).
7. Treatment of udavarta
During the eigth month of pregnancy the pregnant lady may suffer from udavarta-
an acute condition in the abdomen along with constipation. This condition, if not
properly attended to, may cause death of the foetus alone or along with the pregnant
lady.
For treatment of this condition Caraka prescribes administration of a mixture,

when slightly warm, as corrective measure. This particular mixture should be prepared
by boiling in milk the roots of the undermentioned plants : Oryza sativa L. (sali),
SASTIKA (a variety of sali), Desmostachya bipinnata Stapf. (Kusa), Saccharum spontaneum
L. (kasa), Vetiveria zizanoides (L.) Nash (virana), Hygrophila schulli (Buch. -Ham.) M.
R. & S. M. Almeida (iksuvaika), VETASA (Calemus extansus Roxb.jCalamus tenuis
Roxb./ Salix caprea L.), Pterospermum acerifolium (L.) Willd . (parivuyadha), BHUTIKA
(Cymbopogon citrates (DC.) Stapf.j Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) Spreng. / Swertia
chirayita (Roxb. ex Fleming) Karsten / Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague). ANANTA
(Alhagi pseudalhagi M. (Bieb.) Desv./ Barleria prionitis L. / Catunaregum spinosa (Thunb.)
Tirvengadum / Cynodon dachJlon (L.) Pers. / Fagonia cretica L. / Gloriosa superba L.
/ Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. / Ichnocarpus fruitescens R. Br. / Premna serratifolia
(L.) Gmelina arborea Roxb. (Kasmarya), Grewia asiatica L. (parusaka), GlYClJrrhiz glabra
L. (madhuka), and Vitis vinifera L. (mrdivika). To this decoction should be added the
paste of Buchanania lanzan Spreng. (priyala-part not specified), pulp inside the seed
of Terminalia bellirica Roxb. (bibhitaka), and grains of Sesamum orientale L. (tila).
8. Facilitating easy delivery
Sometimes delivery does not take place on time in spite of severe labour pain.
In this situation certain measures, according to Caraka, should be adoted to facilitate
the delivery. one of the measures is frequent inhalation by the pregnant lady of the
powder of the following vegetal materials: Acorus calamus L. (vaca), Derris indica (Lam.)
Bennet (cirabilva), Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton (ela), Gloriosa superba L. (langalika),
Piper chaba Hunter (cavya), Plumbago zeylanica L. (citraka), and Saussurea lappa C.B. Clarke
(Kustha). And the maternituy home should be fumigated with bark of Betula utilis D.
Don (Bhurja) and the pith of Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. (simsapa).
9. Removal of placenta
Sometimes the placenta does not come out immediately after delivery. To bring
out the placenta Caraka suggests certain steps, some of which include the use of vegetal
materials. These are enumerated below :
(A) Vagina of the progenitress should be fumigated by burning the bark of Betula
utilis D. Don (bhurja) along with quartz and slough of snake.
(B) In the genital tract of the progenitress should be placed a cotton swab soaked
in oil boiled with Catunaregum spinosa (Thunb.) Tirvengadum (madana), Ferula
narthex Boiss. (hingu), Foenicum vulgare Mill. (satapuspa), and Saussurea lappa
C.B. Clarke (kustha). With this oil she should be given unctuous enema.
(C) A decoction of BALVAJA (Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch. ?) PHALA
(Catunaregum spinosa (Thunb.) Tirvangadum ?), IKSVAKU (Cucumis lagenarius
Dum. ? ), Luffa acutangula (L.) Roxb. (krtavedhana), Luffa cylindrica (L.) Roem
(dhamargava), Luffa echinata Roxb. Gimuta), Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham)
Wall. ex G. Don (kutaja), and Scindapsus officinalis Schott. (hastipippali) should
be used for corrective type of enema.
(D) Two types of drinks should be given to the progenitress. Preparation of the
drinks are mentioned below. A paste of Saussurea lappa c.B. Clarke (kustha)
and Abies spectabilis (D.Don) G. Don (talisa) should be mixed with either of
the following: (a) decoction of Dolichos biflorus L. (kulattha), or Centella asiatica
(L.) Urb. (mandukaparni) and Piper longum L. (pippali) or Balvaja (Imperata
cylindrica (L.) Raeusch. ?, or (b) the scum of maireya sura type of wine.
(E) Caraka prescribes another drink for the progenitress. It states that a paste of
Elettaria cardamommum (L.) Maton (suksamaila), Cedrus deodara (Roxb.) Loud.
(kilima), Saussurea lappa C.B. Clarke (kustha), Zingiber officinalis Roxb. (nagara),
Embelia ribes Burm. f (vidanga), Piper longum L. (pippali), Piper chaba Hunter
(cavya), Plumbago ze1jlanica L. (citraka), Nigella sativa L. (upakuncika), and black
variety of Aquilaria agallocha Roxb. (kalaguru) should be mixed with the
smashed fleshy cut right ear of a wild bull (kharavrasabha).
The paste should then be soaked in the decoction of BALVAJA (Imperata cylindrica
(L.) Raeusch ?) for some time. Then the mixture should be sieved, and the remaining
liquid form the drink.
10. Management of mother after delivery
Caraka suggests (sa.8.48) use of some vegetal materials for proper maintenance
of health of the mother who has recently delivered. He says that power of Piper longum
L. (pippali), Piper chaba Hunter (cavya), Plumbago zeylanica L. (citraka), and Zingiber
officinalis Rosc. (srnzavera) should be given to the mother along with ghee, or oil, or
vasa, or bone marrow to eat when she feels hungry. The quantity of this should be
in conformity with the capability of the said mother to digest. The main food, however,
should be a liquid gruel boiled with Piper longum L. (pippali).
APPENDIX: (B) AYURVEDA ON USE OF
PLANTS IN BIRTH CONTROL
It appears that the Ayurvedic works, since sixteenth century AD, contain some
information about the use of vegetal materials in controlling sexual urge, and in
preventing pregnancy. Some of these data are briefly mentioned below:
1. Controling sexual urge
It is said that the daily drinking of juice of five leaves of Aegle marmelos Corr.
ex Roxb. (bilva) by a man during adolescent age, reduces his urge for sex-life. Continuous
use of this drink may cause deep slumber of sperms.
2. Prevention of pregnancy
The oil of Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (nimba) possesses antifertility property.
External application of this oil over genital organ in useful. Consumption of the paste
of root of Piper betle L. (tambula) causes infertility.
According to Bhava Misra (the author of Bhavaprakasa), if a lady, during the
first three days of menstruation, consumes in empty stomach, the paste of thre leaves
of Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr. (nadeyi) along with molasses, she will remain infertile
for a period of one month. It is said that if a lady repeats this process continuously
for a few months, she becomes barren permanently.
A woman may be made infertile with the aid of Artemisia maritima L.
(nagadamani). The lady should consume a soft drink containing the paste of the root
(approximately 3 gm) of this herb once daily, during the first three days of
menstruation, for few oconsecutive months.
It is said that consumption of leaf paste of Cordia dichotoma Forst. f. (karbudaraka)
along with the sundried grains of paddy helps prevention of ovulation, and thus the
possibility of pregnancy is eliminated.
If a lady consumes the paste of few leaves of PATHA (Stephania hernandifolia Walp./
Cissampelos pareira L. ?) in empty stomach for consecutive five days, from the onset
of menstruation, she will loose fertility for that month.
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Asolkar, L.V., Kakkar, KK & Chakre, D.J. (1992) Second Supplement to Glossary of Indian
Medicinal Plants with Active Principles. Publications and Information Directorate (CSIR),
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Balapure, KM., Maheshwari, J.K & Tandon R.K (1987) Plants of Ramayana. Ancient Sci. Life.
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Banerji, S.c. (1980) Flora and Fauna in Sanskrit Literature. Naya Prokash, Calcutta.
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Bodding, Rev., D.P. (1940) Studies in Santal medicine and Connected Folklore. Mem. Asiat. Soc.
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000
DEVELOPMENT AND STANDARDIZATION
OF HERBAL MEDICINES : AN OVERVIEW
OF CURRENT STATUS
C.P. MALIK, BHAVNEET KAUR, AMAN VERMA

AND CHITRA WADHWANI
Chapter Outline
1. Introduction
2. Herbalism
3. World health organization: Traditional healing facts sheet
4. National activities concerning medicinal plants
5. Herbal treatments for various diseases
6. Other popular herbal products and their uses
7. Herbal formulations
8. Challenges in drug discovery from medicinal plants
9. Statistical figures as marker for popularity of herbal drugs
10. Conduding remarks
11. References
. 1. INTRODUCTION
The early part of the 20th century has witnessed an unprecedented evolution
of the Global Pharmaceutical Industry. The advent of genomic research and new
molecular tools has culminated into highly specific biological assays that are employed
routinely in industrial drug discovery program. High throughput screening methods
in conjunction with combinatorial chemistry have significantly impacted the lead
compound generation and drug discovery processes. Resultantly, crude drugs have
been replaced by pure chemical drugs and the developed countries have experienced
a decline in popularity of medicinal plant therapy. The modern medicinal system has
grown phenomenally as manifested by global pharmaceutical sales which have
increased to 7 % ($ 643 billion) in 2006 fueled by strong international demand for
cancer treatments and robust growth in the US market (TOI, 2007). "There has been
42 c.P. MALIK, BHAVNEET KAUR et al.
a dramatic growth in the Pharmaceutical market in India, during the last two decades.
Indian Pharmaceutical industry, growing at 11 % annually compared with the global
industry rate of 7%, is now worth $ 6 billion in the global industry that's worth $
651 billion" according to the latest market research report on Indian healthcare sector
"Opportunities in Indian Healthcare Sector" by RNCOS (RNCOS, 2006).
However, the route of a compound from drug discovery to the clinic is much
longer and is controlled by multiple factors, consequently, the pendulum has swung
again and there is a resurgence of interest in study and use of medicinal plants primarily
due to one or more of the disadvantages of chemical drugs as listed below:
- Accumulation of tissue residues due to chemotherapeutics
- Environmental pollution
- Development of drug resistance in pathogens
- Immunosuppressants
The consumer preference, for traditional systems of medicine, which constitute an
important segment of Pharmacopeias for remedies to various disorders, is increasing
exponentially. Traditional houses of ayurveda in India, which make up for small share
of global herbal industry of US $ 120 billion, have taken ayurveda to export markets.
Coimbatore based AVP (Arya Vaidya Pharmacy), by introducing chyawanaprash - an
admired health tonic that helps boost energy, memory and immunity - in the form of a
biscuit, has been the pioneer in this respect. The product has been developed bearing the
tastes of both new and old generation in mind. All ingredients of chyawanaprash have
been retained in the biscuit so as to ensure better health, enhance immunity and energy
of the consumer. The biscuit will soon hit the export market.
Punarnava Ayurveda - another ayurveda firm based in Coimbatore - is also planning
to launch ayurvedic biscuit that will contain all essential ayurvedic ingredients. "Indian
ayurveda firms are expanding their export market by producing an array of ayurvedic
products like ayurvedic biscuits, herbal ketchup, and jams" according to a senior research
analyst at RNCOS (RNCOS, 2006).
There has been an explosion of alternative treatments and the therapeutic potential
of herbal medicines cannot be ignored and is highlighted in few examples provided below
(Crone and Wise, 1998):
1. Feverfew: Feverfew has been used since ancient times for curing fever, headache,
menstrual irregularities, and stomach discomfort. It is very beneficial in case
of migraine headaches and provides relief by reducing their frequency and
severity. The leaves contain an active component, parthenolide, a sesquiterpene
lactone. This compound has activity as a serotonin antagonist, which inhibits
release of serotonin from platelets, and prevents or reduces blood vessel spasm.
The action of feverfew is believed to be similar to migraine agents such as
methysergide (Tyler, 1994).
2. Ginger: Ginger has been used as an effective antiemetic for motion sickness-
induced nausea. The therapeutic action of ginger may be in the gastrointestinal
tract, as research indicates that ginger has no effect on the central nervous
DEVELOPMENT AND STANDARDIZATION OF HERBAL MEDICINES 43
system. Active components are contained in the volatile oil or oleoresin, which
can be extracted by brewing an herbal tea from pieces of ginger root (Tyler, 1994).
Powdered ginger capsules or ginger tea has been successful in reducing the
nausea brought about by medications such as selective serotonin reuptake
inhibitor agents. Recently, extracts of ginger were found to be most powerful,
among several plant extracts tested for antifungal activity (Ficker et al., 2003).
Zingiber offtcinale Rosc., or ginger, has been warranted as a potent antifungal
agent especially as this plant is generally regarded as safe for human consumption.
It has been found to be effective against a wide variety of fungi some of which
were highly resistant to amphotericin Band ketoconazole.
3. Milk Thistle: Milk thistle (Silybum marianum) is used by cirrhotic patients because
of its putative ability to slow liver damage. Ripe fruit from the milk thistle plant
is used to derive a concentrated extract known as silymarin (Ferenci et al., 1989).
In vitro as well as animal and human studies suggest that silymarin protects
hepatocytes from the toxic effects of substances such as carbon tetrachloride and
phalloidin (amanita mushroom). In humans exposed to hepatotoxins, silymarin
has been able to reduce the likelihood of developing more extensive liver failure.
Silymarin is thought to act by the presence of a large number of flavonolignans,
which work on the cell membrane to prevent the entry of toxic substances into
the hepatocyte. Protein synthesis is also stimulated, which accelerates the
regeneration and production of new hepatocytes.
Standardized milk thistle extract has been used by Wilasrusmee et al., (2002) in a
mouse lymphocyte proliferation assay in vitro. They found that lymphocyte proliferation
consistently increased and the effect was associated with an increase in interferon-gamma,
interleukin-4 and interleukin-10. The effect increased in a dose-dependent manner. Milk
thistle extract has been found to promote neuronal differentiation and survival, suggesting
potential benefits of chemicals contained in this plant for the nervous system (Kittur et
al., 2002).
Growth is shifting toward emerging markets for traditional plant-based remedies
which are back in use and find increasing patronage strengthened by their application
as:
a source of direct therapeutic agents
raw material base for the elaboration of more complex semi-synthetic chemical
compounds
models for new synthetic compounds, and
taxonomic markers for the discovery of new compounds
A recent survey conducted by WHO, approximates 80 % of the world population
to depend mainly on the traditional medicines for primary health care (Bannerman, 1983).
The production, consumption and international trade in medicinal plants, which provide
an eco-friendly and complementary alternative medicine [CAM], are growing and expected
to grow in future quite Significantly. CAM comprises a relatively new frontier of medical
research. Herbals are moving from fringe to mainstream (Malik, 2006).
India is one of the eight important Vavilovian centers of origin and crop plant
diversity. It is immensely rich in medicinal and aromatic plants occurring in diverse
ecosystems. Like all other old cultures, in India the plant medicines have been used both
for primary health care as also remedies. The indigeneous knowledge has been formulated,
documented and eventually acquired the shape of the organized four sub-systems of
traditional Indian medicine: Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha & Yoga and Naturopathy. Advances
in phytochemistry led to extraction of a number of active principles of medicinal plantsl
herbs, which became an indispensable part of modern drug manufacturing.
Ayurveda
"Ayurveda", an ancient system of health care, native to the Indian subcontinent
roughly translates as the "knowledge of life". According to Charaka, "life" itself is defined
as the "combination of the body, sense organs, mind and soul, the factor responsible for
preventing decay and death, which sustains the body over time, and guides the processes
of rebirth" (Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia; http:/ I en.wikipedia.orgl wikil Ayurveda).
According to this perspective, Ayurveda is concerned with measures to protect" ayus",
which includes healthy living along with therapeutic measures that relate to physical,
mental, social and spiritual harmony. Ayurveda is also one among the few traditional
systems of medicine to contain a sophisticated system of surgery (which is referred to
as "salya-chikitsa").
Three traditions of Ayurveda exist today: two of them based on the compendia of
Charka and Sushruta Samhitas, and a third tradition known as Kiishyapas. However,
Ayurvedic remedies prior to these traditions also exist, as mentioned in the earlier Vedic
literature (2nd millennium BC). Ayurveda operates on the precept that various materials
of vegetable, animal, and mineral origin have some medicinal value. The medicinal
properties of these materials have been documented by the practitioners and have been
used for centuries to cure illness and/or help maintain good health. Ayurvedic medicaments
are made from herbs or mixtures of herbs. These are made either alone or in combination
with minerals, metals and other ingredients of animal origin. The metals, animals and
minerals are purified by individual processes before being used for medicinal purposes.
In the early 20th century, Ayurvedic physicians began to organize into professional
associations to promote their case for national recognition and funding; which became
a reality after independence of India in 1947. Ayurveda is now a statutory, recognized
medical system of health care in India. The Central Council of Indian Medicine [CCIM]
governs and recommends policies for the research and development of the system. An
Encyclopedia on Ayurveda - Ayushveda.com has been developed to promote the knowledge
of Ayurveda worldwide. In certain states in India, Charak Samhita and Sushruta Samhita
are included in the curriculum of modern medical courses (M.B.B.S).
Mitra et al. (2002) have described the chemical constituents and antioxidant activity
of the Ayurvedic drug, Swarnabhasma (gold ash). The gold ash consisted of Realgar
(Arsenous sulphide), lead oxide, pure gold, and latex. Qualitative analysis showed the
presence of several microelements such as Fe, AI, Cu, Zn, Co, Mg, Ca, As, Pb. The material
was free from organic compounds. Oral administration showed no mortality in mice in
acute doses of up to 1 mIl 20 g using a Swarmabhasma suspension containing 1 mg
DEVELOPMENT AND STANDARlJIZATION OF HERBAL MEDICINES 45
of the drug. Animals treated chronically with Swarmabhasma showed significantly

increased activity of superoxide dismutase and catalase, two enzymes that reduce free
radical concentration in the body.
Unani
"Unani" (in Arabic, Hindustani, Persian, Pashtu, Urdu, etc) means Greek. It derives
from the Greek word Ionia, the Greek name of the Asia Minor coastline. It is also used
to refer to Graeco-Arabic or Unani medicine based on the teachings of Hippocrates, based
on the four humours Phlegm (Balgham), Blood (Dam), Yellow bile (Safra) and Black bile
(Sauda) - it seems to mean hard substance and black material.
Though the threads which comprise Unani healing can be traced all the way back
to Claudius Galenus of Pergamum, who lived in the second century of the Christian Era,
the basic knowledge of Unani medicine as a healing system was collected by Hakim Ibn
Sina (known as Avicenna). The time of origin is dated at Circa 980 AD in Persia. As
an alternative medicine, Unani has found favor in Asia, especially India. In India, Unani
practitioners can practice as qualified doctors, as the Indian government approves their
practice. Unani medicine is very close to Ayurveda. Both are based on theory of the
presence of the elements (in Unani, they are considered to be fire, water, earth and air)
in the human body. According to followers of Unani medicine, these elements are present
in different fluids and their balance leads to health and their imbalance leads to illness.
Most medicines and remedies (often common herbs and foods) used in Unani are also
used in Ayurveda. While Unani was influenced by Islam, Ayurveda is associated with
Vedic culture.
The base used in Unani medicine is often honey. Honey is considered by some to
have healing properties and hence is used in food and medicines practiced in the Islamic
world. Real pearls and metals are also used in the making of Unani medicines depending
on the kind of ailment it is aimed to heal (Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia; http:/ /
en. wikipedia.org/ wikijUnani).
Siddha
In the ancient period Indian saints handled the plants and herbs for long life with
better health and lived for several years. The sages were called Rishis in the North and
Siddhars in the South and their systems were known as Ayurveda and Siddha.
According to Siddha predictions, it is known to the world that Lord Siva taught
the Siddha principles and philosophies to Matha, Sri Parasakthi. After that the Siddha
principles were presented to the followers of Lord Siva and Sakthi, to Siddhars, starting
with Siddhar Nantheesar, then to Siddhar Thirumoolar, Agathiyar and other disciples
along with the 18 Siddhars and so on. All the Siddhars adopted the principles of Saiva
Siddhantham. It is an excellent philosophical theory to human beings with holy life. In
all Siddhars, Agathiyar was considered the prominent leader with his later guru Lord
Subramaniyar. From the old Siddha literature we can understand that Siddhar - Agathiyar
was first taught by Lord Siva, Sakthi and later by Lord Subramaniyar. Along with him
we have Siddhars like Sattanathar, Korakkar, Kaalangi, Pulasthiyar, Theraiyar, Pulippani,
Bogar, Ko~ganavar, Machamuni and so on. All the Siddhars taught their principles along
with their well experienced medicines to their disciples under Gurugulavasa. They
brought the secrets in the palm leaves manuscripts with several code words for their
understandings. In later stages, those code words were not clear and were not known
to the next generations except the followers of hereditary and traditional people of
Siddha medicines. Most of their predictions are classified with several formulations
which could be followed and adopted according to the land, climate and age, severity
of the disease, food and circumstances (Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia; http:/ /
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siddha).
In general, single and even compound medicines are advised for the patients by
knowing the pulse diagnosis methods, the variations of Naadi in their hands by means
of Vall, Azhal, Aiyyan, or in other words called Va~tham, pitham and kapam,
respectively. These three vital forces of cosmic elements are named under three Thosham,
or Mukkuttram and this is activated by the functions of Punchaboothas. The five major
concepts of Punchaboothas, are named as Nilam, Neer, Neruppu, Kattru and Vell, which
are respectively in hands known as Prithivi, Appu, Theyu, Vayu, and Akash. According
to this theory, all the substances in the universe are created under the actions or reactions
of the Punchaboothas only. Even for disease also, disease occurs in the living objects
(body) by means of less quantity of the ratio of the Punchaboothas only. If the ratio
differs from one to another any disease may attack the body (human beings, animals,
birds, flies etc.) by the way of the deficiency of certain vitamins and minerals. Siddhars
in olden days followed and adopted the principles for preparing all medicines like
herbal, minerals and metals. They cautioned the administration of certain Bhasmas, and
Sinduras, which are well oxidized stages of metals and minerals, and advised for in
taking periods, diet restrictions, according to the age, climate and land etc.
Siddhars classified the diseases in different topics and accounted the total diseases
for human body as 4448 diseases. They mentioned about the curable and incurable
diseases along with the symptoms of the body and predicted the concerned, proper
medicines also. Siddhars thoughts are derived to the medicines for curing toughest and
chronic diseases like, cancer, brain tumors, blood cancer, cardiac diseases, rheumatoid
arthritis, oesteoarthritis etc. All the Siddha preparations are doing wonders from patient
to patient with better ailments.
Nowadays the trained traditional Siddha practitioners are doing well, even with
the old highest proficiency processes which were kept by their ancestors and some people
make challenges with other systems for healing and curing diseases like AIDS
diseases. Generally with this system several processes are there to improve the haemoglobin
as well as the immunization of the AIDS patients without any side effects. More and
more herbal preparations are predicted from one Siddhar to another with different kinds
of Herbals. Very simple Herbal processes are advised by the Siddhars for the diseases
like migraine, sinusitis, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, gynaecological disturbances,
leucoderma and psoriasis, asthmatic attacks, piles and fistula, rheumatisms, dental
problems etc. Siddha system of science is the most effective and valuable system for
the human beings in all occasions without any side effects. Everybody can follow Siddha
system of medicine even for the whole family and even for the entire earth in all
circumstances. Siddha system of science is an everlasting principle to the world.
Siddha System presents the slogan, "Food is being medicine and medicine is being
food" to people.
Naturopathy
Naturopathic medicine is a school of medical philosophy and practice that seeks
to, improve health and treat disease chiefly by assisting the body's innate capacity to
recover from illness and injury. It may include a broad array of different modalities,
including manual therapy, hydrotherapy, herbalism, acupuncture, counseling,
environmental medicine, aromatherapy, nutritional counseling, homeopathy, and so on.
Practitioners tend to emphasize a holistic approach to patient care. Naturopathy has its
origin in the United States, but is today practiced in many countries around the world
in one form or another, where it is subject to different standards of regulation and levels
of acceptance. Naturopathic practitioners prefer not to use invasive surgery, or most
synthetic drugs, preferring "natural" remedies, i.e. relatively unprocessed or whole
medications, such as herbs and foods (Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia; http:j j
en.wikipedia.orgjwikijNaturopathy). Licensed physicians from accredited schools are
trained to use diagnostic tests such as imaging and blood tests before deciding upon the
full course of treatment. Naturopathic Practitioners also employ the use of prescription
medications and surgery when necessary and refer out to other medical practitioners.
Conventional medicine is required to undergo rigorous testing; drug trials often
lasting for a decade. A criticism of alternative therapies is that they are not subject to
detailed safety assessment. Advocates of naturopathy respond that many of their therapeutic
interventions have been in use for hundreds and in some cases thousands of years: what
is lost in formal study design is more than made up for by the breadth and depth of
human experience with the interventions in question. Restrospective analysis of various
herbal agents, have found some to be as or more effective than their pharmaceutical
equivalents, whereas others to have little therapeutic value, and a few to be harmful.
'NaturaY does not necessarily mean beneficial or even benign. Also of concern is the
ambiguity of the word "natural" and poor agreement as to its meaning. Naturopathic
modalities may be controversial (e.g. homeopathy), or have proven effectiveness only for
very specific conditions (e.g. acupuncture, aromatherapy). Some naturopaths may use these
modalities as panacea or to improve the patient's quality of life.
2. HERBALISM
Herbalism, also known as medicinal Botany (a neologism by Dr. K. Seshagirirao,
University of Hyderabad, India), medical herbalism, herbal medicine, herbology, botanical
medicine and phytotherapy, is a traditional medicinal or folk medicine practice based on
the use of whole plants, plant parts and plant extracts. Tyler (1994) defines herbal
medicines as "crude drugs of vegetable origin utilized for the treatment of disease states,
often of a chronic nature, or to attain or maintain a condition of improved health." WHO
has delineated a working definition of traditional medicine as "including diverse health
practices, approaches, knowledge and beliefs incorporating plant, animal, andj or mineral
based medicines, spiritual therapies, manual techniques and exercises applied singularly
or in combination to maintain well-being, as well as to treat, diagnose or prevent illness"
(WHO, 2002). Herbs have been portrayed as "wonder drugs" whose healing properties
48 c.P. MALIK, BHAVNEFf KAUR et al.
have been used to cure many ailments dating back to prehistory. There is evidence that
suggests Neanderthals living 60,000 years ago in present-day Iraq used plants for
medicinal purposes (found at a burial site at Shanidar Cave, Iraq, in which a Neanderthal
man was uncpvered in 1960. He had been buried with eight species of plants). These
plants are still widely used in ethnomedicine around the world. The plant parts used
include seeds, berries, roots, leaves, bark and flowers.
In Cherokee medicine three categories of herbs can be distinguished (Winston, 1992).
The "food herbs" are gentle in action, have very low toxicity, and are unlikely to cause
an adverse response. Examples of "food herbs" include Lemon Balm, Peppermint,
Marshmallow, Ginger, Garlic, Chamomile, Hawthorn, Rose hips, Nettles, Dandelion Root
and Leaf, and fresh Oat extract. These herbs can be utilized in substantial quantities over
long periods of time without any acute or chronic toxicity (it is important to note that
allergic responses like with foods are possible, as are unique idiosyncratic reactions, and
even common foods such as grapefruit juice, broccoli, and okra can interact with
medications). The second category is the "medicine herbs". These herbs are stronger acting
- they need to be used with greater knowledge (dosage and rationale for use) for specific
conditions (with a medical diagnosis) and usually for a limited period of time. These herbs
are not daily tonics and they should not be taken just because "they are good for you".
These herbs have a greater potential for adverse reaction and in some cases, drug
interactions. The "medicine herbs" include Andrographis, BlueCohosh, Cascara Sagrada,
Celandine, Ephedra, Goldenseal, Jamaica Dogwood, Oregon Grape Root, Senna, and Uva-
Ursi. The last category is the "poison herbs". These herbs have strong potential for either
acute or chronic toxicity and should only be utilized by clinicians who are trained to
use them and clearly understand their toxicology and appropriate use.
The first generally accepted use of plants as healing agents was depicted in the
cave paintings discovered in tlle Lascaux caves in France, which have been radiocarbon
dated to between 13,000 - 25,000 Be. Plants have an almost limitless ability to synthesize
aromatic substances, most of which are phenols or their oxygen-substituted derivatives
such as tannins. Most are secondary metabolites, of which at least 12,000 have been
isolated, a number estimated to be less than 10% of the total. In many cases, these
substances (esp. alkaloids) serve as plant defense mechanisms against predation by
microorganisms, insects, and herbivores. Many of the herbs and spices used by humans
to season food yield useful medicinal compounds.
The use of and search for drugs and dietary supplements derived from plants
(Samuelsson, 2004) have accelerated in recent years. Herbal medicines are now in great
demand in the developing world for primary health care not because they are inexpensive
but also as they have better cultural acceptability, better compatibility with the human
body and minimal side effects. Pharmacologists, microbiologists, botanists, and natural-
products chemists have galvanized into action together, combing the earth for
phytochemicals that could be developed for treatment of various diseases. In fact,
approximately 25% of modern drugs used in the United States have been derived from
plants. The use of herbs to treat diseases is almost universal among non-industrialized
societies. A number of 'traditions came to dominate the practice of herbal medicine in
the Western world at the end of the twentieth century:
The Western, based on Greek and Roman sources,

The Ayurvedic from India, and
Chinese herbal medicine (Chinese herbology).
Many of the pharmaceuticals currently available to Western physicians have a long
history of use as herbal remedies, including opium, aspirin, digitalis, and quinine. Herbal
medicine is a major component in all traditional medicine systems and a common element
in ayurvedic, homeopathic, naturopathic, traditional Chinese medicine, and Native
American Indian medicine. According to the WHO, 74% of 119 modern plant-derived
pharmaceutical medicines are used in ways that correlated directly with their traditional
uses. Major pharmaceutical companies are currently conducting extensive research on
plant materials gathered from the rainforests and other places for possible new
pharmaceuticals.
Medicinal plants, since times immemorial, have been used in virtually all cultures
as a source of medicine. The widespread use of herbal remedies and healthcare preparations,
as those described in ancient texts such as the Vedas and the Bible, and obtained from
commonly used traditional herbs and medicinal plants, has been traced to the occurrence
of natural products with medicinal properties. The use of traditional medicine and
medicinal plants in most developing countries, as a normative basis for the maintenance
of good health, has been widely observed (UNESCO, 1996). Furthermore, an increasing
reliance on the use of medicinal plants in the industrialised societies has been traced to
the extraction and development of several drugs and chemotherapeutics from these plants
as well as from traditionally used rural herbal remedies (UNESCO, 1998). Moreover, in
these societies, herbal remedies have become more popular in the treatment of minor
ailments, and also on account of the increasing costs of personal health maintenance.
Indeed, the market and public demand has been so great that there is a great risk that
many medicinal plants today, face either extinction or loss of genetic diversity.
3. WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION:
TRADITIONAL HEALING FACTS SHEET
Up to 80% of people in the south use Traditional Medicine (TM) or CAM as
part of primary health care.
TM has been fully integrated into the health systems of China, North and South
Korea and Viet Nam.
In western countries, growing numbers of patients rely on CAM for preventive or
palliative care:
In France, 75% of the population has used complementary medicine at least
once.
In Germany, 77% of pain clinics provide acupuncture.
The global market for traditional therapies stands at US$ 60 billion a year and
is steadily growing.
In the USA, expenditure on complementary or alternative medicine stands at
US$2.7 billion per year.
50 c.P. MAUl<, BHAVNEET KAUR et al.
About 25% of modern medicines are descended from plants first used
traditionally.
The Chinese herbal remedy Artemisia annua has been found to be effective against
resistant malaria and couid give hope of preventing many of the 800,000 deaths
among children from severe malaria each year.
The efficacy of acupuncture in relieving pain and nausea has been well
established.
Convincing evidence shows that therapies such as hypnosis and relaxation
techniques can alleviate anxiety, panic disorders and insomnia.
Other studies have shown that yoga can reduce asthma attacks while tai ji
techniques can help the elderly reduce their fear of falls.
In Africa, North America and Europe, three out of four people living with HIV /
AIDS use some form of TM/ CAM for various symptoms and conditions.
In South Africa, studies on the plant Sutherlandia microphylla show efficacy in
increasing energy, appetite and body mass in people living with HIV.
Asia and Pacific Australia - Traditional Chinese medicine has been practiced
in Australia since the 19th century. Approximately AU$ 1 billion is spent on
CAM.
Bhutan - More than 2990 medicinal plants are used in Bhutanese traditional
medicines. About 70% of raw materials for herbal preparations are available
in the country. There are more than 300 herbal products produced in Bhutan.
China - Traditional Chinese medicine is fully integrated into China's health
system. 95% of Chinese hospitals have units for traditional medicine. Traditional
medicine accounts for 30-50% of total consumption. There are 800 manufacturers
of herbal products with a total annual output of US $ 1.8 billion.
India - ayurveda, siddha and unani systems of medicine have coexisted with
yoga, naturopathy and homeopathy for centuries. Traditional medicine is widely
used in India, particularly in rural areas, where 70% of the population lives.
Traditional Indian medicine is provided in 2860 Indian hospitals.
Indonesia - 40% of Indonesia's population uses traditional medicine; 70% in
rural areas. At the end of 1999, there were 723 manufacturers of traditional
medicines, 92 of which were large-scale industries.
Japan - In 2000 the herbal medicine market in Japan was worth US $ 2.4 billion.
An October 2000 survey showed that 72% of registered western-style doctors
use kampo medicine (the Japanese adaptation of Chinese medicine) in their
clinical services.
Thailand - Thai traditional medicine draws from Chinese and Indian traditions.
In 1993, Thailand established the National Institute of Traditional Medicine.
By 1999, Thai traditional medicine was integrated into the facilities of 1120
health centers.
Vietnam - Traditional and oriental medicines are fully integrated into

Vietnam's health system. 30% of patients receive treatment with traditional
medicine. The Vietnam National Association of Acupuncture has 18,000
members, 4500 of whom work in public hospitals.
A look at the following data (Table 1 & 2) will give a very clear idea of the
current situation.
TABLE 1
Numbers and plants used medicinally worldwide
(Schippmann et al. 2002)
Country Plants species Medicinal plant species Percentage
China 26,092 4,941 18.9
India 15,000 3,000 20.0
Indonesia 22,500 1000 4.4
Malaysia 15,500 1,200 7.7
Nepal 6,973 700 10.0
Pakistan 4,950 300 6.1
Philippines 8,931 850 9.5
Sri Lanka 3,314 550 16.6
Thailand 11,625 1,800 15.5
USA 21,641 2,564 11.8
Vietnam 10,500 1,800 17.1
Average 13,366 1,700 12.5
World 422,000 52,885
TABLE 2
Some values of herbals in 9 regions of the world (Raskin et al., 2002)
Region Sale Value (billion US $)
1994 1997 1999 2002
Europe 6.00 7.00 7.00 8.90
North America 1.50 1.60 3.80 4.50
Japan 1.80 2.40 2.20 2.90
Asia 2.70 2.20 5.10 6.00
Austral-Asia 0.12 0.14
Africa & Middle East 0.19 0.21
Latin America 0.60 0.83
Eastern Europe 0.37 0.80
Rest of World 0.50 0.80 0.20 0.30
Total 12.40 14.00 19.58 24.18
4. NATIONAL ACTIVITIES CONCERNING MEDICINAL PLANTS

Kumar (2004) has reviewed the literature and the emerging policy issues on
valuation of plant diversity for pharmaceutical uses. Some of the acclaimed valuation
works done in the last 15 years (1985-2000) have been considered for this purpose. Their
methodologies have been scrutinized, findings evaluated and policy recommendations
examined. Since these studies were meant to address different concerns, it is difficult to
arrive at a general conclusion. However, the value of a medicinal plant varies from $ 0.2
to $ 340 million per annum. Conservation of biodiversity based on the benefits of medicinal
plants or bioprospecting is the subject of dissenting views. A conservation strategy on
the basis of the benefits of bioprospecting alone will need detailed area-specific study
instead of a general and large landscape valuation.
The Indian Medicine Central Council was established through the Indian Medici..lle
Central Council Medicine Act of 1970 to oversee the development of Indian systems of
medicine and to ensure good standards of training and practice. Training is in separate
colleges, of which there are now over 100. These offer a basic biosciences curriculum
followed by training in a traditional system. Thirty years on, however, the Department
of Indian Systems of Medicine has expressed concern over the substandard quality of
education in many colleges, which in the name of integration have produced hybrid
curriculums and graduates, unacceptable to either modern or traditional standards. The
department has made it a priority to upgrade training in Indian systems of medicine (Cho,
2000).
Focusing primarily on the Indian Scenario entirely, it is imperative to state that
Alternative systems of medicine have picked up in the country. A Government sponsored
programme was launched in 1993 for implementation by an NGO called "Foundation
for Revitalisation of Local Health Traditions." Thirty in situ "Medicinal Plant Conservation
Areas" (MPCA), 15 ex situ "Medicinal Plant Conservation Parks (MPCP), and one Model
Production Unit (MPU) were established in the programme, for large-scale production in
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. A Herbal Gene Bank at the Tropical Botanic Garden
Research Institute at Thiruvananthapurnam has been established. It encompasses All-
India ethnobiological project for the development of drugs from medicinal plants and herbs
for promotion of ethnopharmacological research. Central Institute of Medicinal and
Aromatic Plants (CIMAP) in Lucknow, which deals with plant tissue culture of medicinal
plants of commercial significance. It also monitors All-India Co-ordinated project on
Conservation of Endangered Plant species; maintenance of living herbaria or plant gardens
that feed traditional systems of medicine such as Ayurveda, Unani and Sidha. Ayurveda.
Another initiative is Germplasm Bank, Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary Tamil Nadu,
where, more than 40 species of medicinal plants are maintained and protected. Examples
are Manilkara hexandra to treat jaundice, Salvadora persicum to treat ulcers; Mucuma purata
used for preparation of a health tonic.
Priorities for Indian systems of medicine include education, standardization of
drugs, enhancement of availability of raw materials, research and development, information,
education and communication, and larger involvement of this type of medicine in the
national system for delivering health care. The Central Council of Indian systems of
DEVELOPMENT AND STANDARDIZATION OF HERBAL MEDIONES 53
medicine oversee research institutes, which evaluate treatments. The government is

adding 10 traditional medicines into its family welfare programme, funded by the World
Bank and the Indian government. Medicines are available for anaemia, oedema during
pregnancy, postpartum problems such as pain, uterine, and abdominal complications,
difficulties with lactation, nutritional deficiencies, and childhood diarrhoea (Departments
of Indian Systems of Medicine and HQmeopathy, 2000).
New regulations were introduced in July 2000 to improve Indian herbal medicines
by establishing standard manufacturing practices and quality control. The regulations
outline requirements for infrastructure, manpower, quality control and authenticity of raw
materials, and absence of contamination. Of the 9000 licensed manufacturers of traditional
medicines, those who qualify can immediately seek certification for good manufacturing
practice.
The government has also established 10 new drug testing laboratories for Indian
systems of medicine and is upgrading existing laboratories to provide high quality
evidence to licensing authorities of the safety and quality of herbal medicines. This replaces
an ad hoc system of testing that was considered unreliable. Randomized controlled clinical
trials of selected prescriptions for Indian systems of medicine have been initiated. These
will document the safety and efficacy of the prescriptions and provide the basis for their
international licensure as medicines rather than simply as food supplements (Departments
of Indian Systems of Medicine and Homeopathy, 2000).
Medicinal plant-related trade in India is estimated to be around Rs. 550 crores per
year (Nair, 2007). In India, of the 17,000 species of higher plants, 7500 are known for
medicinal uses. This proportion is the highest for plants known for their medical purposes
than in any other country of the world. The Pharmaceuticals Export Promotion Council,
under the Ministry of Commerce, along with Ayush (ayurveda, yoga, unani, siddha and
homeopathy) is working on to standardize some herbal products and register the product
through a research panel. The Government is proposing to resource map all medicinal
plants available in the country.
Biodiversity: Indian Scenario
India has a rich culture, traditions and natural biodiversity, hence offers a unique
opportunity for drug discovery studies. This knowledge-based country is well recognized
for its heritage of the world's most ancient traditional system of medicine, Ayurveda. Even,
Dioscorides (who influenced Hippocrates) is thought to have taken many of his ideas
from India. We in India have two (Eastern Himalaya and the Western Ghats) of the 18
hotspots of plant biodiversity in the world. Interestingly, we are seventh among the 16
mega diverse countries, where 70% of the world's species occurs collectively. We are rich
in our own flora, i.e. endemic plant species (5725 angiosperms, 10 gymnosperms, 193
pteridophytes, 678 bryophytes, 260 liverworts, 466 lichens, 3500 fungi and 1924 algae).
Unfortunately, due to various reasons including inaccessibility of some tough terrains,
only 65% flora of the country has been surveyed so far. With the dwindling population
of taxonomists and rare introduction of youngsters in this field, it might take another 20-
30 years with the current pace to survey the complete flora of the country.
According to 'The Biological Diversity Rules, 2003' of the Govt. of India (notified
on 24 March 2004), any person who is not a citizen of India (foreigner, non-resident Indian)
or any foreign corporate, seeking approval of the Authority (National Biodiversity
Authority-NBA) for access to biological resources and associated knowledge for research
or for commercial utilization shall make an application in Form I as given in schedule.
Every application shall be accompanied by a fee of Rs 10,000. The Authority on being
satisfied with the merit of the application, may grant the approval as far as possible within
a period of six months of receipt of the same. One has to specify each time the quantity
to be collected of exact species, quantum of monetary and other incidental benefits and
also guarantee to deposit a reference sample of the biological material sought to be accessed
with the repositories identified and submitting to the authority a regular status report
of research and other developments. However, according to the Biodiversity Act 2002, a
citizen of India need not seek permission of NBA for the access of biodiversity, but one
has to inform the respective State biodiversity boards for collection of plant material. As
the process of plant-based drug discovery involves continuous collection of plant material
from different places at various point of time, it is rather impractical to wait for obtaining
permission each time. At the same time, the authorities cannot also give blanket permission
for any collector. We have to find a way out.
A lot of field experience and wide floristic knowledge is required if one wants to
go for the random collection programme required for preliminary screening. Once found
active, target plant collection in bulk quantity may be a problem due to its threatened
status in some cases, or biomass and scattered distribution in others. Authentication of
plant material is an important and most crucial factor in plant-based drug discovery. This
needs to be supported by a set of suitable voucher specimens of the target species
authenticated by a botanist and then deposited with a recognized herbarium. In the
absence of vouchers, it is next to impossible to remember the location/ phytogeographical
conditions and time/ season of collection of the exact plant material for repeated studies.
Reproducibility of the results depends on various other factors too.
Proper collection procedures need to be laid and documented. Collection practices
should ensure long-term survival of wild populations and their associated habitats.
Management plans for collection should provide a framework for setting sustainable
harvest levels and describe appropriate collection practices that are suitable for each
medicinal plant species and plant part used. This should also include good field
documentation, use of global positioning system to pinpoint site locations, mapping of
sites and availability of good supporting databases. In case of tree or shrub species where
root or bark is being used or found active, phytochemical and biological evaluation of
leaves, twigs, stems, flowers and fruits must be done in order to ensure sustainable
utilization of the plant. Potential herbs have an added advantage over others, as the bulk
quantity and quality of target material can easily be assured through cultivation using
Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) and Good Collection Practices (GCP).
Another important issue here is the pharmaceutical evaluation of rare or endangered
species. According to the Govt. of India notification (Notification No. 2(RE- 98)/1997-
2002), 29 taxa have been banned and the export of plants, plant portions and their
derivatives and extracts obtained from the wild is prohibited. These species, including
other Red-listed threatened species, following the current International Union for the
Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) norms, cannot be collected from
the wild and in turn remain dead for science as far as their pharmaceutical potential
is concerned. Interestingly, many of these species do find mention in our traditional Indian
systems/tribal systems of medicine. After collection, the drying procedures that vary for
different plant materials may alter the chemical properties of the material. The commonly
employed drying procedures are sun- and/or shade-drying. Right kind of packaging
procedures adopted in order to avoid fungal infection, also need to be carefully worked
out before transportation of material to the laboratory. Processing of plant materials mainly
includes pulverization and then preparation of extracts. Various extracts such as hexane,
chloroform, ethyl acetate, n-butanol and ethanol or 70% ethanol are generally prepared
for chemoprofilings as well as for biological screening.
Glimpse of Indian Initiatives on Plant Prospecting
Various GOI agencies e.g. Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Council of Scientific
and Industrial Research (CSIR) and Department of Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha and
Homeopathy (AYUSH), Ministry of Health and Family Welfare have initiated efforts on
bioprospecting. DBT initiated the network programme on 'Bioprospecting of biological
wealth using biotechnological tools' during the 9th plan in 13 institutions. The objectives
of the programme were characterization of biodiversity in different agro-ecological regions,
bioresearches mapping, inventorization and monitoring of biological diversity,
characterization and conservation of Himalayan endangered species, including medicinal
and aromatic plants, and bioprospecting of molecules and genes for product development.
The data obtained from the first phase of bioprospecting are subjected to detailed
investigation, with a focus on product and process development and then commercialization.
CSIR has initiated a coordinated programme on drug discovery with a network of 19 CSIR
laboratories and other R&D institutions working in the field of traditional medicines as
well as universities. The programme began in 1996, and intends at discovering new
bioactive molecules from plants, fungi, microbes, insects, etc. using new technologies. The
Planning Commission sponsored the New Millennium Indian Technology Leadership
Initiative (NMITLI), one of the most innovative bioprospecting programmes. NMITLI
started a major herbal drug development programme for developing effective herbal
remedies for diabetes, arthritis and hepatic disorders, which has shown highly encouraging
results within a short period of time.
The Management of Health and Safety of Work (MHSW), GOI initiated two
important task-force programmes relating to creation of Traditional Knowledge Digital
Library and designing a Traditional Knowledge Resource Classification (TKRC). The
TKRC has information on 5000 subgroups and the structure of TKRC is compatible with
the International Patent Classification. TKRC will help enhance the quality of patent
examinations by facilitating the patent examiners to access pertinent information on
traditional knowledge in an appropriately classified form (Pushpangadan & Nair, 2005).
In order to screen thousands of plant species at one time for as many bioassays
as possible, we need to have a collection of a large number of extracts. Internationally,
there is a dire need to build natural products extract libraries. The extract libraries offer
several advantages, e.g. reduction in cost and time saving for repeated collection of plants
and availability of properly encoded and preserved extracts in enormous numbers for
biological screening in terms of high-throughput screenings and obtaining results within
a short period. Though some institutions have small plant extract libraries available in
India, they do not happen to be in public domain. The only information is available from
Nicholas Piramal India Ltd. (NPIL), a major pharma player in India. The company has
built up a plant extract library having 6000 extracts prepared from around 2300 plant
species sampled from all over India. Such libraries could act as a powerful tool and source
of extracts reference to be screened for biological activities using high-throughput assays.
5. HERBAL TREATMENTS FOR V ARIOUS DISEASES
The following provides a listing of various plant species and plant products which
are used for treatment of different ailments. Let us consider herbs against individual
diseases in some more detail
Against ~ancer
Camptothecin (CPT) from stem bark of Camptotheca acuminata (tree native to China)
has efficacy against solid tumors, breast, lung and colorectal cancers which are
unaffected by many other cancer chemotherapeutic agents. This tree has got
abundant source of CPT. Three anti-tumor alkaloids CPT, 9-methoxy CPT and
20-0-acetyl CPT have isolated from Nothapodytes foetida. CPT is isolated from
Ophiorhiza rugosa Wall. var. decumbens, O. erianth Wight, Tabernaemontana heyneana
Wal., Merilliodendron megacarpum (Vineesh et al., 2007). 10-Hydroxy CPT is more
active than CPT. CPT is shown to inhibit selectively the enzyme topoisomerase-
I enzyme. Topotecan and CPT-ll are clinically used derivatives.
Vinblastine and Vincristine from Periwinkle [Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don].
Sulphorapane (acts as a strongly protective agent against cancerous growths)
is isolated from most cruciferous vegetables such as Brussels sprouts, cabbage
and cauliflowers and broccoli. This compound is not destroyed in cooking.
Similar properties have been found in limorine from citrus fruits, Allium
compounds in garlic and onions, Isoflavones in beans and allergic acid in
grapes.
Taxus baccata and T. brevifolia which yield Taxol is an effective treatment against
cancer. Isolation of 1 g of taxol requires bark from 3 mature yew trees. The
interest in taxol drug discovery crystallized once it showed high activity .in case
of ovarian cancer. Taxol stabilizes the microtubule assembly by inhibiting back
polymerization of tubulin, an important protein present during mitotic phase
of cell cycle. In 1994 successful clinical trials were done, though the amount
of taxol from natural source (0.01 %) was a limiting factor since more quantity
is required for clinical trials (Cragg & Boyd, 1996; Cragg et al., 1993). This
difficulty was resolved through its semi synthesis, which involved isolation of
biosynthetic precursors of paclitaxel from renewable source of T. baccata which
contains about 1 % of Baccatin III and 10-DAB III. The precursors are converted
into taxol by reacting with taxol side chain.
Some other cancer curing plants are: Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. Allium
sativum L., Bauhinia variegata L., Boerhaavia d~'fusa L.,Calotropis procera (_'-it.)
R.Br., Curcuma longa L., Holarrhena antidysenterica Wall., Melia azedarach L.,
Ocimum gratissimum L., Plumbago zeylanica L., Tecoma undulata GDon,
Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don, Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers., Withania
somnifera (L.) Dunal.
Against Diabetes
Merck Research Laboratories has described the identification of a non-pep~dyl
fungal metabolite (L-783,28) which is an insulin mimetic in biochemical and cellular
assays. Concentrations of 3-6 mM induce 50% of the maximal effect of insulin on insulin-
receptor tyrosine kinase (IRTK) activir/. Further the company developed structurally
similar analogues based on above lead molecule, e.g. 2, 5-dihydroxy-6-(1-methylindol-
3-yl)-3-phenyl-l,4-benzoquinone which is under preclinical development. In India, 5
common herbal drugs are used efficiently for the treatment of diabetes. These are
derived from, Momordica charantia L., Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels, Gymnema sylvestris
Br., Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. and Trigonella faenum-graecum L.. Several others
tabulated in Table 3 are also used.
TABLE 3
Some anti-diabetic plants
Sr. No. Botanical Name Local Name Part Used Uses
1. Phyllanthus emblica L. Amalaki Fruit Blood & Urine
2. Hemidesmus indicus
(L.) R.Br. Annatmul Root To reduce sugar
3. Sida cordifolia L. Bala
4. Phyllanthus fraternus
Webster Bhoomyamalki Leaf
5. Andrographis Kalmegh Root, Leaf Hyperglycemia &
paniculata Nees gastric disorder
6. Aegle marmelos Bael Leaf Blood sugar
(1.) Corr. reduction
7. Plumbago indica L. Chitrak Root During excessive
appetite in diabetes
8. Punica granatum L. Pomegranate Fruit, Rind To check
Root Bark excess urination
9. Gmelina arborea Roxb. Gambhari Leaf To rectify eyeSight
during diabetes
10. Tribulus terrestris L. Gokshurah Fruit To rectify urinary
troubles and
impotency
11. Tinospora cordifolia Guduchi Stem For oral ulcers of
(Willd.) Miers. diabetic patients
Contd ...
... Contd.
Sr. No. Botanical Name Local Name Part Used Uses

12. Commiphora mukul Guggul Gum To reduce sugar
Engl.
13. Curcuma longa L. Haldi Rhizome Against glycosuria
14. Syzygium cumini Jamun Leaf, Fruit, For sugar reduction
L. Skeels Seed
15. Solanum Kantakari Root To remove weakness
virginianum L. due to sugar
16. Momordica Karela Leaf, Fruit To reduce sugar
charantia L.
17. Cyamopsis Guar Fruit To remove weakness
tetragonoloba (L.) Taub. due to sugar
18. Luffa acutangula Torai Root, Fruit Reduces Blood sugar
(L.) Roxb.
19. Madhuca indica Mohua Bark Reduces sugar
J.Gmelin
20. Gymnema sylvestris Br. Modhunasini Leaf Reduces sugar
21. Lawsonia inermis L. Mehandi Flower, Reduces sugar in
Seed urine
Momordica charantia L. is described as beneficial in diabetic disorders and other

disease conditions. Modem scientific analyses of its antidiabetic properties reveal that
it has the capacity to regulate vitiated carbohydrate digestion, glucose metabolism and
utilization processes insulin mimetic and secret gouge activities, and corrects the
impaired antioxidant defense in diabetes (Tiwari, 2007). In a recent article the said author
has discussed a fusion of ancient ayurvedic knowledge with modem scientific evidences
on its multifaceted antidiabetic properties.
Against Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
Several plant extracts are being investigated for substances which have potent anti-
HIV activity (Table 4). In this quest for medicines against this deadly disease, attention
is being focused on the active ingredients of 5000 different Chinese herbs, plants and
roots. The biochemistry of tianhuafen or cucumber is being studied in t.'1e USA to decipher
the identity of compound Q, an extract used in China and credited with remedial and
relief properties in AIDS sufferers (Hoareau & DaSilva, 1999). Some other AIDS curing
plants are : Allium sativum L., Aloe vera L., Asparagus racemosus L., Curcuma longa L..
Emblica officinalis Gaert., Glycyrrhiza glabra L., Ocimum sanctum L., Terminalia chebula Retz.,
Tinospora cordifolia Miers., Tribulus terrestris L., Withan:a somnifera (L.) Dunal, Zingiber
officinale Rosc.
DEVELOPMENT AND STANDARDIZATION OF HERBAL MEDIQNES 59
TABLE 4
Anti-HIV phytochemical yielding herbal plants
Source Phytochemicals
Castanospermum australe Castanospermine
Hypericum perforatum Linn., Hypericin/Pseudohypericin
H. triquetrifolium, H. erectum Thunb.
Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Glycyrrhizin
Calophyllum langierum, C. tetJsmanii Pyranocoumarins
Viola yeodensis, Prunella vulgaris, Sulfated polysaccharides
Alternanthera sp.
Larrea tridentate, Terminalia Lignans Termilignan & thannilignan
bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb.
Polyalthia suberosa Benth. & Hk. f Suberosol
Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat Flavonoids/ Chrysin
Arnebia euchroma, Cariolos versicolour Caffeic acid tetramers
Rhus succedanea Linn., Garcinia multiflora Biflavonoids
Geum japonicum Ursolic acid, maslinic acid
TriptenJgium wilfordii Lactone
Morus alba L. Flavonoids
Ancistrocladus korupensis Michellamines
Gelonium multiflorum AJuss. 31-kDA protein-GAP31
Erythrina glauca Pterocarpans
Tewtrakul and co-workers (2003), Toyama Medical and Pharmaceutical University,

Japan, have described HIV-1 integrase inhibitory substances from the plant Coleus
parvifolius Benth. from Thailand. Alcoholic extract of C. parvifolius Benth. showed potent
activity against the HIV enzyme. From this extract, these researchers have isolated and
identified 11 different chemical compounds. Interestingly, 4 have flhown inhibitory activity
against the enzyme in the micromolar range.
Against Skin Diseases
Eczema (dermatitis) is caused by predisposition of epidermal cells or may be blood
borne. Contact eczema is caused by type IV immune response allergic reaction. Atrophic
eczema is caused by antibody mediated aIlergic reaction by antibody "IgE". Scabies is
caused by Sarcoptes scabiei. The lesions occur inside fingers, heels, palms, wrist elbow and
around axils. Scabies also appears around the nipples in females or penis of males.
Furuncles (boils) is caused by Staphylococcus pyogenus, S. aurius, S. albus occur on the
face, neck, arms and buttocks. Several plants and plant parts are used to cure Eczema
and other skin ailments (Tables 5-8). Tea tree oil, the distillate from Melaleuca alternifolia,
has become increasingly popular as an antimicrobial agent for the treatment of conditions
such as Tinea pedis and acne. Koh et al. (2002) investigated the anti-inflammatory
properties of tea tree oil on histamine-induced weal and flare and found that it can
satisfactorily reduce histamine-induced skin inflammation.
TABLE 5
List of plant parts used in curing eczema
Common Name Botanical Name Parts Used

Ghrita Kumari Aloe barbadensis Mill. (Liliacaeae) Leaf juice
Burdrok Arctoum lappa Linn.(Asteraceae) Powdered root
internally Root
macerated in till oil
Birthwart Aristolochia bracteata Retz. Leaves with castor oil
(Aristolochaceae)
Neem Azadirachta indica A.Juss. Kernel oil locally
(Meliaceae)
Gule abbas Calandula officinalis L.(Compositae) Leaf and flower
decoction
Vasanti tika Ec1i Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Diels Leaf juice, externally
Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk.(Compositae) Paste of herb,
externally
Bakra Elaeodendron glaucum (Rottb.) Leaf decoction,
Pers. orally
Liquorice Glycyrrhiza glabra L.(Leguminosae) Root & stolon
decoction, orally
Jangli irandi Jatropha curcas L.(Euphorbiaceae) Seed oil, externally
Alsi Linum usitatissimum L.(Linaceae) Seed poultice
Clubmass Lycopodium clava tum Linn. Spores, externally
(Lycopodiaceae)
High mallow Malva sylvestris Boiss.(Malvaceae) Flower and leaf
decoction
Bobuna Matricaria chamomilla Linn. Flower and leaf
(Asteraceae) decoction
Nagkesar Mesua ferrea Linn. (Guttiferrae) Seed oil
Kalaunji Nigella sativa Linn. (Rananculaceae) Seed decoction with
sesame oil
Pongam oil Pongamia glabra Vent. Seed Oil
(Leguminosae)
Contd...
... Contd.
Marking nut Semacarpus anacardium L.f. Pericarp juice with
(~acardiaceae) ghee, internally
Pansy Viola tricolor Linn.(Violaceae) Herb decoction,
internally
Kattha Acacia catechu Willd. Bark extract
(Leguminosae)
Garlic Allium sativum L. (Liliaceae) Juice of clove
Arhar Cajanus cajan L. Millsp. Paste of leaves
(Leguminosae)
Lemon Citrus lemon Burm. f(Rutaceae) Lemon oil
Jangli Haldi Curcuma aromatica Salisb. Rhizome paste
(Zingiberaceae)
Tesiu Butea frondosa Koen. ex Roxb. Flower paste
(Leguminosae)
Kapas Heydychium spicatum Buch.-Ham.
(Zingiberaceae)
Lavander Lavandula vera DC. (Laminaceae) Volatile oil of leaves
Gule-abbas Mirabilis jalapa L. (Nyctagenaceae) Flower paste
Sandal Santalum album L. (Santalaceae) Volatile oil
Methi Trigonella foenum-graecum L.
(Leguminosae) Powdered seed with oil
Khaskhas Vetiveria zizanoides Stapf.
(Gramineae) Root oil
TABLE 6
Plants used in curing Scabies
Katha Acacia catechu Willd. Bark extract
Acalypha indica L. Leaf juice with common salt
Peelis Katili Argemone mexicana L. Latex with oil
Danti Baliospermum montanum Latex or paste of seed
Muell.
Flame of forest Butea monosperma Leaf and flower decoction
(Lamk.) Taub.
Contd...
62 c.P. MALIK, BHAVNEET KAVR et al.
... Contd.
Madar Calotropis gigantea (L.) R.Br. Latex
Rudravanti Cressa cretica L. Paste of burnt plant
Jute Hibiscus cannabinus L. Leaf paste
Hul Kusha Leucas aspera (Willd.) Lank Leaf juice
Kamala Mallotus philippensis (Lamk.) Leaf powder with oil
Muell-Arg.
Karavira Nerium oleander L. Leaf decoction
Pongam Oil Pongamia glabra Vent. Seed oil
Bankapas Thespesia lampus (Cav.) Bark decoction
Dalz. & Gibs.
Kulpha Trichodesma indicum (L.) Paste of the burnt oil
Lehm.
TABLE 7
Plants used in curing psoriasis
Ghrit Kumari Aloe vera L. (Liliaceae) Leaf juice, externally
Chakunda Cassia tora L.(Laguminosae) Leaf and seed powder with
milk or ghee, externally
Somraj Centratherum anthelmenticum Seed+black pepper+black
O.Ktze. (Compositae) seasamum, 5 g daily
Kanduri Coccinia indica Wt. & Am. Leaf paste, externally
(Cucurbitaceae)
Hul Kusha Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link Leaf juice, externally
(Laminaceae)
Marking nut Semecarpus anacardium LJ. Pericarp juice with ghee,
(Anacardiaceae) externally
TABLE 8
Plants used in curing f1,l1'U1lcles
Neem Azadirachta indica A.Juss. Kernel oil locally
Arhar Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. Paste of leaves
Amal Bael Cayratia carnosa (Lam.) Paste of bulb
Gagnepain
Contd...
... Contd.
Rudranti Cessa cretica Linn. Plant ash with coconut oil
Haldi Curcuma longa L. Rhizome paste
Bor Ficus benghalensis L. Paste of stem bark and
leaves
Kapoor Heydychium spicatum Ham. Rhizome paste
Aam Mangifera indica L. Dried kernel, bark oil
Bobuna Matricaria chamomilla Linn. Flower extract
Gule-Abbas Mirabilis jalapa L. Powdered seeds
Karela Momordica charantia Linn. Juice of tender leaves
Karavira Nerium oleander L. Paste of root
Tulsi Ocimum sanctum L. Paste of leaf
Makoi Solanum nigrum L. Paste of fruit and leaves
Methi Trigonella faenum-graecum L. Oil fried with leaves
Against Malaria
Artemisinin is a sesquiterpene lactone isolated from Artemisia annua and is
used to treat malaria. It is effective against multi-drug resistant strains of
malarial parasite. The compound destroys malarial parasite by getting activated
itself in the presence of iron and convE!fting into a free radical, which binds
with malarial parasite protein and stops the growth of the parasite.
Arteether (ether derivatives), artesunate ester derivative and dihydroartemisinin
are used in the form of oily injections for intramuscular use and oral tablets,
for the treatment of malaria.
Munrovia pumilla effective against high fever in malaria.
Against Inflammatory disorders
Several natural products have been used since 1940s for treating various
inflammatory diseases. The chronic use causes severe side effects of
gastrointestinal bleeding. So, safe drugs for treatment of inflammatory diseases
are needed. The discovery of COX-2 has given impetus to this research as the
inhibitors of the enzyme do not cause side effect. Natural products being
understood as safe drugs without many side effects are exploited for the source
of new COX-2 inhibitors which are essentially required for the treatment.
Studies on curcumin, a component of Curcuma longa, have shown it to be
endowed with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and antifungal properties
(Chainani, 2003). Curcumin has been shown to be safe in six human trials.
It may exert anti-inflammatory action by inhibiting a number of molecules
involved in inflammatory processes. Laboratory studies have identified a
number of molecules involved in inflammation that are inhibited by curcumin,

amongst them phospholipases, lipoxygenase, cydo-oxygenase 2, leukotrienes,
thromboxane, prostaglandins, nitric oxide, collagenase, elastase, hyaluronidase,
monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, interferon-inducible protein, tumour necrosis
factor, and interleukin-12 are prominent.
Koduru et al. (2007) carried out ethnobotanical survey of plants used for the
treatment of cancer in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Information on the names
of plants, parts used and methods of preparation was collected through a questionnaire
which was administered to herbalists, traditional healers and rural dwellers. Information
collected has revealed 17 plant species that are used for treatment of cancer in the Province.
These plants belong to 13 families, of which hyacinthaceae and hypoxidaceae are the most
prominent. Roots, corms and bulbs are the commonest parts of plants used, while
decoctions and infusions are tile main methods of preparation. Solanum aculeastrum was
the most commonly used plant species for treatment of cancer in the Province.
6. OTHER POPULAR HERBAL PRODUCTS AND THEIR USES
Essential oils
Treatment of dental caries with Neem oil as an alternative medicine replaces
antibiotics.
The essential oils used as fumigants exhibit complete protection of stored wheat
samples from fungal as well as insect invasions without showing phytotoxicity.
Marijuana hortensis or sweet Marforam or Murwa is useful in treating asthma,
hysteria, and paralysis. Fresh and dried leaves are highly valued as a condiment
for seasoning of food. Considered to be carminative, expectorant and tonic,
leaves and seeds are used as astringent. Infusion of the plants is used as
stimulant, sudofric, emmenagogue and galactogogue.
Artemisia nilgirica is used as a substitute for cinchona in fever. It has antilithica
and alexipharmic properties and assists parturition. Decoction is given to
children suffering from measles. Infusion of leaves and flowering top is given
in asthma.
Artemisia maritime oil is very efficient in action on round worms.
Essential oil from Matricaria chamomile is used in alcoholic and non-alcoholic
beverages, ice cream, baked goods, and chewing gums and in high class
perfumes. It acts as antispasmodic, expectorant, carminative, anthelmintic,
deductive, diuretic, etc.
Origanum vulgare oil has carminative, stomachic, diuretic, diaphoretic and
emmenagogue functions.
The leaves and seed essential oil from Lantana camara L. has antimicrobial
activity against Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Shigella boyedii and Salmonella
typhimurium.
The leaf essential oils of four aromatic plants, viz., Amyris elemifera (Rutaceae),
Eugenia axillaries (Myrtaceae), Lantana involucrata (Verbenaceae) and Myrica cerifera

(Myricaceae) used in traditional"bush" medicine on Abaco Island, Bahamas, have been
analyzed by GC-MS (Schmidt et al., 2006). The antimicrobial activity against Bacillus
cereus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, E. coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida albicans, and
Aspergillus niger, and the in vitro cytotoxicity of the oils on MDAMB-231, MCF7, Hs
578T, Hep G2, and PC-3 human tumor cells showed positive results. A. elemifera leaf
oil is effective in reducing fever, treat symptoms of flu, treat sores, and wounds, and
its use as a general tonic and bath. L. involucrata leaf oil has shown slight antibacterial
activity against B. cereus and Staphylococcus aureus and is weakly cytotoxic against the
cell lines used in the study. The major components in the leaf oil and slight antimicrobial
activity are consistent with the ethnobotanical use of L. involucrata to treat itching skin.
Neither E. axillaris nor M. cerifera leaf essential oils are appreciably antimicrobial or
cytotoxic.
Herbal Drink
Mulberry Herbal Tea has been produced in Thailand. Two types are: Green
Tea and Chinese Tea. It has flavor, color and solubility in hot water according
to the industrial standard for tea. It has 200 times less caffeine than ordinary
tea, which is 0.01%. Mulberry tea has the property of reducing blood
cholesterol due to presence of y-amino butyric acid and phytosterol in.
Moreover, it also has deoxynojuimycin which is effective in reducing sugar
level in the blood. The mulberry leaf extract has been found to contain
chemicals which inhibit cancer. The Chinese traditional medicine describes the
therapeutic use of mulberry tea in lowering blood pressure.
Sweetener
-
- Jubilee (Pentadiplandra brazzein) berries found in Gibbon in West Africa,
contains a protein (brazzein) which is 2000 times sweeter than sugar. Being
a protein (natural substance) it does not lose its sweet taste when heated. Today
top biotechnology companies are engaged in Africa battling to tap and control
the undiscovered plant based pharmaceutical wealth (valued more than US
$ 147 billion) available in the tropical forests alone. Likewise the sales of drugs
from Indian plant Periwinkel and Rauwolfia serpentina Bth. is more than US
$ 260 million every year.
Against Insects
In a study against tobacco caterpillar (Spodoptera litura), the mean weight of
larvae treated with extracts of seven different medicinal plants, Gymnema
sylvestris RBr., Curcuma amada Roxb., Piper longum L., Andrographis paniculata
Nees, Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal, Clerodendron phlomidis L. f. and Aristolochia
bracteolata Lamk. were statistically at par but G. sylvestre RBr. was found best
among all even better than the established antifeedant Azadirachta indica A.Juss.
Neem (Azadirachta indica A.Juss.) controls more than 200 species of insects, mites,
nematodes including major pests such as locust, rice and maize borers, pulse
beetles and rice weevils, yet it does not harm birds, mammals and beneficial
insects such as bees. Also it is used as a contraceptive agent. Neem is also

reported to have fungicidal, antibacterial and even antiviral properties.
Against Several Diseases
Turmeric (Curcuma Ianga L.) is extensively used as a spice, food preservative
and colouring material in India, China and South East Asia. It has been used
in traditional medicine as a household remedy for various diseases, including
biliary disorders, anorexia, cough, diabetic wounds, hepatic disorders, rheumatism
and sinusitis. For the last few decades, extensive work has been done to establish
the biological activities and pharmacological actions of turmeric and its extracts.
Curcumin (diferuloylmethane), the main yellow bioactive component of turmeric
has been shown to have a wide spectrum of biological actions. These include
its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, antimutagenic,
anticoagulant, antifertility, antidiabetic, antibacterial, antifungal, antiprotozoal,
antiviral, antifibrotic, antivenom, antiulcer, hypertensive and hypocholesteremic
activities. Its anticancer effect is mainly mediated through induction of apoptosis.
Its anti-inflammatory, anticancer and antioxidant roles may be clinically exploited
to control rheumatism, carcinogenesis and oxidative stress-related pathogenesis.
Clinically, curcumin has already been used to reduce post-operative inflammation.
Safety evaluation studies indicate that both turmeric and curcumin are well
tolerated at a very high dose without any toxic effects. Thus, both turmeric and
curcumin have the potential for the development of modern medicine for the
treatment of various diseases (Chattopadhya, Biswasl, Bandyopadhyay and
Banerjeel, 2004).
A recent study by Qureshi et al., (2007) has shown hepatoprotective and
antioxidant activities of flowers of Calatrapis pracera (Ait.) RBr. This property
has been attributed to the quercetin related flavonoids present in these flowers.
Qureshi and coworkers have advocated the efficacy of these active principles
against CCl. induced hepatic injury in albino rats and mice. The active
component of liquorice root has been shown to inhibit immune-mediated liver
cytotoxicity and may indicate some function in Hepatitis C treatment (Bean,
2002). McCulloch et al., (2002) have evaluated the efficacy of Chinese herbal
medicine alone or in combination with interferon-a in treating chronic hepatitis
B and suggested further studies.
7. HERBAL FORMULATIONS
Herbal formulations are multi-ingredient crude extract(s) admixture, where the
'active' ingredient constitutes only a small portion and most comprise secondary materials.
Formulations based on crude herbs consist of leaves, roots, stems, flowers, seeds, fruits
or whole plants and also exudates formulated as tablets and capsules, or used as oral
liquid preparations. These forms are not very successful due to poor absorption, therapeutic
efficacy and poor compliance problems. In a tablet or capsule powdering of the crude
herbs is essential and particle size affects the process of blending, compression and filling
to achieve homogeneity. The latter is difficult to achieve due to several constraints e.g.
large bulk to be handled, high moisture content, lack of proper equipment and inherent
nature of the raw material.
For granulation and compression, binders such as starch, gelatin, sugars and
sugar alcohols are used. Most crude drugs have very poor compressibility. Hence,
aluminum silicate and hydrotalcite are used to reduce the elasticity of crude drugs.
Hard gelatin capsules are widely used for crude powdered herbs. Many herbs contain
lipophilic ingredients which provide self-lubrication leading to poor filling performance
due to stickiness, fill weight variation and the stability problems.
Plant Extracts can be of variable consistency ranging from fluid, dry or
intermediate consistency. They are classified into total extracts and purified extracts.
The former constitute a major hindrance in preparation of formulations especially solid
forms, since they are hygroscopic, sparingly soluble and sticky. On the contrary purified
extracts imply dry preparations. General formulations of injectables containing extracts
are not rec'ommended. Extracts are also prepared in the liquid dosage form e.g. syrups,
drops, solutions or suspensions or as soft gelatin capsules. Chief problem with the
liquid is the solubility of the extracts.
Hygroscopicity, poor granulation, flow properties and compressibility pose many
problems. Thus, use of silica gel, coating of granular extracts with water soluble
polysaccharides (guar gum and locust bean gum) are used to overcome this problem. On
the contrary the secondary components, sugars and saponins dissolve in water and form
granules, are difficult to try. Compressed tablets are difficult to disintegrate. Therefore,
best option is wet granulation using organic solvents or non-hygroscopic ready granulated
extracts. Excipients used for the purpose are silica gel and small quantities of lubricants
such as magnesium stearate.
New epidemics, like HIV-virus and SARS, lead to fatalities, attributed to lack of body
immunity. Further, we are exposed to toxic material viz. pesticides, herbicides, consumption
of adulterated milk, pollutants and now infested chocolates. The modem system of drug
treatment uses corticosteroids, antibiotics which cause toxicity and allergy. In USA nearly
9 million cases of adverse drug reactions are reported annually, of these about 30,000
die. Medicos are hence prescribing ayurvedic preparations, singly or with a combination
of herbals, to tackle infections by boosting immune system, detoxification and also correct
any malfunction in the body. However herbals suffer from prejudices, lack of proper
formulations and standardizations, which yield inconsistent responses.
8. CHALLENGES IN DRUG DISCOVERY
FROM MEDICINAL PLANTS
Despite the success of drug discovery schedules from plants in the last 2-3 decades,
future endeavors have many challenges. Phytochemists and pharmaceutical industries
shall have to improve the quality and quantity of compounds that enter the drug
development phase to keep pace with other drug discovery efforts. The process of drug
discovery is estimated to take an average period of a decade and cost more than US
$ 800 million (Dickson & Gagnon, 2004). Most of this time and money is spent on the
numerous leads that are discarded during the drug discovery process. According to one
estimate, only one in 5000 lead compounds will successfully advance through clinical
trials and be approved for use. In the drug discovery process, lead identification is
the first step (Fig. 1).
Lead optimization which involves medicinal and combinatorial chemistry,
development (including pharmacology, toxicology, pharmacokinetics, ADME and drug
delivery), and clinical trials take considerable time. Different approaches to drug discovery
from plants can be mentioned as: random selection with chemical screening, random
selection followed by one or more biological assays, follow-up of biological activity reports,
follow-up of ethnomedical (traditional medicine) use of plants, use of appropriate plant
parts as such in powdered form or preparation of enriched/ standardized extracts (herbal
product development), use of a plant product, biologically potent but beset with other
issues, as a lead for further chemistry, and single new compounds as drugs. The objective
of the latter approach is the targeted isolation of new bioactive plant products, i.e. lead
substances with novel structures and novel mechanisms of action. This approach has
provided a few classical examples, but the problem most often encountered here is not
enough availability Gachak & Saklani, 2007). The problem can be overcome by semi-
synthesis/ synthesis or using tissue-culture techniques (by genetically modifying the
biosynthetic pathway of the compound of interest). The approach of herbal drug
development is associated with several problems. Crude herbs/plants are mostly formulated
as tablet/ capsule, and/ or oral liquid preparations. These dosage forms are not successful
due to problems encountered in absorption, therapeutic efficacy and poor compliance.
Homogeneity is difficult to achieve due to the handling of large bulk quantities, high
moisture content and inherent nature of the compound.
Clinical Trials
Drug Candidate
Toxicology, Pharmacology, Drug delivery
Medicinal Chemistry
Bioassays-in vivo, cell based, target based qualitative
Plant Part used

Fig. 1 : Drug discovery process from plants
As drug discovery from plants has traditionally been time-consuming, faster and
better methodologies for plant collection, bioassay screening, compound isolation and
compound development must be employed (Koehn & Carter, 2005). Innovative strategies
to improve the process of plant collection are needed, especially with the legal and
political issues surrounding benefit-sharing agreements (Rosenthal, 2002; Soejarto et al.,
2004). The design, determination and implementation of appropriate, clinically relevant,
high-throughput bioassays are difficult processes for all drug discovery programmes
(Knowles & Gromo, 2003; Kramer & Cohen, 2004).
Although the design of high-throughput screening assays can be challenging
(Walters & Namchuk, 2003), once a screening assay is in place, compound and extract
libraries can be tested for biological activity. The common problem faced during
screening of extracts is solubility and the screening of extract libraries is many times
problematic, but new techniques including pre-fractionation of e~tra'Cts can alleviat-e
some of these issues (Butler, 2004). Challenges in bioassay screening remain an important
issue in the future of drug discovery from medicinal plants. The speed of active
compound isolation can be increased using hyphenated techniques like LC-NMR and
LC-MS.
Development of drugs from lead compounds isolated from plants, face unique
challenges. Natural products, in general, are typically isolated in small quantities that
are insufficient for lead optimization, lead development and clinical trials. Thus, there
is a need to develop collaborations with synthetic and medicinal chemists to explore
the possibilities of its semi-synthesis or total synthesis. One can also improve the natural
products compound development by creating natural products libraries that combine
the features of natural products with combinatorial chemistry. With the dwindling
population of taxonomists and rare introduction of youngsters in this field, it might
take another 20 -30 years with the current pace to survey the complete flora of the
country. Now the question before us is: could we assess the pharmaceutical potential
of all the floristic components that we know? The answer is no.
Realizing that we have approximately 17,500 species of higher plants, 64
gymnosperms, 1200 pteridophytes, 2850 bryophytes, 2021 lichens, 15,500 fungi and 6500
algae at our disposal, surprisingly, hardly a few institutions like CDRI, Lucknow with
its concerted efforts could test a few plants and have published results on 3488 species
of plants for limited indications in almost 28 years (Sanjappa, 2005) between 1968 and
1996. This resulted into some promising leads that were later developed as drugs, viz.
bacoside, a memory enhancer from Bacopa monnieri (L.) Penn.; picroliv, the hepatoprotective
from Picrorhiza kurroa Benth.; curcumin, the anti-inflammatory from Curcuma domestica
Valeton; the contraceptive cream from Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn., etc. Other CSIR
laborai:ories and some private pharmaceutical companies have also made some efforts
in this direction (Newman et al., 2000; Prakash, 1998). However, assessing the
pharmaceutical potential of our whole flora even for the important disease indications
may take several decades. The reason could be the availability of source plant material,
expertise to authenticate the taxa, developing enough suitable in vitro screens for all
indications, reproducibility of results and so on. Whatever the case may be, can we
70 C.P. MALIK, BHAVNEET KAUR et al.
afford to wait any longer to evaluate our flora for its medicinal efficacy? The procedure
for access to biological resources now is somewhat tedious.
9. STATISTICAL FIGURES AS MARKER FOR
POPULARITY OF HERBAL DRUGS
The phenomenal popularity of herbal medicines in the Western world and
impressive annual growth figures have opened new vistas to countries rich in
biodiversity to exploit their bio-resources. Resultantly, most of the large pharmaceutical
companies have started the Herbal Research division and are now interested in
marketing of herbal medicinal products and new drug development from medicinal
plants. Ranbaxy, Cadila, Cipla, Dr. Morepen, Dr. Reddy's labs, Warner Lambert,
American home products, Bayer and Glaxo-Smithkline Beecham are all introducing
herbal products. It is estimated that there are over 7800 medicinal drug-manufacturing
units in India, which consume about 2000 tonnes of herbs annually (Ramakrishnappa,
2002).
Ranbaxy will shortly be marketing herbal drugs and is aiming to become a leading
player in the segment, according to a top company official. "Ranbaxy is getting into herbal
drugs, it will give competition to Dabur with 60 per cent market share and there is no
guarantee its (Dabur's) share will not shrink," Chairman of Ranbaxy Laboratories Tajender
Khanna said. A couple of herbal drugs would be marketed shortly and details would
be available in the company's corporate affairs section. The sales in the USA alone have
increased to $ 296 million in 2002 from $ 15 million in 1998 and targeted sales in the
country are around $ 400 million for this year. The company's Indian operations alone
have pegged their sales at around $ 190 million and worldwide sales this year can be
around $ 930 million though exact figures cannot be given offhand, he said.
Reliance ~ife Sciences is an emerging company focusing on selected species for
research to enhance both the quality and quantities of products of secondary metabolites
(like pharmaceuticals, antibodies, anticancer agents, immunomodulators, flavour and
fragrances) using Metabolic Engineering.
Phytomedicines or herbal medicinal preparations have gained a wider acceptability
among European populations and Germany is considered a hub of medicinal and aromatic
plants with 10% domestic cultivation and 90% import. Although the data to accurately
calculate the global market for herbal medicines is sparse, it was conservatively estimated
at around US $ 30 billion in 2000. The worldwide sale during last two decades has
increased with an annual growth rate averaging between 5 to 15 per cent, depending
on the region. Europe leads the market; followed by Asia, North America and Japan. The
USA is the fastest growing market where annual retail sale of botanical products has
increased from US $ 200 million in 1988, to an estimated US $ 5.1 billion in 1997 and
much more in 1998 (Table 9). The consumer use of these I'Toducts in the USA has
increased by staggering 380 per cent in the past ten years.
The industrial demand for medicinal plants has increased exponentially in the
world market since last few decades with the emergence of newer product categories like
health foods, natural cosmetics and personal hygiene products. The overall international
trade in medicinal plants and their product has been estimated at over US $ 60 billion
in 2000 (Govt. of India, 2000), with average annual growth rate (AAGR) of 7 per cent,
and it is expected to reach US $ 5 trillion by 2050. The annual volume of global trade
in medicinal plant material in the 1990s amounted to an average of 400,000 metric tones,
valued at US $ 1.2 billion. China and India were the top exporting countries and Hong
Kong, Japan, the USA and Germany, the leading importers. About 80 per cent of
medicinal plant material supply in the world market is sourced from the wild collections.
TABLE 9
Leading herbals in USA in 1998
Herbals Botanical Name Sale Value Growth (%)
~million US $) (1996-98)
Ginkgo Ginkgo biloba 138 140
St.ohn's Wort Hypericum perforatum Linn. 121 2801
Ginseng Panax sps. 98 26
Garlic Allium sativum L. 84 27
Echinacea Echinacea sps. 33 151
Saw palmetto Serenoa repens 27 138
Grape seed Vitis vinifera L. 11 38
Kava kava Piper methysticum 8 473
Evening primrose Oenothera biennis 8 104
Goldenseal Hydrastis canadensis 8 80
Cranberry Vaccinium macrocarpon 8 75
Valerian Valeriana spp. 8 35
Others 31
10. CONCLUDING REMARKS

Medicinal herbs as potential source of therapeutics aids has attained a significant
role in health system all over the world for both humans and animals not only in the
diseased condition but also as potential material for maintaining proper health. A major
factor impeding the development of the medicinal plant based industries in developing
countries has been the lack of information on the social and economic benefits that could
be derived from the industrial utilization of medicinal plants.
It is now recognized that about half the population of industrialized countries
regularly use complementary medicine. Higher education, higher income, and poor
health are predictors of its use (Astin, 1998). Two basic policy models have been followed:
an integrated approach, where modern and traditional medicines are integrated through
medical education and practice (for example, China, Vietnam) and a parallel approach,
where modern and traditional medicines are separate within the national health system
(for example, India, South Korea).
International market of medicinal plants is over $ 60 billion per year and is
growing at a rate of per cent. Taking existing export of rupees 446 crore of crude
drugs and Ayurvedic products in 1998-99 to an estimated rupees ten thousand crore
plus by 2010 is not an unrealistic target, provided systematic and sustained efforts
are made in the right direction.
Medicinal plant sector in India at the moment operates in a policy vacuum.
Immediate action is required to have clearly defined policies to regulate medicinal plant
conservation, cultivation quality control standards, processing, marketing and trade
including domestic & export, and coordinated information network effort. A need-based
research including screening of plants for biological activity and focus on environmental
and bio-diversity conservation aspects of forests which continue to be primary habitats
of medicinal plants, is the need of the hour. About two million hectares of forest area
on intensive management can produce medicinal plants for export and domestic use
to provide health for our millions. Such effort will enhance greenery, generate
employment and income to the people and conserve bio-diversity. In order to push India
as a significant player in the global herbal product market, herbal products should be
standardized as per WHO guidelines. The need of the hour is a systematic, collaborative
and scientific approach. India has the potential to take up the challenge of leading the
drug and herbal market at the same time conserving its rich heritage through proper
planning and implementation of policies.
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000
PLANTS USED IN WOUND CARE
RICHA DEO AND USHA MUKUNDAN
Chapter Outline
1. Introduction
1.1 History of wound healing
1.2 Natural healing
1.3 Wound and wound types
1.4 Process of wound healing
1.5 Wound healing and nutrition
2. Medicinal plants used in wound care
3. Some therapeutic actions, mode of action and some plants that possess wound
healing properties
4. Some folklore remedies for wound healing
5. Conclusion
6. References
1. INTRODUCTION
Man, due to his inherent nature, has been in one or the other form of conflict and
as a result his body undergoes a number of sufferings. Early man got wounded while
hunting and due to aggression within their groups. With development of civilizations,
came conquests that lead to battles. As a result, those fighting suffered wounds of varying
degree. The search for relief from pain and to heal his wounds prompted him to explore
his surroundings for a remedy. As a result early man used various natural agents to treat
himself, plants being in the forefront.
1.1 History of wound healing
The earliest recording of a 'wound healing man' is in a cave drawing in Spain dating
PLANTS USED IN WOUND CARE 77
back some 20-30,000 years. From the earliest recorded history it is clear that the
Assyrians knew about healing, not just from an observational point of view but also
in terms of practical management. Plants with antibacterial and antiseptic properties
such as Acarus calamus, Mentha sps, etc were known' to them. The Egyptians were good
broken bone setters, they also practiced amputation successfully. Wounds and cuts were
treated with bandages impregnated with antiseptic herbs and ointments. Medical
materials were chiefly plant-based, and the Egyptians knew the uses of castor oil, dill,
cumin, garlic, juniper, cedar, chamomile and coriander. The main treatise of the
Egyptians that deals with surgery is the Edwin Papyrus. The Edwin Smith Papyrus
is 5 meters long, and is chiefly concerned with surgery. It described 48 surgical cases
of wounds of the head, neck, shoulders, breast and chest. The papyrus listed the
manifestations, followed by prescriptions to every individual case. It included a vast
experience in fractures that can only be acquired at a site where accidents were
extremely numerous, as during the building of the pyramids.
The Edwin Smith Papyrus shows the suturing of non-infected wounds with a
needle and thread. Raw meat was applied on the first day, subsequently replaced by
dressing of astringent herbs, honey and butter or bread. Raw meat is known to be
an efficient way to prevent bleeding. Honey is a potent hygroscopic material (absorbs
water) and stimulates the secretion of white blood cells, the natural first body defense
mechanism.
The Edwin Smith Papyrus contains a list of instruments, including lint, swabs,
bandage, adhesive plaster (x-formed), support, surgical stitches and cauterization. It is
clear that the Egyptians understood the concept of primary wound healing. The Egyptians
also used antiseptics. They used the copper pigment malachite as both an eye adornment
and an antiseptic.
Soon after the Egyptians, came the Indian knowledge professed by Sushruta
Samhita. This document contains methods of skin suture and the details of techniques
to incise an abscess. For practice, a bag of warm butter was used to simulate the feel
of the knife going in and the pus coming out. The Sushruta scripts also include a
description of how insects have been applied in the healing of wounds. The earliest type
of clip was based on the mandibles of certain ants. The mandibles from a certain 'soldier
ant' were used to close these types of wounds. This technique is also found in Asia, Africa
and South America. The mandibles from the Eciton burchell are particularly large. Its
mandibles would close on the wound and the body would then be pinched off.
Contemporary clips work according to the same principles. Plants such as Centella asiatica
(L.) Urb. , Santalum album L., Azadirachta indica AJuss. were used for wound healing
purposes. Plants with astringent properties were employed to stop bleeding.
The art of wound healing reached its zenith in the Greek world between the fifth
and second centuries BC but this was certainly not an instant product. The oldest written
witnessing of medical information in the Greek and even European territories comes from
the poems of Homer, dated nine hundred years before the Christian era. The Iliad and
Odyssey contain realistic descriptions of 147 wounds and injuries of widely differing
types. While the outcome of the battles depends entirely upon the will of the Gods, the
78 RIeHA DEO AND USHA MUKUNDAN
characteristic of this period is that medicine is empirically documented with, however,

influence from superstition. None of the 147 wounds was reported to be healed by
a God alone. Therefore, a mixture of rational and irrational elements is evident in
early surgery.
The ritual was carried out in the temples of Aesculapius, the Greek god of
medicine. The healer was an associate of priests -or the priest himself- and sometimes
offered help.
Usually, after a sacrifice was made, the patient slept in the colonnade of the
temple. During the night the god either performed an operation with the aid of snakes
or appeared to the patient in a dream and gave advice. In the morning the patient
departed.
It was not until the fifth century BC that complete separation of the art of wound
healing from superstition and magic took place for the first time in history. Detailed
knowledge of ancient Greek medicine comes from a compilation of medical writings called
'Hippocratic Collection'. These writings deal with many surgical disorders as well as other
medical disciplines. The surgical books are among the most lucid and brilliant works of
the collection that consists of more than seventy books. By dissociating medicine from
speculation and philosophy, and rather focusing on careful clinical observation, ancient
Greeks laid the basis for scientific medicine and indeed surgery.
The father of medicine, Hippocrates, who lived nearly 2500 years ago, wrote several
accounts on wound healing and was aware of the importance of infection in relation to
wound healing. He understood the concepts of primary and secondary wound healing,
using antiseptics such as wine. Hippocrates pointed to the significant role of compression
in the treatment of patients with leg ulcers,
The Roman poet Vergil recounts how, when the hero Aeneas suffered a deadly
wound in battle and all attempts to heal him were in vain, his goddess mother, Venus,
arrived on the scene with a stalk of dittany with downy leaves and purple flowers, which
she had plucked on Crete's Mount Ida. After steeping the flower in river water, she gave
the water to the aged Iapix, who washed the wound with it. Suddenly all pain left the
body of Aeneas; the arrow which no one had been able to remove fell out unforced, and
the eager Aeneas, with strength renewed, was ready to return to battle. Perhaps this
episode reflects Vergil's early interest in medicine. He says that Origanum dictamnus
(dittany) was even used by wild goats, who cured themselves with it when struck by
arrows. Romans used essential oils for pleasure, to perfume their hair, bodies and clothes,
as well as for pain relief.
For centuries only limited inforIr.ation existed on wound healing. During the 15th
century the anatomy was described in greater detail by the surgeon Andreas Vesalius.
As a result surgical expertise became more acknowledged, although it was still carried
out by barber surgeons.
From the early history of wound healing it is apparent that Celsus in De Medicina,
recognized the cardinal signs of inflammation. John Hunter, considered one of the fathers
of surgery, recognized that we would not be able to operate without inflammation. Actually
it was thought that the pus had to be present in order for the wound to heal.
One of the largest advances we owe to Ignaz Semmelweis, a Hungarian

obstetrician who lived in Vienna. The obstetrician discovered that if you went from
the post-mortem room to the delivery room, but washed yuur hands in between using
chloride of lime, the maternal mortality was reduced.
Lord Lister introduced antiseptics containing carbolic acid and realized that by
using antiseptics compound fractures could heal and amputation be avoided. The idea
of cleansing wounds was further developed by Alexander Fleming, who was one of a
group of scientists who discovered that penicillin could treat infections.
Since then, research has produced many results and significant improvements have
been made. Several experimental methods can be used for wound healing research, some
are crude and others relatively sophisticated.
1.2 Natural healing
The human body protects itself from the external environment by an outer layer
of skin and sub-cutaneous tissue (fatty tissue). Skin consists of two layers; epidermis and
dermis. The outer portion, epidermis, is composed of epithelium cells (20 to 30 cells deep)
which protects the body from bacterial invasion. The inner portion, the dermis, gives skin
its strength and vitality. Under the skin is subcutaneous tissue (fatty tissue) that functions
as padding and absorbs pressure preventing injuries to body organs and structures.
When an individual develops an open wound nature attempts to cover the wound
to prevent infection by the growth and migration of epithelial cells. This natural method
is slow and explains why infection of the wound by germs or parasites is common. Wound
management by physicians assist nature by the cleansing and removal of dead tissue from
the wound, and by the application of appropriate local dressings onto the wound to create
a moist environment. Even though natural healing is often gratefully accepted, the skin
cover is fragile and thin and liable to break down and form another ulcer. There is also
a limit as to how far cells can migrate and that the reason why some wounds does not
heal naturally!
Natural process of wound healing takes a longer period to get healed and hence
the wound gets exposed to bacterial microorganisms. To avoid infection it is necessary
to provide such an environment that will accelerate the wound healing process.
Nature has endowed a number of plants and nutrient with properties that help
in wound healing. However before discussing these plants, it is imperative to understand
wound and wound healing processes, as it will provide a better insight.
1.3 Wound and wound types
In medicine, a wound is a type of physical trauma wherein the skin is tom, cut
or punctured (an open wound), or where blunt force trauma causes a contusion (a closed
wound). In addition, pressure ulcers (also known as decubitus ulcers or bed sores), a type
of skin ulcer, might also be considered wounds.ln pathology, it specifically refers to a
sharp injury which damages the dermis of the skin.
In the case of severe open wounds, there is a risk of blood loss (which could lead
to shock), and an increased chance of infection due to bacteria entering a wound that
80 RICHA DEO AND USHA MUKUNDAN
is exposed to air. Depending on their severity, closed wounds can be just as dangerous
as open wounds.
Wounds are classified as:
(A) Acute wounds
Surgical wound: These wounds are caused by a clean, sharp-edged object
such as a knife, a razor or a glass splinter.
Penetrating wound (Knief or bullet wound): caused by an object such as a
knife entering the body.
Avulsion injury (Finger tip amputation): An avulsion injury is a cut or scrape
that removes all the layers of the skin, exposing the fat or muscle. A common
avulsion injury is scraping off all the skin on the tip of a finger or toe.
Crushing or shearing injury: caused by a great or extreme amount of force
applied over a long period of time.
Burn injury: A burn is a type of injury to the skin caused by heat, cold,
electricity, chemicals, or radiation (e.g. a sunburn).
Laceration: Irregular wounds caused by a blunt impact to soft tissue which
lies over hard tissue (e.g. laceration of the skin covering the skull) or tearing
of skin and other tissues such as caused by childbirth. Lacerations may show
bridging, as connective tissue or blood vessels are flattened against the
underlying hard surface.
5 Bite wound (Dog bite, Cat bite, Human bite)
(B) Chronic wounds
Arterial ulcer (peripheral vascular disease): Peripheral vascular diseaseis a
narrowing of blood vessels that restricts blood flow. It mostly occurs in the
legs, but is sometimes seen in the arms. '
Venous ulcer: Venous ulcers are wounds that occur due to improper
functioning of valves in the veins usually of the legs.
Lymphedema: Lymphedema or "lymphatic obstruction", is a condition of
localized fluid retention caused by a compromised lymphatic system. The
danger with lymphedema comes from the constant risk of developing an
uncontrolled infection in the affected limb.
Pressure ulcer: Bedsores, more properly known as pressure ulcers or
decubitus, are lesions caused by unrelieved pressure to any part of the body,
especially portions over bony or cartilaginous areas. Although completely
treatable if found early, without medical attention, bedsores can become life-
threatening.
Neuropathic ulcer: Neuropathic ulcer means damage of nerve fibers in the
legs in people with diabetes. High blood glucose changes the metabolism
ofnerve cells and causes reduced blood flow to the nerve. It affects mainly
the sensory nerves although the motor and autonomic nerves can also be
involved with important consequences.
1.4 Process of wound healing

Wound healing is a natural process of regenerating dermal and epidermal tissue
that follows injury to the skin and other soft tissues. It requires the collaborative work
of many different tissues and cell lineages. Proper healing of wounds is essential for
the restoration of disrupted anatomical continuity and disturbed functional status of
the skin. The phases of normal wound healing include the inflammatory, proliferative,
and maturation. Each phase of wound healing is distinct, although the wound healing
process is continuous, with each phase overlapping the next.
The Four Phases of Wound Healing
Tissue injury initiates a response that first clears the wound of devitalized tissue
and foreign material, setting the stage for subsequent tissue healing and regeneration. The
initial vascular response involves a brief and transient period of vasoconstriction and
hemostasis. A 5-10 minute period of intense vasoconstriction is followed by active
vasodilation accompanied by an increase in capillary permeability. Platelets aggregated
within a fibrin clot secrete a variety of growth factors and cytokines that set the stage
for an ord~rly series of events leading to tissue repair.
The second phase of wound healing, the inflammatory phase, presents itself as
erythema, swelling, and warmth, and is often associated with pain. The inflammatory
response increases vascular permeability, resulting in migration of neutrophils and
monocytes into the surrounding tissue. The neutrophils engulf debris and microorganisms,
providing the first line of defense against infection. Neutrophil migration ceases after the
first few days post-injury if the wound is not contaminated. If this acute inflammatory
phase persists, due to wound hypoxia, infection, nutritional deficiencies, medication use,
or other factors related to the patient's immune response, it can interfere with the late
inflammatory phase.ln the late inflammatory phase, monocytes converted in the tissue to
macrophages, which digest and kill bacterial pathogens, scavenge tissue debris and
destroy remaining neutrophils. Macrophages begin the transition from wound inflammation
to wound repair by secreting a variety of chemotactic and growth factors that stimulate
cell migration, proliferation, and formation of the tissue matrix.
The subsequent proliferative phase is dominated by the formation of granulation
tissue and epithelialization. Its duration is dependent on the size of the wound.
Chemotactic and growth factors released from platelets and macrophages stimulate the
migration and activation of wound fibroblasts that produce a variety of substances
essential to wound repair, including glycosaminoglycans (mainly hyaluronic acid,
chondroitin- 4-sulfate, dermatan sulfate, and heparan sulfate) and collagen.2 These form
an amorphous, gel-like connective tissue matrix necessary for cell migration. New capillary
growth must accompany the advancing fibroblasts into the wound to provide metabolic
needs. Collagen synthesis and cross-linkage is responsible for vascular integrity and
strength of new capillary beds. Improper cross-linkage of collagen' fibers has been
responsible for nonspecific post-operative bleeding in patients with normal coagulation
parameters. Early in the proliferation phase fibroblast activity is limited to cellular
replication and migration. Around the third day after wounding the growing mass
of fibroblast cells begin to synthesize and secrete measurable amounts of collagen.
Collagen levels rise continually for approximately three weeks. The amount of collagen
secreted during this period determines the tensile strength of the wound.
The final phase of wound healing is wound remodeling, including a reorganization
of new collagen fibers, forming a more organized lattice structure that progressively
continues to increase wound tensile strength. The remodeling process continues up
to two years, achieving 40-70 percent of the strength of undamaged tissue at four
weeks.
In the maturation and remodeling phase, collagen is remodeled and realigned
along tension lines and cells that are no longer needed are removed by apoptosis.The
maturation phase can last for a year or longer, depending on the size of the wound
and whether it was initially closed or left open. During Maturation, type III collagen,
which is prevalent during proliferation, is gradually degraded and the stronger type
I collagen is laid down in its place. Originally disorganized collagen fibers are
rearranged, cross-linked, and aligned along tension lines. As the phase progresses, the
tensile strength of the wound increases, with the strength approaching 50% that of
normal tissue by three months after injury and ultimately becoming as much as 80%
as strong as normal tissue. Since activity at the wound site is reduced, the scar loses
its erythematous appearance as blood vessels that are no longer needed are removed
by apoptosis.
The phases of wound healing normally progress in a predictable, timely manner;
if they do not, healing may progress inappropriately to either a chronic wound such as
a venous ulcer or pathological scarring such as a keloid scar.
1.5 Wound healing and nutrition
Healing of wounds results in increased cellular activity, ~ hich causes an intensified
metabolic demand for nutrients. Nutritional deficiencies can impede wound healing, and
several nutritional factors required for wound repair may improve healing time and wound
outcome.
The objective in wound management is to heal the wound in the shortest time
possible, with minimal pain, discomfort, and scarring to the patient. At the site of wound
closure a flexible and fine scar with high tensile strength is desired. Understanding the
healing process and nutritional influences on wound outcome is critical to successful
management of wound patients. Researchers who have explored the complex dynamics
of tissue repair have identified several nutritional cofactors involved in tissue regeneration,
including vitamins A, C, and E, zinc, arginine, glutamine, and glucosamine.
Certain nutrients (arginine, dietary nucleotides, and omega-3 fatty acids), referred
to as immune-enhancing nutrients, boost the immune system by promoting the function
of certain types of immune cells. However, a complete balanced nutritional intake that
includes all essential nutrients is required for optimal health and functional status.
Protein
Protein malnutrition has been found in up to 25% of all hospitalized patients while
50% of general surgery patients experience moderate to severe protein malnutrition.
Inadequate nutrition slows wound healing, decreases immunocompetence, increases
susceptibility to infection, and increases mortality and morbidity. Protein deficiency

is considered mild when serum albumin measures 3.5-3.9 g/ dl, moderate at 2.5-3.5
g/ dl, severe at less than 2.5 g/ dl.
Vitamin A
Vitamin A deficiency usually occurs without symptoms and is difficult to detect.
Individuals who are severely injured or burned can become vitamin A deficient, which
impedes wound healing. Vitamin A plays an important role in each stage of wound
healing. It enhances the early inflammatory phase. In vitamin A deficiency there is a
reduction in fibronectin on the wound surface with a subsequent decrease in cell
chemotaxis, adhesion and tissue repair. Postoperative vitamin A supplementations for 7
days can increase collagen synthesis, the bursting strength of the scar and lymphocyte
activation.
A large supplemental dose of vitamin A can reverse the postoperative suppression
of immune response and improve healing retarded by stress, diabetes and radiation.
Infrequent high doses of vitamin A are generally safe when given for vitamin A deficiency.
Vitamin A can exhibit an anti-steroid activity. Wounds retarded by anti-inflammatory
steroids are stimulated by retinoids far more than normal wounds. To avoid anti-steroid
activity, vitamin A can be applied topically to the wound or with sponge implants. Topical
vitamin A increases the epithelialization of wounds and improves the cosmetic appearance
of scars. Dietary sources include liver, dairy products, egg yolk, yellow and dark green
leafy vegetables and deep yellow or orange fruit.
Zinc
Zinc is one of the oldest agents that can help promote wound healing. Zinc was
used topically as calamine lotion as far back as 1500 B.C. by the Egyptians. There are
approximately 200 zinc-requiring enzymes in the body, such as DNA polymerase which
is needed for cell proliferation during healing. Superoxide dismutase is required to remove
superoxide radicals produced by leukocytes during debridement. Plasma zinc concentrations
of less than 70 g/ dl is considered deficient. Vegetarians are at risk for zinc deficiency
since cereal grains are low in zinc and more is removed during the milling process. In
zinc deficiency there is delayed closure of wounds and ulcers. The collagen produced
has reduced tensile strength.
Zinc deficiency also affects the immune system by causing a reduction in lymphocytes,
natural killer cells, and the size of the thymus. There is an increased susceptibility to
re'.:urring infection and poor wound healing. Topical zinc oxide inhibits bacterial growth
for extended periods, especially of gram-positive bacterla. Smell, taste and vision may also
be affected by zinc deficiency. Only those with low plasma zinc levels respond positively
to oral zinc administration.
Postsurgical patients have a low tolerance for food intake and dietary zinc. Zinc
can be given by intravenous drip to improve clinical wound healing. Intravenous
nutritional therapy of surgical patients can improve healing if it contains trace elements.
The benefit is even better if given before surgery. There is an apparent decrease in serum
zinc during wound healing. Topical administration of zinc chloride as a spray or ointment
reduces the size of the wound, shortens healing time and produces less dehiscence.
Zinc oxide is effective in enhancing wound healing while zinc sulphate is not.
Vitamin C
Vitamin C is required for the hydroxylation of proline and, subsequently, for
the synthesis of strong collagen. Poor wound healing is one of the symptoms of scurvy.
A deficiency of vitamin C can lead to the breakdown of already healed wounds. Plasma
vitamin C levels decrease during fracture, burns, or major surgeries. Stress associated with
injury and wound healing results in an increased need for vitamin C.
Wound healing is directly accompanied by the oxidation of ascorbic acid. Levels
of vitamin C rise in healing tissue and return to normal after it is healed. Dietary
supplements from 100-300 mg to 1 gm per day can return plasma levels to normal in
postoperative patients. Vitamin C in combination with pantothenic acid has been shown
to increase skin strength and fibroblastic content of scar tissue. A deficiency of both, causes
prolonged wound healing. After treatment for 24 hours with vitamin C, human skin
fibroblasts in culture showed a 2- to 3-fold increase in type I collagen synthesis. Megadoses
of vitamin C, even when given to patients with normal vitamin C levels, can accelerate
collagen formation above the degeneration rate of damaged collagen. Vitamin C is useful
in leg ulcers. Vitamin C shortly after thermal injury can significantly reduce tissue necrosis.
Vitamin E
Vitamin E is a lipid-soluble antioxidant which accumulates in the cell membranes
where it protects polyunsaturated fatty acids from oxidation by free radicals. Vitamin E
has an anti-inflammatory action due to its ability to inhibit phospholipase-A2 activity
and, therefore, the production of prostaglandins. Vitamin E also has a lysosomal-
stabilizing ability, which is probably related to its ability to stabilize membranes in general.
Vitamin E can also inhibit collagen synthesis. Tendons allowed to heal in the presence
of vitamin E had a significantly lower peak strength after an 8 weeks period than those
healed in the absence of vitamin E. Back incisions showed a significant decrt;!ase in tensile
strength from retarded collagen synthesis in rats treated for 7 days with vitamin E. When
the incisions did heal, there was a marked decrease in scar formation and the apparent
size of the zone of injury. Topical administration for cosmetic purposes may be beneficial,
although some patients have developed rashes from this.
Vitamin E enhances the immune response in a dose-dependent fashion. Vitamin
E has normalized the breaking strength of wounds in patients receiving pre-operative
irradiation, probably because of its antioxidant capabilities. Vitamin E in combination with
other drugs is recommended for the treatment of burns. Improved wound healing was
also observed in patients with a history of deep vein thrombosis.
Iron
The enzyme that produces deoxyribonucleotides for DNA synthesis, ribonucleotide
reductase, requires iron as a cofactor. Cells cannot divide without prior DNA syntheSis,
so a lack of iron would impair the proliferation of all cells involved in wound debridement
and healing. Serum iron levels less than 30 mg/100 ml are deficient. Normal values are
70 to 130 mg/100 ml. Iron is also involved in the hydroxylation of proline. Proline
hydroxylase requires iron. Without hydroxylation of proline, collagen triple helix

formation is unstable and results in collagen weakness. Therefore, wound healing
during iron deficiency is weaker. Some critically ill patients may require therapeutic
doses of nutrients that are approximately 10 times the recommended daily allowance.
Bromelain
Bromelain is a general name given to a family of proteolytic enzymes derived
from Ananas comosus, the pineapple plant. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s a series
of studies found the effects of orally administered bromelain include the reduction
of edema, bruising, pain, and healing time following trauma and surgical procedures.
More recently, researchers found that patients with long bone fractures administered
a proteolytic enzyme combination containing 90 mg bromelain per tablet had less post-
operative swelling compared to patients given placebo. Aside from its documented
anti-inflammatory activity, bromelain is of interest to surgeons because of its ability
to increase resorption rate of hematomas. Bromelain's influence on hematoma resorption
was demonstrated using artificially induced hematomas in humans. Hematomas in the
treatment group resolved significantly faster than controls when oral bromelain was
given at the time of hematoma induction and for seven days thereafter.
Glucosamine
Hyaluronic acid is an important part of the extracellular matrix and one of the
main glycosaminoglycans secreted during tissue repair. Production of hyaluronic acid
by fibroblasts during the proliferative stage of wound healing stimulates the migration
and mitosis of fibroblasts and epithelial cells. Glucosamine appears to be the rate-limiting
substrate for hyaluronic acid synthesis. In vitro studies suggest the mechanism of
glucosamine on repair processes involves stimulation of the synthesis of glycosaminoglycans
and collagen. Administration of oral glucosamine both before as well as the first few days
after surgery or trauma might enhance hyaluronic acid production in the wound,
promoting swifter healing and possibly fewer complications related to scarring.
Amino acids in wound healing
It is well accepted that sufficient protein is necessary for wound healing. This
appears to be due to the increased overall protein need for tissue regeneration and repair.
Researchers have investigated the effects of specific amino acids on the healing process
and determined that arginine and glutamine appear to be necessary for proper wound
healing.
Arginine
Arginine is a non-essential amino acid that plays a key role in protein and amino
acid synthesis. It is acquired from the diet and derived endogenously from citrulline in
a reaction catalyzed by the enzyme arginine synthetase. Adequate tissue arginine appears
to be essential for efficient wound repair and immune function.
Glutamine
Glutamine is used by inflammatory cells within the wound for proliferation and
as a source of energy Fibroblasts use glutamine for these same purposes, as well as for
protein and nucleic acid synthesis. Because optimal functioning of these cells is
paramount to the healing process, glutamine is a necessary component of the process
of tissue repair. Glutamine is a non-essential amino acid that can become a "conditionally
essential" amino acid in certain circumstances, including tissue injury. Glutamine is
released from skeletal muscle following injury or surgery, which can cause a relative
deficiency of glutamine in skeletal muscle and the gut, as intestinal uptake is frequently
diminished as well.
2. MEDICINAL PLANTS USED IN WOUND CARE
The WHO estimates that 80% of people living in developing countries rely almost
exclusively on traditional medicine for their primary health care needs. Medicinal plants
form the back bone of traditional medicine and hence more than 3300 million people utilize
medicinal plants on a regular basis. Demand for medicinal plants is increasing due to
growing reorganization of natural products being non toxic, having no side effects.
The beneficial medicinal effects of plant materials typically result from the combinations
of secondary products present in the plant. Phytomedicines exert their beneficial effects
through the additive or synergistic action of several chemical compounds acting at single
or multiple target sites associated with a physiological process.
India is tenth among plant rich countries of the world and fourth among the Asian
countries. In India about 2,500 plant species belonging to more than 1000 genera are used
in indigenous system of medicine. Wound healing properties of l'ome of the plants are
briefly described below.
Achillea millefolium Linn.
Achillea millefolium is an aromatic perennial creeping herb, indigenous to Europe,
widespread in temperate areas.
It has been associated with the healing of wounds and the stemming of blood-flow
since ancient times. It is used to curb discharges of blood from the nose. Externally yarrow
is styptic (stops bleeding), astringent (makes tissue contract), antiseptic (inhibits bacterial
growth), anti-inflammatory, vulnerary (helps tissue heal).The plant is highly astringent,
and hence dries and heals up wounds. It is useful in treatment of piles. It improves the
flow of blood and acts as an antiseptic in urinary infections.
Acorus calamus Linn.
The oil of Acorus calamus has been found to possess an antibacterial activity against
organism responsible for digestive and throat infections. Asarone derived from the plant
was found to exhibit in vitro nematocidal activity against Toxocara canis. It aids digestion,
helps in curing gastritis, peptic ulcer, hyperacidity, posseses analgesic and anti-inflammatory
properties and is beneficial in rheumatic pain and neuralgia, sinusitis.
Adathoda zeylanica Medic.
Leaves collected during the flowering of the plant are medicinally important. It is
expectorant, antispasmodic and bronchodilator. It is also used in the treatment of cough,
wounds, bronchitis and menstrual disorders. It is a natural pain-killer, anti inflammatory,
antihistaminic, and has uterine stimulant activity. It is also an antiallergic agent.
Aloe vera Linn.

Aloe is found in semi wild state in all parts of India and has been in use for
over 7000 years. Aloe gel is anti-fugal, anti-inflammatory, and is extremely effective
in treating several skin disorders. Aloe removes dead skin cells and stimulates formation
of new cells, tightening of the skin and making skin to look young. Other medicinal
uses include treating radiation ulcers, peptic ulcers, thermal burns, wounds, pimples,
abrasions, skin injuries.
Ageratum conyzoides Linn.
Ageratum conyzoides, is an annual herbaceous plant with a long history of
traditional medicinal uses in several countries of the world and also has bioactivity with
insecticidal and nematocidal acitivity. There is high variability in the secondary
metabolities of A. conzyoide which include flavonoids, alkaloids, cumarins, essential oils,
and tannins. A. conyzoides has quick and effective action in burn wounds
Angelica glauca Edgew.
Angelica is used for asthma, bronchitis, anaemia, coughs, indigestion, arthritis and
colds. It is also beneficial in psychogenic asthma, digestive disorders, loss of appetite,
frontal headaches, neuralgia, sinusitis, and rhinitis.It possesses antispasmodic diuretic,
hepatoprotective, antimicrobial, analgesic, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, antic holes-
terolemic, and antitumor-promoting activity. It is a circulatory stimulant, useful in female
ailments, painful and irregular menstruation, anemia, abdominal pain, angina pectoris,
and gastric ulcer healing asthma. It is immuno-modulatory and has antioxidant properties.
Azadirachta indica A. Juss.
It is one of the oldest medicinal plants in the world and has been used in indigenous
medicinal systems for thousand of years. It possesses properties of antiseptic, moisturizer
and emollient and hence used in treatment of many skin disorders. Root bark and young
fruits are astringent, tonic and antiperiodic. The oil of neem is local stimulant, antibacterial
and an insecticide. It also has emmenagouge properties. Minor skin abrasions, sprains
and bruises are easily treated by applying Neem oil locally. The anti-inflammatory and
anti-bacterial comp6unds of Neem are delightfully soothing and help to heal the injured
areas quickly. It is an antiseptic, moisturizer, and emollient. It is used in treating many
skin problems like pimples, itching, inflammation, and sunburn.
Barleria prionitis Linn.
The whole plant, leaves, and roots are used for a variety of purposes in traditional
Indian medicine. A mouth wash made from root tissue is used to relieve toothache and
treat bleeding gums. Leaves are used to promote healing of wounds and to relieve joint
pains and toothache. The whole plant extract contains iridoid glycosides" barlerin, and
verbascoside, which have shown potent activity against respiratory syncytial virus in vitro
and may account for the plant's use in treating fever and several respiratory diseases
in herbal medicine. Extract of the plant have also shown to effectively suppress the fungi
Trichophyton mentagrophytes in vitro due to its antiseptic properties extracts of the
plant are incorporated in herbal cosmetics and hair products to promote skin and scalp
health.
Berberis aristata DC.

Pharmacological studies have shown its usefulness in many disorders including
antitumor, wound healing, and kills bacteria on the skin. Externally, for sores, burns,
ulcers, acne, itch, ringworm, cuts, bruises. Externally the decoction of the root-bark
is used as a wash for unhealthy ulcers to improve their appearance and promote
cicatrisation
Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Coleb.
In traditional and Ayurvedic medicine the Boswellia gum resin has been
extensively used to treat a variety of conditions. Dried extracts of the resin of the
Boswellia serrata tree have been used since antiquity in India to treat inflammatory
conditions. The resin of Boswellia serrata is used as an anti-inflammatory agent when
applied externally. Internally, besides being antiarthritic, it has expectorant effect and
improves immunity and hence has immunomodulating properties. One of the principal
constituents in the gum resin is boswellic acid which exhibits anti-inflammatory activity.
The gum resin is used as an ointment for sores and has anti-inflammatory,
antiatherosclerotic and antiarthritic activities. The nonphenolic fraction of the gum resin
had marked sedative and analgesic action.
Calendula officinalis Linn.
Calendula has been used in folk medicine topically to treat wounds. It has been
used traditionally for treatment of wounds, sores and other skin problems. Extracts have
proved antibacterial, antiviral and immunostimulating in vitro.
Recent research indicates that water and alcoholic extracts exhibited significant healing
and tissue regeneration in wounds. Calendula extracts have been used topically to promote
wound healing, rod experiments in rats have shown that this effect is measurable. An
ointment containing 5% flower extract in combination with allantoin was found to
"markedly stimulate" epithelialization in surgically-induced wounds. On the basis of
histological examination of the wound tissue, the authors concluded that the ointment
increased glycoprotein, nucleoprotein and collagen metabolism at the site. Essential oil
of Calendula officinalis has a strong bacteriostatic activity inhibiting the growth of various
strains including Staphylococcus aureus, Sarcina citre, S. rosa, S. beige, Bacillus subtilis, B.
anthracis and Salmonella enteritdiis.
Carica papaya L.
It is regarded medicinally as a remedy for haemoptysis, bleeding piles and ulcers
of the urinary organs. It is the milk of the tree or the latex that is used for medical
purposes. Latex is used locally as an antiseptic. Fruit and seed extracts have pronounced
bactericidal activity against Staphylococcus aureus , Bacillus cereus, Escherischia coli, Pseudomonas
aeruginosa and Shigella flexneri.
Centella asiatica (Linn.) Urb.
This plant grows in a widespread distribution in tropical, swampy areas, including
parts of India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Madagascar, and South Africa. It also grows in Eastern
Europe. The roots and leaves are used medicinally. The primary active constituents of
gotu kola are saponins (also called triterpenoids), which include asiaticoside,
madecassoside and madasiatic acid. These saponins may prevent excessive scar
formation by inhibiting the production of collagen (the material that makes up
connective tissue) at the wound site. These constituents are also associated with
promoting wound healing.
One preliminary trial in humans found that a gotu kola extract improved healing
of infected wounds (unless the infection had reached bone). Additionally, a review of
French studies suggests that topical gotu kola can improve healing of burns and wounds.
Clinical trials have also shown it can help those with chronic venous insufficiency.
Another trial found gotu kola extract helpful for preventing and treating enlarged scars
(keloids). Oral administration of Centella asiatica significantly inhibited gastric lesions
formation (58% to 82% reduction) and decreased mucosal myeloperoxidase activity
in a dose dependent manner. These results suggest that Centella asiatica prevents ethanol
induced gastric mucosal lesions by strengthening the mucosal barrier and reducing
the damaging effects of free radicals. It was shown in a study that the Centella extract
treated wounds were found to epithelialise faster and the rate of wound contraction
was higher, as compared to control wounds. The results showed that C. asiatica
produced different actions on the various phases of wound repair.
Celastrus paniculata Willd.
Celastrus paniculata is widely used as emetic, diaphoretic, febrifuge and nervine
tonic. The seeds are antirheumatic and are popular for sharpening effect on the memory.
It has shown good results in treating mental depression, hastening the process of
learning and memory enhancement in experimental animals. The drug is used in the
traditional system of medicine as a sedative. The reported constituents are Mal III
A, Mal III B, triterpenoids zeylasterone, and seylastcral. Its therapeutic uses include
treating anxiety and beri-beri. Alcoholic extract has anti-inflammatory and sedative
properties. An herbal extract of the crude drug was tested for its adaptogenic
properties, on mice. It showed significant CNS depressant effect and a clear synergism
with pentobarbital. It also gave excellent results in hysteria without any side effect.
Leaves are emmenogouge and the bark is abortifacient. It is also used in treatment
of sores, ulcers and gout.
Curcuma longa Linn.
Curcuma longa , common Indian dietary pigment and spice has been shown to
possess a wide range of therapeutic utilities in the traditional Indian medicine. It's role
in wound healing, urinary tract infections, liver ailments are well-documented. Turmeric
is useful as an external antibiotic in preventing bacterial infection in wounds. The active
component of turmeric identified as curcumin exhibits a variety of pharmacological effects
including antioxidant, adaptogenic, anti-inflammatory and anti-infectious activities. Local
application of turmeric is Anti-inflammatory, analgesic and complexion enhancer. It cures
skin diseases, has wound cleaning and healing properties
Echinacea purpurea
Also called Purple Coneflower and native to the U.S., this plant was the most widely
used medicinal plant of the Central Plains Indians, being used for a variety of
conditions. The leaf and root are mildly antibacterial, antiviral, and used for wound
healing.
Elephantopus scaber Linn.
The effect of aqueous ethanol extracts and the isolated compound
deoxyelephantopin from E. scaber Linn. was evaluated on excision, incision, and dead
space wound models in rats. The wound-healing activity was assessed by the rate
of wound contraction, period of epithelialization, skin-breaking strength, weight of the
granulation tissue, and collagen content. Histological study of the granulation tissue
was carried out to know the extent of collagen formation in the wound tissue.
Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn.
Glycyrrhiza glabra is part of both Western and Eastern herbal traditions.
Traditional uses include treatment of peptic ulcers, asthma, pharyngitis, malaria,
abdominal pain and infections. It modulates the immune system and has shown
remarkable immuno-stimulant properties. It has an antioxidant activity. It is a mild
anti-inflammatory for arthritis and rheumatism and is used to treat gastric, duodenal
and esophageal ulceration or inflammation, heartburn and mouth ulcers. The plant
contains phytoestrogens in the form of isoflavones such as formononetin; glabrone,
neoliquiritin and hispaglabridin A & B. It alleviates irritable conditions of the mucus
membrane, and strengthens the immune system and provides resistance in recurring
infections. In studies, a gel containing 2% of glycyrrhizin reduced itching, redness,
and swelling from dermatitis. Licorice may also be included as a fragrance in products
applied to the skin.
Hamamelis virginiana L.
The astringency of the leaves and bark makes witch hazel a popular ingredient
for various skin conditions as well as for bruises and varicose veins. It is approved
f o r
use in hemorrhoid products. The bark is astringent, haemostatic, sedative and tonic.
Tannins in the bark are believed to be responsible for its astringent and haemostatic
properties. An infusion of leaves is used to reduce inflammations and internal
hemorrhage.
Heliotropium indicum L.
Wound healing activity has been reported by Reddy et al. They showed that topical
application of 10% w Iv of H. indicum increased the percentage of wound contraction and
completed wound healing by 14th day indicating rapid epithelization and collagenization.
The control used healed a similar wound in 23 days. An increase of the tensile strength
indicated the increase in collagen facilitating wound healing.
Hemigraphis colorata (Blume) H.G. Hallier
It is an excellent garden plant. This is a tropical showy species grown in front of
houses and garden. This is a prostrate herb with rooting branches, opposite broad cordate
and toothed leaves and terminal heads of small white flowers. The leaves are 6 to 10
cm long and shimmering silvery violet underneath red purple. It is claimed in folk
medicine that the plant has very good wound healing activity. The wound contraction
and epithelialisation were faster in H. colorata leaf paste applied mice when compared
to control. However, in contrast to topical application, oral administration of the leaf
suspension, daily at a dose of 1 g/kg (wet weight) did not influence excision wound
healing.
Hippophae rhamnoides Linn.
Hippophae rhamnoides L., commonly known as seabuckthorn, is a wild shrub
growing at high altitude (1200-4500 meters) in adverse climatic conditions.
Topical application of 1.0% seabuckthorn leaf extract statistically significantly
augmented the healing process, as evidenced by increases in the content of hydroxyproline
and protein as well as the reduction in wound area when compared with similar effects
in response to treabnent using povidone-iodine ointment (standard care). The reduced
glutathione, vitamin C, superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase activities
showed significant increases in seabuckthorn leaf extract-treated wounds as compared to
controls. The lipid peroxide levels were significantly decreased in leaf extract-treated
wounds. The results suggest that aqueous leaf extract of sea buckthorn promotes wound
healing, which may be due to increased antioxidant levels in the granulation tissue.
Hydrastis canadensis L.
Goldenseal root has a long history as a native American herb used by Indians
and early settlers for its antiseptic wound-healing properties. It is also used for its
soothing action on inflamed mucous membranes. It is extremely useful in gastric
ulceration.
Hypericum perforatum Linn.
St. John's wort has long been used successfully orally and topically as an anti-
inflammatory, sedative, analgesic, diuretic, antimalarial, and as a vulnerary (a substance
which enhances wound healing).
Kalanchoe pinnata Linn.
It is regarded as an excellent application for wounds and contusions. It prevents
swelling and discolouration and heals the wound rapidly. The leaves have great medicinal
value and are used both externally as well as internally. The leaves possess various
properties !ike haemostatic, refrigerant, emollient, vulnerary, depurative, anti-inflammatory,
disinfectant. They are useful in cuts and wounds, hemorrhoids, boils, ulcers, burns and
acute inflammation.
Ocimum sanctum Linn.
It is found throughout the semitropical and tropical parts of India. It is widely used
in Ayurveda as it possesses anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. Because of
antioxidant properties it may be responsible and favorable for faster wound healing and
plant extract may be useful in the management of abnormal healing and hypertropic scars.
The tree radical scavenging activity of plant flavonoids help in the healing of wound.
Pterocarpus santa linus Linn. f.
Pterocarpus santalinus is commnly known as red sandal, ractachandan. The wood
is used as an astringent and a cooling agent and tonic for external application in
inflammation, boils. It is used in the treatment of pimples, acne, wrinkles etc. It is
also used internally in chronic bronchitis, gonorrhoea and gleet, chronic cystitis with
benzoic and boric acids. It has been used in Ayurvedic medicine as an anti-septic,
wound healing agent and anti-acne treatment. The broad spectrum antibacterial activity
exhibited by Pterocarpus santalinus may be attributed to various active constituents
present in it.
Symphytum officinale Linn.
Comfrey is an excellent wound-healer. This is partially due to the presence of
allantoin. This chemical stimulates cell proliferation and so augments wound-healing both
inside and out. The addition of much demulcent mucilage makes Comfrey a powerful
healing agent in gastric and duodenal ulcers, hiatus hernia and ulcerative colitis. Its
astringency will help hemorrhages wherever they occur.
Comfrey may be used externally to speed wound-healing and guard against scar
tissue developing incorrectly. Care should be taken with very deep wounds, however, as
the external application of Comfrey can lead to tissue forming over the wound before it
is healed deeper down, possibly leading to abscesses.It may be used for any external ulcers,
for wounds and fractures as a compress or poultice. It is excellent in chronic varicose
ulcers.
Rubia cordifolia Linn.
The roots of Rubia cordifolia is widely used in treating pimples, reducing wrinkles,
improving complexion, treating burns, healing injuries, lessening inflammation. The fruits
are used to treat liver disorders. Rubidianin, an anthraquinone isolated from alcoholic
extract of Rubia cordifolia has demonstrated significant antioxidant activity as it prevented
lipid peroxidation induced by ferrous sulphate and t-butylhydroperoxide. The drug
depicted activity in dose-dependent manner. The anti-oxidant activity of rubidianin was
found to be better than mannitol, vitamin e and p-benzoquinone.
Tagetes erecta Linn.
Petals are mostly used in wound healing. Externally ie is used to treat sores, ulcers,
eczema and rheumatism. The flowers are applied externally to treat skin diseases and
sore eyes.
Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.) Am. & Wight.
Tht! drug, commonly called Arjuna, comprises of bark of the tree. It treats fractures,
pimples, acne, freckles, and non healing wounds.Topical treatment with mainly of tannins,
was found to demonstrate a maximum increase in the tensile strength of incision wounds.
Even with respect to excision wounds, the fastest rate of epithelialization was seen.
Hydroalcohol extract of Arjuna bark possessed antimicrobial activity against tested
microorganisms such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus au reus,
and Streptococcus pyogenes. These results strongly document the beneficial effects of
tannins, of Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.) Wight & Am. in the acceleration of the healing
process.
Tenninalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb.

Terminalia bellirica is a stimulating astringent. The mature dried fruits are effective
in the treatment of diarrhoea, dysentery and parasites. A decoction of fruits may be
taken internally and can be used externally as eyewash in the treatment of
ophthalmological disorders. It also promotes eyesight and hair growth. Fresh fruit is
diuretic, digestive, expectorant, antipyretic and antiemetic. Pulp of fresh fruit is
astringent, lithotriptic and anthelmintic.
Tenninalia chebula Retz.
Terminalia chebula improves digestion, promotes the absorption of nutrients and
regulates colon function. It is most useful in prolapsed organs as it improves the
strength and tone of the supporting musevlature. It has a tonic effect on the central
nervous system. In treatment of piles and vaginal discharge a decoction of Terminalia
chebula is used as antiseptic and astringent wash. A fine paste of powder may be applied
on burns and scalds. Terminalia chebula is reported to have potent and broad spectrum
activity against human pathogenic Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria. Gallic
acid and its ethyl ester, isolated from the plant displayed potent antimicrobial activity
against several bacteria including methicillin resistant strains of Staphylococcus aureus.
A water extract of this plant was found to possess antifungal activity. Terminalia chebula
is reported to significantly reduce serum cholesterol, aortic sudanophilia and the
cholesterol contents of the liver and aorta in cholesterol fed rabbits.
Vaccinium myrtillus L.
A European version of blueberry. Bilberry extract is rich in purple/blue pigments
claiming to have benefits for the eyes and cardiovascular system. In Europe, bilberry
extract is used as an antioxidant. Claimed to help increase microcirculation by
stimulating new capillary formation, strengthening capillary walls and increasing
overall health of the circulatory system.
3. SOME THERAPEUTIC ACTIONS, MODE OF ACTION AND SOME
PLANTS POSSESS THAT WOUND HEALING PROPERTIES
Immunomodulator
The immune system, resulting from millions of years of evolution, provides
protection against microbial infections and the body's own damaged or cancerous cells.
It is composed of the innate and ti9he adaptive immune responses. The innate immune
response involves processes that occur almost immediately after exposure to a foreign
microorganism, and is now known to exhibit a degree of specificity. The adaptive
immune response is triggered within a few hours to a few days, and provides exquisite
specificity and a long-lasting protection through specialist memory cells.
An immunomodulator is any substance that helps to regulate the immune system. This
"regulation" is a normalisation process, so that an immunomodulator helps to optimise
immune response. Immunomodulators do not tend to boost immunity, but to normalize
it. Part of their benefit appears to be their ability to naturally increase the body's
production of messenger molecules, such as cytokines, which mediate and regulate
the immune system making the immune system more efficient.
Some plants with Immunomodulator properties

Aconitum heterophyllum Wall., Acorns calamus L., Ailanthus exelsa Roxb., Asparagus
racemosus Willd., Azadirachta indica AJuss., Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst., Berberis aristata DC.
, Chonemorpha macrophylla G.Don, Citrnllus coclcynthis L.Schrad/, Clerodendrnm serratum
(L.) Moon, Crataeva nurvala Ham., Curcuma longa L., Cyclea peltata Hkf T., Cyperns rotundus
L., Eclipta prostrata L., Embelia ribes Burm., Emblica officinalis Gaertn., Hemidesmus indicus,
(L.) RBr., Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall.ex G. Don. , Ichnocarpus frutescens
Br., Picrorhiza kurrooa Benth., Piper longum Bl., Plumbago indica Linn., Psoralia corylifolia
L., Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb., Rubia cordifolia Linn., Santalum album L., Saussurea lappa
Clarke, Solanum virginianum L., Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb., Terminalia chebula
Retz., Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers., Tragia pluknetti ARSm., Vetiveria zizanioides
Nash, Zingiber officinale Rosc.
Antioxidant
Antioxidants are substances that may protect cells from damage caused by
unstable molecules known as free radicals. Exposure to various environmental factors
lead to formation of free radicals, which are actually electrically charged oxygen
molecules. These electrically charged oxygen molecules take up electrons from other
molecules causing an array of disorders. Antioxidant interacts with these free radicals
and stabilizes them and thereby prevents them from damaging the cells. Some
antioxidants stimulate the immune system and increase the activity of detoxifying
enzymes in the liver.
Some plants with antioxidant properties
Allium sativa L., Beta vulgaris L., Bixa orellana L., Brassica oleracea L., Celastrns
paniculata Willd., Citrns aurantifolia (Christm.) Sw., Crocus sativus Linn., Curcuma longa L.,
Emblica officinalis Gaertn., Hemidesmus indicus (L.) RBr., Hippophae rhamnoides Linn.,
Lycopersicon escuIentum Mill., Momordica charantia L., Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng., Picrorhiza
kurrooa Benth., Plumbago zeylanica L., Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels., Trigonellafoenum-graceum
L., Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal
Astringent
Astringents are any of a group of medicines that shrink mucous membranes and
stop or slow secretion of blood, mucous, or other fluids from human body. Astringents
decrease fluids by narrowing small blood vessels, drawing water away from organ, or
coagulating the superficial layers of organ into a crust. They usually contain tannins that
precipitate the proteins when they come into contact with it. Thus, in a remedy, they will
tend tone up the mucous membranes and reduce secretions and discharge, and have an
anti-catarrhal effect. Astringents are also anti-haemorrhagic and will form an eschar (scab)
over a wound so preventing the entry of bacteria. Sometimes they will act on tissues with
which there is no direct contact.
Some plants with astringent properties
Abrns precatorius L., Acacia catechu Willd., Aerva lantana (L.) Juss. ex Schult., Allophyllus
serratus (Roxb.) Kurz., Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. ex Guill., Blumea lacera
DC., Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Coleb., Bauhinia variegata L., Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl,
Calycopteris jloribunda Lam., Canthium parviflorum Lam., Catuneregam spinosa (Thunb.)

Tirvengadum, Costus speciosus (Koenig) J.E.Sm., Crateva magna, Crotolaria retusa L.,
Dalbergia sisso Roxb. ex DC , Ficus hispida L. f., Ficus microcarpa BI., Flacourtia jangomas
Miq., Garcinia Morella Desr., Gossypium arboretum L., Ipomoea mauritiana Jacq., Jasminum
arborescens Roxb., Jasminum auriculatum Vahl, Kyllinga nemoralis (Forster & Forster f.)
Dandy ex Hutch & Dalziel, Limonia acidissima L., Premna con;mbosa RottI. & Willd.,
Pseudarthria viscida W.& A., Sapindus laurijlorus Vahl, Symplocos chinensis, Symplocos
racemosa Grah., Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels, Toddalia asiatica Lamk., Verbena offtcinalis
Linn., Vitex trifolia L., Zanthoxylum rhetsa DC
Depurative
A depurative is effective in blood purification and detoxification. They assist the
body in ridding itself of viral and bacterial toxins that the body has stored over the years.
The blood performs many vital functions which sometimes become over-taxed during acute
& chronic cellular disease. Likewise, many ailments and diseases are the direct result of
impurities & toxins within the blood. The blood is, therefore, a target for effective medicinal
intervention. Depurative changes the properties of the blood from an "unhealthy state"
to a "healthy" one. It filters out the toxins and wastes, kills microbial organisms present
in the blood, adjusts and balances vital salts, furnishes nutrients, and strengthened and
enhances important plasma substances.
Some plants with depurative properties
Albizzia lebbeck (L.) Willd., Andrographis paniculata Nees, Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb.
ex. DC) Wall. ex Guill., Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) Parker, Aristolochia indica L.,
Artemesia nilagirica (Clarke) Pamp., Asclepias curassavica L., Buchanania lanzan Spreng.,
Calotropis gigantea (L.) R.Br., Cassia auriculata L., Chonemorpha fragrans (Moon) Alson,
Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Diels., Coscimum fcnestratum Colebr., Gloriosa superba L., Hemidesmus
indicus (L.) R. Br., Homonoia riparia Lour., Hydnocarpus laurifolia (Dennst.) Sleumer,
Kirganelia reticulata (poir) Baill., Melia azedarach L., Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng., Pterocarpus
santalinus Lf, Pterospermum canascens, Rhinacanthus nasuta (L.) Kurz., Ricinus communis L.,
Samadera indica Gaert., Schrebera swietenioides Roxb., Swertia angustifolia Ham., Thespesia
populnea (L.) Soland ex Corr. , Vetiveria zizanioides Nash, Woodfordia fruiticosa (L.) Kurz.
Anti-inflammatory
Inflammation is a process that is accompanied by local liberation of chemical
mediators like histamines, 5 - hydroxytryptamine, bradykinin and eicosanoids. They are
formed in almost every tissue in the body. Inhibition of their biosynthesis is the main
stay of anti-inflammatory therapy. Antiinflammatory drugs are used in a variety of
conditions including arthritis, muscle and ligament pains, pains after operations, headaches,
migraines, and some other types of pains. Antiinflammatory agents do not alter the course
of painful conditions however they ease symptoms of pain and stiffness.
Some plants with properties of Anti-inflammatory
Acacia catechu Willd., Aglaia roxburghiana Miq., Allophyllus serratus (Roxb.) Kurz.,
Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC) Wall. ex Guill., Aristolochia bracteolata Lamk., Artemesia
nilagirica (Clarke) Pama, Baliospermum montanum Muell., Bauhinia variegata L., Berberis
96 RICHA OEO AND USHA MUKUNDAN
asiatica Roxb., Blumea lacera DC, Buchanania lanzan Spreng., Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb.,
Cassia fistula L., Cassia occidentalis L., Catunaregam spinosa (Thunb.) Tirvengadum,
Celastrus paniculata Willd., Cinnamomum camphora F.Nees., Commiphora mukul Engl.,
Crinum asiaticum L., Cyclea peltata H:f.&T., Cyperus rotundus L., Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.
ex DC, Delphinium denudatum Wall., Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC, Enicostemma
axillare (Lam.) Raynal, Enjthrina indica Lamk., Ficus hispida L:f., Flacourtia jangomas Miq.,
Gentiana kurroo Royle, Gossypium arboretum L., Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.) Planch.,
Hydnocarpus laurifolia (Dennst) Sleumer, Hygrophilla auriculata Lamk., Hyoscyamus niger
Linn., Inula racemosa L., Lagenaria siceraria L., Moringa oleifera L., Nigella sativa L.,
Nyctanthes arbotristis L., Oxalis corniculata L., Pedalium murex L., Picrorhiza scrophularijlora
Pennel, Plumbago indica Linn., Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb., Pterocarpus santalinus L:f.,
Rubia cordifolia L., Salacia reticulata Wight.
Antibacterial
Antibacterial drugs either kill the bacteria directly or prevent them from
multiplying so that the body's immune system can destroy the invading bacteria.
Antibacterial drugs act by interfering with some specific characteristics of bacteria.
Bacterial cells possess rigid cell wall which maintains its shape. Certain antibacterial
injury the wall or inhibits its formation leading to lysis of the bacterial cell thereby
causing the death of the organism. One group of antibacterial inhibit cell membrane
function by altering the permeability that results in leakage of intracellular macromolecules
and ions leading to cell damage and cell death. A number of antibacterial inhibit protein
synthesis through an action on ribosomes in the bacterial cells. Some antibacterial bind
strongly to DNA dependant RNA polymerase of bacteria inhibiting RNA synthesis
thus inhibiting bacterial growth.
Some plants with Antibacterial properties
Ageratum conyzoides L., Artemisia pallens Wall., Azadirachta indica A.Juss., Betula
utilis D.Don, Caesalpinnia bonduc (L.) Roxb., Capparis decidua (Forsk.) Edgew., Cassia
siamea Lamk., Chukrasia tabularis, Cryptostegia grandifIora R.Br., Embelia tsjeriam-cottam
A.DC, Euphorbia thymifolia L., Ficus religiosa L., Garcinia Morella Desr., Lantana camara
L., Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link, Momordica charantia L., Morus alba L., Nigella sativa L.,
Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L., Ocimum americanum L., Oxalis corniculata L., Portulaca oleracea
L., Premna corymbosa (RottI.) Willd., Solanum anguivi Lamk., Solanum nigrum L., Toddalia
asiatica Lamk., Urtica dioica Linn., Vateria indica Linn, Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less,
Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz ..
Antiseptic
Since time immemorial chemical substances were used to control the infection
in wounds and spread of contagious diseases. Antiseptic agents kill or inhibit the
growth of microorganisms on the external surfaces of the body. They are toxic both
to the microorganism and the host and hence are used topically. There is a great
variation in the ability of antiseptics to destroy microorganisms and in their effect on
living tissue Antiseptics are potent germicidal usually with broad spectrum activity.
There is also a great difference in the time required for different antiseptics to work.
Some plants with Antiseptic properties

Acacia catechu Willd., Anthemis nobilis Linn., Bixa orellana L., Cassia occidentalis
L., Catunaregam spinosa (Thunb.) Tirrengadum, Cinnamomum camphora F.Nees, Commiphora
wightii (Am.) Bhandari, Garcinia cambogia Desr., Homonoia riparia Lour., Indigofera tinctoria
Linn., Inula racemosa Hkf, Jasminum grandiflorum Linn., Limnophila aromatica, Mangifera
indica L., Melia azadarach L., Mentha arvensis Linn., Nardostachys grandiflora DC, Pandanus
odoratissimus Roxb., Phyllanthus amaras Schumach. & Thorn., Pterocarpus santalinus Linn.
f, Oxalis corniculata L., Rhinacanthus nasuta (L.) Kurz., Rubia cordifolia Linn., Sassurea
lappa Clarke, Scoparia dulcis Linn., Semecarpus anacardium Lf, Solanum nigrum L., Streblus
asper Lour., Vitex negundo L., Zanonia indica Linn., Zanthoxylum armatum Roxb., Ziziphus
oenoplia Mill.
Antiulcer
Ulcer is caused by peptic ulceration that involves the stomach, duodenum, and
lower oseophagus. Ulcers are caused by Helicobacter pylori infections and are treated with
a combination treatment that incorporates antibiotic therapy with gastric acid suppression.
Antiulcer drugs are a class of drugs used to treat ulcers in the stomach and the upper
part of the small intestine. The objectives of antiulcers are relief of pain, promotion of
ulcer healing and prevention of recurrence and complication. The agents used for treatment
of ulcers are: (i) acid neutralizing agents that are basic in nature and neutralize acid in
the lumen. (ii) proton pump inhibitor that block the secretion of gastric acid by the gastric
parietal cells inhibiting the secretion of gastric acid. (iii) ulcer insulators does not inhibit
gastric acid but rather react with the existing stomach acid to form a thick coating that
covers the surface of an ulcer protecting the open area from further damage.
Some plants with Antiulcer properties
Achyranthes aspera L., Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr., Amaranthus hybridus L., Azadirachta
indica AJuss., Baliospermum montanum Muell., Berberis aristata DC, Boswellia serrata (Roxb.)
ex Coleb., Calophyllum inophyllum Linn., Cassia occidentalis L., Coscinium fenes tra tum Colebr.,
Datura metel L., Datura stramonium Linn., Emblica officinalis Gaertn., Ficus hispida Lf, Ficus
microcarpa Linnf, Garcinia indica Chois., Gentiana kurroo Royle, Golriosa superba L., GlyC1;rrhiza
glabra, Gymnema sylvestre, Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R.Br., Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.)
Wall. ex G. Don, Hypericum perforatum Linn., May tenus aquifolium, Mesua ferrea, Morinda
pubescence J.E.Sm., Phyla nodiflora (L.) Green, Plumbago zeylanica L., Polygonatum cirrhifolium,
Pueraria tuberosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) DC, Rubia cordifolia Linn., Santalum album L., Saraca asoca
(Roxb.) de Wilde, Sarcostigma kleinii W. & A, Schliechera oleosa (Lour.) Oken, Semecarpus
anacardium Lf, Shorea robusta Gaertn., Solanum nigrum L., Streblus asper Lour., Strychnos
potatorum Linnf, Symplocos racemosus ADC, Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels, Terminalia arjuna
(Roxb.) Wight & Am., Terminalia chebula Retz., Terminalia crenulata Roth, Terminalia
paniculata Roth., Tribulus terrestris L., Tylophora indica (Burm. f) Merr., Valeriana jatamansi
Wall., Verbena officinalis Linn.
4. SOME FOLKLORE REMEDIES FOR WOUND HEALING
Abutilon indicum Sw.
Family: Malvaceae
Vernacular name: Petari

Parts Used: Leaves and flowers
Recipe: Paste of the leaves and flowers is applied externally to ulcers.
Acalypha indica Linn.
Family: Euphorbiaceae
Vernacular name: Indian acalypha, KhokaH.
Parts Used: Leaves
Recipe: Powder of dry leaves is used in bed sores.
Achillea millefolium Linn.
Vernacular Names: Yarrow
Family: Asteraceae/ Compositae
Parts used: Whole plant
Recipe: Fresh plant is crushed and used as a poultice for healing wounds, chapped
skin and rashes and tea made from the plant is used as mouth wash.
Achyranthes aspera Linn.
Vernacular Names: Aghada, Prickly-chaff flower
Family: Amaranthaceae
Parts used: Whole plant.
Recipe: Paste is prepared from the fresh leaves of the plant, gur and soap. Then
is applied to the blister twice a day.
Adhatoda zeylanica Medic.
Vernacular Name: Adulasa
Family: Acanthaceae
Parts used: Dried leaves
Recipes: Leaves are crushed and used as poultice on the wounds as antiseptic.
Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsd.
Vernacular Name: Haldu
Family: Rubiaceae
Parts used: Bark
Recipes: The juice of the bark of the tree is used to treat sores. It prevents the
generation of worms in sores.
Ageratum conyzoides Linn.
Family: Asteraceae
Vernacular name:
Parts Used: Leaves and stem portion
Recipe: Warm poultice of the leaves and stem is topically applied in wounds.
Aloe barbadensis Mill.

Vernacular Names: Ghrita-Kanvar (Hindi),
Family: Liliaceae
Parts used: Leaves and the dried juice obtained from leaves
Recipe: The roasted leaves of Aloe are applied over blisters. Latex from the leaves
with salt is used to cure stomach ulcer. Aloe leaf is washed with water. The pulp
is exposed by longitudinal section and then placed on pussy wounds, which drain
out it efficiently Crushed leaves are mixed with turmeric and the paste thus obtained
is applied on the eruptions on any part of the body.
Amaranthus viridis Linn.
Vernacular Names:Green Amaranth
Family: Amaranthaceae
Recipe: The upper surface of the leaves are smeared with ghee and then warmed
gently. ThE' slightly warmed leaves are applied to the abscesses and boils for ripeness.
Argemone mexicana Linn.
Family: Papaveraceae
Vernacular name: Poppy
Parts Used: Latex
Recipe: Latex obtained from stem and leaves is mixed with powdered seeds of
Cuminum cyminum Linn. Geera) along with vegetable oil (preferably mustard oil). The
paste prepared is applied on wounds.
Azadirachta indica A. Juss.
Family: Meliaceae
Vernacular name: Kadu neem
Parts Used: Leaves
Recipe: Decoction of leaves is used for washing boils and wounds as an antiseptic.
Berberis lycium Royle
Vernacular Names: Berberry
Family: Berberidaceae
Parts used: Dried roots
Recipe: Root bark is astringent, used for the improvement of internal wounds.
The dried powder of root is used for this purpose. Root bark is mixed with Ghee and
heated. This is used as bandage on the broken organs. The root bark is dried and grinded;
the powder is put in water along with small amount of sugar and is taken before sleeping
which is effective for stomach ulcer.
Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb.
Vernacular Names:
Family: Saxifragaceae
Parts used: Rhizomes.
Recipe: Powder is used for healing of wounds. Powdered rhizome is applied
over wounds.
Bombax ceiba Linn.
Family: Bombacaceae
Vernacular name: silk-cotton tree
Parts Used: Bark
Recipe: Paste of the bark is applied over skin wounds.
Kalanchoe pinnata Linn.
Family: Crassulaceae
Vernacular name: Parnabija
Parts Used: Leaves
Recipe: An ointment prepared from the expressed juice of the leaves mixed with
'oil is used externally for treatment of ulcers, burns, poorly healing wounds. The ointment
has hemostatic, anti-inflammatory and wound healing action.
Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.
Family: Apiaceae
Vernacular name: Brahmi, gotu kola
Parts Used: Whole plant
Recipe: Mix equal parts gotu powder with aloe gel and apply to burned area as
needed
Curcuma longa Linn.
Family: Zingiberaceae
Vernacular name: Haldi
Parts Used: Rhizome
Recipe: Juice of curcuma is applied to recent wounds and bruises. Its powder is
sprinkled on ulcers to stimulate them to healthy action. Externally it is very useful in
ulcers and inflammation.
Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.
Family: Cuscutaceae
Vernacular name: Amarvel
Recipe: Paste of the whole plant is applied on boils.
Cyperus rotundus Linn.
Vernacular Names:
Family: Cyperaceae
Parts used: The rhizomes are used

Recipe: The rhizomes paste is applied in the healing of wounds.
Eclipta prostrata Linn.
Family: Asteraceae
Vernacular name: Maka, Bringraj
Parts Used: Leaves
Recipe: Juice of the fresh leaves is applied topically to wounds.
Hemigraphis colorata (Blume) H.G. Hallier
Vernacular Names:
Family: Acanthaceae
Parts used: Leaves.
Recipe: The leaves are ground into a paste and applied on fresh cut wounds.
Hydrastis canadensis L.
Vernacular Names: Golden seal
Family:
Parts used: Rhizome
Recipe: Dried rhizome has been used as a haemostatic because of astringent
properties.
Oxalis comiculata Linn.
Vernacular Names: Indian sorrel
Family: Oxalidaceae
Recipe: Leaves are crushed and applied as poultice to skin during inflammation
and warts. Fresh leaves are applied as antiscorbutic.
Otostegia limbata (Bth.) Boiss.
Vernacular Names:
Family: Lamiaceae/Labiateae
Parts used: Leaves.
Recipe: Some time powder of the plant is mixed butter and used for wounds.
Rumex hastatus D.Don
Vernacular Names:
Family: Polygonaceae
Parts used: Leaves, roots and stem
Recipe: The sap of the leaves and stem is applied on cuts for its astringent
properties.
Sphaeranthus senegalensis DC.

Family: Asteraceae
Vernacular name:.
Parts Used: Leaves
Recipe: Leaves are dried under shade and smashed into powder. About 1-2 g
is given twice a day.
Tagetes erecta L.
Family: Asteraceae
Vernacular name: Marigold
Parts Used: Leaves
Recipe: A fine paste of leaves is applied to boils.
Termminalia chebula Retz.
Family: Combretaceae
Vernacular name: Haritaki, Harda
Parts Used: Fruits
Recipe: A fine paste of fruits is applied to burns and scalds effects more rapid
cure. It is also useful in chronic ulcerations, ulcerated wounds with profuse discharge
Typha angustifolia Linn.
Family: Araceae
Vernacular name: Ramban
Parts Used: Flowers and inflorescence
RecIpe: Flowers are valued in the treatment of burns. Male inflorescence is applied
to wounds and ulcers. Decoction of leaves has been employed to wash ulcers and tumors.
The rootstock, mashed to a jelly like paste has been applied externally on burns and
inflammations.
Verbascum thapsus L.
Vernacular Names: Common Mullein
Family: Scrophulariaceae
Parts used: Leaves and flowers.
5. CONCLUSION
Plants have been a source of medicine since ancient times. Even today nearly 80%
of the world's population relies on plants for medicinal purposes. Each plant synthesizes
a number of secondary metabolites and hence exerts a synergetic effect. Plant like Aloe
vera has anthraquinones that in large amounts exert a powerful purgative effect and are
potent antimicrobial agents. Curcuma longa is a source of curcumin that is not only an
antioxidant but is also antimicrobial and hence is effective in wound healing. Grapes
contain proanthocyanidin and resveratrol that facilitate inducible VEGF expression, a key
element supporting wound angiogenesis.
PLANfS USED IN WOUND CARE 103
Most of the plants contain flavonoid that reduces lipid peroxidation by preventing
or slowing the onset of cell necrosis and by improving vascularity. Tannins and
triterpenoids that too are common metabolites in plants are known to promote the
wound healing process, mainly due to their astringent and antimicrobial property.
These active constituents promote the process of wound healing by increasing the
viability of collagen fibrils, by increasing the strength of collagen fibres either by
increasing the circulation or by preventing the cell damage or by promoting the DNA
synthesis. Thus it can be concluded that plants can be employed for wound healing.
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000
TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE: VIEWS,
NECESSITY AND PROSPECTS
D.A. PATIL
Chapter Outline
1. Introduction
2. Documentation
3. Traditional knowledge and Intellectual property rights
4. Recent views
5. Medicine: Ancient history and traditions
6. Ethnomedicine to modern medicine
7. Ancient medicine to modern medicine
8. Traditional systems of medicine
9. Collaborative efforts
10. Epilogue
11. Summary
12. References
1. INTRODUCTION
The syllables such as Ethnobotany, Ethnobiology, Ethnomedicine,
Ethnomedicobotany, Aboriginal botany, Folk medicines, Folklore, Indigenous knowledge,
Plantlore and even the systems of medicine like Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha, Tibetan,
Chinese etc. although not synonymous, all signify traditional knowledge. The word
'tradition' mean oral transmission or practice from generation to generation. Although
so, man has always attempted at keeping written records even in ancient past. Some
traditions also passed over generations by word of mouth. The importance and
significance of traditional knowledge in recent times, whether written or oral, are being
recognized worldwide.
106 D.A. PATIL
Human-being have inherent capacity to discriminate and exploit the natural

resources in their ambience to their advantage. Nay, even it is his natural occupation.
They have also ability to innovate for developing material civilization. Economic
thoughts and systems are intertwined intricately with natural wealth. Even today many
human societies the world over still continue to inhabit in and around jungles. Their
traditions did not change much materially over centuries. Such human societies are the
real treasure-house, nay archeological museums of ancient traditions and cultural
heritage. These societies have selected useful elements of floral or faunal wealth in their
vicinity. Their experience and knowledge were subjected to modifications and refinements
by the successive generation which have been also integrated with their traditions. Their
knowledge-base or knowledge systems have been thus widened during the course of time.
Contrary to this, during the process of organized habitation like hamlets, villages and
cities, the forces of acculturation coupled with the forces of vegetational deterioration,
modernization and developmental activities accelerated the rate of extinction of traditional
knowledge. It, therefore, became imperative to tap their knowledge on war-footing. All these
circumstances and increasing commercial pressure generated more interest in gathering
ethnic information and utilization of ambient resources. This, in turn, gave birth to the
sciences like Ethnobotany, Ethnomedicinal studies, Folklore etc. Dr. R.A. Mashelkar, D.G.
CSIR, (2002) appropriately stated that "In real life, particularly in the developing world,
there is a whole parallel knowledge based system, which is generated by people who
live in the laboratory of life, based on their empirical wisdom and experience. There is
an urgent need to preserve, protect and add value to it."
2. DOCUMENTATION
Traditional knowledge (TK) of the various primitive societies is a treasure of their
experience and practical know-hows. These societies have wisdom about the management
and utilization of their natural resources. The fast rate of erosion and corrosion of
indigenous knowledge systems has became a serious matter of concern. To save the natural
wealth and traditional knowledge from future degradation/ depletion, the urgent necessity
is to rescue and record TK at the earliest. It is why research workers worldwide are inspired
to undertake investigations on TK, particularly plantlore. Their knowledge is of immense
value to planners and scientists while developing strategies for conservation and
utilization of biodiversity. The indigenous people have a symbiotic relationship with
biodiversity. They protect and conserve the biodiversity, the latter in turn acts as
bioresources (Sinha, 1996).
WHO (1978) compiled an inventory of 20,000 medicinal plant species covering 90
member countries. The AICRPE (All India Co-ordinated Project on Ethnobiology, 1987)
documented the indigenous uses of bioresources, whereas FRLHT (Foundation for
Revitalization of Local Health Traditions, Bangalore). Indian Institute of Sciences, Bangalore,
and (SRISTI) Society for Research and Initiative for Sustainable Technologies and
Institutions are the efforts by NGO's in our country to bring traditional knowledge on
record. Countries like Malaysia and Sri Lanka also developed similar network. Recently,
DBT (Department of Biotechnology), Ministry of Science and Technology, GOI screened
about 700 species on ethnobotanicaL chemical, pharmacological and toxicological lines.
TRADmONAL KNOWLEDGE: VIEWS, NECESSITY AND PROSPECTS 107
Documentation in digital form is useful to protect the rights of IPR (Intellectual Property
Rights) and to avoid its misuse. This further aids while filing of patents of our traditional
uses. Databases are prepared in the countries like America, Korea, China, Venezuela.
GOI developed database with plant-based approach and TKDL (Traditional Knowledge
Digital Library) on Ayurveda. TKDL is a collaborative effort of NISCAIR (National
Institute of Science Communication and Information Resources, and Department of ISM
and H (Indian System of Medicine and Homoeopathy), Ministry of Health and Family
Welfare, GOL It is aimed at collating the information on traditional knowledge from
literature, inclusive of Ayurveda in digital form. It is to be disseminated in international
languages like English, German, French, Japanese and Spanish. The TKDL will include
information on 35,000 drug formulations employed in the Ayurvedic system (Cf
Pushpangandn and Kumar, 2005).
3. Traditional Knowledge AND Intellectual Property Rights
The indigenous knowledge of traditional societies has been open to misappropriation
as it has remained easily accessible. The TK about treatment of various ailments has
provided leads to develop active molecules by the technology-rich nations. The overall
circumstances have also led to biopiracy of knowledge, and technologies in past have
been exchanged freely. There were no legal barriers.
The Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights administered by WTO has
been universalized. IPRs (Intellectual Property Rights) are legally enforceable particularly
regarding new inventions, innovations and process. However, IPR regime has not
recognized from its inception, the informal system of innovation. The informal knowledge,
of traditional societies, which contribute directly or indirectly, to many inventions or
production of patentable products, were unrecognized. TK is misappropriated as it is
presumed that since it has been publicly disclosed and is available in open domain, such
societies have given up all claims over it. The CBD (Convention on Biological Diversity)
now came into force. It protects the sovereign rights of the state and people over
bioresources. Prior to CBD, there was no legal instrument to claim right; share of financial
benefits from TK or bioresources. It is to be further noted that the Biodiversity Act came
into force from 15th April 2003. This act stipulates norms for access to TK or bioresources.
NBA (National Biodiver9'ity Authority) is the national competent authority to discharge
all decisions. The Act insists upon appropriate benefit-sharing provisions.
4. RECENT VIEWS
Cox (2005) suggested seven pillars of ethnomedicinal wisdom. These are: (i)
indigenous wisdom, (ii) rapport with indigenous people, (iii) documentation, (iv) bioassay-
guided fractionation, (v) molecular structure, (vi) indigenous intellectual property and (vii)
equitable benefit-sharing. He hoped that these seven pillars of ethnomedicinal wisdom
can bridge a very distinguished past of ethnomedicinal research with what he believed
will be the most promising future towards the development of better/new drugs world
over for mankind.
Jain (2005) opined that due to indigenous intuition, creativity and innovations, both
ethnobotanical knowledge and practices are dynamic. He explained factors causing loss
108 D.A. PATIL
or addition to knowledge. He expected that Indian research workers from different

parts of India for trying to compare the present status of knowledge He expected that
Indian for trying to compare the present status of knowledge about indigenous herbal
resources with any earlier published work or even earlier notes on herbarium and
museum specimens collected several decades ago. He tried to draw attention to loss
of indigenous traditional knowledge. Shah (2005) brought out and discussed critically
the emergence, purpose and history of Indian ethnobotany and indigenous knowledge
citing exemplary works. He stressed importance of ethnographical works e.g. etymology
and philology of vernacular plant names, linguistics, phonetics, cultural and social
aspects of plants, proverbs, riddles, songs etc., apart from indigenous knowledge-based
innovations. He opined that ethnographical part makes the information more useful,
meaningful and interesting. Indigenous knowledge, in his opinion, encompasses a wide
spectrum of areas. This knowledge is not only 'technical' in nature, but also incorporates
integrative insights, wisdom, ideas, perceptions and innovative capabilities for pertaining
to ecological, biological, geographical and other physical phenomena.
Khan (2005) attempted to systematize ethnobotanical researches in 2151 century
especially in Indian context. He attracted attention of Indian Ethnobotanists and GOI with
respect to biopiracy, traditional knowledge, electronic database and ethnobotanical
hotspots. He stated that India, being rich in biodiversity as well as traditional knowledge,
will have to find ways and means to protect traditional knowledge from biopiracy. He
cited the Indian cases on neem, turmeric, basmati rice etc. He made aware about the foreign
researchers and suggested for their participation in collaborative works only. He also
commented on curricula in Indian universities at graduate and post-graduate levels. The
subject of traditional knowledge or ethnobotany generally does not figure in syllabi of
various universities colleges and organizations. He also suggested to pay attention to
electronic database. In his opinion, in this age of information technology, electronic
databases will not only provide fast and easy access to information on TK to ethnobotanists
but will also be a proof of documentation of claims contained therein. He further expected
to recognize 'Ethnobotanical Hotspots or Traditional Knowledge Hotspots" in India. This,
according to him, will be helpful to emphasize the need for exploring such areas on priority
basis since they will provide relatively larger bulk of data on Traditional knowledge.
Jain (2006) felt that once we realize the significant role of ethnobotany or TK
(Indigenous Knowledge) in various developments, we have to think seriously of proper
training for producing suitably oriented field and laboratory researchers and dev210pment
managers, especially in India. Special workshops and training courses are necessary. The
subject-matters should become a component of education system. The studies or researchers
should be particularly objective oriented. He expected to chart out at least a fairly clear
road map for the next 25-30 years.
According to Steven et al. (2006) critically discussed mechanism of ethnobiological
classifications. In their opinion, traditional people work on either linguistic or functional
characters for identifying organisms. They use the utilitarian characters for identifying
organisms and also include other domain associate characters and experience.
Rao (1996) focused on anthropogenic disturbances. He remarked that the traditional
TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE: VIEWS, NECESSITY AND PROSPECTS 109
cultures and associated knowledge systems/ bases, which have persisted through
several countries, are in peril because of urbanization. The factors like population
increase even among tribaIs, scarcity of natural resources, habitat destruction, migration
of tribaIs in search of food and dwelling places and even the GOl's schemes collectively
changed the lifestyle and age-long culture of the tribaIs in India. The acculturation
of tribal cultures followed by continuous exploitation of the tribaIs in some parts of
India has forced a vast majority of tribal youths to migrate towards urban centres
as herbal vendors, snake charmers, daily wage labourers etc. In his opinion, there is
an urgent need to inventorise and record all ethnobiological information among diverse
ethnic communities before the traditional cultures are completely lost.
Jain (2004) introduced a new term 'objective ethnobotany'. In his opinion,
researchers now need to clearly decide objectives of the work e.g., search for any
pharmaceutical product. This will increase credibility of TK. He pointed out shortcomings
in ethnobotanical papers e.g., vague description of ailment and medicinal use.
Limitation of a botanist according to him, are obvious. He brought out a fact that
ethnobotanical work needs contributions from sociologists, anthropologists, ecologists,
medicinemen and agricultural scientists. He further stated that more accuracy and
specificity could be brought by the collaboration of a statistician.
5. MEDICINE : ANCIENT HISTORY AND TRADITIONS
Records of early civilization in all parts of the world divulge a large number
of drugs which are still in vogue today. Even the use of plants as medicine is older
than recorded history. For example, mashmallow root, hyacinth and yarrow have been
found carefully ducked around the bones of a 'Stone Age' man in Iraq. These three
medicinal herbs are used also in modern times. The use of plants for treating different
diseases and sufferings have appeared in ancient manuscripts throughout the world.
It is evident from the contributions of Hippocrates (460-370 B.C.), the 'Father
of Medicine', that the Greeks and Romans were well versed with many of the modern
drugs. The works of Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), Theophrastas (370-287 B.C.), Pliny the
Elder (AD. 29-79), Dioscorides (AD. 50-100), and Galan (AD. 131-201) are illustrative
and described healing properties of medicinal plants. During the 'Dark Ages' (AD.
400-1000) and 'Middle Ages' (AD. 1000-1500), the contributions in the field of medicine
were very insignificant. In India, Ayurvedic medicine is the dominant tradition. It is
aimed at bringing about an union of physical, emotional and spiritual health and
evolved over 5000 years. The sacred Rigveda and Atharveda (B.C. 2000-1000)
enlightened much about plant medicine. The Ayurvedic system has been in use over
3000 years. The medical works viz., the Charaka Samhita and the Susruta Samhita
are authored by the earliest Indians-Charaka and Susruta respectively. These are
esteemed treasures of literature on indigenous medicine. Over 6000 years ago, the
ancient Chinese were using plants as drugs. The oldest Chinese source seems to be
Erh-Ya, (B.C. 3000). The Chinese emperor Shen Nung wrote an authoritative treatise
on herbs in 2735 B.C. which is still used. Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine
(Huang Di Nei Jing, B.C. 200 to AD. 100) is based on observations of nature and
way of life. The Sumerians ideograms (B.C. 4000) refer to plants uses. Ebers Papyrus
110 D.A. PATIL
in Egypt written about B.C. 2838 is a rich manuscript on ethnomedicine. The records
of King Hammurabi (B.C. 1800) include instructions for using medicinal plants (cf
Patil, 2004, 2005; Dagar and Dagar, 2005; Aiyavu et al., 2005)
Developments in medicine in later centuries were also significant. Several herbals
of considerable merit were published in the beginning of 16th Century like those of
Brunfels (1530), Bock (1539), Fuchs (1542), Cordus (1561), L'Obel (1576) and few others.
'Doctrine of Signatures' was advocated by Paracelsus (1439-1541). The historical roots
of ethnomedicine were in North America and got fillip after coining of the term
'Ethnobotany' by Harshberger in 1896. Since then enough useful information has been
collected on medicinal uses of plants. Important contributions in ethnomedicine by
Schultes and many others are on record. The science of ethnomedicine has received
a very little attention in developed countries particularly in Europe. As far as India
is concerned, ethnobotanical and so ethnomedicinal studies were initiated after
independence by Dr.E.K.Janak Ammal and then nurtured by Dr.5.K.Jain and others.
There were also important contributions before independence (cf Roxburgh, 1820-1824;
Dagar and Dagar, 2005).
6. ETHNOMEDICINE TO MODERN MEDICINE
Modern societies have lost their own cultures and are seeking to understand
some aspects of healthcare with the help of tribals and forest dwellers who have
maintained their centuries-old cultures. The history of ethnomedicine is nearly as old
as human civilization, the scientific assessment of the subject, of course, is very recent.
Ethnomedicinal study has offered immense scope and opportunities for the development
of new drugs. Some well-known modern drugs have been developed through
ethnomedicine or folklore. For example,
Plant species Indication Drug Commercialized
1. Ficus benghalensis Antifertility La-Vivil
2. Boerhavia diffusa Digestive disorders Carimnozyme
3. Adhatoda zeylanica Cough syrup Kasni
4. Rubia cordifolia Blood purifier Medipurine
5. Azadirachta indica Bleeding piles Nimbolin
6. Andrographis paniculata Hepatoprotective Livomyn
7. Centella asiatica Brain tonic Medimentoram
8. Terminalia chebula Digestive disorder Medigasone
* Source : Dixit Gopal (2005)
Reports of ethnomedicine/ folklore are being screened in recent times. For
example,
1. Urena lobata Linn. : Folklore: Whole plant boiled in sesamum oil is applied
externally on rheumatic pains by the tribals in Western Maharashtra.
Modern Use : Roots are externally used as embrocation in rheumatism.
2. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Linn. : Folklore: The tribals of Indo-Nepal border region
TRADmONAL KNOWLEDGE: VIEWS, NECESSITY AND PROSPECTS 111
use flowers in impotency. Decoction of flowers is administered to the patient

for a few months.
Modem Use: The flower buds are used in seminal weakness.
3. Caruga pinnata Roxb. : Folklore : Tribals of Khasi hills in Meghalaya use leaf-
juice with honey in asthma.
Modem Use: The leaf-juice is mixed with honey and given in asthma.
4. Mimosa pudica Linn. : Folklore : In Konkan, Leaf paste is applied in hydrocele.
Modem Use: Leaf paste is applied to hydrocele.
5. Tylophora indica (Burm. f.) Merr. : Folklore: Yanandi people in Andhra Pradesh
chew leaves daily in the morning in severe bronchitis.
Modem Use : Leaf powder is used in bronchitis.
* Source : Patil (2006)
Several drugs viz., reserpine, quinine, digoxin, ephedrine, cocaine, khellin, colchicine,
artemisine, gugulipid etc. have been discovered from the plants which played important
role in tribal communities. These have positive correlation between their modem therapeutic
use and traditional use of the plant from which they were derived.
7. ANCIENT MEDICINE TO MODERN MEDICINE
The ancient civilization records reveal that number of drugs used today were already
in use in ancient times, e.g., the Indians, Chinese, Egyptians, Greeks, Romans and
Babylonians developed their characteristic materia medica. The ultimate aim of research
workers in medicine of present time is to validate these traditional documented preparations,
either through isolation of active substances or through pharmacological findings. The
following form some examples of this kind (cf. Patil, 2006) :
1. Atropa belladona L. : Its name 'belladona' (beautiful woman) is thought to refer
to its use by Italian woman to dilate the pupils of their eyes, making them more
attractive.
Presently, it is used to dilate the pupils for eye examined and as an anesthetic
in conventional medicine. Trepane alkaloids dilate the pupils.
2. Swertia chirayita (Roxb.) Karst: It is traditional Ayurvedic herb, It is one
of the ingredient in 'Mahasudarshana Chuma' which is prescribed for fevers,
including malaria, liver problems, indigestion, nausea etc.
Like most bitters it reduces fevers. The constituent amarogentin, an iridoid, has
proved protective in action on the liver. It is a useful remedy for malaria as
it contains anti-malarial xanthons. It stimulates the whole digestive tract,
being a strong bitter.
3. Cuminum cyminum L. : Cumin was used for illness of the digestive system
in Ancient Egypt.
It relieves flatulence and bloating. It stimulates the entire digestive process and
reduces abdominal gases.
112 D.A. PATIL
4. Psoralea corylifolia L. : In China, it is used externally to treat vitiligo (loss

of skin pigmentation).
Recent studies in China indicated it valuable for treating vitiligo.
5. Portulaca oleracea L. : In ancient Rome, it was used to treat stomach ache
and dysentery.
Recent researches confirmed it valuable against bacillary dysentery.
In a nutshell, ancient wisdom and folklore can be validated on modem scientific
lines such as bioassay and improved methods of fractionation, isolation and characterization
of compounds. A new paradigm shift for the development of world class medical remedies
can be achieved. In some cases, individual compound responsible for therapeutic activity
may be isolated and used as lead molecules. The traditional medicines not only continue
to provide new molecules for drug discovery but may also form the basis for wider
acceptance of crude extracts in standard form as another type of medicine. The modem
methods, moreover, provided scientific explanation for the traditional medicines.
8. TRADITIONAL SYSTEMS OF MEDICINE
Plants, their parts or products, have been in vogue from ancient times to combat
and cure human sufferings. The experiences over centuries eventually crystallized in the
form of systems of medicine in different human cultures. Thus the traditional systems
like Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, Homoepathy, Tibetan, etc. have their roots directly or
indirectly in the remedies used by rural/tribal folks or in ancient medicinal know-hows
all over the world. These systems have now their own therapeutic principles. For example,
(i) in Ayurveda, the core philosophy is that the mind and body are one and the same,
and that physical health can't be achieved without emotional, mental and spiritual health.
It emphasizes imbalance of 'tridoshas' viz., vata, pitta and kapha (ii) Homoeopathy is
used on a principle that substances which produce symptoms in a healthy individual
can be used to treat similar symptoms in a sick person. Thus, other systems have their
own footing. Although, the various systems of medicine are based on different principles,
they all are aimed at elimination of human sufferings. Many of these systems employ drugs
of plant origin. Earlier, the practitioners of these systems mostly remained silent regarding
scientific explanation of drug application. Of late, researches are being carried out to find
out the best possible scientific explanation. For instance, 'Chyavanprash' is a Ayurvedic
formulation recommended especially for all ketabolic diseases like pulmonary tuberculosis,
asthma and cough. Mehrotra et al. (1995) analysed its ingredients. They correlated their
medicinal properties also with ethnomedicinal uses. They also decided their physio-
chemical values and performed experiments for their biological activities. They thus
supported the claims of Ayurvedic practitioners of this important formulation by giving
scientific explanation. Traditional systems of medicine had their roots in one way or the
other, in folk medicines and household remedies.
9. COLLABORATIVE EFFORTS
To develop value-added drugs based on traditional knowledge/folklore,
collaborative attempts have become necessary in recent times. Such attempts will be
more interactive and meaningful. The researches concerning 'reserpine' will certainly
TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE: VIEWS, NECESSITY AND PROSPECTS 113
convince such a need of the day. The plant Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz
(Aponycaceae) was mentioned in folk medicine. Attempt to characterize active
compound from 1932-1935 by the Indian scientists remained unsuccessful. Dr.Rustam
Lal Vakil (1940) found the plant species to be the most consistently successful drug
for hypotensive remedies. He published his results in 'British Heart Journal' in 1949.
Schlittler, Director, CIBA, Switzerland, collaborated with Muller (a chemist) and Bein
(a pharmacologist). They isolated 'reserpine'. Its chemical efficacy was confirmed by
Dr.Wilkins in 1953. This product was, in fact, based on Indian folk knowledge. The
Indian scientists were unsuccessful merely due to lack of collaborative effort (cf Jain
and Mudgal, 1999). Many such instances can be cited out from Indian folk culture.
10. EPILOGUE
It is now high time to realize that the period of 'hit and run' study of traditional/
folk medicinal plants are over. The expectations from such studies are rising high and
high. The process of modern drug discovery is composed of several stages like sources
of information, scientific investigations, bioprospecting, IPR issues and benefit-sharing
etc. The theories and concepts of traditional and modern medical sciences should be.
critically studied. Technological know-hows should be updated. The claims of traditional,
ancient, and folklore medicines must be validated on modern scientific lines. They may
be useful for developing new drugs. It is to be further hoped that a synergetic efforts
be generated amongst the anthropologists, botanists, chemists, technologists and masses.
This will equip us to get transformed into a brighter future. It appears pertinent to
remind a Indian proverb : There is not single letter of alphabet which is not a mantra;
there is not single person who is not useful; there is not single root which is not medicine.
Only there is always a need of a co-ordinator.
11. SUMMARY
The traditional knowledge of herbal cures, in the beginning, passed over
generations by word of mouth. It is only after the introduction of printing in the 15th
century, the herbal traditions appeared profusely in written records. Although so, the
oral herbal traditions still continued in the primitive societies worldwide. Herbal
medicines undoubtedly was/is a vital part of natural and traditional medical heritage.
In some societies, even the herbal cures were critically studied, evaluated and set in
organized systems of medicine. The emergence of science of 'Ethnobotany' in the last
century filliped the studies in traditional medicines, whether written or oral. In recent
times, the veracity of the traditions is being assessed on scientific ground to suffice
scientific explanation to the needy modern elites. The necessity of patenting and
recognition of IPR still pushed the traditional medicines on ascending spirals. This article
reviews the state of art of traditional herbal cures in the perspective of their necessity
and prospects, besides the viewpoints of experts in the science.
REFERENCES
Aiyavu, c., S.John Britto & Senthikumar, S. (2005) Plants: A potential resource for therapeutics.
In : Ethnomedicine And Human Welfare. Vol. II (Ed. Irfan Ali Khan & Atiya Khanum),
Ukaaz Publications, Hyderabd (A.P.), India pp.181-200.
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Cox, P.A. (2005) Ethnobotany and indigenous knowledge in Indian context. Ethnobotany 17(1-
2):64-70
Dagar, J.e. & Dagar, H.5. (2005) Ethnobmedicinal wealth, historical perspective, resources and
strategies. In : Ethnomedicine And Human Welfare, Vol.II (Ed. Irfan Ali Khan & Atiya
Knanum), Ukaaz publications, Hyderabad (A.P.), India, pp.105-171.
Dixit, Gopal (2005) Ethnomedicobotany and human welfare : A graphic review and future
directions. In: Ethnomedicine And Human Welfare, VoUI (Ed. Irfan Ali Khan & Atiya
Khanum), Ukaaz Publications, Hyderabad (A.P.), India, pp.172-207.
Jain, S.K. & Mudgal, V. (1999) A Hand Book of Ethnobotany. Bishen Singh Maharashtra Pal
Singh, Dehra Dun, India.
Jain, S.K. (2004) Objective ethnobotany - Knowledge traditional, approaches modern. Ethnobotany
16(1-2):1-9.
Jain, S.K. (2005) Dynamism in Ethnobotany. Ethnobotany 17(1-2):20-23.
Jain, S.K. (2006) Ethnobotany in the new millenium-some thoughts on future direction in Indian
Ethnobotany. Ethnobotany 18(1-2):1-3.
Khan, Athar Ali (2005) Ethnobotany in twenty first century in India. Ethnobotany 17(1-2):71-
78.
Mashelkar, RA. (2002) In : Forward. Indian J. Tradit. Knawl. 1(1):1.
Mehrotra, Shanta, Rawat, A.K.S., Singh, H.K. & Shome Usha (1995) Standardization of popular
Ayurvedic adaptogenic preparation 'Chyavanprash' and ethnobotany of its ingredients.
Ethnobotany 7(1-2):1-16.
Patil, D.A. (2004) Origin of medicine vis-a.-vis Doctrine of signatures. Ethnobotany 16(1-2):52-
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Patil, D.A. (2005) Development and history of herbalism. In : Ethnomedicine And Human
Welfare Vol. IV (Ed. Irfan Ali Khan and Atiya Khanum), Ukaz Publications, Hyderabad
(A.P.), India pp.1-14.
Patil, D.A. (2006) Role of traditional and folklore medicines in development of government
medicine. In: Herbal Medicine : Traditional Practices (Ed. P.e. Trivedi), Aavishkar
Publishers, Distributors, Jaipur, India, pp.133-143.
Pushpangadan, P. & Kumar, B. (2005) Ethnobotany, CBD, WIO and the Biodiversity Act of
India. Ethnobotany 17(1-2):2-12.
Rao, RR (1996) Traditional knowledge and sustainable development: Key role of ethnobiologists.
Ethnobotany 8(1-2):14-24.
*Roxburgh, W (1820-1824) Flora Indica. Serampore 1-2 (Oriole Edition, Reprint New Delhi, 1975).
Shah, N.e. (2005) Ethnobotany and indigenous knowledge in Indian context. Ethnobotany 17:64-
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Sinha, RK. (1996) Conservation of cultural diversity of indigenous people for protection of
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Ba1cubramaniam (2006) Mechanisms of ethnobiological classifications. Ethnobotany 18(1-
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Shah, N.C. (2005) Ethnobotany and indigenous knowledge in Indian context. Ethnobotany 17:64-
70.
000
* Original not consulted.
ETHNOMEDICAL LEADS AND GOOD RAW DRUG
HANDLING PRACTICES FOR MODERN DRUG
DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME
M. BRAHMAM
Chapter Outline
1. Introduction
2. Modern R&D for drug development
3. Cultivation and development of agro-technology
4. Collection, drying and storage
5. Conservation strategies
6. Ex-situ conservation
7. In-situ conservation
8. Summary and conclusion
9. Acknowledgements
10. Further reading
1. INTRODUCTION
Plants and Plant based medicaments have been employed since dawn of civilization
for prolonging life of man by combating various ailments. Ancient tribal societies around
the world have learnt to utilize their neighbourhood herbal wealth for curative as well
as offensive purposes. Due to lack of literacy, their knowledge of pl~ts developed often
at the cost of their dear life in their 'Human Laboratories' through centuries old experience
could not be perfectly documented and it had rather descended from one generation
to another as a domestic practice. As the ethnic groups migrated from place to place
in search of their livelihood, their folklore knowledge also became fragmented and
travelled with them often with 'additions' and 'deletions'. Their claims, in course of time,
have become basic leads or clues for chemical, pharmacological, clinical and bio-chemical
trials that ultimately gave birth to modern drug development.
With rapid intrusion of modern civilization into their remote areas, their ancient
116 M. BRAHMAM
traditions, cultures, gay life etc. seem to be on the verge of extinction. Indiscriminate
cutting of forest cover for the construction of roads and buildings, conversion of forest
land into agricultural land to meet the growing needs of ever increasing human and
cattle population, ill-planned mining activities etc. have compelled the tribals to flee
their natural abodes in search of their livelihood and with them has vanished their
precious knowledge. Before such a catastrophe takes the toll, studies need to be taken
up on 'war footing' and their knowledge be disseminated so that a few drugs for human
welfare take birth.
Harshberger (1896), one of the earliest American Economic Botanists was the first
to recognise the importance of this type of R. & D. which he termed 'as an
anthropological approach of plants and plant products for human welfare'. Richard
Evans Shultes (1962) gave a new direction to this type of ethnic research by spending
12 long uninterrupted years in the North West Amazon and defines it as the 'study
of the relationship between people of primitive societies and their plant environment'.
Virtually it is a new field of research with unlimited potentiality and if investigated
thoroughly is going to yield results of immense value for human and animal welfare.
All traditional medical practices prevalent in various parts of the world had their roots
in one way or other in tribal societies. Though several approaches to unravel the
intricacies of ethno-medical practices are envisaged, the following four however have
been found to be most effective and followed throughout the world.
1. Field Survey: Various forest areas rich in tribal population are to be identified,
survey trips conducted at regular intervals in different seasons and the tribal uses of
plants be studied in situ by establishing close intimacy with the tribal healers. Care
is taken to prioritize vulnerable areas for immediate attention. Though attempts have
been made all over the world since beginning of this century to conduct the ethno-
botanical studies (Bodding 1925, 1927; Elwin 1943; Gupta 1963; Shah & Joshi 1971; Jain
1963a,b,c, 1964, 1965a,b, 1967a,b; Saxena & Brahmam and Dutta1981; Rao1977, 1981;
Manila11981; Abraham 1981; Bhargava 1981 etc. from India; Schultes 1956, 1962, 1963a,b
etc. from Amazon Basin; Gunther 1945 from USA; Tumor & Bel11971 from Vancouver
Island; Vidal 1959, 1960, 1961a,b, 1962 from Laos etc. ), the output is very meagre and
this is largely due to lack of sufficient funds and dedicated workers.
2. Herbarium and Museum: The information recorded on the herbarium sheets
and Museum samples by the botanists are believed to be most reliable, as these are
first hand and attached to the specimen/ sample itself. If the earlier identification proves
to be wrong, it can be rectified and the authenticity of the information noted on the
sheet need not be doubted. The contributions of a few dedicated workers like Aitschul
(1968, 1970a, & 1970b), who brought out nearly 5178 notings of drug and food value
by scanning more than 2.5 million specimens at the Herbarium of the Harvard University,
USA have opened new vistas in this direction. Similar works were also attempted in
India by Agarwal & Saha (1968) in the Industrial Section of the Indian Museum, Calcutta
(BSIS) and Jain & Dam in the Kanjilal Herbarium at Shillong (ASSAM).
3. Literature: Every country harbours ancient literature which might contain
valuable information on medicinal plants. In India, RigVeda and Atharvaveda which
were supposed to have been written somewhere during 2000-1000 B.C. are known to
ETHNOMEDICAL LEADS AND GOOD RAW DRUG HANDLING PRACTICES 117
contain valuable information on medicinal uses of plants and recently a list of 248
botanical drugs mentioned in these Vedas were published by Sharma (1968-69). From
the works of Charaka Sarnhita (100 A.D.), Sushruta Sarnhita (800-900 A.D.), and
Vagbhatta's Ashtanga Hridiya Sarnhita, Singh & Chuenkar (1972) brought out a glossary
of medicinal plants. As the linguistic knowledge of erstwhile classical literature is fast
dwindling, the R&D in this direction is urgently needed.
4. Archaeological: Archaeological sculptures of antiquity also play a vital role
in giving away the clues of medicinal plants. From the base relief's of the Great Stupa
at Sanchi and from the railings of Bharhut Stupa belonging to first and second century
B.c. respectively, Sithole (1976) described 40 plants. In the book 'Buddhist Art of
Gandhara' by Sir J. Marshall, a picture was reproduced from archaeological sculptures
wherein Lord Buddha was presented with a bundle of herbs and it was identified
as 'Soma' (Ephedra) of antiquity by Mahdihassan (1963). The quantum of work carried
out in this direction is very scanty and needs intensive attention.
2. MODERN R&D FOR DRUG DEVELOPMENT
Some of the claims clinically pursued for the drug development programme in
_:the recent past by obtaining clues from tribal uses are; Forskolin is a labdane diterpenoid
isolated from Coleus forskohlii (Poir) Briq.which has cardiovascular activity. Forskolin
has sky-rocketed into international prominence due to its adenylate cyclase activity
and this species is now immortalized through its inclusion among such celebrated
medicinal plants as Atropa belladonna L., Cinchona ledgeriana Moans. ex Trippen, Rauvolfia
serpentina Benth., Digitalis lanata Ehrh., Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. etc.; Acanthus illicifolius
L. seeds for analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities; Vernonia anthelmintica (L.) Willd.
for rheumatism, conjunctivitis, dysuria etc.; Garcinia morella Desr. and G. xanthochymus
Hook. f for antiprotozoal and antibacterial activities (morellin and neomorellin); Rhus
semialata Murr. and related species for cardiotonic activity; Butea monosperma (Lamk.)
Taub. seeds for antifertility and antihelmintic activities (15-hydroxy pentacosanoic acid,
C2S Hso 03' 1-carbomethoxy-2-carbonyl hydrazine (C2 H7 N3 03)' N-hydroxy-W-methyl
allophanic acid (C4 Hs N2 04) etc.; Zornia diphulla (L.) Pers. for diuretic; Plantago ovata
Forsk. (Isabgol) seeds and seed husks as emollient, demulcent and laxative; Nardostachys
jatamansi DC. (Spikenard) for ventricular tachycardia; Chlorophytum arundinaceum Baker
(roots for nervine and general tonic; Cephaelis ipecacuanha Rich. (Ipecac) rhizome for
amoebic dysentery; Adhatoda zeylanica Medic. (Vasaka) leaves and roots as expectorant;
Rheum emodi Wall. (Rhubarb) dried rhizomes for mild purgatives; Drimia indica (Roxb.)
Jess. P. (Indian squill roots for cardiac glycosides; Viola odarata L. and V. pilosa
(Banabsha) whole herb as diaphoretic and demulcent; Solanum species (Solasodine)
Dioscorea species (Diosgenins), Agave species (Hecogenins) for corticosteroids; Heliotropillm
indicum L. for antileukemic activities; Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (Aswagandha)
leaves for antitumor activity against sarcoma 180 and Ehrlich ascites carcinoma;
Operculina turpethum (L.) S.Manso for anticancerous; Acacia r..ilotica (L.) Del. leaves for
curing carcinoma of cheek is on trial at Tata Memorial Hospital, Bombay while Jatropha
curcas L. latex was found as potent promoters of carcinogenesis. One of the recent
discoveries and much talked about drug is the Memory + developed by the Central
Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, India from Bacopa monniera (L.) Wettst. (Brahmi)
118 M. BRAHMAM
and its origin is again from ancient practice and literature. Taxol from epiphytic plants
of Taxus baccata L. has revolutionized the natural product chemistry of the world for
anticancerous properties. Other important sp~cies which owe a lot for tribal uses are-
Ephedra vulgaris for Ephedrine (hayfever, asthma, etc.), Claviceps purpurea for Ergot
alkaloids, Punica granatum L. for pelletierne (anthelmintic), Gloriosa superba L. for
colchicine (leukemia), Bixa orellana L. for Bixin, Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Thonn.
for phyllanthin, hyperphyllanthin etc., Cassia angustiolia Vahl for sennasides, Enjthroxylon
for coccaine, Commiphora for gugulipid, Artemisia for artemisine etc.
Diabetes mellitus is a chronic hereditary disease from which millions of people
are suffering all over the globe. A number of plants and plant products are mentioned
as antidiabetic agents in literature. Plants like Momordica charantia L. (Karela), Gymnema
sylvestre (Retz.) Schult. (Gudumar), Syzygium cumini L. Gamun), Tinospora cordifolia
(Willd.) Miers. (Gulu), Clerodendron phlomidis Lf (Donkari), Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb.
(Bija) etc. were not only described in Ayurveda at length for hypoglycaemic effect
of the extract of the plants but were also discussed in Unani system of medicine. These
are now pursued seriously with active clinical trials and biological screenings.
The plant kingdom undoubtedly still holds many species with various virtues
which deserve serious attention and constant screening for their possible better
utilization. The primitive tribal practice is a fascinating area of research with more
promise for modern drug development programme. As a result of sophisticated
isolation and pharmacological testing procedures, many new drugs of plant origin have
found their way into the modern medical world as purified substances rather than
crude Galen cal preparations of yester years.
3. CULTIVATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF AGRO-TECHNOLOGY
Most of the drugs, to begin with, were collected from wild and as the demand
grew Jue to population outgrowths, their availability from wild started dwindling and
at places reached aJarming levels. To cope up with ever increasing population,
cultivation of important species for sustainable harvesting started getting momentum.
Certain drugs like Opium, Cinchona, Cocoa, Poppy, Cardamoms, Ginger, Cinnamon,
Fennel etc. were cultivated from time immemorial as the wild sources were scarce
and the demand was high. For successful cultivation, it is essential to study the
conditions prevailing in the wild and create the same under domestication. The climatic
(temperature, rain fall, altitude, length of day etc.) and edaphic factors play a vital
role in the manifestation of active ingredients like alkaloids, tannins, saponins,
flavonoids etc. and hence care is needed while selecting the site for raising the crop.
Other factors like propagation techniques (seed or vegetative means), use of plant
growth regulators (auxins, gibberlins kinetins etc.), nutritional requirements (manure,
fertilizers, macro and micro-nutrients), harvesting schedules, post-harvest technologies
etc. influence to a greater extent on the quality and yield of the drug.
4. COLLECTION, DRYING AND STORAGE
Care should be taken at every stage before the crude drug is finally sent to the
market and its acceptability depends on its morphological nature, its constituents, the
geographical source etc.
ETHNOMEDICAL LEADS AND GOOD RAw DRUG HANDLING PRACTICES 119
Collection: Collection of drug either from wild origin or from cultivated source
is a special subject by itself. Some like Ipecacuanha (Cephaelis ipacacuanha) roots can be
collected even by unskilled workers whereas skilled personnel are needed for collecting
Belladonna, Digitalis, Cinchona etc. The season at which the drug is collected is usually
a matter of considerable importance since the amount and the nature of constituents
is not constant throughout the year. Collection of Ephedra, Podophyllum, Rhubarb, Aconite
etc. are the best examples. Anthraquinone derivatives will be completely absent in the
drug if Rhubarb is collected in winter but they will be rich if collected during warmer
weather and this is due to conversion of anthranols present in the plant into
anthraquinones by oxidation. Age of the plant also plays a vital role as it governs not
only the total quantity of active constituents produced but also the relative proportions
of its components of the active mixture. There is an increasing evidence that the
composition of secondary metabolites vary appreciably even in a 24 hour cycle.
Collection is prohibited if the drug is covered by dew or rain. Discoloured samples
and those attacked by insects or slugs should be rejected. Leaf .samples are advised
to be collected just before the flower primordia begin to appear and flow.er samples
before they are fully expanded. Underground organs are to be picked up immediately
after the disappearance of aerial parts.
Drying: Shade drying or slow drying at moderate temperatures are recommended
for a majority of samples where enzymatic activity needs to be preserved and the
duration of drying varies from few hours to many weeks and also differs from plant
to plant. Where enzymatic activity is not desired, other types of drying like open-air
spreading or artificial heating can be followed which are comparatively quick and rapid.
Enzymatic activity needs to be retained in the case of Vanilla pods, cocoa seeds, Gentian
roots etc. Drugs holding volatile oils are either required to be dried immediately or
distilled immediately for oil after collection. By and large, slow and shade drying is
recommended for the medicinal plants. Open-air drying is adopted for doves, cardamoms,
cinnamons, colocynths etc. For shade-drying, it is advisable to bundle the drug samples
and suspend them from the roof or thread and hung from the top. For leaves, flowers,
fruits and seeds, tray drying is recommended. As a general rule, leaves, flowers and
whole herbs may be dried between 20-35C and roots and barks between 30-60 0c.
How far the drying is to be carried out is a matter of practical experience and if over-
dried, the samples not only lose their activity but also become brittle and break in the
transit.
Garbling: Garbling is the final step in the preparation of a drug. It involves
removal of extraneous matter (Le. other parts of the plant body inadvertently entered
in the collection during sampling.), dirt, adulterants etc. In senna, for example, the leaves
should be freed from extra stem pieces, and in aconite, the above ground stems and
stem bases should be removed from tubers. The underground parts like rhizomes, tubers,
bulbs, roots etc. should be washed thoroughly and made free from sand particles.
Storage and Preservation: Long storage although often unavoidable is not to be
recommended as most of the drugs deteriorate even though carefully stored. The
conventional storage containers-sacks, bales, wooden cases, card board boxes, paper
bags etc. reabsorb about 10-12 % of moisture which in turn might spoil the drug and
120 M. BRAHMAM
hence these are to be periodically checked and dried. Permissible limits of moisture
values are different for different drugs and these are to be maintained as per the
pharmacopoeia prescriptions. Drugs such as Digitalis should never be allowed to
become air-dry as they lose their activity to a greater extent. They are to be preserved
in sealed containers with a dehydrating agent. For larger quantities, the bottom case
may be filled with quick-lime separated from the drug by a perforated grid. Volatile
oils should be stored in cool and dark places in sealed containers.
Insect and Pest Treatment: Drugs are liable to be attacked by insects (beetles
and moths), arachnids (mites), fungi and bacteria. Prevention is always better than
cure and it is advisable to throwaway wormy infected drugs as soon as they are
detected. Periodic cleaning of drug storing warehouses, good ventilation, maintaining
adequate space between different consignments and temperature regulation invariably
yield good results. When infestation is noticed fumigation with ethylene oxide or
spraying and dusting with insecticides should be undertaken so as to make the drugs
free from insects and pests. Continuous low temperature storage at 15C not only checks
insect attacks but also gradually kills eggs, larvae and insects. Ionising radiations from
6OCO in small doses inhibit the reproductive ability of mites but in larger doses destroy
both mites and their eggs.
5. CONSERVATION STRATEGIES
As forest resources are depleting at a faster rate, there is a great concern for the
preservation of genetic resources either through in-situ management or ex-situ preservations.
Since 'habitat loss' is the biggest threat to the biodiversity, its conservation assumes
highest priority. With ever increasing population, much of this habitat loss is due to
expanding urban areas, unsustainable agriculture, invasion by exotics, and other serious
threats to both public and private lands. The Endangered Species Act (1973) mandates
protection of threatened and endangered species and their habitat on government or
private lands. Habitat conservation plans are becoming increasingly popular to manage
endangered species with a strong shift on conservation focus from single-species
management to multi-species and habitat management. While the importance of in-situ
conservation cannot be overemphasized, ex situ preservation of seeds, pollens, tissues,
eggs, semen etc. in Zoos, Aquaria, Botanical Gardens and Gene Banks compliments in
situ techniques and serves to maintain viable populations of species threatened in the
wild. Besides offering educational services, the ex situ preservations provide raw materials
for basic and applied research. The ex-situ methods often invite criticism from general
public when the comparisons are drawn between the expenditure incurred and the
quantity of the material stored. The criticism goes to oblivion when the real values of
the genetic stocks are evaluated and more over in some cases the threats are so severe
that no hope exists for species survival in in-situ maintenance. The rapidly changing
conditions due to over population and continuous grazing of UN (der) productive cattle
population coupled with the associated maladies have resulted in gradual but steady
degradation of the forest wealth. This has made many valuable species either reduced
to an alarming number or sometimes disappear from the scene. Out of 11 endemic species
recorded from Orissa, hardly a few can be collected with ease and what happened to
rest is anybody's guess.
6. EX-SITU CONSERVATION
Botanical Gardens
It is much easier to maintain captive populations of plants than of animals. Plants
require less care than animals. Their habitat requirements can generally be provided more
easily and individuals can be crossed more readily. Many can be self-pollinated or
vegetative propagated; and most are bisexual, which means tha..t only half as many
members of a species are needed to maintain genetic diversity. Moreov~r, as mentioned
already, many plants can be readily preserved during their dormant (seed) change. For
all these reasons botanic gardens are extremely important tools for maintalning species
and genetic diversity. The world's roughly 1,500 botanic gardens today contain at least
35,000 plant species or more than 15 percent of the world's flora, with estiIl\ftted ranging
as high as 70,000 to 80,000 species. The Royal Botanic Gardens of Kew, EJngland alone
contains an estimated 25,000 species of plants (10 percent of the world's flora) and IUCN
considers 2,700 of ~se species as rare, threatened, or endangered. The tontribution of
botanic gardens to the conservation of species extends beyond the preservation of species
threatened in the wild. Botanic gardens supply plants for research and horticulture,
thereby taking pressure off wild populations, and they are important educational
resources. Each year, an estimated 150 million people visit botanic gardens. The already
important role of botanic gardens could easily be expanded. To begin, the current
geographical imbalance in the locations of botanic gardens could be remedied if more
gardens were established in tropical countries. Today, tropical countries possess only 230
of the world's 1,500 botanic gardens. While over 100 new gardens have been opened or
planned in the last decade and many of these are in tropical regions, the geographic
imbalance persists, particularly considering the greater species richness of tropical regions.
Second, with further research into storage techniques and with better data on where
specimens were collected ('passport information') and their breeding history, botanic
gardens could become even more important genetic repositories. The IUCN Botanic
Gardens Conservation Secretariat is now developing a computer data base of species
occurrences in botanic gardens to help gardens collect species that are absent or
underrepresented in captivity. The efforts of botanic gardens in germplasm conservation
are being coordinated by the IUCN Botanic Garden Conservation Strategy; in association
with the International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR), IUCN is also putting
together guidelines for collecting germplasm of wild species.
Zoological Parks
Zoos contribute in many ways to the conservation of biodiversity. There are roughly
5,00,000 mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians in captivity in zoos throughout the
world. They propagate and reintroduce endangered species, they serve as centres for
research to improve management of captive and wild populations, and they raise public
awareness of biotic impoverishment. Zoo populations are now the only representatives
of several species and a few species have been reintroduced into the wild after captive
propagation. The potential role of zoos as a site for preserving species over the long'
term is limited by both space and expense, particularly in the case of vertebrates.
Most captive propagation programmes in zoos focus on vertebrates because the
122 M. BRAHMAM
extinction threats to vertebrates are well known. The potential contribution of zoos
to conserving species and genetic diversity could be enhanced considerably if more
research on captive propagation and reintroduction techniques were carried out. Right
now, zoos' success in maintaining populations of endangered species is limited.
Ongoing research has already led to significant advances in technologies for captive
propagation, including artificial insemination, embryo transfer, and the genetic
management of small captive populations. Germplasm storage techniques including
long-term storage of embryos have also improved considerably. Embryo transfer, in
particular, has a tremendous potential for use in captive propagation since it allows
the introduction of new bloodlines into captive populations without transporting adults
and any diseases they might carry between zoos or between wild populations and
zoos. Long-term cryogenic storage of embryos has become almost a routine for some
species (mouse, rabbit, cow etc.) but the technology is only beginning to be
experimentally applied to captive species in zoos.
Aquaria
Until recently, the role of aquaria in the captive propagation of threatened species
has been less important than that of zoos. However, given the growing threats to fresh
water species, the need to enhance the role of aquaria as ex-situ conservation tools is clear.
Accordingly, the Captive Breeding Specialist Group of The World Conservation Union
(IUCN) is mounting a major effort to develop captive breeding programs for endangered
species. In this programme, natural habitat will be restored and educate the public on
threats to species in addition to propagation in aquaria.
Germplasm and Seed Banks
Genetic diversity can be preserved ex situ through various techniques. In plants,
the seeds of many species with so-called "orthodox seeds" can be stored in dry, low-
temperature, vacuum containers (cryogenic storage). For some of these species, storage at
extremely low temperatures, below -130C, may extend the storage life to more than a
century. In contrast, species with recalcitrant seeds can be maintained only in-situ or in
field collections, botanic gardens and arboretums. Many species with recalcitrant seeds,
particularly species that can be grown from cuttings, such as banana or taro, can be
maintained by growing plant tissue or plantlets under specific conditions in glass or
plastic vessels (in vitro culture).
While some ex situ technologies such as seed storage are now extensively utilized,
many problems with their use persist. Even in standard seed banks, the long-term integrity
of the germplasm remains in question. Inadvertent selection or unintentional crossing with
other varieties may occur, and plants stored in vitro mutate at relatively high rates. Perhaps
most significantly, under any ex-situ storage conditions, the evolution of the species is
"frozen" so no further adaptation to pests or environmental change can take place. For
this reason, ex-situ storage should be considered preservation rather than conservation.
Many obstacles remain in the quest to provide a secure source of germplasm. One
draw back most commonly encountered is lack of information. For example, for nearly
half of the two million "accessions" (collections of seed from a specific locality) to
gene banks worldwide, the plant's characteristics and the location where it was collected
ETHNOMEDICAL LEADS AND GOOD RAw DRUG HANDLING PRACTICES 123
are not recorded. The high cost of ex-situ collections, may force some seed banks to
cut back or shut down. But the most serious problem associated with ex situ collections
involves gaps in coverage of important species, particularly those of significant value
in tropical countries. The most worrisome gaps are in the coverage of species of regional
importance, species with recalcitrant seeds, wild species, and livestock.
Crops of Regional Importance
Germplasm collections initially focused on food crops of greatest value in world
commerce. Because many of the most important subsistence crops in developing countries
are not widely traded in world markets and because many tropical species possess
recalcitrant seeds, many regionally important crops are poorly represented in germplasm
banks.
Species with Recalcitrant Seeds
Many important crops are poorly represented in ex situ collections because their
seeds are hard to store or because the species normally propagate vegetatively. Crops such
as rubber, cacao, palms, some tuber crops, and many tropical fruits and other tree species
can be conserved only in situ or in ex situ field gene banks.
Wild Species
The principal role of wild crop relatives has been as a source of genes conferring
resistance to parasites and pests. With only two exceptions i.e. wheat and tomatoes, the
wild relatives of crops are poorly represented in ex-situ collections and in very few
instances in-situ conservation has been attempted. Thus, many wild relatives of crops of
economic importance face the same threat of extinction as other wild species do.
Livestock.
Controlled breeding and development of livestock varieties suitable for modern
commercial production has eroded the genetic diversity in livestock. There is no coordinated
international effort for conserving the genetic resources of livestock. This is largely due
to a) involvement of fewer species and varieties b) less effort is demanded than what is
needed to conserve crop genetic resources, and c) higher cost per species than in plants.
The chief benefit of ex-situ preservation is that the breeders will have ready access
to a wide range of genetic materials already screened for useful traits. Ex-situ preservation
may also represent a last resort for many species and varieties that would otherwise die
out as their habitat is destroyed or modern varieties of plants or animals take their place.
In-situ conservation is often less expensive than ex-situ techniques. It insures against loss
of ex situ collections and it allows the continuing evolution of the crop varieties. In situ
conservation also preserves knowledge of the farming systems with which local varieties
evolved. Thus, the ex situ and in situ techniques complement each other and must be used
together.
7. IN-SITU CONSERVATION
Ill-sihl conservation is the most effective means of conserving the biodiversity.
It means protecting valuable natural ecosystems and habitats that can protect the
reproduction and evolution of life in ecosystems and keep the energy flow, material
124 M. BRAHMAM
cycling and ecological process in the system. Nature reserves and national parks of
different types are one key way to accomplish this objective but efforts must also be
made to provide protection outside formal protected areas as well. In-situ conservation
of species and ecosystems is vastly preferable to ex-situ conservation. In in-situ
situations, the whole spectrum of plants, animals and micro-organisms can be preserved
whereas in ex-situ situations only the single target species generally is maintained. Ex-
situ measures are primarily suited to emergency rescue of highly endangered species
that will otherwise become extinct, and captive collections could have some value for
public education.
Any ecosystem, if it is effective, must conserve the whole spectrum of living
species within it. A few wild life reserves have been established but their activities
need to be accelerated. In order to set up a rational system of nature reserves, a bio-
geographical zoning plan is required to determine critical areas of biodiversity
conservation. Then the reserve construction can be based on this zoning plan. However,
there is no such bio-geographical zoning plan in Orissa nor in India. The size and
placement of some established nature reserves were not chosen according to a scientific
appraisal, and the distribution of reserves nationwide is largely not rational. At present
the geographical distribution of most of the reserves are in the areas where human
pressure and the endangerment of both ecosystems and species is greatest.
Eco-Reserves
When ecosystems and species are endangered, then establishment of reserves
will solve the problems to a larger extent. The vast arid and semi-arid regions of the
north-western part of the country, and the species and ecosystems needing protection
within it, are mostly unprotected. Therefore, what is needed to complete the national
network is to identify the ecosystems (and if appropriate, particular species) that are
not protected adequately under the present system, and to expand the system to include
those. Priority in establishing the needed new reserves should be given to those areas
which are most immediately threatened.
Nature reserves have been established according to the priorities of the different
regulations and governmental institutions involved, so there is not a balanced coverage
of all the different types of natural ecosystems in the country. Freshwater and marine
reserves appear to be particularly poorly represented. Some reserves are small and some
very large. What is important is to determine how well the existing ecosystem types are
covered by existing reserves, and to determine which ecosystem types are not adequately
protected and to expand the system to cover them. Although forest reserves are some of
the most abundant areas in biodiversity, relevant ministries and agencies should also give
more consideration to establishing other types of reserves.
Poor legislation for nature reserves and lax enforcement of existing laws
More than one-third of the total nature reserves do not have regulations for their
management. Many stipulations in relevant laws and r~gulations are often not enforced,
or not s_trictly enforced, as there are no implementing rules or measures. As a result,
illegal hunting and poaching of endangered animal and plant species occurs frequently.
Poorly organized lines of authority for management of nature reserves

There are overlapping and unclear lines of authority for the reserves. Lack of
coordination between different departments makes the issues difficult to resolve in
many regions.
Conflict between economic development and protection of nature reserves
At present, economic development is progressing very rapidly in India and capital
construction is going on throughout the country. Some engineering projects go on even
in the core areas of nature reserves. In other reserves or scenic spots, tourism is promoted
to help develop the local economy, and while tourism can assist conservation when it
is carried out properly, the prospects for quick profits may lead to abuses of the natural
systems and species which the reserves protect. In addition, there are strong economic
pressures to use the land, wildlife or other resources within the reserves for short term
profit, rather than maintaining them for the long term good of the country. In each of
these cases, the biological resources in the reserves are likely to come under serious threat.
Lack of operational budgets and low skill level of management
There is no fixed source of funding for nature reserves and financial support from
the Government is not adequate. The institutional framework for the reserves is incomplete
due to this shortage of funding. Of the existing reserves, more than one-third lacks
management structures.
The professional staff in the reserves is largely unqualified or untrained: A survey
shows that only 18 % of professional staff in the nature reserves have required academic
qualifications. Some nature reserves do not have any professional personnel. There is little
ecological monitoring or scientific research going on in many nature reserves, and most
nature reserves do not operate at their full effectiveness level.
Lack of incentive system for biodiversity conservation staff: No effective and
complete procedures have been formulated for rewarding outstanding performance of
biodiversity conservation duties. There is a strong need to develop a system of rewards
and incentives for improving performance and for superior achievement. Ways must be
found to make biodiversity careers inviting and rewarding, so that the best available
personnel will aspire to the profession. At the same time there is a need for administrative
or criminal punishments when law violations are perpetrated by staff.
S. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
Primitive tribes who still eke out their living as food gatherers by dwelling in remote
inaccessible forest areas far away from modern civilization possess quite good amount
of knowledge of plants for curative purposes. Their knowledge gives excellent clues for
modern drug development programme. Leads can be obtained through intensive field
surveys, herbarium studies, literature queries and studies of archaeological remains.
Collection, drying, storing, garbling, insect and pest treatments etc. of drugs are discussed
besides enumerating some of the important drugs developed recently by taking leads
from indigenous phytotherapy and folklore claims. To protect the rich genetic resources,
the author prefers 'Habitat Conservation' over in-situ and ex-situ preservations.
126 M. BRAHMAM
Interest in 'Ethno-Medicine' continues to be deep rooted with modern researchers.

Discussions at various forums during the last few years have clearly brought about a
consensus on the need for developing ethnobotany as a rewarding R. &. D. field. Even
the 'Rigveda', 'atharvaveda' and eight divisions of 'Ayurveda' the pioneer documents
which harbour a wealth of information on the curative aspects of plants have not been
thoroughly worked out in the light of modern instrumental facilities. Now the time has
come for scientific study of drugs taking leads from the experiences and experiments of
our ancesters for tropical diseases (Malaria, Tuberculosis, Filariasis, Hepatitis, Kala Azar,
etc.), Communicable diseases (Viral, Fungal, Bacterial etc.) and metabolic and degenerative
(Arthritis, Diabetes, Hypertension, Depression, Atherosclerosis, Memory degeneration,
Cancer, Allergins, Respiratory disorders, immuno-modulators, Gastric ulcers etc.).
Ecological degradation and biodiversity loss pose a serious threat to development.
In order to bring about sustainable resource conservation and management, it is essential
to adopt several different approaches for managing our forests and biodiversity. Apart
from this, halting the process of degradation and species loss requires specialized
solutions and an understanding of ecological processes. Protecting biodiversity does not
merely involve setting aside chunks of area as reserves. Instead, all the ecological processes
that have maintained the area's biodiversity- such as predation, pollination, parasitism,
seed dispersal, and herbivores, involving complex interactions between several species
of plants and animal needs to be ensured
Maintaining viable populations of species whether plant or animal, is a crucial
factor in biodiversity conservation and this requires the :.ppropriate conservation of
important ecosystems and habitats. Currently, the state's national parks and sanctuaries
are inadequate. A comprehensive survey conducted by the senior author recently showed
that the protected area network to cover the range of biological diversity is insufficient
and the percentage of the state's area under the protected area network, be enhanced.
This will provide a 'better distribution of protected areas with fewer gaps in protecting
the bio-geographic zones, biomes and species. Currently, the protected area network does
not adequately cover some important biomes and animal species of conservation significance.
Conservation strategies are urgently needed for the protection of species and ecosystems,
involving a mix of in-situ and ex-situ strategies.
9. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I express my deep sense of gratitude to Prof. B. K. Mishra, Director, Regional
Research Laboratory, Bhubaneswar, Orissa, India for his constant encouragement.
FURTHER READING
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Agarwal, V.s. & Saha, S. (1968) Unreported medicinal plants of India, J. Andhra Pradesh Acad.
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Altschul Siri Von Reis (1973) Drugs and Foods from Little Known Plants, Harvard Univ. Press,
Massachusetts.
Bhargava, N. (1981), Plants in folk life and folklore in Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Glimpses
of Indian Ethnobotany, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi, India, (Ed. S.K Jain)
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Bodding, P.O. (1925) Studies in Santal medicine and connected folklore-I. Santals and diseases.
Mem. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 10(1): 1-132.
Bodding, P.O. (1927) Studies in Santal medicine and connected folklore-II, Santal
medicine. Ibid. 9(2):33-426.
Elwin, V. (1943) Maria Murder and Suicide, Bombay (2nd ed.) 1950.
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Gupta, S.P. (1963) An appraisal of Chotanagpur tribal Pharmacopoea, Bull. Bihar Trib. Res. [nst.,
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Harshberger, J.W. (1896) The purpose of Ethnobotany. Bot. Gazette 31:146-154.
Jain, S.K. (1963a) Observations on the Ethnobotany of the tribals of Madhya Pradesh. Vanyajati
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Manilal, KS. (1981) Ethnobtany of the Rices of Malabar. In : Glimpses of Indian Ethnobotany.
Oxford & IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi, India.(Ed. S.K.Jain) pp.297-307.
Saxena, H.O., Brahmam, M. & Dutta, P.K. (1980) Ethnobotanical Studies in Orissa, Glimpses of
Indian Ethnobotany. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi, India. (Ed. S.KJain) pp.232-
244.
Schultes, RE. (1956) The strange narcotic snuffs of eastern Colombia: their source preparation
and effect on an American botanist. London News. 229: 520-521.
Schultes, RE. (1962) The role of ethnobotanist in the search for new medicinal plants, Lloydla.
25: 257-266.
Schultes, RE. (1963a) The widening panorama in medical botany. Rhodora65(762):97-120
Schultes, RE. (1963b) Plantae Colombianae XVI, Plants as oral contraceptives in N.W. Amazon.
Lloydia 26(2): 67-74.
Shah, N.e. & Joshi, M.e. (1971) An ethnobotanical study of the Kumaon region of India. Econ.
Bot. 25: 414-422.
128 M. BRAHMAM
Sharma, D.C. (1968-69) Vedomay Dravyagun Shastra, Guj. Ayurved Univ., Jamnagar,
India.
Singh, Balwant & Chunekar, K.c. (1972) Glossary of Vegetable Drugs in Brahttayii, Chowkhamba
Press, Varanasi.
Sithole, R.V (1976) Plants represented in ancient Indian sculpture, Geophy. 6(1): 15-20.
Tumor, N.C. & Bell, M.A.M. (1971), The ethnobotany of the Coast Salish Indians of Vancouver
Island. Ibid. 25: 63-104.
Vidal, J.E. (1959-62) Plantes utiles du Laos (Cryptogames)-I, J. Agric. Trap. Bot. Appl., (Paris) 6:
392-404; (Gymnosperms)-II, Ibid., 6:589-594; (Monocotyledones)- III, Ibid., 7: 417-440;
(Monocotyledones) IV, Ibid., 7:560-587; (Monocotyledones)-V, Ibid. 8: 356-385.
000
ETHNOTHERAPEUTIC LEADS FROM THE
TRIBALS OF ORISSA (INDIA) TO CONTROL
DIABETES MELLITUS
M. BRAHMAM
Chapter Outline
1. Introduction
2. Indigenous knowledge
3. Diabetes mellitus
4. Types of diabetes
5. Pancreas
6. Insulin
7. Oral antidiabetic drugs
8. Constraints in western medications
9. Ethnic leads
10. Tribal treatment using herbs
11. Tribal medications of Orissa State, India
12. In vitro and in vivo studies
13. Summary and Conclusions
14. Acknowledgements
15. Referellces
1. INTRODUCTION
The pre-historic men and women as they advanced towards civilisation in the
lap of time depended on plants and plant-based medicaments to combat various diseases.
The earliest reference to the use of plants for medication is found in the manuscript
of 'Eber Papyrus' written around 16th century B.C. (Biswas, 1956). Rig Veda and Atharva
Veda, the oldest Indian classical literature written around 2000 BC mentions the use
130 M. BRAHMAM
of plants like Cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum Presl.), Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.),
Sandalwood (Santalum album L.) etc. not only in religious ceremonies but also in medical
preparations (Bentley and Trimen, 1980). Why some plants produce secondary metabolites
for curative as well as offensive purposes has remained as an unsolved mystery although
certain roles like prevention of browsing of animals, as an insect repellent, enhancement
of disease resistance, aiding reproduction through increased pollination etc. have been
attributed for their manifestation.
In recent years, the herbal market all over the world is experiencing unprecedented
growth and the pharmaceutical industry is under constant pressure to discover, develop
and deliver chemicals and biological entities for the treatment of various diseases. People's
dependence on plants for various remedies in India is well apparent from the fact that
all the major systems of indigenous medications-Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha, Homeopathy,
Tibbi etc. are largely based on plants (Mehta, 1949; Swain, 1972). Tropical forest species
have been fulfilling the medical needs of the indigenous people for millennia and in fact
over 120 pharmaceutical products currently in use are plant derived and more than 75
% of them were discovered by obtaining clues from the tribal remedies. The best example
is Salix alba L. which finds a prominent place in the medical history as it forms the
botanical 'parent' of aspirin. The natives were using the bark of this plant to treat
inflammation, pain and fever for centuries. In the 18th century, the information was
formally documented with the Royal Chemical Society, and Clinical administration of
extracts on people having fever soon followed. Towards the end of 19th century,
developments in the German Chemical industry led to the chemical and synthetic
strategies for making today's aspirin based on the chemical found in the bark. Bayer
Chemical Company was first to commercialise a synthetic drug based on a herbal remedy
and this has become the largest selling drug of all time (Barton and Ollis, 1986).
2. INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE
Ancient ethnic communities around the world had learnt to utilise their
neighbourhood herbal wealth for curative as well as offensive purposes. Due to lack of
literacy, their knowledge of plants developed often at the cost of their dear life through
centuries old experience could not be perfectly documented and it had rather descended
from one generation to another as a domestic cultural heritage. As the ethnic groups
migrated from place to place in search of their livelihood, their folklore knowledge also
got fragmented and travelled with them of course with 'additions and deletions'. Their
findings in course of time have become basic leads for chemical, pharmacological, clinical
and biochemical investigations that ultimately gave birth to drug discovery. The approach
to new drug discovery involves a collection of data with primary emphasis on the use
of plants by the aboriginals for medicinal purposes. This approach integrates a philosophy
of looking plant leads that had already been proved effective in tribal societies where
experiments were done on human beings directly (Farnsworth, 1990). This in short goes
under 'Ethnotherapy'.
Virtually it is a new field of research with unlimited potentiality and if investigated
thoroughly is going to yield results of immense value for human and animal welfare. All
traditional medical practices prevalent in various parts of the world had their roots in
ETHNOTHERAPEUTIC LEADS FROM THE TRIBALS OF ORISSA 131
one way or other in tribal societies. Though several approaches to unravel the intricacies
of ethnobotanical practices are envisaged, field recording of plant uses directly from the
ethnic people and tribal healers has priority and most reliable. Scanning of field notes
on the old Herbarium sheets and Museum specimens, critical observations and interpretation
of the Archaeological sculptures of antiquity, data retrieval from ancient literatures etc.
are the other roots which have been found to be very effective and followed throughout
the world with reasonable success.
3. DIABETES MELLITUS
Of the various ailments, diabetes (Diabetes mellitus) is attracting the global attention
as more than 120 million people suffer from this malady worldwide. It is a chronic
endocrinologic disorder characterized by high blood levels of glucose due to insufficient
secretion of insulin by the pancreas or improper utilization of insulin by target cells.
Glucose comes from the food that we eat and also made in liver and muscles. Blood carries
glucose to all the cells of the body with the help of a hormone 'Insulin' produced in the
pancreas. If the body doesn't make enough insulin or insulin becomes non-functional,
glucose can't get into body cells with the result it stays in the blood and blood glucose
level thus goes high causing diabetes. On the surface of the cells in our body are insulin
receptors, which act like little doors that open and close to regulate the inflow of blood
sugar. After many years of consuming a high-carbohydrate diet, the cells become
bombarded with so much insulin that these doors begin to malfunction and shut down.
With less doors opening, the body produces more insulin to push the glucose into the
cells. More insulin causes even more doors to close and as this vicious cycle continues,
a condition called 'insulin resistance' sets in. When the body can no longer produce
enough insulin to push the blood sugar into the cells, type 2 diabetes results. Our energy,
wellness and longevity are primarily dependent on improving the sensitivity of our cells
to insulin i.e. how well the cells open and close the doors and clear sugar from the blood.
Common signs of diabetes are: a). Frequent urination, b). Increased thirst, c). Extreme
hunger, d). Unusual weight loss, e). Extreme fatigue, h). Cuts and bruises healing slowly,
f). Irritability, g). Blurred vision, i).Tingling or numbness in the feet, j). Dry and itchy skin
etc.
4. TYPES OF DIABETES
Though three major forms of diabetes (Diabetes innocens, D. insipidus and D. mellitus)
are recognised, D. mellitus is the most common form caused due to deficiency or diminished
effectiveness of insulin. It can be handled by exogenous supply of insulin freely available
in semi-synthetic form. Modern research recognises 2 types of diabetes - Type I insulin-
dependent Diabetes Mellitus (IDDM) and Type II non-insulin-dependent Diabetes Mellitus
(NIDDM). Another form commonly known as 'gestational diabetes' is also frequently
noticed in pregnant women. Failure to control diabetes leads to a). Renal complications
involving kidney failure, b).Ocular disorders of diabetic retinopathy, c). Atherosclerosis
d). Mucomycosis etc.
Type I diabetes (IDDM)
This is formerly called juvenile diabetes or onset diabetes. In this case, the beta cells
132 M. BRAHMAM
of the Pancreas do not produce insulin because they are being attacked and destroyed
by the body's immune system. Treatment in this case includes taking insulin shots, aspirin
daily, controlling B.P. and cholesterol and exercise daily. Only 10 % of the total diabetics
come under this category.
Type II diabetes (NIDDM)
This is the most common form of diabetes that enters the later part of the life
and 90 % of diabetics suffer from this. This is formerly called adult-onset diabetes or
non-insulin dependent diabetes. Here, the pancreas does not produce enough insulin
to meet the body's needs and the fat, muscle or liver cells do not use it properly.
Overweight increases the chances of developing this type. Treatment includes using
diabetes medicines, exercise daily, taking aspirin, controlling B.P. and cholesterol.
Gestational diabetes: This is seen in some women during pregnancy caused due
to the hormones of pregnancy or shortage of insulin. It usually disappears after the
delivery. Statistics reveal that the women who have had this during pregnancy are at
a high risk of developing Type II diabetes later in life.
S. PANCREAS
Among the different organs of human body, pancreas occupies a premier position
because it regulates blood sugar levels by means of two hormones - insulin and glucagon.
The pancreas is an elongated organ nestled next to the first part of the small intestine.
It makes enzymes necessary to digest food in the intestines and produces insulin to enable
every part of the body to use glucose. Pancreas has 2 different tissues - an exocrine and
an endocrine. The bulk of the pancreas is composed of exocrine tissue and their secretions
are delivered into duodenum. The secretions include different types of digestive enzymes
that facilitate digestion of foodstuffs consisting of carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
Groups of glands in the pancreas, called acini make about 30 different enzymes each
of which is responsible for breaking down clumps of different types of food into smaller
particles for absorption. These enzymes from the small glands of the pancreas are
collected into small ducts and finally into the main pancreatic duct to be released into
the duodenum. The enzymes when they are first made in the acini are not active
otherwise they would digest the pancreas as well. When they pass into the duodenum,
they are made active by the juice of the duodenum. The main enzymes are called amylase
for digesting carbohydrates, trypsin for digesting proteins and lipase for digesting fats.
All the cells of the body use glucose as a source of energy in order to maintain their
different functions. Sugar comes directly from digestion or is made in the liver from
concentrated forms of sugar (glycogen). The level of sugar in the blood is kept constant
by spt:!cial control mechanisms involving hormones.
Embedded within the pancreatic exocrine tissue are the Islets of Langerhans that
are known under the name of endocrine component of the pancreas. Islets containing
several cell types produce the hormones insulin and glucagon. Insulin is a hormone that
unlocks a special door' in the cells of the body to allow glucose to pass in to the cells.
I
If insulin is lacking, then diabetes sets in. Instead of entering the cells of the body, the
sugar stays in the blood, which is very harmful at high concentrations. Enzyme
production and insulin production are independent. Because digestive enzymes and
insulin are made by different parts of the pancreas, a problem with enzyme production
does not mean necessarily that there will be a problem with insulin production. Similarly,
if there is a problem with insulin production, this does not mean necessarily that there
will be a problem with enzyme production.
6. INSULIN
Insulin is the master hormone of our metabolism. It is rather a small natural protein
with a molecular weight of about 6000 Daltons made by the pancreas to help the body
metabolise sugar. It is composed of 2 chains A and B, held together by 2 disulfide bonds.
In most species, the A chain consists of 21 and B chain 30 amino acids. Insulin is
synthesized in significant quantities only in Beta cells of Pancreas. Insulin facilitates entry
of glucose into muscle, adipose and several other tissues. It also stimulates liver to store
glucose in the form of glycogen. Insulin promotes synthesis of fatty acids in the liver.
When it is out of balance, deadly complications like i).Heart diseases, ii).Hardening of
the arteries, iii).Damage to artery walls, iv).lncreased cholesterol levels, v).Vitamin and
mineral deficiencies, vi).Kidney disease, vii).Fat burning mechanism turned off, viii).
Accumulation and storage of fat, ix). Weight gain, etc. are created. Synthetic or animal
insulin is injected to treat diabetic patients whose pancreases do not make enough insulin.
Glucagon
Glucagon is a linear peptide of 29 amino acids playing a major role in maintaining
normal concentrations of glucose in blood. This is often described as having the opposite
effect of insulin because it increases blood glucose levels.
Laboratory Values
The ideal blood glucose level is 70-100 mg/dL fasting, 70-100 mg/dL preprandial,
<160 mg/ dL postprandial (1 hour) and >65 mg/ dL at 3.00 am. An acceptable blood
glucose level is 60-130 mg/ dL fasting, 60-130 mg/ dL preprandial, <200 mg/ dL post-
prandial (1 hour) and >65 mg/ dL at 3.00 am. Levels above the acceptable range are
considered high, and require treatment.
7. ORAL ANTIDIABETIC DRUGS
Oral antidiabetic drugs are commonly used to treat Type II, NIDDM patients. There are
three types of oral antidiabetic drugs: sulfonylureas, biguanides, and glucosidase inhibitors,
each with its unique functions and side effects.
(a) Sulfonylureas (tolbutamide, chlorpropamide, glyburide and glipizide) are the
most common oral antidiabetic drugs. These drugs lower blood glucose levels by
still1ulating the pancreas to release insulin. Patients with Type I, IDDM, do not respond
to sulfonylureas because their pancreas is not capable of producing insulin regardless
of drug stimulation. Despite their effectiveness, sulfonylureas have unwanted side-effects
and toxicity, including nausea, vomiting, hematological and dermatological reactions,
obstructive jaundice, hyponatremia, and intolerance of alcohol.
(b) Biguanides (Metformin) lower blood glucose levels by increasing the uptake and
utilization of glucose by muscle cells. They also reduce glucose production by the liver.
134 M. BRAHMAM
Biguanides are only effective in patients with Type II, NIDDM, because their ability
to function requires the presence of insulin. Common side effects of biguanides include
nausea, vomiting, epigastric distress and diarrhea. There are also risks of developing lactic
acidosis and hepatic disease.
(c) Glucosidase (Acarbose) inhibitors reduce the peak of blood glucose levels
following a meal by delaying and inhibiting the absorption of carbohydrates. Glucosidase
inhibitors work on both Type I, IDDM, and Type II, NIDDM, as the inhibitors' effectiveness
is not dependent on the function of the pancreas. The major side effects are gastrointestinal,
including nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain and cramps.
8. CONSTRAINTS IN WESTERN MEDICATIONS
Though several attempts are made in allopathic system, not much seems to have
been successful with respect to diabetes. But plant derived drugs and formulations have
been claimed to control diabetes in many countries since times immemoriaL The
NAPRALERT (Natural Products ALERT) database generated by scanning nearly 1,50,000
scientific research articles include more than 1200 species belonging to 725 genera
distributed over 183 families from marine algae to higher plants as having antidiabetic
activity. Over half of them have been used ethnopharmacologically in traditional medicines
and nearly 50 % of these traditional remedies have been studied experimentally. Assay
methods used to screen plants for hypoglycemic activity are varied and not directly
comparable. In vivo techniques include animals with normoglycemia or induced
hyperglycemia (alloxan, streptozotocin) as well as diabetic human subjects. Nearly 400
herbal-based medicaments are in vogue in classified and unclassified systems throughout
the globe for diabetes mellitus, but only a few of them have been pursued to assess their
efficacy scientifically using the modern techniques.
9. ETHNIC LEADS
The primitive tribal practice is a fascinating area of research with more promise
for modern drug development programme. The plant kingdom undoubtedly still holds
many species with various virtues, which deserve serious attention and constant screening
for their possible better utilisation. As a result of sophisticated isolation and pharmacological
testing procedures, many new drugs of plant origin have found their way into the modern
medical world as purified substances rather than crude galenical preparations of ester
years. Some of the species clinically pursued for the drug development programme in the
recent past by obtaining clues from tribal claims for antidiabetic activity are: Allium cepa
L. (Onion), Allium sativum (Garlic), Anacardium occidentale L. (Cashew leaves), Catharanthus
roseus (L.) G.Don (Periwinkle leaves), Clerodendron phlomidis Lf, Cuminum cyminu1ll L.
(Cumin seed), Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) Schult. (Gymnema leaves), Momordica c11aran~ia L.
(Bitter guard fruit), Opuntia spp. (Prickly Pear), Phaseolus vulgaris L. (Kidney bean, immature
pods), Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. (Piasal, heart wood), Taraxacum officinale Wigg.
(Dandelion plant), Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers (Guduchi), Trigonella foenum-graecum
L. (Fenugreek), Apium graveolens L. (Celery seed), CenteUa asiatica (L.) Urb. (Brahmi, Talkudi),
Cucumis sativus L. (Cucumber fruit), Spinacea oleracea L. (Spinach leaves), Syzygium cumini
(L.) Skeels Gamun seeds), Triticum sativum Lam. (Wheat leaves), Turnera diffusa (Damiana
leaves), Urtica dioica L. (Stinging nettle plant), Zea mays L. (Corn silk) and, to a lesser
degree, assorted foods such as Brassica oleracea L. (Cabbage), Cyamopsis tetragonolobus
(L.) Taub. (Guar) etc.
10. TRIBAL TREATMENT USING HERBS
Tribal prescriptions are very effective in treating patients with Type II, NIDDM.
When administered correctly they lower blood glucose levels, manage common signs
and symptoms, and treat the complications. Patients generally respond to herbal
treatment within 3-4 weeks, with significant reduction in blood glucose levels and little
fluctuation throughout the day. However, some patients may require 6-8 weeks. Their
treatments can also reduce the frequency and dosage of insulin injections.
11. TRIBAL MEDICATIONS OF ORISSA STATE, INDIA
Orissa is one of the heavily forested states of India with nearly 1/4 of its total
population belonging to 62 different Tribes. Out of these, 18 can be classified as most
primitive by all standards as they still eke out living as 'food gatherers'. In the absence
of any modern medical facility in their remote areas, they depend on plants for their
various ailments including diabetes. Their preparations and prescriptions were either
single herbs or mixtures of 3 to 4 herbs. In the present study, several tribal hamlets
were surveyed and interacted with herbal healers. Data is generated by interviewing
the diabetic patients, who underwent treatment and also from the therapeutic records
maintained by the herbal Healers. From the results (Table-I.) it has been found that
the individual plants are less effective when compared to compound formulations which
may be due to synergic effect.
Appreciable results were obtained with Gymnema sylvestre + Momordica charantia
+ Trigonella foenum-graecum + Tinospora cordifolia combination. Nearly 80 % of the patients
were cured. 60 % of diabetics regained their health when they were administered with
Pterocarpus marsupium + Andrographis paniculata + Rauvolffia serpentina. A combination
of Syzygium cumini+ Musa paradisiaca + Anacardium occidentale gave 50 % of results and
the rest showed less than 50 % of results. In all cases, mixtures were preparecl by
combining the plants and plant products in equal quantities. Sexual urge (G) could not
be ascertained as the patients refused to divulge.
TABLE 1
Plants showing symptoms
S. Symptoms A B C D E F G H I Average
No.
1. Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) Schult. 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50
2. Momordica charantia L. 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40
3. Trigonella foenum-graecum L. 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
4. Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
5. G.sylvestre + M.charantia + 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80
T. foenum-graecum + T. cordifolia
Contd ...
136 M. BRAHMAM
Contd ...
S. Symptoms A B c D E F G H I Average
No.
6. Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40
7. Andrographis paniculata Nees. 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
B. Rauvolfia serpentina Benth. 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
9. P. marsupium + A. paniculata + 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60
R. serpentina
10. Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels. 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40
11. Musa ornata Roxb. 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
12. Anacardium occidentale L. 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
13. S. cumini+ M. ornata + A. occidentale 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50
14. Coccinia grandis (L.) Voight. 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40
15. Lagerstroemia flos-reginae Retz. 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35
16. Azadirachta indica A. Juss. 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
17. C. grandis+ 1. reginae+ A. indica 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45
lB. Aloe vera L. 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
19. Adiantum capillus-veneris L. 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
20. Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15
21. A. capillus-veneris+ A. vera + 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
A. marmelos
22. Tribulus terrestris L. 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
23. Strychnos nuxvomica L. 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
24. Plumbago zeylanica L. 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
25. T. terrestris+ S. nuxvomica + 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
P. ~eylanica
A - Excessive urine with pressing urge, B - Excessive thirst, C - Excessive hunger, D - Weight
loss, E - Itching on skin, F-Physical and mental fatigue, G - Decrease in sexual urge, H - Spasmodic
pain in calf muscles, I - Slow or no healing of wounds.
The search for a cure for diabetes mellitus continues along traditional and
alternative medicine fronts. Though many herbs are used for the treatment of diabetes,
a few showed positive results supporting their effectiveness. In order to capture
the active principles, modern scientists identify, isolate, extract and synthesize individual
compounds rather than using the whole herb. Often this has yielded fruitless
results because apart from active ingredients, plants contain minerals, vitamins, volatile
oils, glycosides, alkaloids, flavonoids and a host of other substances that play a vital
role in supporting their medicinal properties. At times, these elements provide an
important natural safeguard whereas isolated or synthesized active compounds lose this
character. The curative power, as per the leading native practitioners lies in the
interaction of all its ingredients - synergistic interaction between the known and the
unknown. A summary of natural products used in the treatment of diabetes is given

in Table 2.
TABLE 2
Species used by the tribals of Orissa for Diabetes mellitus
S. Species Family Local name Part Tribes

No. used practicing
1. Adiantum capillus-veneris L. Adiantaceae Dodhari Rhizome Bhumij,
Khadia, Ho
2. Aegle mannelos (L.) Corr. Rutaceae Baelo Root Kondha
3. Allium sativum L. Amaryllidaceae Lasuno Bulblets Juang, Kondha,
Bathudi,
4. Aloe vera L. Liliaceae Gheekum-hari Leaf juice Saora, Porja,
Santhal
5. Anacardium occidentale L. Sapindaceae Kaju Leaf Santhal,
Saora, POrja,
6. Andrographis paniculata AcanthCfceae Bhuinim Root Shabar,Koya,
Nees. Pradhan
7. Azadirachta indica A.Juss. Meliaceae Nimbo Root Bathudi,
Bark Kondha, Juang
8. Bidens pilosa L. Asteraceae Magha latenga Root Bhumij, Ho,
Khadia
9. Catha ran thus roseus (L.) Apocynaceae Sadabihari Root Santhal,
G.Don Saora, .Porja
10. Citrullus colocynthis L. Cucurbitaceae Kharbuza Seeds Saora, Kondha,
Schrad Mankidias
11 Clerodendrum phlomidis Lf Verbenaceae Donkari Root Kondha, Bhuyan
12. Coccinia grandis (L.) Voight. Cucurbitaceae Kunduri Root Santhal,
tubers Porja, Saora
13. Curcuma longa L. Zingiberaceae Holadi Rhizome Ho, Kondha
14. Cyamopsis tetragonolobus Fabaceae Guar Seed Kondha, Saora,
(L.) Taub. Santhal, Gond
15. Ficus racemosa L. Moraceae Dimiri Bark Khadia, Saora
16. Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) Asclepiadaceae Gudumari Leaf Bathudi, Kondha,
Schult. uang
17. Hygrophila auriculata Acanthaceae Koilekha Root Kondha, Juang,
(Schum.) Heine Bathudi,
18. Lagerstroemia flos-reginae Lythraceae Patoli Bark Gond, Gadaba
19. Momordica charantia L. Cucurbitaceae Kolera Fruits Bhuyan,Bonda,
Mankdias
Contd ...
138 M. BRAHMAM
... Contd.
s. Species Family Local name Part Tribes

No. used practicing
20. Musa ornata Roxb. Musaceae Bano Kodali Flower Kondha, Juang,
buds Bathudi
21. Ocimum sanctum L. Lamiaceae Tulasi Leaf Bhuyan,Shabar
22. Opuntia stricta var. dillenii Cactaceae Nagpheni Phyllode Mankdias,

(Ker.-Gawl.) Benson Bhuyan, Bonda
Haworth
23. Phyllanthus emblica L. Euphorbiaceae Amla fruit
24. P. fraternus Webster Euphorbiaceae Bhuiamla Whole Gadaba, Gond
herb
25. Plumbago zeylanica L. Plumbaginaceae Dhola- Root Saora, Porja
chithaparu
26. Pterocarpus marsupium Fabaceae Piasal, Bija Heart Koya, Shabar
Roxb. wood Pradhan,
27. Rauvolfia serpentina Benth. Apocynaceae Patala- Root Kondha
garuda
28. Scoparia dulcis L. Scrophulariaceae Chirarita Root Shabar, Koya
Pradhan
29. Securinega virosa (Roxb. Euphorbiaceae Janjingi Fruit Saora, Porja,
ex Willd.) Baill. Santhal
30. Strychnos potatorum L. Strychnaceae Nirmali Bark Kondha
31. Syzygium cumini (L.) Myrtaceae Jamun Seed Saora, Porja,
Skeels. Santhal
32. Tecoma stans (L.) H.B. & K. Bignoniaceae Holadi- Leaf Bhuyan,Bonda
gotla Mankdias
33. Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Menispermaceae Guduchi Root Juang, Bathudi,
Miers. Kondha
34. Tribulus terrestris L. Zygophyllaceae Gokhuro root Gadaba,Gond,
35. Trigonella foenum-graecum L. Fabaceae Methi Seed Khadia, Bhumij,
Ho,
12. IN VITRO AND IN VIVO STUDIES

Due to lack of simple and quick in vivo test models to determine antidiabetic
activity, several traditional plants remained unscreened for diabetes. However, a few
promising species like Gymnema sylvestre, Momordica charantia, Aloe vera, Trigonella foenum-
graecum, Cyamopsis tetragonolobus, Andographis paniculata. Tinospora cordifolia Pterocarpus
marsupium, Rauvolffia serpentina, Syzygium cumini, Musa paradisiaca Anacardium occidentale
etc. were tested using rabbit, rodent, duck and monkey models and found positive
against diabetes (Abdel-Barry et al. 1997,2000; Abdo 1969; Gupta et al. 1999; Han et
al. 2001; Madar et al.1988; Okabayashi et al.1990; Raju et al.2001; Ribes et al. 1986; Vats
et al. 2002; Zia et al.2001).
CHOICE-I: Gymnema sylvestre + Momordica charantia + Trigonelle foenum-
graecum + Tinospora cordifolia combination
Gymnema sylvestre
Much repeated studies have indicated that Gymnema sylvestre can enhance blood
sugar stability, increase the activity of glucose-regulating enzymes and possibly reverse
the degenerative changes due to diabetes. Experimental results with rabbits have shown
that Gymnema can stimulate the regeneration of the insulin-producing Islets of Langerhans
as well as correct the metabolic derangements in liver, kidney and muscle tissues
(Shanmugasundaram et al.1990, 1990). The reputation of Gymnema sylvestre has grown
steadily over the lat two decades based on traditional usage and modern research. Its
ability to enhance endogenous regulation of blood glucose levels, together with its effects
on the action of pharmaceutical insulin, make it a valuable tool in stabilizing diabetic
degeneration and eventually reducing dependence on insulin. The native practitioners
prescribe 3-4 fresh leaves daily for 90 days if administered alone or add 2 leaves in the
mixtures per dose lasting 90 days.
Momordica charantia
Several studies have proved that Momordica charantia exerts a hypoglycaemic effect.
The fruit juice significantly improved the glucose tolerance in 73 % of patients but failed
to respond in 27 % of patients (Welihinda et al.1982, 1986). Since improvement in glucose
tolerance was not associated with increase in serum insulin, Bitter guard can be believed
to improve glucose tolerance in diabetes. Its extract when orally administered lowered
glucose concentrations independently of intestinal glucose absorption thereby indicating
an extra-pancreatic effect. Experiments indicate that molecules having insulin-like bioactivity
are present in Momordica (Leatherdale et al.1981, Day et al.1990).
Trigonella foenum-graecum
Numerous studies were conducted to examine the role of fenugreek seeds for insulin-
dependent diabetes (Type-I). In one of the studies, blood glucose levels improved
significantly when the regular insulin therapy was supplemented with 50 grams, twice
daily, of defatted fenugreek seeds for ten days (Sharma et al. 1990). The fenugreek diet
significantly reduced fasting blood sugar and improved the glucose tolerance test. Further,
this integrative therapy resulted in an improved serum lipid profile with serum total
cholesterol, LDL and VLDL cholesterol and triglycerides got significantly reduced (Khosla
et al. 1995). No indications of adverse interactions were noticed.
Tinospora cordifoUa
Tinospora cordifolia, an Indian plant used in Ayurvedic medicine was studied for
its antioxidant properties in alloxan diabetic rats (Gupta et al. 1967; Noreen et al.1992).
Oral administration of aqueous T. cordifolia root extract (TCREt) for 6 weeks (2.5 and
5.0 gjkg) resulted in a decrease in the levels of plasma thiobarbituric acid reactive
substances, ceruloplasmin and alpha-tocopherol in alloxan diabetic rats. The root extract
was also found to cause an increase in the levels of glutathione and vitamin C in alloxan
140 M. BRAHMAM
diabetes. The root extract at a dose of 5.0 g/kg showed the highest effect. The effect
of TCREt was more effective than glibenclamide. Insulin restored all the parameters
to near normal levels (Prince and Menon, 1999)
CHOICE-2: Pterocarpus marsupium + Andrographis paniculata + Rauvolffia serpentina
Pterocarpus marsupium
Pterocarpus marsupium demonstrates some very unique features, which include beta
cell protective and regenerative properties as well as blood glucose lowering activity.
These effects have been reproduced in numerous animal and human trials for over half
a century. Animals were made diabetic by the use of selected toxins and then given
various extracts of Pterocarpus marsupium. In all of these studies Pterocarpus marsupium
was able to reverse the damage to the beta cells and actually repopulate the islets. This
also caused the almost complete restoration of normal insulin secretion. Almost all of
those that did not receive any type of treatment remained severely hyperglycemic or
did not survive during the testing period. One study even demonstrated that Pterocarpus
marsupium may also lower blood lipid levels. The uses of an extract produced a
reduction in serum triglycerides, total cholesterol and, low density lipoproteins (LDL)
and very low density lipoproteins (VLDL).
Andrographis paniculata
Ethanolic extract of the aerial parts of Andrographis paniculata was studied for
antihyperglycaemic effects in normal and streptozotocin-induced type I diabetic rats.
Normal and diabetic rats were randomly divided into groups and treated orally by
gavage with vehicle (distilled water), metformin (500 mg/kg bodyweight) or the extract
(400 mg/kg bodyweight), twice a day for 14 days. At the end of the 14 day period,
the extract, like metformin, significantly increased bodyweight and reduced fasting
serum glucose in diabetic rats when compared with vehicle, but had no effect on
bodyweight and serum glucose in normal rats. Levels of liver and kidney thiobarbituric
acid- reactive substances (TBARS) were significantly increased while liver glutathione
(GSH) concentrations were significantly decreased in vehicle-treated diabetic rats. Liver
and kidney TBARS levels were significantly lower whereas liver GSH concentrations
were significantly in extract- and metformin-treated diabetic rats compared with vehicle-
treated diabetic rats. A. paniculata not only possesses an antihyperglycaemic property,
but may also reduce oxidative stress in diabetic rats.
Rauvolffia serpentina
Reserpine, an alkaloid from Rauwolfia serpentina, was widely used for its
antihypertensive action. However, its use has been reduced because of its sedative and
extra pyramidal symptoms. In the present investigation, reserpine methiodide (RMI),
a quaternary analogue of reserpine, was synthesized and pharmacologically evaluated
in rats and mice for its central (barbiturate hypnosis, spontaneous motor activity, body
temperature, and avoidance of conditioned response) and peripheral actions (blood
pressure) in comparison with reserpine. The results indicate that reserpine produced
a dose-dependent depression of the central nervous system. RMI at doses equal to and
double the equimolar doses of reserpine did not produce any behavioural changes
compared with control animals. Nevertheless, both reserpine and RMI were found to
produce dose-dependent reduction in the blood pressure of anaesthetized rats, although
only at higher doses of RMI, indicating that quaternization of reserpine not only
attenuated the entry of RMI into the central nervous system, but also reduced its access
to the target tissue in the periphery. It is speculated that the hypotensive actions of
RMI may also be due to peripheral depletion of catecholamines.
CHOICE-3: Syzygium cumini+ Musa ornata + Anacardium occidentale
Syzygium cumitti
The seeds and the bark are used in tropical medicine. Extracts of both, but
especially the seeds, in liquid or powdered form, are freely given orally, 2 to 3 times
a day, to patients with diabetes mellitus or glycosuiria. In many cases, the blood sugar
level reportedly is quickly reduced and there are no ill effects. However, in some
quarters, the hypoglycemic value of Jambolana extracts is disclaimed. Mercier, in 1940,
found that the aqueous extract of the seeds, injected into dogs, lowered the blood sugar
for long periods, but did not do so when given orally. Reduction of blood sugar was
obtained in alloxan diabetes in rabbits. In experiments at Central Drug Research Institute,
Lucknow, India, the dried alcoholic extracts of seeds, were found to reduce blood sugar
and glycosuria in patients if given orally. The seed extract was found to lower blood
pressure by 34.6% and this action is attributed to the presence of ellagic acid.
Musa ornata
Cespitose, rhizomatous, tree-like herb with 3 m high, 1 m dia. pseudostems, pale
green and waxy, developing black blotches; leaves to 2 m long, 35 cm wide, medium
green and slightly glaucous, often red-flushed on midrib beneath. Inflorescence erect,
glabrous. Bracts more or less grooved, somewhat glaucous, pale pink, tipped with yellow,
darker within, usually only one lifted at a time. Fruit 6-8 cm long, 2 cm diameter, pale
greenish-yellow with white pulp. Seeds warty, black, angular-depressed, 6 mm wide
and 3 mm thick. The umipe fruit is rich in starch, which on ripening turns into sugar.
The corm and its roots are anthelmintic and used to reduce bronchocele.
Attacardium occidetttale
Stem-bark extract was studied for hypoglycaemic effect. Diabetes mellitus was
induced in the test rats by intraperitoneal injections of streptozotocin (STZ, 90 mg/kg).
In one set of experiments, graded doses of the aqueous and methanolic stem-bark
extracts (100-800 mg/kg) were separately administered to groups of fasted normal and
fasted diabetic rats. The hypoglycemic effects of single doses (800 mg/kg) of stem-bark
aqueous and methanolic extracts were compared with those of insulin (5 microU /kg)
and glibenclamide (0.2 mg/kg) in both fasted normal and fasted diabetic rats. Following
acute treatment, relatively moderate-to-high doses of A. occidentale stem-bark extracts
(100-800 mg/kg) produced dose-dependent, significant reductions in the blood glucose
concentrations of both fasted normal and fasted diabetic rats. On their own, both insulin
(5 microU/kg) and glibenclamide (0.2 mg/kg) produced significant reductions in the
blood glucose concentrations of the fasted normal and fasted diabetic rats.
142 M. BRAHMAM
13. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIOl'lS

Many plants and their constituents have become chief ingredients of a number
of pharmaceutical preparations used against diabetes mellitus and more than 75 % of
the leads are obtained from ethno-phytot h e rapy. A survey was undertaken in the
hilly tracts of Orissa, India to identify the common plants used in folk medicine. Out
of 313 patients (185 males and 128 females) interviewed, 211 (67.5%) use plants regularly.
Among the 35 species employed for diabetes, seven (Gymnema sylvestre, Momordica
c1U1rantia, Trigonelle foenum-graecum, Tinospora cordifolia, Pterocarpus marsupium, Andrographis
paniculata and Rauvolffia serpentina) are most frequently used. Multi-plant preparations
gave 80 % results, whereas single plant administration gave less than 50 % results.
Plants and their constituents have become chief ingredients of a number of
pharmaceutical preparations used for a variety of diseases and more than 75 % of the
leads have come from ethnophytotherapy. The available data suggest that the multi-plant
therapy is more effective than single herb treatment. There is still insufficient evidence
to draw definitive conclusions about the efficacy of these combinations and they appear
to be generally safe for diabetes. Though, a few plants have shown hypoglycaemic activity
in animal models and positive signs in non-insulin-dependent diabetic patients, a
botanical substitute for insulin is yet to be evolved. Many herbal supplements have been
used for the treatment of diabetes but not all of them have scientific evidence to support
their effectiveness (Marles and Farnsworth 1996; WHO 1985).
14. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author expresses his gratitude to the tribal communities of Orissa for freely
divulging their medicinal knowledge acquired through centuries old experience and Prof.
B. K. Mishra, Director, Regional Research Laboratory, Bhubaneswar for his constant
encouragement. Thanks are also due to the Forest Department, Govt. of Orissa for their
field assistance.
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000
IN VITRO REGENERATION, PHYTOCHEMICAL
SCREENING, ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY AND
HYPOGLYCEMIC EFFECT .OF OCIMUM SANCTUM L.
N. CHANDRAKALA, E. JENNIFER RANI, M. PRABAKARAN
AND M. AYYAVOO
Chapter Outline
1. Introduction
2. Materials and methods
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Summary
6. References
1. INTRODUCTION
The beginning of scientific literature on herbs, spices and medicinal plants can
be linked to the very earliest of writings. Modern research on herbs, spices and medicinal
plants has expanded to study a wide variety of topical areas connected to the botany
horticulture and pharmacology of these plants. Studies on herbs, spices and medicinal
plants are being conducted on a global basis in many countries contributing to the
scientific literature on these plants. Yet, a close examination of the literature indicates
the amount of research on most herbs, spices and medicinal plants remains quite limited.
The number of reported research articles from 1971 through 1980 averaged approximately
750/yr for 64 plant categories or only about 12 articles for each plant each year,
influencing the demand and need for scientific studies. Unfortunately, the large number
of countries doing research on herbs, spices and medicinal plants has resulted in a wide
variety of research reports scattered in numerous journals and reports making a
comprehensive bibliographic review and an accurate count of scientific publications on
specific herbs difficult. India, where more than 1500 different plants have been reported
to possess medicinal properties, the majority of the plants used for commercial or
traditional medicinal purposes are still gathered from the wild and have not yet even been
chemically analyzed for biologically active substances. However, the introduction of
146 N. CHANDRAKALA, E. JENNIFER RANI, M. PRABAKARAN AND M. AYYAVOO
aromatic and medicinal plants into cultivation appears to be the increasing importance.
The expanding economic value of these plants to the food and pharmaceutical industries,
the lack of labour and mechanized production systems for collection and harvest in native
habitats, and an acknowledgement of the need to preserve plant genetic resources at a
time of increasing destruction of natural ecosystems have made the introduction of wild
species into cultivation a necessity to ensure a continued supply of plants and plant
products (Franz, 1986; Crakes et al., 1986). Successful domestication of wild medicinal
plant species implies an improvement in the quality of the raw crude plant extract,
enabling standardization of the content of active ingredients, and homogenous plant
populations necessary for modem production, processing and utilization.
O. sanctum L.
Tulasi, Holy basil or sacred basil is very common, often abundant near cultivated
fields and on waste lands in the plains and lower hills in most parts of India. It is
also found in Sri Lanka, Java, Western Asia and tropical Africa. It is an erect much
branched, strongly aromatic softly hairy, annual herb, generally up to 60 cm, high, stems
and branches usually purplish, sub quadrangular. Leaves are elliptic, oblong 2-5 cm
long and 1-3 cm wide apex obtuse or acute margins entire or serrate softly pubescent
on both sides, minutely gland dotted, petioles 1.3-2.5 cm long, slender hairy. Flowers
are small purplish or crimson, borne in close whorled racemes, 15-20 cm long bracts
to 3 mm long and almost wide broadly orate, ciliate, pedicels longer than flowering
early calyx purplish, 3-4 mm long in flower to 5 mm in fruit, 2 lipped pubescent upper
lip orbicular reflexed lower lip 4-lobed, corolla 4 mm long 2-lipped, upper lip pubescent
on the back. Fruit is minute subglobose or broadly ellipsoid, slightly compressed, dry
nut let enclosed in the enlarged membranous calyx, nearly smooth, pale brown or
reddish with small black markings, mucilaginous when wet. The plant is held sacred
by Hindus and is grown in pots on pedestals at homes and near temples throughout
India. In Ayurveda the leaves, flowers and occasionally the whole plants are used
medicinally in treatment of heart and blood diseases, leucoderma, strangury, asthma,
bronchitis, lumbago and purulent discharge of the ear. The leaf juice possesses
diaphoretic, antiperiodic, stimulant and expectorant properties. It is used to treat infantile
enough, cold, catarrh, bronchitis, diarrhea and dysentery and is applied to the skin to
treat ringworm and other skin diseases and as an ear drop to relieve ear ache. An infusion
of the leaves in used as a stomachic for gastric disorders in children. A decoction of
the root is given as a diaphoretic in the treatment of malarial fevers. The oil extracted
from the leaves by steam distillation is reported to possess antibacterial and unsecticidal
properties, and is particularly effective as a mosquito repellent (Parrota, 2001).
The genus Ocimum has approximately 150 spp. ranging from annuals to perennial
shrubs. The whole plant of Ocimum sanchlm has medicinal value. Preclinical and clinical
studies have also proved the well known antistress and antistimulant property of O.
sanctum. Pretreatment with the O. sanctum extracted brought back the stress altered
values like leucopenia, increased corticosterone level and enhanced neutrophil functions
to normal levels indicationg the stress alleviating effect of O. sanchlm. The oil was
obtained from O. sanchlm, to posses significant anti bacterial and insecticidal properties.
It inhibits the in vitro growth of Mycobacterium hlberculosis and Micrococcus pyogenes
IN VITRO REGENERATION, PHYrOCHEMICAL SCREENING, ANTIBACTERIAL ACITVTIY 147
and Staphylococcus aureus. In antitubercular activity it has one tenth the potency of
Streptomycin and one fourth that of ionized Ether and alcohol extracts of leaves of
O. sanctum were shown to possess significant activity against E. coli. O. sanctum has
been also extensively studied for therapeutic potentialities in various areas like
immunostimulation, anticancer, antioxidant, as adjuvant to radio therapy, antiulcer,
anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antidiabetic.
Antioxidant bio assay directed extraction of the fresh leaves and stems of O.
sanctum and purification of extract yielded cirsilineol, cirsimaritin, isothymusin,
isothymonin, apigenim, rosmarinic acid and appreciable quantities of eugenol. The drug
has numerous plasma ecological activities like hypoglycemic, antiinflammatory
antiulcerogenic, antis tress, anti hypertensive radio protective, antibacterial expectorant,
analgesic and antitumor. The leaf extract showed insecticidal activity and antibacterial
against gram negative and gram positive bacteria at relatively high concentration.
Ethanol of 70% in o. sanctum extract has the ability to inhibit aflatoxin production.
The leaves were used for treating diabetes, arthritis and bronchial asthma. Ethanol
leaf extracts of O. sanctum noise induced changes in total and differential leukocyte
counts in rats were also reported. Benzene extract have anti fertility effect in rat, mice
and rabbits were also reported.
Use of natural products from plant origin forms a major part of complementary
and alternative medicine or traditional medicine. These natural products have been
the basis of treatment of human diseases. The current accepted modern medicine or
allopathy has gradually developed the year by scientific and observational efforts of
scientists. However the basis of its development remains noted in traditional medicine
and therapies. Scientifically validated and technologically standardized herbal medicines
may be derived using a safe path of reverse pharmacology approach based on
traditional knowledge database.
A large number of indigenous plants used as food and medicines around the
world are known for their ability to lower blood sugar level through a variety of
mechanisms. In some instances, the plants have often been used by practitioners of
herbal medicines in treating individuals with diabetic mellitus.
Ethnobotanical studies of traditional herbal remedies used for diabetes around
the world have identified more than 1200 species of plants with hypoglycemic activity.
A large number of traditional remedies dedicated to diabetes likely reflect the relative
case of diagnosing this disease-sugar in the urine can be determined even in technology
poor societies. Scientific testing supports this traditional knowledge desired activity,
plants with a traditional indication for diabetes are more randomly selected plants
to show activity in standard hypoglycemic assays (Maries et al., 1995). O. sanctum is
another comely model suggests hypoglycemic effects. Udupa et al. (2006) reported that
wound healing property. Goel et al. (2005) studied the effect of standardized effect
of O. sanctum on gastric mucosal offensive and defensive factors. Ravindran et al. (2005)
reported that the effect of O. sanctum on noise stress induced brain neurotransmitter
changes. Sembulingam (2005) analysed the effect of O. sanctum on changes in central
cholinergic system induced by acute noise systems. Gholap (2004) studied the
hypoglycemic effects of some plant extracts. Hence an attempt has been made to study
148 N. CHANDRAKALA, E. JENNIFER RANI, M. PRABAKARAN AND M. AnAvoo
the antibacterial and antidiabetic activity of O. sanctum in albino mice and also the
in VI (0 regeneration ability.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sample Collection
The samples were collected from the herbal garden of the Ponnaiyah Ramajayam
College Campus, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India (Plate 1)
Description of the Plant
Family Lamiaceae
Botanical Name Ocimum sanctum L.
Common Name Holy basil, Tulsi
Habitat
The genus Ocimum has approximately 150 species ranging from annuals to
perennial shrubs. It is tropical, much branched annual herb up to 18 inches tall; it grows
into a low bush. The tulsi or holy basil considered sacred by the Hindus has small
leaves with a strong smell and purple flowers.
Chemical Constituents
Volatile oil 0.4 - 0.8%, chiefly contains eugenol approximately 21% and B
carophyllene 37% and number of sesquiterpenes and monoterpenes and methyl esters
of common fatty acids.
Medicinal uses
The drugs from O. canum, has numerous pharmacological activities like
hypoglycemic, immunomodulatory, antistress, analgesic, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory,
antiulcerogenic, antihypertensive, CNS depressant, radio protective, antibacterial and
antitumour activities.
Phytochemical Study (Chandrakala et al., 2005)
The leaves of O. sanctum were dried at room temperature (30C) and made into
fine powder.
Preparation of O. sanctum leaf extract
(a) Methanol Extract
O. sanctum leaf powder (30 gms) weighed and extracted with 100 ml of methanol
by continuous hot percolation (60) for 24 hrs. Until, the completion of the extraction,
the extract was collected and the solvent was removed by distillation under reduced
pressure a dark green residue was obtained.
(b) Ethanol Extract
O. sanctum leaf powder (30 gms) weighed and extracted with 100 ml of ethanol
by hot percolation (60C) for 24 hours. The extract was collected and the solvent was
removed by distillation under reduced pressure, a dark green residue was obtained.
Screening tests for Secondary metabolites
Secondary metabolites such as steroids, triterpenoids, alkaloids, phenolic compounds,
tannins, saponins, xanthoproteins and carbohydrates were screened by standard
methods.
IN VITRO REGENERATION, PHYTOCHEMICAL SCREENING, ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY 149
Alkaloids
To the extract 2N hydrochloric acid was added, the aqueous layer was decanted.
In the precipitate 2 drops of Mayer's reagent was added.
Tannins and phenols
Small quantity of alcoholic extract was dissolved in water and S% ferric chloride
was added. Appearance of blue colour indicates the presence of tannins and phenols.
Flavonoids
The extract mixed with few ml of alcohol and was heated with 200mg of magnesium
and concentrated hydrochloric acid was added, under cooling appearance of pink colour
indicates the presence of flavonoids.
Gums and Mucilages
Extract (10ml) was added to 2Sml of absolute alcohol under constant stirring,
precipitation indicates the presence of gums and mucilages.
Fixed oils and fats
A drop of concentrated extract was pressed between two filter papers and kept
undisturbed. Oil stains on the paper indicate the presence of oil.
Saponins
Extract (lml) was dissolved in 20ml of water and shaken well, formation of foam
layer indicate the presence of saponins.
Phytosterols
The ether extract was evaporated and the residue was subjected to LB test.
Appearance of orange to red colour indicates the presence of phytosterols.
Carbohydrates
Alcholic extract (300 mg) dissolved in water and filtered. The filterate was added
with Fehling's solution (Sml) and Benedict's solution (Sml). Appearance of brick red
indicates the positive result.
Steroids and Triterpenoids
Extract (Sml) was evaporated and the residue were dissolved in O.5ml of glacial
acetic acid followed by the addition of chloroform and few drops of sulphuric acid, the
appearance of green or red violet colour indicate the presence of steroids and triterpenoids
respectively.
In vitro Regeneration
Murashige and skoogs (1962) basal medium (MS medium) was used for the study.
Free MS medium and BS vitamins used for preparation of medium.
Preparation of Hormones
Kinetin (SO mg) dissolved in O.lN Hcl (2.0 ml) and diluted the concentration using
distilled water till 1mg/2ml concentration; the solution was stored in the refrigerator.
Similarly 6-benzyl aminopurine (BAP), the concentration of 1mg/2ml was prepared.
Auxins such as Indole 3 acetic acid (IAA) (50mg), Indole 3 butyric acid (IBA)(50mg)
and Naphthalene Acetic Acid (NAA) 50mg were dissolved in 2N NaOH and diluted
till the concentration of 1 mg/2ml using distilled water. 2, 4 dichloro phenoxy acetic
acid (2,4 D), 50mg dissolved in ethanol (1 ml) and diluted with distilled water to make
1.0mg/2.0 ml and stored in the refrigerator. These hormones were stable to be added
before autocIaving the medium.
(c) Preparation of Vitamins
Pyridoxine HCI (0.2 g), Nicotinic acid (0.2 g), Thiamine HCI (2.0g) and myo inositol
(2.0g) were dissolved in distilled water to make one litre stock solution. To prepare
1 liter medium 5.0 ml of vitamins stock solution was added before autoclaving.
Preparation of MS Basal Medium
A stock solution of the MS Basal Medium was prepared as suggested above.
An aliquot of the frozen stock solution was thawed at room temperature just before
use. To make one litre of medium about 500ml distilled water was added to clean
Erleynmeyer flask with appropriate aliquots of the stock solution while stirring with
a magnetic bar, sucrose solution was added slowly to prevent clumping of the sucrose
in the bottom of the flask then the vitamins and hormones were added. It was then
brought to one liter volume and adjusted to pH 5.8 with O.lN NaoH. Agar (0.8% w/
v) was added slowly while shaking and the medium was distributed to the test tubes
(about 15 ml/tube) or conical flasks (about 50ml/conical flask or size 250 ml) plugged
with cotton wrapped with gauge and the containers were autoclaved at 121C for 15
minutes.
Culture Techniques for Different Explants
(a) Preparatio:::t of. Explants
Based on the initial experiments, from 1 to 10 days old seedlings were finally
selected as sources of explants. Different explants namely young leaf, stem node, shoot
tip were excised and cultured on a medium containing various growth hormones.
(b) Culture Conditions
All cultures were maintained at 252C under 16/8 hours light/dark condition
of 80 EMS 2S irradiance provided by florescent lamps (TL 40w /54 cool-day light)
(c) Induction of Callus from Explants
The hypocotyl explants were cultured on MS basal medium containing 3% (w /
v)sucrose ,0.8% (w/v) agar and various concentrations of IAA,NAA,IBA and 2,4
D(0.5,1.0,1.5,and 2.0mg/l)in combination with BAP (0.5 mg/l) for callus induction. The
effect of hormones on callus induction response was studied and effort was made to
determine the appropriate hormones combinations for optimal callus growth. Callus
induction was observed from 15-21 days.
Shoot Induction
Based on preliminary experiment with both kin and BAP only latter was selected
for shoot bud regeneration. Well developed calli were transferred to regeneration
IN VITRO REGENERATION, PHYrOOIEMICAL SCREENING, ANnBACfERIAL AcnvTIY 151
medium containing MS based medium 3%(w/v) sucrose, 0.8% (w/v) agar and different
concentrations of BAP and KIN (0.5,1.0,1.5,2.0 mg/l) in combination with 0.5 mg/l
of NAA individually for shoot bud generation .shoot bud differentiation was observed
from 45-60 days.
The calli were subcultured on same fresh medium until regenerated shoot buds
formed 2-3 pair of leaves .Then the shoot buds were separated. The callus was sub cultured
on shoot multiplication medium containing various concentration of BAP or KIN (1.0, 2.0,
3.0, 4.0, and 5.0 mg/l) in combination with 0.1 mg/l of NAA for further growth and
multiple shoot bud formation.
The mass of shoot initial was observed 21-30 days. The influence of cytokinins
(BAP or KIN) in combination with various auxins shoot bud differentiation was
studied.
Antibacterial Activity (Bauer et al., 1962)
Pure culture of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus vulgaris, Staphylococcus aureus,
Enterobacter aerogens and E.coli were collected from Christian Medical College, Vellore,
Tamil Nadu, India.
Broth cultures were prepared; a bacterial (4-6h old) lawn was made on the nutrient
agar plates. Sterile Whatman No lfillter paper discs were prepared, 10 J.l.1 of the extract
was loaded and the discs were allowed to dry. After drying the discs were impregnated
over the plates.
The plates were incubated at 37C2C for 18-24 hrs. The inhibition zone was
measured and compared with standard chart
Hypoglycemic Activity-Induction of Diabates Mellitus
Alloxan dissolved in citrate buffer (ph 4.5) was given as single intradermal vein
injection to the mice under light diethyl ether anesthesia. The dosage of alloxan was
50mg/kg body weight. Control mice were also maintained. The mice were classified
into 3 groups viz., control.
Diabetic + a.sanctum, methanol extract (group 1) and Diabetic + a.sanctum
ethanol extract (group 2).
The blood samples were collected by tail snipping method .The blood glucose
was estimated using glucose estimation kit (AGAPPLE, India) through spectro
photometric method using glucose oxidase peroxidase method.
Principle
Glucose is oxidized by the enzyme glucose oxidase to give D-glucoronic acid
and hydrogen peroxide, which reacts with 4-amino antipyrine and 4-hydroxy benzoic
acid in the presence of peroxidase to form N (4 antipyral)p-benzoic quinoniemine. The
addition of mutorotase accelerates the reactions. The amount of dye formed is
proportional to glucose concentration.
Procedure
Three clean dry test tubes labeled as Blank (B) Standard (S) and Test (T) the
following components were performed.
Samples Blank Standard Test

Enzyme reagent 1.0 ml 1.0 ml 1.0 ml
Distilled water 10 ml
Glucose standard 10 ml
Serum /Plasma 10 ml
Mixed well and incubated at 37c for 15 mins, the 00 was measured at 505
nm. The amount was calculated by using following formula
Glucose (gm%) = 00 of Test /00 of Standard *100
3. RESULTS
Phytochemical Studies
Alcoholic extracts was subjected to phytochemical analysis. The analysis showed
higher protein, free aminoacids which was followed by saponins moderate amount of
alkaloids, phytasterols and tannis (Table 1).
TABLE 1
Phytochemical screening of Ocimum sanctum
Compounds Methanol Ethanol

Emodins
Alkaloids
Carbohydrates +++ +++
Tannins and Phenols
Flavanoids + +
Gums and Mucilage
Fixed oil of Fat
Saponins
Phytosterols
Volatile Oil
Xanthoprotein + +
Steroids & Triterpenoids + +
Fatty Acids +
Note +++ Appreciable amount
++ Moderate
+ Little amount /Trace amount
Absent
IN VITRO REGENERATION, PHYrOCHEMICAL SCREENING, ANnBACfERIAL ACIlVITY 153
In vitro Regeneration
The response of explants of O. sanctum to different level of auxin in combination
with cytokine level of auxin in combination with cytokine was represented in Table 2.
The expIants were cultured in MS medium supplemented with different concentrations
of IAA, BAP, IBA, NAA and 2.4 D(0.5-2.5mg/l) in combination with BAP (1.0 mg/I).After
15 days the callus was initiated from the explant. The highest frequency of callus was
observed in the concentration of 2.5 mg/l of NAA and 1 mg/l of BAP (Table 3).The mass
callus tissue was transferred to shoot induction medium for regeneration. After one week
the callus was indicated to bud primordial.Then the callus was subcultured on the same
medium the bud primordial developed into shoot. The highest frequency of shoot induction
was observed on MS medium containing IAA (3mg/1 and 0.5 ml of BAP) (Table 4) (Plate
2&3)
TABLE 2
Effect of various concentrations of auxins on callus induction of O. sanctum
Hormone (mWJ.) Percentage of callus induction

IAA BAP
0.5 1.0 14.682.6
1.0 1.0 29.016.4
1.5 1.0 33.319.7
2.0 1.0 38.515.5
2.5 1.0 42.516.2
IBA
0.5 1.0 13.823.1
1.0 1.0 22.524.1
1.5 1.0 34.685.1
2.0 1.0 42.582.1
2.5 1.0 50.299.3
NAA
0.5 1.0 28.268.2
1.0 1.0 34.9310.6
1.5 1.0 44.528.1
2.0 1.0 51.564.3
2.5 1.0 57.306.2
2,4-D
0.5 1.0 22.084.6
1.0 1.0 27.977.3
1.5 1.0 35.167.6
2.0 1.0 47.377.3
2.5 1.0 50.194.5
TABLE 3
Effect of various concentrations of cytokinin on shoot induction of O. Sanctum
Hormone (myt) Percentage of callus induction
IAA BAP
0.5 0.5 7.362.4
1.0 0.5 12.432.4
1.5 0.5 15.264.1
2.0 0.5 16.32.9
2.5 0.5 22.43.6
3.0 0.5 31.76.0
KN
0.5 0.5 5.961.3
1.0 0.5 8.744.1
1.5 0.5 13.124.2
2.0 0.5 17.164.6
2.5 0.5 20.43.7
3.0 0.5 28.175.3
TABLE 4
Effect of leaf extract of O. sanctum against the body weight
Parameters Body weight before Body weight after Body weight after
alloxan (gm) alloxan (gm) treatment(gm)
Control 90.65.7 92.76.1 94.37.2
Group-I 87.34.1 70.23.1 82.33.1
(0. sanctum Methnol
ext. act)
Group-II 88.34.2 71.33.1 86.42.1
(0. sanctum Ethanol
extract)
Antibacterial Activity
Methanol and ethanol extract of O. Sanctum was tested against different bacteria.
The maximum zone of inhibition was observed against Pseudomonas aerugenosa and was
followed by Proteus species (Table 5).
Hypoglycemic Activity
After diabetic induction the mice were administered a graded dose of O. sanctum
of methanol and ethanol extract of 750 ml and 1000 ml. General condition was recorded
daily. Body weight and food consumptions were recorded twice in a week. Initial body
IN VITRO REGENERATION, PHYrOCHEMICAL SCREENING, ANrmACfERIAL AcnvITY 155
weight of mice were recorded and the level was found to be normal (Table 5). After
alloxan injection the glucose level was increased significantly .There was a significant
reduction in the glucose level after the treatment with plant extracts (Table 5).
TABLE 5
Effect of leaf extract of O. sanctum against glucose level
Parameters Glucose (mgll) Glucose (mgll) Glucose (mgll)
before alloxen after alloxen after treatment
Control 80.251.0 80.251.0 80.251.0
Group-I 83.021.1 120.121.2 87.021.3
(0. sanctum Methnol
extract)
Group-II 85.11.0 121.32.0 88.501.6
(0. sanctum Ethanol
extract)
4. DISCUSSION
In general, BAP was used for multiple shoots from nodal explant. Maximum
numbers of shoots were observed at 1 mg/l of BAP. Similar observations were recorded
by Sivakumar and Krishnamoorthy (2000) in Gloriosa superba L.; Kathiravan and
Ignachimuthu L. (1999), in C. viscosa L. in Ocimum sp. by Begum et al., (2000), O.
americanum L. and O. sanctum L. by Pattnaik and Chand (1991).
Phytochemical screening revealed the presence~ of flavonoids, which have been
reported to expert multiple biological effects such as anti-inflammatory, anti allergics,
antiviral and anticancer activities (Havsteen, 1991). Alkaloids are important defence of
the plant against pathogenic organisms and protoxins for insects (Haartmann, 1991). The
flavonoids have effective against various groups of bacteria (Yadha and Deepak, 1998).
The antimicrobial activities of higher plants were well documented (Saxena and Vyas,
1986; Perumalsamy et al., 1998; Iqubal Ahaamad et al., 2000). The plants contain a spectrum
of secondary metabolities such as phenols, flavonoids, quinines, tannins, alkaloids and
essential oils. These substances had antimicrobial activity against various pathogenic
bacteria (Mahadevan, 1979). So, the present study revealed that the alcoholic extracts of
O. sanctum showed antimicrobial activity against various bacteria. The injection of leaf
extract of O. sanctum showed hypoglycemic effects. Hypoglycemic effects of some plant
extracts are pOSSibly mediated through inhibition in corticosteroid concentration (Cholap,
2004).
5. SUMMARY
In recent times, focus in plant research has increased all over the world. Herbal
medicines represent the first and the oldest system of human healthcare and plants have
contributed significantly to the allopathic medicine. Use of natural product from plant
origin forms a major part of complementary and alternative or traditional medicine.
These natural products have been the basis of treatment of human diseases. The basis
of modem medicine development remains noted in traditional medicine and therapies.

A large number of indigenous plants used as food and medicines around the world
are known for their ability to lower blood sugar level through a variety of mechanisms.
Odmum sanctum is commonly used herb in Ayurveda, studies in animal model suggests
its hypoglycemic activity. Hence, an attempt has been made to study the in vitro
regeneration, phytochemical, antibacterial activity and hypoglycemic effect in albino
mice. The study revealed that the highest frequency of callus was observed in the
concentration of 2.5mg/1 of NAA and Img/l of BAP. The methanol and ethanol extract
was tested against bacteria. The maximum zone of inhibition was observed against
P.aeruginosa and was followed by Proteus sp. After diabetic induction with alloxan
injection the glucose level was increased significantly. There was!l significant reduction
in the glucose level after the treatment with plant extracts.
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000
ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS OF
NORTH GUJARAT PART-!
N.K. PATEL, I.C. PATEL, A.R. SELIYA AND D.N. PARMAR
Chapter Outline
1. Introduction
3. Enumeration
4. Acknowledgements
5. Table-I: Inventory of angiospermic plants of north Gujarat region
6. Summary
1. INTRODUCTION
Gujarat is the most industrialized state in India after Maharashtra and is located
in western India, bordered by Pakistan to the northwest and Rajasthan to the north.
Its capital is Gandhinagar. Gujarat covers an area of 196,024 sq km (75,685 sq mi). It
has a fertile plain land in the south cut by several rivers, low hills in the west, and
broad mudflats in the north that adjoin the Thar (Great Indian) Desert. It is bounded
by the Arabian Sea to the west, by the state of Rajasthan to the north and northeast,
by Madhya Pradesh to the east, and by Maharashtra to the south and southeast. Gujarat
has about 1600 km of coastline, which is about a third of India's total coastline and
the longest coastline of all Indian states. This coastline includes the Gulf of Kutch and
Gulf of Cambay.
North Gujarat includes four district viz., Banaskantha, Sabarkantha, Mehsana and
Patan. It has two wildlife sanctuaries and nature preserves, Balaram-Ambaji and Jessore.
The climate of Gujarat is varied. The climate is mostly dry, and even desertic in the
north-west. The northwestern part of the state is dry, with less than 500 mm (20 in)
of rain a year. In the more temperate central part of the state, the annual rainfall is
more than 700 mm (28 in). In the southern part of Gujarat, rainfall average is 2000 mm
(79 in) a year. In the winter average temperatures ranges between 12 and 27 C (between
ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS OF NORTH GUJARAT PART-I 159
540 and 81 0 F), although freezing levels have been recorded in the state. In the summer
average temperatures ranges between 250 and 430 C (770 and 1090 F) and have been
known to reach as high as 48 0 C (118 0 F). The population was 41,309,582 (1991 census)
and an average density was 211 persons per sq km. More than 70 percent of the
population is Hindu; there are also significant minorities of Muslims and Jains in Gujarat.
In 1991 more than 60 percent of the population was literate.
During the present work we visited to the various villages and forests areas
including hill and hillocks for 'collection of angiospermic plants. Good number of the
trips were arranged. The collected plants were brought to the laboratory, identified up
to species level wherever it is possible and then dried with customary method which
was mounted on herbarium sheet and label.
The ethnobotanical data on was collected through the dialogue and arranging
meetings with local tribals and knowledgeable people of the villages.
3. ENUMERATION
1. Abrus precatorius L.( Fabaceae)
Local name: Chanothi
FIs & Frs: July-Dec.
Description: Perennial, deciduous twiners. Leaves oblong, glabrous, and appressed-
hairy. Flowers pinkish-purple in compact racemes. Pods liner-oblong. Seeds shining,
black, smooth, glabrous.
Parts Used: Seeds, leaves and roots.
Uses: Used in nervous disorders, sciatica and paralysis; leaf decoction used in
cough, conic pain, skin diseases; root used in preparation for gonorrhoea, jaundice.
2. Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet ( Malvaceae)
Local name: Kanski
FIs & Frs: Throughout the year.
Description: An undershrub. Leaves broadly ovate, entire, hairy, and petiolate.
Flowers bright-yellow, axillary, and solitary. Fruit appressed-hairy.
Parts Used: Seeds, leaves, bark and root.
Uses: In piles, gleet and gonorrhoea; leaf boils and ulcers, painful part of body;
root fever, chest affection, and urethritic; bark astringent and diuretic.
3. Acalypha indica L. ( Euphorbiaceae)
Local name: Vaichikato
Fla & Frs: June-Dec.
Description: An annual herb; leaves ovate, with slender petiolate; spikes slender,
erect, axillary with male flowers, clustered at the top, and female flowers with accrescent;
capsules often one-seeded; seeds pale-brown, acute, smooth.
160 N.K. PATEL, I.e. PATEL, A.R. SELIYA AND D.N. PARMAR
Part Used: Whole plant,

Uses: Decoction of the herbs is used as a cure for tooth and speedy laxative. It
is useful in pneumonia and asthma. Leaves are used in scabies and snake bite.
4. Achyranthes aspera L.( Amaranthaceae)
Local name: Anghedi
Rls & Frs: Aug.-Feb.
Description: Erect, hearbs. Leaves membranous, hairy. Flowers bright-purple.
Spike long.
Parts Used: Whole plant.
Uses: Their paste is applied to clear opacity of cornea; it is reported to be useful
in cancer. Decoction of the roots is used for stomach troubles, and an aqueous extract
for stones in the bladder.
5. Adhatoda zeylanica Medic.( Acanthaceae)
Local name: Ardusi
PIs : Dec.-June.
Description: Evergreen, bushy shrubs. Leaves petiolate, elliptic-Ianceolate, and
glabrous. Spikes long. Fruits not seen.
Parts Used: Leaves, roots, flowers and stem bark.
Uses: It is employed in bronchitis and bronchial asthma, pyorrhea, cough, local
due to peptic ulcer and piles. Fresh juice of leaves have been used in tuberculosis.
6. Aeroa lanata L. Juss. ex Schultes (Amaranthaceae)
Local name: Gorakhdi
PIs & Frs: More or less throughout the year.
Description: A much branched herb, erect, leaves alternate, woody-tomentose,
Flowers greenish-Wight, axillary panicles, fruits greenish, roundish.
Part Used: Whole plant.
Uses: It is useful to treat boils, cephalagia, cough, diabetes and lithiasis. Useful
in catanh of bladder. Flowers are used for kidney stone.
7. Allium cepa L. ( Liliaceae)
Local name: Dongri
PIs: - Feb. Apr.
Description: A biannual or perennial herb with fleshy underground bulb. Leaves
linear, cylindrical, and flashy. Flowers many, white, in globular umbels.
Parts Used : Bulbs.
Uses: The bulbs are useful in dysentery, dyspepsia, colic, jaundice, asthma,
vomiting, malaria fever, wounds, paralysis and skin diseases.
8. Andrographis paniculata (Buml.f.) Wall. (Acanthaceae)

Local name: Kariyatu
FLS & FRS: Aug.-Oct.
Description: An erect, glabrous herb, leaves elliptical. Flowers dirty white, with
light purple. Capsule long.
Uses: The leaves are used in diarrhoea, fever, coryza cough, sore throat,
hypertension and snake-bite.
9. Arachis hypogaea 1. ( Fabaceae)
Local name: Mungfali
Fls : July-Oct. Frs : Aug.-Dec.
Description: A branched hairy annual herb, erect branches trailing on the ground,
leaves compound, pulvinate, oblong, entire, flowers yellow, axillary, fruits pods, ripening
underground, leathery, containing 1-3 seeds.
Parts Used: Seeds
Uses: The seeds are useful in diarrhoea, and general debility.
10. Argyreia neroosa (Bumt.f.) Boj. (Convolvulaceae)
Local name: Smudrasos
FLS & FRS: Aug.-Oct.
Description: A very large climbing shrub with woody, white stems. Leaves simple
large, ovate. Flowers large, purple, silky-pubescent without in long-peduncle cymes.
Fruits dry, globose.
Parts Used: Roots and Seeds.
Uses: The roots are useful in wounds, ulcers, dyspepsia, colic, cough, nervous
weakness, syphilis, anemia and diabetes.
11. Aristolochia bracteolata Lam. (Aristolochiaceae)
Local name: Batak Vel
Fls & Frs: July-Dec., sometimes almost throughout the year.
Description: A perennial prostrate herb, with weak, glabrous, stems. Leaves
simple, alternate, reniform, and cordate at the base. Flowers solitary, with large sessile
orbicular bract at the base. Fruits oblong, glabrous, capsule. Seeds deltoid with cordate
base
Parts Used: Roots and Leaves
Uses: The roots and leaves are useful in amenorrhoea, foul ulcers, boils, syphilis,
gonorrhoea, skin diseases and eczema.
12. Bacopa monnieri (1.) Wettst. (Scrophulariaceae)
Local name: Methi
Fls & Frs: Throughout the year.

Description: A prostrate, juicy, glabrous annual herb. Leaves simple, opposite,
decussate, sessile, axillary, solitary, fruits acute, capsules, seeds minute numerous.
Uses: It is useful in anemia, tumors, ulcers, dyspepsia, asthma, skin diseases,
leprosy, leucoderma, syphilis and fevers.
13. Boerhavia diffusa L. (Nyctaginaceae)
Local name: Satodo
Description: A perennial diffuse herb, leaves simple, opposite, ovate-oblong, acute,
rounded at base, glabrous above and whitish beneath, flowers pole, rose coloured, small,
short-stalked, fruits highly viscid, easily detachable, one seeded.
Uses: - It is useful in all types of inflammations, leucorrhoea, myalgia, jaundice,
anemia, dyspepsia and cough.
14. Brassica juncea L.(Brassicaceae)
Local name: Rai
Fls & Frs: More or less throughout the year, profuse in winter.
Description: A glabrous annual herb. Leaves long, ovate, coarsely dentate, upper
leaves broadly linear, entire. Flowers yellow in racemes, fruits siliqua. Seeds attached
to the replum.
Parts Used: Seeds, Oil.
Uses: The seeds useful in dengue fever, dyspepsia, worms and skin diseases.
15. Kalanchoe pinnata (Lamk.) Pers. (Crassulaceae)
Local name: Panphuti
Fls & Frs: Jan.-Mar.
Description: A succulant herb, leaves decussate simple, ovate, elliptic, margins
crenate, flowers on long scopes in large panicles, light red bell-shaped, seeds small.
Parts Used: Leaves
Uses: Leaves are employed in diarrhoea, dysentery, calculi, scurvy and burning
micturition, pounded leaves applied on boils, wounds, bites of insects and swellings.
16. Calotropis gigantea (L.) R.Br. (Asclepiadaceae)
Local name: Akado
Description: Shrubs, latex milky, bark ash-colored. Leaves sessile, thick and
glaucous-g~een. Flowers terminal, umbellate cymes. Seeds flat, long coma.
Parts Used: It is useful in intestinal worms and cough. The leaves are useful in
the treatmeht of paralysis and fevers. Flowers are useful in asthma and catarrh.
17. Canavalia gladiata(]acq.) Uacq.) DC. (Fabaceae)
Local name: Fofal
FIs & Frs: Aug.-Jan.
Description: A stout perennial twiner, glabrous twiner, leaves compound, leaflets,
glabrous on both surfaces, flowers large, white, axillary racemous, fruits large, sword
shaped flattened pods, seeds reddish brown or white.
Parts Uses: Fruits and seeds.
Uses: The fruits are useful in burning sensation, hyperdipsia, dyspepsia, wounds,
and ulcers.
18. Cannabis sativa L. (Cannabinaceae)
Local name: Bhang
FIs & Frs: Not seen.
Description: A large aromatic, resinous herb, erect, angular stem, the female plant
usually taller than the male; leaves palmately, divided, male flowers in short drooping
panicles, female in short axillary crowded spikes, fruits achene's seeds black. Parts Used:
Dried leaves and flowering shoots.
Uses: Leaves are used in diarrhea, otalgia, Its excessive use causes dyspepsia,
cough.
19. Cassia italica (Mill.) Lam. (Caesalpiniaceae)
Local name: Mindhi Aval
FIs & Frs: Sep.-Feb.
Description: A diffuse, perennial herb, leaflets oblong, 6-9 pairs, flowers yellow
in axillary and terminal racemes, pods flat, oblong, curved, longitudinally crested, seeds
cuneate.
Parts Used: Leaves
Uses: Leaf powder is employed in constipation, colic, flatulence and indigestion.
20. Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don (Apocynaceae)
Local name: Barmasi
Description: Perennial herbs, leaves opposite, obovate, glabrous on both sides,
dark shining above flowers pink or white, follicle, cylindrical, narrow, seeds numerous,
tiny, blackish-brown.
Parts Used: Leaves
Uses: The leaves are useful in treating oliguria, haematuria, it is also used in
leukemia.
164 N.K. PATEL, I.e. PATEL, A.R. 5ELIYA AND D.N. PARMAR
21. Cayratia trifolia (L.) Domin (Vitaceae)

Local name: Khat-khatumbo
Fls & Frs: July-Oct.
Description: Herbaceous climber, Leaflets obovate, glabrous. Flowers greenish-
white, broad, branched cymes. Berries deep purple, black when ripe, smooth.
Uses: It purifies the blood, and is useful in ulcer, wounds, dropsy, hemorrhoids
and strangury.
22. Celosia argentea L. (Amaranthaceae)
Local name: Lobadu
Fls &Frs: July-Dec.
Description: An annual erect tropical herb, glabrous, more branching, leaves
variable, linear, entire glabrous, leaves sessile, flowers at pinkish, afterwards glistening
white, crowded and imbricate, cylindrical blunt spikes, seeds black.
Parts Used: Seeds
Uses: They are beneficial in chronic uveitis and dizziness due to hypertension.
23. Cephalonoplos segetum (Bunge) Kitam. (Asteraceae)
Local name:
Fls & Frs: Mar.-May
Description: A perennial herb, stem erect, slightly purplish, leaves alternate,
sessile, long-elliptic, hairy, inflorescence a terminal head, erect. Flowers, unisexual,
dioecious.
Uses: It is useful in epitasis, haematuria and other hemorrhagic condition,
pyogenic infection.
24. Chenopodium album L.( Chenopodiaceae)
Local name: Chil Ni Bhaji
Fls & Frs: Nov.-Apr.
Description: Annual, erect, tall herbs. Leaves elliptic-Ianceolate, entire, and
glabrous. Flowers minute, green, clustered, axillary and terminal, compact spikes. Seeds
glabrous, blacks.
Parts Used: Seeds.
Uses: It is useful in peptic ulcer, helminthiasis, dyspepsia and weakness.
25. Cicer arietinum L. (Fabaceae)
Local name: Chana
Fls & Frs: Jan.-Mar.
ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS OF NORTH GUJARAT PART-! 165
Description: An erect much branched annual herb, leaves compound, leaflets

small, oval, glandular hairs, inflorescence stalk jointed about the middle, flowers pink,
blue, fruits pubescent pods, seeds black or white.
Parts Used: Leaves, seeds
Uses: Leaves are useful in dyspepsia and bronchitis. The seeds are useful in
hyperdipsia, leprosy, bronchitis and skin diseases.
26. Cichornm intybus L. (Asteraceae)
Local name: Chikudi
Fls & Frs: Oct.-Mar.
Description: Erect, glabrous herbs, spine scent, leaves upper subsentire, lower
pinnatifid, flowers all ligulate, bracts involucres, Achenes glabrous, pappus pale, 2-3
seriate
Parts Used: Seeds, roots & flowers.
Uses: It is employed in cough with dyspnoea, hepatitis, The powder of dried roots
is used in the treatment of liver congestion.
27. Cissus quadrangula L. ( Vitaceae)
Local name: Hadsankal
Fls: June-Oct. Frs: Aug.-Dec.
Description: Tendril climber. Leaves ovate glaucous-green, flashy. Flowers greenish-
white, leaf-opposed cymes. Berries in diam., ovoid, glabrous, purple.
Uses: It is useful in skin diseases, colic, chronic ulcer and tumors. Shoots are useful
in asthma, burns and wounds.
28.Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. (Cucurbitaceae)
Local name: Kadva Inravarna
Fls & Frs: Aug.-Dec.
Description: A prostrate creeping herb, leaves deeply 3-7 lobed, scabridly hairy,
flowers pale yellow, axillary, solitary, fruit globose pepo, variegated green, and white
spots.
Parts Used: Fruits and seeds
Uses: Fruits are employed in biliousness, jaundice, fever, dropsy, coughs and
bronchitis, oil of seeds is used for snake bite and scorpion sting, roots are given in
jaundice, and cough.
29. Cleome viscosa L. (Capparaceae)
Local name: Pili Talvani
Description: Glandular- pubescent, tall herbs.
Leaves folio late, petiolate, leaflet, elliptic oblong, glabrous, sessile or subsessile.
Flowers axillary, solitary, lax racemes. Capsules long, cylindrical, and hairy. Seeds
numerous, dark brawn.
Uses: The plant is acrid, thermogenic. The root is stimulant, antiscorbutic and
vermifuge. The seeds are useful in fever and diarrhoea.
30. Clitoria tematea L. (Fabaceae)
Local name: Garni-Bibli
Description: Slender twiner. Leaves alternate, elliptic-oblong. Flowers blue or
white. Pods linear-oblong, flat, and appressed-hairy. Seeds oblong, yellowish-hairy,
smooth, glabrous.
Parts Used: Roots, leaves, seeds.
Uses: It is used in tubercular glands, l~ucoderma, elephantiasis, ulcer and fever.
The roots are useful in visceralgia.
31. Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt. (Cucurbitaceae)
Local name: Kadvi Ghilodi
Description: Herbaceous, glabrous climber. Leaves broadly ovate, glabrous.
Flowers axillary, solitary. Seeds oblong, white, smooth, glabrous.
Parts Used: Roots, leaves and fruits.
Uses: The roots are useful in vomiting; leaves fruits useful in skin diseases, fever,
asthma, cough and jaundice.
32. Commelina diffusa Burm. f. (Commelinaceae)
Local name: Sismuliyu
Fls & Frs: Aug.-Jan.
Description: Annual herbs, creeping, rooting at nodes. Leaves glabrous. Flowers
1-3 in a spathe, blue. Capsule oblong.
Uses: It is useful in the treatment of fractured bones and to treat eye irritation
and rashes.
33. Corchorns aestuans L. (Tiliaceae)
Local name: Chhunch
Description: A prostrate herb, leaves ovate, serrate, flowers yellow in axillary, fruit
capsule, 6-angled, 3-winged and 3- bifid beaks, seeds brownish-black.
Parts Used: Fruits
Uses: Infusion of crushed fruits is given in fever, pneumonia, stomatitis, diabetes,

calculi, diarrhea and sexual debility.
34. Crotalaria retusa L. (Fabaceae)
LO(''3.1 name: Gughro
Fis & Frs: July-April.
Description: An erect herb, leaves oblanceolate oblong, glabrous, flowers yellow,
numerous, large, showy in erect terminal racemes, fruits stalked pond, seeds per pods.
Uses: The plant is useful in dyspepsia, fever. The leaves are used for diarrhoea.
The seeds are powdered and boiled with milk. It is useful for increasing body strength
and life span. The seeds are useful in skin diseases and leprosy.
35. Ctenolepsis cerasiformis (Stocks) Hk. f. (Cucurbitaceae)
Local name: Ankh Futamani
FIs & Frs: Aug.-Oct.
Description: A monocious climber, leaves 3-lobed broadly ovate, stipules imbricate
leafy, flowers pale yellow, berries globose, orange-red, seeds ovoid.
Uses: Decoction of roots is given in colic, fever, indigestion, anorexia and
rheumatism, paste of leaves is applied to boils and swelling, fruits are given in
gonorrhoea, fruits pulp is applied on foot sole to reduce body heat.
36. Cucumis callosus (RottI.) Cogn. (Cucurbitaceae)
Local name: Kothimdu
Fls & Frs: July-Jan.
Description: A prostate monocious herb, leaves 5-7 lobed hairy ovate, flowers
yellow, in axillary, female flowers solitary, barriers orbiculate ellipsoid softly echinate
bright yellow, seeds ellipsoid oblong.
Parts Used: Roots
Uses: Paste of root is applied on scorpion sting, decoction of root is given in
indigestion, dropsy, pulp of fruit is women for abortion and to increase menses.
37. Cucumis sativus L. (Cucurbitaceae)
Local name: Kakadi
Fls & Frs: Throughout the year
Description: An annual hairy climber, leaves simple, alternate, deeply cordate,
both surface hairy, margin denticulate, flowers yellow, male clustered, female solitary,
fruits cylindrical, pepo, seeds cream-white, testa hard smooth.
Parts used: Fruits and Seeds.
Uses: The fruits are useful in, hyperdipsia, fever, jaundice. Seeds are useful in
burning sensation, fevers, and renal calculus.
168 N.K. PATEL, I.C PATEL, A.R. 8ELIYA AND D.N. PARMAR
38.Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.( Cuscutaceae)

Local name: Amarvel
Fls & Frs: Nov.- Apr.
Description: Twiners, creamy-yellow, glabrous. Flowers white or creamy-white,
solitary, cymes. Capsule globose, glabrous. Seeds black, glabrous.
Uses: The plant is useful in jaundice, cough, cephalalgia, fever and paralysis.
39. Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf. (Poaceae)
Local name: Lili Chaha
FIs & Frs: Not seen
Description: Tall, perennial herbs, throwing dense fascicles of leaves from a short,
oblique rhizome. Leaves glabrous-green, rough along margins.
Uses: The entire plant is used in influenza and pyrexia; it is also used in vomiting,
dyspepsia, and eczema.
40. Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L.) Taub. (Fabaceae)
Local name: Gawar
Description: An erect robust annual, stems grooved, leaflets, elliptic, acute, flowers
small, purplish in axillary racemes, fruits thick fleshy, pods in clusters, seeds per pods.
Parts Used: Pods and seeds.
Uses: The pods are useful in constipation, dyspepsia and anorexia.
41. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.( Poaceae)
Local name: Darbh
FLS & FRS: Throughout the year.
Description: Perennial, creeping herbs, slender, erect, culms. Leaves narrowly
linear, lanceolate, flat. Spikes long, digitate, spreading. Spike lets sessile, laterally
compressed, greenish.
Uses: The plant is useful in hyperdipsia, wounds, cephalagia, skin diseases,
vomiting, diarrhoea, abortion and general debility.
42. Cyperus rotundus L.( Cyperaceae)
Local name: Chio
Description: Perennial, herbs. Leaves linear, glabrous. Spikelets linear-cylindrical,
compressed. Nuts triquetrous, oblong, smooth, dark-brown.
Parts Used: Tubers.

Uses: The tubers are useful in the treatment of irregular menstruation, gastralgia,
dyspepsia, diarrhoea and vomiting.
43. Datura metel L. (Solanaceae)
Local name: Dhaturo
Description: Plant herbaceous plant, leaves alternate, unequal at the base, margin
wavy, flowers large, white, capsule, glabrous, slender spines, seeds numerous, blackish-
brown.
Parts Used: Leaves and flowers.
Uses: The leaves are used for reating cough, asthma, gastric ulcers. The dried
leaves and flowers are cut into small chips and used in antiasthmatic cigarettes.
44. Echinops echinatus Roxb. (Asteraceae)
Local name: Kantaseliyo
Fls & Frs: Oct.-Jan .
Description: A perennial herb, stem erect, simple, leaves alternate, elliptic, wide,
pinnetifid, spinous, heads in globose involucrate solitary head, paleblue or white sessile,
flowers oblong, bracts multi-seriate,
Parts used: Roots.
Uses: It is used in acute mastitis, obstruction of mnk secretion, skin diseases and
hemorr hoids.
45. Eclipta prostrata L. (Asteraceae)
Local name: Jal Bhangro
Description: Perennial herbs, erect or prostate, stems green, thickened at the nodes,
leaves opposite, subsessile, lanceolate, denticulate, flowers white, axillary, the female
radiated, the bisexual in the center.
Part Used: Whole plant.
Uses: The plant is useful in skin diseases, wounds, ulcers, fever and jaundice.
46. Enicostema axillare (Lam.) Raynal (Gentianaceae)
Local name: Navali
FLS & FRS: June-Dec.
Description: A glabrous perennial herb, leaves simple, opposite, sessile, linear,
elliptic-Ianceolate, flowers white, tubular, in whorled axillary clusters, fruits ellipsoid
capsules.
Uses: The plant is useful in dyspepsia, colic, ulcers, hernia, dropsy, skin diseases,
fevers and malaise. The plant is locally applied in snake bite.
47. Euphorbia neriifolia L. (Euphorbiaceae)

Local name: Thor
FIs & Frs: Dec.-Apr.
Description: Deciduous shrubs, younger branched strongly, 5-angled, stipular
thorns black. Leaves sub fleshy, glabrous, and obovate - lanceolate. Inflorescence few-
flowered cymes, towards ends of branches. Capsule obovoid-trigonous, red-purple,
smooth, and glabrous.
Uses: It is useful in bronchitis, asthma, cutaneous diseases, dropsy, dyspepsia,
intermittent fever, jaundice and ulcer.
48. Evolvulus alsinoides L.( Convolvulaceae)
Local name: Shankhavali
Description: A perennial herb, with prostrate branches and small elliptic to oblong,
lanceolate, obtuse, leaves, flowers mostly solitary in upper axils, corolla blue rotate and
broad funnel shaped, capsule glabrous.
Uses: It is used in fever, nervous debility, loss of memory, also in syphilis and
scrofula.
49. Fagonia cretica L. ( Zygophyllaceae)
Local name: Dhamaso
FIs & Frs: Aug.-Apr.
Description: An erect spiny herb, leaves trifoliate, stipules spines, flowers pale
pink, axillary, fruit 5-lobes, cocci, seeds flat, smooth, pale brown.
Parts Used: Leaves, stems and roots
Uses: Twig is used as tooth-brushes; leaves decoction is given in sore throat,
stomatitis, diarrhoea, fever, dropsy, vomiting and itch, wounds, scabies, ringworm and
boils. Root decoction is given in burning micturition and calculi.
50. Gloriosa superba L. (Liliaceae)
Local name: Kankasani
FIs: July-Sep. Frs: Aug.-Oct.
Description:- A herbaceous climber. Root stock tuberose, cylindrical. Leaves
alternate, rarely opposite or in whorls. Flowers bisexual, axillary, solitary, orange and
scarlet crimson colour. Seeds numerous, globose, dorsally compressed, straw-coloured.
Parts used: Seeds and tubers.
Uses: The tuberous roots are useful in ulcers, bleeding piles, skin diseases, leprosy,
snake-bites, fevers, and debility. Roots are given internally as an antidote for snake
poison. Seed are used for rheumatic pain jind as muscle relaxant.
51. Glycine max (L.) Merr. (Fabaceae)

Local name: Soya Bean
Fls & Frs: July-Nov.
Description: An erect hairy annual, leaves alternate, long petiolate, leaflets 3, ovate,
elliptic, stipule linear, flowers small, in axillary racemes, pink or white, seeds valves
spiral after dehiscence.
Parts Used: Fruits and seeds.
~
Uses: Soybean is useful in reduced ovulation rate and wound healing.

52. Gymnema sylvetre (Retz.) Schult. (Asc1epiadaceae)
Local name: Gudmar
Fls : Aug.
Description: A large, woody, much climber. Leaves simple, opposite, elliptic or
ovate, pubescent on both sides. Flowers small, yellow in umbellate cymes. Fruits slender.
Parts Used: Whole plant / Leaves.
Uses: It is useful in dyspepsia, jaundice, cough, asthma, fever, conjunctivitis and
leucoderma. The fresh leaves are use in diabetes.
53. Hibiscus micranthus L.f. (Malvaceae)
Local name: Chnak Bhindo
Fls & Frs : Aug.-Jan.
Description: An erect hairy herb, flowers pink to bright-rosy, axillary, in terminal,
racemes, fruit capsule, small, 5-valved.
Parts Used: Roots and Flowers.
Uses: Root decoction is given in fevers, flowers are given along with honey in
diabetes, leaves powdered are boiled in milk and used as a tonic.
54. Indigo/era tinctoria L. (Fabaceae)
Local name: -Gall
Description: Erect nearly glabrous shrub. Leaves alternate, oblong, obovate, and
hairy beneath. Flowers red, axillary racemes. Pods long, linear, brown. Seeds brown,
cylindrical, and glabrous.
Uses: It is useful for promoting growth of hair, asthma, ulcer and skin diseases.
Juice from the leaves is useful in the treatment of hydrophobia.
55. Ipomoea nil (L.) Roth (Convolvulaceae)
Local name: Padada Vel
Fls & Frs: Aug.- Feb.
Description: An extensively twining hairy herbaceous perennial, leaves simple,

ovate, cordate, flowers large, funnel shaped, blue tinged with pink, in umbellate cymes,
fruits smooth, capsules, seeds black, glabrous.
Parts Used: Seeds.
Uses: The seeds are useful in verminosis, skin diseases, leucoderma, dyspepsia
and scabies.
56. Jatropha curcas L. (Euphorbiaceae)
Local name: Ratanjot
Description: A soft-wooded, deciduous shrub, smooth, often with scars of fallen
leaves. Leaves ovate, entire 3-5 lobed, glabrous. Flowers terminal, axillary, paniculate
cymes. Capsule globose, yellow, and smooth.
Parts Used: Leaves, seeds.
Uses: The leaves are useful in foul ulcers, tumours and scabies, ulcer. Seeds are
useful in skin diseases.
57. Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet (Fabaceae)
Local name: Val (Valol)
FIs & Frs: Oct.-May.
Description: Perennial twining plant, stems green or purple, hairy, leaves alternate,
slightly hairy, inflorescence in axillary racemous, flowers white, pod flat, seeds reniform,
whitish.
Parts Used: Seeds.
Uses: The seeds are useful in nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea.
58. Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Stindl. (Cucurbitaceae)
Local name: Duthie
Description: An annual stout climber, leaves 3-5 lobed, flowers white, solitary,
berries light to dark green in various shapes and size, seeds white, flat.
Parts Used: Leaves and Fruits.
Uses: Leaves are applied on swelling and in cough. Fruits are beneficial in piles,
jaundice and to treat cough. Bitter variety is used as emetic in vomiting and cough.
59. Leptadenia reticulata (Retz.) Wt. & Am. (Asclepiadaceae)
Local name: Dodi
Description: Twiners, deeply bark. Leaves ovate, glabrous. Flowers greenish-
yellow, in axillary. Follicle oblong, lanceolate, dark-green. Seeds ovate, glabrous, coma.
Parts Used: Whole Plant.
Uses: The roots are useful in secondary syphilis and tenesmus. Leaves are useful
in scorbutic diseases. Seeds are useful in skin diseases, diarrhoea, and scurvy, seminal
weakness, asthma, cough.
60. Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link(Lamiaceae)
Local name: Kubi
Description: An erect or diffuse much branched annual herb, quadrangular stern
and branches, leaves sub-sessile, linear, obtuse, entire, flowers white, small, dense,
axillary, whorls, fruits oblong, brown, smooth, inner face angular and outer face rounded.
Parts Used: Leaves, flowers.
Uses: The leaves and flowers are useful in colic, dyspepsia, chronic skin eruption,
cough and catarrh in children.
61. Luffa acutangula (L.) Roxb. (Cucurbitaceae)
Local name: Turiya
FLS & FRS: Throughout the year
Description: A large monocious climber, sterns 5 angled tendrils 3-fid, leaves
palmately 5-7 angled, flowers bright-yellow, berries cylindric, acute ridged, seeds black.
Uses: Leaves are applied as paste on swelling, piles, splenetic, and leprosy. Seeds
are given in cough, decoction of roots is employed in calculi.
62. Luffa cylindrica (L.) Roem. (Cucurbitaceae)
Local name: Galka
FIs & Frs: Throughout the year
Description: A large monoecious climber, stern twisted, tendrils 3-fid leaves
palmately 5-lobed base cordate. Flowers yellow. Berries cylindric, longitudinal striped.
Parts Used: Leaves and Fruits
Uses: Green fruits are employed in cough. Juice of leaves is given dropsy, paste
of leaves on swellings, boils, ulcers and wounds.
63. Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. (Solanaceae)
Local name: Tamata
FLS & FRS: Throughout the year.
Description: An annual herb, leaves pinnate, pubescent throughout, flowers yellow
in extra axillary cymes, fruits globose, glabrous, seedsmany on flashy pal centum, flat,
kidney shaped.
Parts Used: Fruits.
Uses: The fruits are useful in atomic dyspepsia, asthma, and bronchitis.
64. Momordica charantia L. (Cucurbitaceae)
Local name: Karela
174 N.K. PATEL, I.e. PATEL, A.R. 5ELIYA AND D.N. PARMAR

Description: An annual monocious climber. Leaves deeply 5-lobed. Flowers bright
yellow, solitary. Berries obtuse, fusiform, pendulous, green, ribbed. Seeds flat.
Uses: Fruits are used in diabetes, piles, worms, jaundice. Juice of leaves is given
in snakebite, bleeding piles. Roots are used in opthalmia andvaginal prolapsed. Seeds
are given for round worms and liver worms.
65. Momordica dioica Roxb. ex Willd. (Cucurbitaceae)
Local name: Kankoda
Description: A perennial climber. Leaves ovate, entire, 3-5 lobed. Flowers bright
yellow, male flowers solitary, bract near the flower and enclosing it. Fruit softly globose.
Seeds globose.
Parts Used: Fruits and Roots
Uses: Paste of root of male creeper is applied on scorpion sting, snake bite and
rat bite. Fruits used in anorexia, diabetes and cough.
66. Mukia maderaspatana L. (Cucurbitaceae)
Local name: Chanak Chibhdi
Description: An annual, monoecious, prostrate climber. Leaves deltoid-ovate, 3-
5 lobed. Flowers yellow, in fascicles, female flowers sessile. Fruit globose.
Parts Used: whole plant
Uses: Fruits are eaten for deworming. Decoction of plant is given in colic. Roots
are chewed in tooth ache. Leaves paste applied on ulcers.
67. Nicotiana tabacum L. (Solanaceae)
Local name: Tamaku
Fls & Frs: Nev.-Jan.
Description: A glandular pubescent erect herb with few branches, leaves simple,
ovate, oblong, flowers light red, racemes, fruits narrowly elliptic ovoid capsule, seeds
many brown.
Parts Used: Leaves
Uses: The leaves are useful in dental caries, dyspepsia, asthma, scabies, skin
diseases, ulcers, painful tumors.
68. Odmum tenuiflorum L. ( Lamiaceae)
Local name: Tulsi
Description: Perennial, woody herbs. Leaves ovate, hairy. Flowers pale-pink, in
compact whorls, terminal and axillary racemes. Nutlets ellipsoid, smooth brown.

Uses: It is used in leucoderma, asthma, fever, vomiting, hiccough, opthalmia,
ringworms, verminosis and skin diseases.
69. Passiflora foetida L.( Passifloraceae)
Local name: Krishna Kamal
Description: A herbaceous, slender, foetid, tendril climber. Leaves simple, shining,
glandular 3 lobed, margins ciliate, flowers solitary, creamy white, fruits subglobose, ovate
berry, foetid smelling.
Uses: Plant paste is applied on itches, boils, wound, swelling and headache, fruits
are given in asthma, biliousness and giddiness, leaf juice is used as vaginal douche
to increase menses.
70. Pergularia daemia (Forsk.) Chiov. (Asc1epiadaceae)
Local name: Chamar Dudheli
FLS & FRS: Oct.- Mar.
Description: A slender perennial milky twining herb, leaves simple, opposite, sub
orbicular, cordate, flowers greenish yellow, axillary, cluster, fruits long, beak and soft
spines, seeds many, ovate, densely velvety on both sides.
Uses: It is useful in cough, asthma, fevers; the leaves are used in vitiated condition
of kapha, leprosy, fruits are useful in dyspepsia,
71. Phaseolus vulgaris L. (Fabaceae)
Local name: Fansi
Fls & Frs: Nov.-Dec.
Description: Slender-stemmed, annual, climbers, clusters of white flowers and a
bean pod containing kidney-shaped seeds.
Parts Used: Bean pods and Bean.
Uses: The pods are diuretic and stimulating. Powder is also used in the treatment
of diabetes.
72. Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Thonn.
(Euphorbiaceae)
Local name: Bhonya Amli
Description: Annual. Leaves glabrous, obovate. Flowers pale-greenish-yellow,
axillary and minute. Capsule globose, smooth. Seeds trigonous.
Uses: The fresh root is used for the treatment of viral hepatitis. The plant is also
used as diuretic in oedema.
73. Physalis minima L. (Solanaceae)

Local name: Popati
FIs & Frs: July-Jan.
Description: Herbaceous annual herbs, leaves simple, ovate, alternate, less
pubescent, flowers yellow, solitary, nodding, fruits green, many seeds round berry, seeds
many, discoid, orange yellow.
Uses: It is useful in burning sensation, colic, ulcers and cough.
74. Portulaca quadrifida L.( Portulacaceae)
Local name: Zini Luni
Description: Prostate, glabrous, herbs. Leaves sessile, fleshy. Flowers yellow
terminal. Capsule long, conical. Seeds dark-brown.
Uses: Fresh leaves are used to boils and impetigo.
75. Raphanus sativus L. (Brassicaceae)
Local name: Mulo
FIs & Frs: Oct.-Apr.
Description: A biennial, hispid herb, leaves radical and cauline, lyrate pinnetifid,
flowers in racemes, light pink or white, fruits thick, beaked, siliqua.
Parts Used: Leaves, roots and seeds.
Uses: Fresh leaf juice is given in calculi and burning maceration, root is beneficial
for bleeding piles, cough, whooping cough, seeds are given to increase menses, to purify
womb and for abortion.
76. Rosa damascena MiIl.( Rosaceae)
Local name: Gulab
Description: A perennial armed herb, leaves compound imparipinnate, leaflats 5,
ovate, serrate, stipules adnate, flowers pink, red, white, many coloured, fragrant, solitary.
Parts Used: Flowers
Uses: Petals are used for burning micturition, leucorrhoea, cough and sore throat.
77. Sida cordata (Burm. f.) Borss. (Malvaceae)
Local name: Bhoya Bala
FIs & Frs: Oct.-Jan.
Description: A perennial hairy herb, leaves cordate, lobes triangular, flowers
yellow, axillary, solitary, fruit globose, seeds brown.
HERBAL CURES: TRADITIONAL ApPROACH 177
Abrus precatorius Abutilon indicum
Acalypha indica Achyranthes aspera
Adhatoda zeylanica Aerva lanata
Andrographis paniculata Arachis hypogaea

178 HERBAL CURES: TRADITIONAL ApPROACH
Argyreia nervosa Aristolochia bracteolata
Bacopa monnieri Boerhavia diffusa
Brassica juncea Kalanchoe pinnata
Calotropis gigantea Canavalia gladiata

BAL CURES: TKADTTlOXAL APPROACH 1 1'
Cannabis sativa Cassia italica
Catharanthus roseus Cayratia trifolia
Celosia argentea Cephalonoplos segetum
Chenopodium album Cicer arietinum

Cichorum intybus Cissus quadrangula
Cleome viscosa Clitoria ternatea
Coccinia grandis Commelina diffusa
Corchorus aestuans Crotalaria retusa

Ctenolepsis cerasifonnis Cucumis sativus
Cuscuta reflexa Cymbopogon citratus
Cyamopsis tetragonoloba Cynodon dactylon
Cyperus rotundus Echinops echinatus

182 HERBAL CUI~ES : TRADITIONAL ApPROACH
Eclipta prostrata Enicostema axillare
Euphorbia neriifolia Evolvulus alsinoides
Fagonia cretica Gloriosa superba
Glycine max Gymnema sy lvetre

Indigo/era tinctoria Ipomoea nil
Jatropha curcas Lablab purpureus
Lagenaria siceraria Leptadenia reticulata
Leucas aspera Luffa acutangula

Luffa cylindrica Lycopersicon esculentum

"""'"'--::-01''''''''''--'''''
Momordica charantia Momordica dioica
Mukia maderaspatana Nicotiana tabacum
Ocimum tenuiflorum Passiflora foetida

Pergularia daemia Phaseolus vulgaris
Phyllanthus amarus Physalis minima
Pithecellobium dulce Pongamia pinnata
Portulaca quadrifida Psidium guajava

Pterocarpus marsupium Raphanus sativus
Rosa damascena Sapindus laurifolia
Saraca asoca Semecarpus anacardium
Sesbania grandiflora Sida orientalis

Syzygium cumini Syzygium malaccense
T amarindus indica Tenninalia bellirica
Tenninalia catappa Tenninalia chebula
Thespesia populnea Trichosanthes dioica

Triticum aestivum Typha domingensis

...-,----=~~
Vigna radiata Vigna unguiculata
Viola cinerea Vitis vinifera
Withania somnifera Xanthium strumarium

Parts Used: Leaves and Frits

Uses: Leaf paste is applied on boils, leaf decoction is given in diarrhoea, decoction
of fruits is given in fever and sexual debility, and decoction of roots given in leucorrhoea,
bronchitis and asthma.
78. Sida orienta lis Cav. ( Malvaceae)
Local name: Mahabala
PIs & Frs: Aug.-Feb.
Description: An erect, woody herb with hairy sterns, leaves rhomboid (diamond
shaped) margins toothed, flowers yellow, axillary, fruits subglobose.
Parts Used: Stems roots and seeds.
Uses: Decoction of fresh stems is given in calculi, decoction of roots is given in
rheumatism, fever, swelling, and burning maturation, seeds are employed in gonorrhoea,
and sexual debility.
79. Solanum nigrum 1. (Solanaceae)
Local name: Ringan
PIs & Frs: Throughout the year.
Description: An erect, divaricately branched, annual herb, leaves ovate, glabrous,
flowers axillary, drooping subumebellate cymes, fruits, purplish black, seeds many,
discoid, yellow.
Uses: It is useful in cough, asthma, ulcers, dyspepsia, vomiting, leprosy, skin
diseases, fever; the leaves are used in gouty joints and skin diseases.
80. Solanum virginianllnl 1. (Solanaceae)
Local name: Bhoy Ringni
PIs & Frs: Throughout the year.
Description: A prickly, diffuse, perennial, woody at the base, with zigzag branches,
leaves ovate, oblong, hairy on both sides, flowers blue, fruits glabrous, globular drooping
berry, yellow, seeds many, small, smooth, yellowish-brown.
Uses: It is useful in dental caries, colic, dyspepsia, leprosy, skin diseases,
hypertension, fever, cough and asthma.
81. Trapa "a tans 1.( Onagraceae)
Local name: Shingoda
PIs: Sep.-Oct. Frs: Oct.-Dec.
Description:- A floating herb. Leaves broadly rhomboid, dark-green above, flowers
white, axillary, solitary, fruit nut, black, angles spinescent, 1-seeded.
Parts Used: Fruits, seeds
190 N.K. PATEL, I.C PATEL, A.R. SELIYA AND D.N. PARMAR
Uses: Seeds are edible, paste of fruit is applied on verbal column in pain, !lciatica
and back ache.
82. Tribulus te"estris L. (Zygophyllaceae)
Local name: Bethugokharu
Description: An annual prostate herb, slender, leave simple, pinnate, opposite,
sessile, flowers yellow, solitary, fruits a 5 angled or winged spinous, seeds one or more
each coccus.
Uses: The roots and fruits are useful in dyspepsia, cough, asthma, anemia, and
scabies. The leaves are useful in gonorrhea, skin diseases, verminosis and general
weakness.
83. Trichosanthes tricuspidata Lour. (Cucurbitaceae)
Local name: Rata Indramana
Fls & Frs: May-Aug.
Description: An extensive, woody climber, with 2-3 branched tendrils. Leaves 3-
5 lobed. Flowers white, axillary. Fruits berries, red.
Parts Used: Fruits
Uses: Fruit pulp is boiled in Brassica oil and applied on head to cure head ache,
also applied on wounds, ulcers and boils.
84. Trichosanthes dioica Roxb.(Cucurbitaceae)
Local name: Parval
Description: A dioecious climber. Leaves ovate, cordate, acute, and sinuate.
Flowers are white. Male and female flowers in axillary. Berries ellipsoidal oblong
longitudinally ribbed. Seeds minute.
Parts Used: Fruits and Roots.
Uses: Fruits are used in anorexia, jaundice and indigestion. The roots are used
in fever, boils and skin diseases.
85. Triticum aestivum L. ( Poaceae)
Local name: Ghahun
FIs & Frs: Dec.- Mar.
Description: Tufted herbs. Leaves linear, flat, glabrous or hairy. Spikelets distichous,
laterally compressed, 3-5 flowered.
Parts Used: Grains.
Uses: The grains are used in boils, skin diseases and ulcer.
86. Triumfetta rotundifolia Lamk. ( TiIiaceae)
Local name: Zipto
Fls & Frs: Aug.-Oct.
Description: An erect stellately hairy herb, leaves orbicular, irregular toothed

hairy, base rotunded, flowers yellow, racemes, fruit ovoid, hairy, seeds reddish-brown.
Parts Used: Leaves
Uses: Leaves are chewed and applied to stop bleeding from wounds and boil,
leaf decoction is used in diarrhea.
87. Typha domingensis Pers.( Typhaceae)
Local name: Gha Bajariyu
Fls & Fsr: Jun.-Sep.
Description: A perennial herb, with creeping rhizomes. Stem erect, cylindrical.
Leaves linear, thick and spongy. Flowers in vary dense superposed cylindrical spikes,
the male and female similar, male above and female below.
Parts Used: Pollen.
Uses: It is used in abdominal pain during the puerperium, stomach-ache,
haematuria, skin diseases.
88. Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. (Asteraceae)
Local name: Sahadevi
Description: Erect hearb. Leaves ovate, elliptic, glabrescent above, densely hairy
beneath. Heads bright purple, in terminal, paniculate cymes. Achenes minute brown,
hairy on angles.
Uses: Roots are useful in diarrhoea, cough, and skin diseases, chronic and internal
fever. Leaves are useful in ringworm, elephantiasis, flowers in fever. Seeds used in
roundworms, cough, leucoderma.
89. Vigna aconitifolia ijacq.) Morecha!. (Fabaceae)
Local name: Math
Description: A diffuse or sub erect herb, leaflets lobes linear, lanceolate, flowers
pale to bright yellow in condensed racemes, pods small, cylindric, seeds brown.
Parts Used: Roots and seeds
Uses: Roots paste is applied on scorpion sting, seeds are used in fever, leprosy,
cough, bleeding diarrhoea and worms.
90. Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek. var. sublobata (Roxb.) Verde. ( Fabaceae)
Local name: Mag
Fls & Frs: Sep.-Dec.
Description: An annual erect, hairy herb, leaflets broadly ovate, flowers yellow
in racemes, pods compressed, linear, oblong, hairy, seeds green.
Parts Used: Roots and seeds
Uses: They are used for consumption, cough, fever, diarrhoea, burning sensation
and dyspepsia.
91. Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. (Fabaceae)
Local name: Choli
Fls & Frs: Aug.-Nov.
Description: A slender, twining, annual, leaflet ovate, flowers bright purple in
condensed racemes, pods cylindric, long, seeds pinkish-white, oblong.
Parts Used: Fruits
Uses: Green fresh pods are also used to crease sexual vigour and to increase breast
milk.
92. Viola cinerea Boiss.( Violaceae)
Local name: Zinko
FIs: July-Sep. Frs: Aug.-Oct.
Description: A suberect herb, leaves glabrous, minutely toothed, flowers solitary,
white or purple, fruits capsule, cylindric, 3-valved, seeds minute.
Parts Used: Whole plant, Root powder is powerful emetic, the flowers are
emollient and demulcent, whole plant is considered a useful febrifuge.
Uses: Seeds are cooked and given in diarrhoea, fever, vomiting, energetic.
93. Vitis vinifera L. (Vitaceae)
Local name: Draksh
Fls: Oct.-Dec. Frs: Dec.-Apr.
Description: - A deciduous climber with tendrils. Leaves orbicular deeply 3-5 lobed
denate. Flowers green, in branched panicles, scented. Berry 1-2 seeds or seedless.
Parts Used: Fruits.
Uses: Fruits are given in anaemia, dyspepsia, dysuria, jaundice, fever, vomiting,
speedy energy, thirst and heart diseases. Black resins are used as a cooling in burning
micturition and erysipelas.
94. Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal. (Solanaceae)
Local name: Shvagandha
Description: An undershrub. Leaves ovate, appressed-hairy. Flowers greenish-
yellow, sessile, and axillary. Berries smooth, red when ripe. Seeds flat, oblong, rarely
subreniform, smooth.
Parts Used: Roots
Uses: The tuberous roots are useful in leucoderma, tissue-building and nervous
breakdown. Also useful in ulcer and painful swellings.
95. Xanthium strumarium L. (Asteraceae)
Local name: Gadariyu
Description: Annual herb. Leaves broadly ovate, hairy. Heads, greenish-yellow,

axillary, spikes. Fruits ellipsoid, pale to dark-brown. Achenes smooth, glabrous, oblong.
Parts Used: Roots, leaves and fruits, seed oil.
Uses: It is useful in chronic malaria, leucorrhoea and urinary diseases. It is also
useful in asthma.
96. Zornia diphylla(L.)Pers. (Fabaceae)
Local name: Haran Charo
Fls & Frs: Aug.-Nov.
Description: An annual, procumbent herb, leaves bifoliolate, ovate, flowers yellow,
in terminal and axillary, racemes, pods 2-6 jointed seeds yellowish brown.
Uses: Plant paste is applied on guinea worms and swelling; leaf juice is dropped
in ear in case of ear-ache, plant decoction is given in toxemia.
6. SUMMARY
The present paper incorporates the results of ethnomedicinal surveys conducted
in North Gujarat area of Gujarat state. It gives an account of 96 species belonging to
37 families of angiosperms. The information on correct botanical name, family, local
name, part used and local uses are given, apart from short description and phenology
for each species. Photograph of each taxon is also provided.
7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are thankful to the notified and denotified adivasi groups, their Vaids,
Ojhas; Bhopas etc. and forest officials who provided valuable information on this subject.
We are also thankful to the authorities of various herbaria and musea for their help
and co-operation extended in several ways.
TABLE-l
Inventory of angiospermic plants of north Gujarat region
Sr. No. Botanical Name Family
1. Abrus precatorius L. Fabaceae
2. Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet Malvaceae
3. Acalypha indica L. Euphorbiaceae
4. Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae
5. Adhatoda zeylanica Medic. Acanthaceae
6. Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. ex Schultes. Amaranthaceae
7. Allium cepa L. Liliaceae
8. Andrographis paniculata(Burmf.) Wall. Acanthaceae
9. Arachis hypogaea L. Fabaceae
Contd ...
... Contd.
Sr.No. Botanical Name Family
10. ArgljYeia nervosa (Burmf.) Boj. Convolvulaceae
11. Aristolochia bracteolata Lam. Aristolochiaceae
12. Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst. Scrophulariaceae
13. Boerhavia diffusa L. Nyctaginaceae
14. Brassica juncea L. Brassicaceae
15. Kalanchoe pinnata (Lamk.)Pers. Crassulaceae
16. Calotropis gigantea (L.)R.Br. Asdepiadaceae
17. a
Canavalia gladiata acq.) DC. Fabaceae
18. Cannabis sativa L. Cannabinaceae
19. Cassia italica (Mill.) Lam. Caesapiniaceae
20. Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don. Apocynaceae
21. Cayratia tnfolia (L.)Domin Vitaceae
22. Celosia argentea L. Amaranthaceae
23. Cephalonoplos segetum (Bunge)Kitam. Asteraceae
24. Chenopodium album L. Euphorbiaceae
25. Cicer arietinum L. Fabaceae
26. Cichorum inttJbus L. Asteraceae
27. Cissus quadrangula L. Vitaceae
28. Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. Cucurbitaceae
29. Cleome viscosa L. Capparaceae
30. Clitoria ternatea L. Fabaceae
31. Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt. Cucurbitaceae
32. Commelina diffusa Burmf. Commelinaceae
33. Corchorus aestuans L. TiIiaceae
34. Crotalaria retusa L. Fabaceae
35. Ctenolepsis cerasiformis (Stocks) Hkf.. Cucurbitaceae
36. Cucumis callosus (RottI.) Cogn. Cucurbitaceae
37. Cucumis sativus L. Cucurbitaceae
38. Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf. Poaceae
39. Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L.) Taub. Fabaceae
40. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Poaceae
41. Cyperus rotundus L. Cyperaceae
Contd ...
... Contd.
42. Datura metel L. Solanaceae
43. Echinops echinatus Roxb. Asteraceae
44. Eclipta prostrata L. Asteraceae
45. Enicostema axillare (Lam.) Raynal Gentianaceae
46. Euphorbia neriifolia L. Euphorbiaceae
47. Evolvulus alsinoides L. Convolvulaceae
48. Fagonia cretica L. Zygophyllaceae
49. Gloriosa superba L. Liliaceae
50. Glycine max(L.) Merr. Fabaceae
51. Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.)Schult. Asclepiadaceae
52. Hibiscus micranthus Lf. Malvaceae
53. Indigofera tinctoria L.. Fabaceae
54. Ipomoea nil (L.) Roth Convolvulaceae
55. Jatropha curcas L. Euphorbiaceae
56. Lablab purpureus (L. )Sweet. Fabaceae
57. Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Stindl. Cucurbitaceae
58. Leptadenia reticulata (Retz.)W.&A. Asclepiadaceae
59. Leucas aspera (Willd.)Link. Lamiaceae
60. Luffa acutangula (L.) Roxb. Cucurbitaceae
61. Luffa ClJlindrica (L.) Roem. Cucurbitaceae
62. Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. Solanaceae
63. Momordica charantia L. Cucurbitaceae
64. Momordica dioica Roxb.ex Willd. Cucurbitaceae
65. Mukia maderaspatana L. Cucurbitaceae
66. Nicotiana tabacum L. Solanaceae
67. Ocimum tenuiflorum L. Lamiaceae
68. Pergularia daemia (Forsk.) Chiov. Asclepiadaceae
69. Phaseolus vulgaris L. Fabaceae
70. Phyllanthus amarus Schumach.&Thorn. Euphorbiaceae
71. Physalis minima L. Solanaceae
72. Passiflora foetida L. Passifloraceae
73. Portulaca quadriftda L. Portulacaceae
Contd ...
... Contd.
74. Raphanus sativus L. Brassicaceae
75. Rosa damascena Mill. Rosaceae
76. Sida cordata (Burm. f) Borss. Malvaceae
77. Sida orientalis Cay. Malvaceae
78. Solanum nigrum L. Solanaceae
79. Solanum virginianum L. Solanaceae
80. Trapa natans L. Onagraceae
81. Tribulus terrestris L. Zygophyllaceae
82. Trichosanthes tricuspidata Lour. Cucurbitaceae
83. Trichosanthes dioica Roxb. Cucurbitaceae
84. Triticum aestivum L. Poaceae
85. Triumfetta rotundifolia Lamk. Tiliaceae
86. Typha domingensis Pers. Typhaceae
87. Vernonia cinerea (1.) Less. Asteraceae
88. Vigna aconitifolia (Jacq.) Morechal. Fabaceae
89. Vigna radiata (1.) Wilczek. var.sublobata (Roxb.) Verdc. Fabaceae
90. Vigna unguiculata (1.) Walp. Fabaceae
91. Viola cinerea Boiss. Violaceae
92. Vi tis vinifera 1. Vitaceae
93. Withania somnifera (1.) Dunal Solanaceae
94. Xanthium strumarium 1. Asteraceae
95. Zornia diphylla (1.) Pers. Fabaceae
000
NORTH GUJARAT PART-II
N.K. PATEL, I.C. PATEL, A.R. SELIYA AND D.N. PARMAR
Chapter Outline
1. Introduction
2. Enumeration
3. Summary
1. INTRODUCTION
This paper is in continuation with the earlier part I and reports the traditional
uses of 77 shrub and tree species being practiced by the tribes in North Gujarat area
of Gujarat state. The methodology and pattern of presentation of data followed for the
present paper is the same as in the part-I.
2. ENUMERATION
1. Acacia catechu L.f. Willd.(Mimosaceae)
Local Name: Kher
Fls & Frs: Jul.- Jan.
Description: A moderate sized deciduous tree, with grey bark. Leaves bipinnately
compound. flowers pale yellow. Fruits flat brown pods, shiny. Seeds 3-10 per pod.
Uses: The bark is useful in passive diarrhoea and leprosy. Heartwood is also used
in leprosy.
2. Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. (Mimosaceae)
Local Name: Hermo Baval
Fls & Frs: Jul.-Jan.
Description: A medium sized armed tree. Bark yellow. Leaves bipinnately
compound. Nodes with a pair of stout pointed spines. Flower dull creamy white.
Uses: Paste of root is applied on guinea worm. Bark is useful in diarrhoea and
for washing ulcers. Stem bark is used in cough and tanning leather. Flowers are given
in diabetes.
3. Acacia nilotica (L.)Del. (Mimosaceae)
Local Name: Baval
Fls &; Frs: Jul.-Apr.
Description: An armed tree with black bark. Leaves bipinnately, main rachis hairy
and with gland, linear, stipulates modified in spines. flower yellow in axillary and
terminal panicles.
Uses:- Leaves and bark are useful in dysentery, diarrhoea, gonorrhoea and piles.
Gum s useful in fever, diabetes, diarrhoea, dysentery, cough and pyorrhoea. Pods are
given in cough, diarrhoea and bronchitis. Leaves are given to pregnant women for white
progeny.
4. Acacia senegal (L.)WiIld. (Mimosaceae)
Local Name: Goradio Baval
Fls &; Frs: May.-Feb.
Description: A medium sized tree. Leaves bipinnate 3-5 pairs, leaflets linear
stipules apines usually threat at node. Flower greenish white, shining, in axillary spikes.
Uses:- Paste of leaves is applied on boils, wounds and swelling. Gum is useful
in checking haemorrhoea and epistaxia, in cough, sprue and stomatitis. Bark is useful
in diabetes.
5. Adansonia digitata L.(Bombacaceae)
Local Name: Rukhdo
Fls: Apr.-May Frs: May-Dec.
Description: A tall, deciduous tree. Leaves compound, digitate, shining upper
surface, leaflet obovate. Flowers pendulous, red, axillary, solitary.
Uses: Bark decoction is given for intermittent fever. Leaf paste is applied on boils,
rheumatism. Pulp of fruit is given in diarrhoea, dysentery, sprue, fever and thirst. Gum
is used to cure mouth ulcers.
6. Aegle marmelos (L.)Corr.(Rutaceae)

Local Name: Bili
Fls: May-Jun. Frs: Jun.-May.
Description: A thorny, deciduous tree. leaves trifoliate, leaflets lanceolate. Flowers
greenish white. Fruit globose, rind woody. Seeds wrinkled, pale-brown.
Uses: Leaf paste is applied on swelling and rheumatism. Leaf juice is employed
in diabetes, fever, asthma, jaundice, ear complaints and dropsy. Bark is useful in fever
and vomiting.
ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS OF NORTH GUJARAT PART-II 199
7. Ailanthus excelsa Roxb. (Simaroubaceae)

Local Name: Arduso.
Fls & Frs: Dec.-May
Description: A tall, deciduous tree. Leaf pinnate, irregular, serrate, leaflets, ovate,
lanceolates glabrous. Flower pale yellow in large panicles. Fruit samara.
Uses: Decoction of bark is given to women in debility after childbirth, fever, sprue,
cholera, cold and dysentery. Bark used in bronchitis and asthma. bark paste is applied
on stomach pain.
S. Albizia lebbeck (1.) WiIld. (Mimosaceae)
Local Name: Kalosaras
Fls & Frs: Aug.- Mar.
Description: A large unarmed deciduous tree, leaves bipinnate with a large gland
on petiole, leaflets elliptic oblong. Flowers greenish yellow, fragrant, in globose umbellate
heads.
Uses:- Flowers are given in piles, diarrhoea, swelling and gonorrhoea. The seeds
are applied as poultice to reduce swelling of cervical glands. Root is useful in hemi
crania. Stem bark is useful for on poisonous insect bites and poisonous animal bites.
9. Alstonia scholaris (1.) R. Br.(Apocynaceae)
Local name: Saptaparni
Fls & Frs : Dec.-Jan.
Description: A large evergreen tree, bark grayish brown, rough, lenticellate, milky
latex. Leaves whorl, elliptic-oblong, pale beneath. Flowers small, greenish white,
numerous in umbellate panicles, corolla tube short. Fruits follicles. Seeds papillose with
brownish hair at each end.
Uses:- The bark is useful in fevers, malaria fever, diarrhoea, dyspepsia, leprosy,
skin diseases, foul ulcer and asthma.
10. Annona squamosa 1. (Annonaceae)
Local Name: Sitaphal.
Fls: April-Aug. Frs: June-Aug.
Description: A deciduous tree with light-black, rough, longitudinally, fissured
bark. Leaves glabrous elliptic. oblong, rarely obovate, petiolate. Flowers solitary, axillary.
Fruits globose.
Uses: The root is useful in mental depression and spinal disorder. The leaves and
seeds are used to kill lice. Fruits are useful in anaemia, burning sensation, vomiting,
cough, malignant tumours.
11. Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. ex GuiIl.(Combretaceae)
Local name: Dhavdo
Fls & Frs : Sep.-Dec.
Description: A large deciduous tree with greenish white smooth bark. Leaves
elliptic, obtuse at the apex, rounded, glabrous, midrib prominent, pink, leaves turning
red before falling. Flowers sessile in small dense heads. Fruits small, many in globular
head, yellowish-brown, winged, a single seed.
Uses: The roots are useful in wounds and ulcers, inflammations, diabetes,
diarrhoea, skin diseases, leprosy. The leaf juice is good for otopyorrhea.
12. Azadirachta indica A. Juss.(Meliaceae)
Local name: Limado
PIs: Dec.-Mar. Frs: Jan.-May
Description: A medium to large size tree, having grayish to dark grey tubercled
bark. Leaves compound, imparipinnate, leaflets, sub opposite, serrate. Flowers creamy
or yellowish white in axillary, panicles, cylinric. Fruits one seeded. Seeds ellipsoid, thick,
fleshy and
oily.
Uses: The bark and leaves are useful in hyperdipsia, leprosy, skin diseases, eczema,
leucoderma and malaria fever, wounds, ulcer, burning sensation, tumour, vomiting
dyspepsia, internal worms, cough and diabetes.
13. Bauhinia racemosa Lamk.(Caesalpiniaceae)
Local Name: Kanchnar
Fls & Frs: Mar.-Jui.
Description: A deciduous, small tree. Leaves simple, divided into 2 rounded lobed,
white and hairy below, cordate at base. Flowers creamy yellow, small in terminal or
leaf opposed racemes.
Uses: Leaves useful in piles, gonorrhoea, malaria and headache. Leaf paste is
applied on tumours. Roots are useful in burning sensation, toxaemia, TB and obesity.
Bark useful in liver, swelling, goiter and swelling.
14. Bauhinia variegata L.(Caesalpiniaceae)
Local name: Kanchnar
PIs & Frs : Sep.-Feb.
Description: A moderate sized deciduous tree with vertically cracked gray bark.
Leaves connate, leaflets, ovate, rounded at apex. flowers white or pink, in short axillary.
fruits flat dehiscent pods, seeds 10-15.
Uses: The roots and bark are useful in diarrhoea, skin diseases, leprosy, internal
worms, tumours, wounds, ulcers, cough and diabetes.
15. Boewellia serrata Roxb.ex Colb.(Burseraceae)
Local Name: Haleri
PIs & Frs: Dec.-Apr.
Description: A deciduous, tall tree. Leaves alternate, leaflets 13-31, sessile, hairy.
Flowers white, in axillary racemes.
Uses: Twig is used as tooth brush to cure tooth complaints and mouth ulcers.
Leaves, seed or gum are used on snake bite. Bark used in muscular pain and rheumatic
pain.
16. Bombax ceiba L(Bombacaceae)
Local Name: Simlo
FIs: Feb.-April FRS:- Mar-June
Description:- A tall deciduous tree with a straight buttressed trunk, bark gray,
covered with hard, sharp, conical prickles, leaves large, glabrous, entire. Flower red,
numerous, appearing when the tree is bare of leaves. Fruits capsule.
Uses: The roots are used in dysentery. The gum is useful in dysentery, haemoptysis
of pulmonary tuberculosis, burning sensation. The bark is used for healing wounds.
Leaves are good for skin eruption. Flowers are good for skin troubles.
17. Buchanania lanzan Spreng.(Anacardiaceae)
Local Name: Charoli
Fls: Dec.-Apr. Frs: Jan.- Apr.
Description: A medium sized tree 18 m height, dark gray rough fissured bark
and young branches clothed with silky hairy. Leaves simple, obtuse, base rounded,
straight and parallel. Flowers small, greenish white, in terminal and axillary panicles
which are shorter than leaves, carpel 5. Fruits black.
Uses: The roots are useful in leprosy, skin disease and diarrhoea. The leaves are
useful in burning sensation, cough, bronchitis and skin diseases. The fruits are anti-
inflammatory and useful in leprosy, skin diseases, and gleets, burning sensation,
abdominal disorders, cough, asthma, fever and ulcers.
18. Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub.(Fabaceae)
Local Name: Khakhro
Fls & Frs: Dec.-May.
Description: A medium sized deciduous tree, leaves 3-foliate, leaflets coriaceous,
obtuse, glabrous above when old, finally silky, flowers bright orange red, large, in rigid
racemes, fruits pods.
Uses: The bark is useful in diarrhoea, dysentery, intestinal worms, bone fractures,
gonorrhoea, ulcers, tumours and diabetes. The leaves useful in pimples, boils, colic,
worm infestations and haemenorrhoea. The flowers are useful in diarrhoea, fever,
leprosy, skin diseases, bone fractures and are very efficacious in birth control. The seeds
are useful in herpes, shin disease, ringworm, epilepsy, roundworm and diabetes. gum
is useful in diarrhoea, haematemesis, diabetes, leprosy, skin diseases, ulcer and fever.
19. Caesalpinia sappan L(Caesalpiniaceae)
Local Name: Galtoro
Description: Small tree, with hard wood. Stem prickly. Young shoot tomentose,
branches glabrous covered with short spines. Leaves alternate, glabrous above.
Inflorescence in terminal raceme. Flower yellow coloured. Seeds yellowish-brown.
Uses: It is useful for treatment of bacillary dysentery, diarrhoea, intestinal and
uterine haemorrhages, wound, impetigo and anaemia.
20. Callistemon lanceolatus DC.(Myrtaceae)
Local Name: Bottle Brush
Fls & Frs: Feb.-Apr.
Description: A small evergreen tree. Leaves narrow, lanceolate, pointed. Flowers
red in long drooping spike like bottle brush. Fruit a small pyxis.
Uses: Leaf extract is applied on ringworm, boils and ulcers.
21. Carica papaya L. (Caricaceae)
Local Name: Papayu
Description: A small, soft-wooded, short lived laticiferous tree. Leaves deeply
lobed, palm-like long, hollow petiole. Flowers unisexual, white coloured, rarely bisexual,
males in long drooping panicles, females in short clusters. Fruits one chambered,
succulent and spherical. Seed many, yellowish brown.
Uses: The fruits are useful in cough, bronchitis, inflammations, ringworm, skin
disease, urinary calculus and injures of the urinary tract. The latex is useful in round
worm infestation, stomachalgia, dyspepsia, skin diseases, leprosy, fever and general
debility.
22. Caryota urens L.(Arecaceae)
Local Name: Shivjata
I
Description: A palm with a smooth, cylindrical, shiny, bearing a crown of large

leaves. Leaves long, drooping, and bipinnate with leaflets shaped like the tail of a fish.
Flowers on pendulous spadix, inflorescence long, flowers group of three, female in the
centre and male on side. Fruit globose, reddish when ripe.
Uses: The pulp of the fruit is good for hyperdipsia and fatigue. A paste made
from the nut is good for hemicranias.
23. Cassia fistula L.(Caesalpiniaceae)
Local Name: Garmalo.
Fls: Mar.-June. Frs: Throughout the year.
Description: A moderate sized deciduous tree, smooth bark when young. Leaves
pinnately compound, ovate, acute, bright green. Flowers bright yellow in lax pendulous
racemes. Fruits cylindrical pods.
Uses: The roots are useful in skin diseases, tuberculius glands and burning
sensation. The bark is useful in boils, pustules, leprosy, ringworm, colic, fever, diabetes
and cardiopathy. The leaves are useful in skin diseases, leprosy, ulcers and fevers.
Flowers are useful in skin diseases, burning sensation, dry cough and bronchitis.
24. Casuarina equisetifolia L.(Casuarinaceae)
Local Name: Saru.
Description: A tree with drooping branches and needle like branchlets. Leaves
reduced and scale-like giving branthlets. Flowers anemophilous, male flower borne in
spikes.
Uses: The plant is used to treat nervous disorders, diarrhoea and gonorrhoea. It
is used into treat cough, ulcers and constipation. Bark is used as an emetic to treat
throat infection, coughs and stomachache. It is used an infusion of the grated bark to
treat mouth infection and urinary tract infection.
25. Ceiba pentandra (Linn.) Gaertn. (Bombacaceae)
Local Name: Safed Simlo
Fls & Frs:
Description: A medium sized deciduous tree. Leaves digitately compound,
glabrous, petioles long, entire and lanceolate. Flower white. Fruits oblong or fusiform
capsule.
Uses: The roots are useful in gonorrhoea, dysuria, intermittent fevers. The bark
is useful in hepatopathy, abdominal complaint, tumours and colic.
26. Citrus limon (L.) Burm. (Rutaceae)
Local Name: Limbu
Description: A thorny tree. Leaves elliptic oblong, gland dotted. Petiole winged.
Flowers white, fragrant in axillary. Fruits globose berries.
Uses: Fruit juice is employed in vomiting, nausea, indigestion piles, scurvy,
dyspepsia, pyorrhoea and cholera. Lemon oil is also applied to check postpartum
bleeding.
27. Cordia dichotoma Forst.f. (Boraginaceae)
Local Name: Gundo
Fls & Frs: Feb.-Mar.
Description: A medium sized tree. Leaves simple, entire, dentate, and elliptic-
lanceolate. Flowers white, terminal. Fruit drupes, yellowish brown.
Uses: The bark is useful in dyspepsia, fever, diarrhoea, burning sensation, leprosy
and skin diseases. The leaves are useful in gonorrhoea. the fruits are useful in ulcers,
leprosy, skin diseases, burning sensation, bronchitis, dry cough, chronic fever and ring
worm.
28. Crateva adansonii DC. (Capparaceae)

Local Name: Vayvarno
Fls & Frs: Jan.-May.
Description: An unarmed, deciduous tree. Leaves trifoliate, petiolate. Leaflets
obovate. Flowers white. Fruits subglobose, pale orange.
Uses: Leaves paste is applied on boils, mumps, burning sensations and swelling.
Leaf decoction is given in fevers, indigestion. decoction of dried flowers is given in
toxaemia. Bark paste applied on boils, ulcers, swellings, joints pains. Root and bark
used for fever, cancer and toxaemia.
29. Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. ex DC. (Fabaceae)
Local Name: Sisam
Fls & Frs: Jan.-Oct.
Description: A deciduous tree. Leaves imparipinnate, alternate, rachis zigzag.
Flowers pale yellow, sessile or nearly so in axillary panicles, shorter than leaves. Fruit
pods narrowed at the base into a long stalk.
Uses: The roots are useful in diarrhoea and dysentery. The leaves are useful in
gonorrhoea, menorrhagia, dyspepsia, colic, diarrhoea, dysentery, vomiting and burning
sensation. The bark and heartwood are useful in hyperdypsia, burning sensation,
vomiting, skin diseases, leprosy, leucoderma, scabies, ulcers, dysentery, bronchitis, gout
and fever.
30. Delonix elata (L.)Gamble(Caesalpinaceae)
Local Name: Sandesro
Fls & Frs: Mar.-Aug.
Description: A tall deciduous tree. Leaves bipinnate, leaflets 10-20 pairs, linear
oblong. flower creamy white in terminal racemes.
Uses:- Root paste is applied for scorpion sting. Leaf paste is applied to boils, plague
and piles. leaves are also useful in vagina in case of leucorrhoea. Bark is useful in fever.
31. Delonix regia (Boj. ex Hook.) Raf. (Caesalpinaceae)
Local Name: Gulmohor
Fls: Apr.-Aug. Frs: Jun.- Mar.
Description: A tall branched, deciduous tree. bark grey. Leaves pinnate, leaflets
15-20 pairs. Flower reddish orange.
Uses: Bark is given in fever and diarrhoea. Flowers are eaten in anorexia for energy
and to quench thirst.
32. Drypetes roxburghii (Wall.) Hurusawa (Euphorbiaceae)
Local Name: Putranjivi
Fls & Frs: July-Dec.
Description: A moderate sized evergreen tree having dark grey bark. Leaves
simple, alternate, dark green, shiny, elliptic-oblong. Male flower pedicellate in axillary
cluster, female flowers in axile. Fruit ellipsoid or rounded drupes. seed normally one.
Uses:- The leaves are useful in catarrh, fever and sterility. The seeds are useful
in burning sensation, hyperdipsia, constipation, elephantiasis, habitual abortion and
sterility.
33. Erythrina variegata L. (Fabaceae)
Local Name: Pangaro
Fls: Feb-Apr. Frs: Best part of the year.
Description: A tree. Stem branched, smooth, covered with short prickles. Leaves
alternate, trifoliate, the terminal largest. Inflorescence dense axillary and terminal raceme.
Flower red. Seeds reniform, red or brown.
Uses: The leaves used for the relief of insomnia and anxiety. Crushed fresh leaves
are used as poultice in haemorrhoids and metroptosis. Powdered leaves are topically
applied for wound and ulcer. The stem bark is used against rheumatism in the form
of decoction.
34. Eucalyptus camaldulellsis Dehnh. (Myrtaceae)
Local Name: Nilgiri
Fls & Frs: Dec.-Mar.
Description: An evergreen, erect tree. Bark smooth, deciduous in thin layer. Leaves
narrowly lanceolate. Flowers pale green, nearly globular, valves exserted, lid usually
narrowed beak and rim.
Uses: Oil obtained from leaves is applied as externally on chest and temple in
headache, fever and common cold also used in flatulence, fever and cough.
35. Ficus benghalensis L.(Moraceae)
Local Name: Vad
Receptacles: July-Oct.
Description: A very large tree bearing many aerial roots bark greenish white.
Leaves simple, alternate, often in cluster at ends of branches, stipulate, ovate, and entire.
The fruit receptacles are axillary, sessile, in pairs, red when ripe. Fruit small.
Uses: The aerial roots are useful in obstinate vomiting and leucorrhoea. The bark
is useful in burning sensation, haemoptysis, diarrhoea, dysentery, diabetes, ulcers, skin
diseases, and gonorrhoea. The leaves are good for ulcers, leprosy, allergic condition of
skin and burning sensation. The latex is useful in neuralgia, rheumatism, lumbago,
gonorrhoea, inflammations, and crack of the sole and skin diseases.
36. Ficus carica L. (Moraceae)
Local Name: Anjir
Receptacles: July-Oct.
Description: Deciduous tree. Have large leaves and fleshy receptacles which ripen
into purple-brown, pear-shaped fruit.
Uses: The fruit's emollient pulp help relieve pain and inflammation, and it has
been used to treat tumours, swellings. Figs are also used in treating dry and irritable
cough and bronchitis. The milky latex from leaves and stem are used to treat warts,
insect bites and stings.
37. Ficus religiosa L. (Moraceae)
Local Name: Piplo
Receptilc1es: Dec.-May.
Description: A large deciduous tree. The dropping branchlets bear long-petiole
ovate, cordate. Leaves bright green, shiny. The receptacles occurring in pairs, axillary,
globose and smooth.
Uses: The bark is used for inflammatory swelling and good for burns. leaves and
tender shoots are used for wound and skin diseases. Fruits are taken in water to cure
asthma. The latex is good for neuralgia, inflammations and haemorrhages.
38. Grewia tilii/olia Vahl (Tiliaceae)
Local Name: Dhaman
FIs: Mar.-June. Frs: Apr.-July, some times up to Jan.
Description: A medium sized tree with blackish brown rough fibrous bark. Leaves
simple, alternate and ovate. Flower yellow, small on thick axillary peduncles. Fruits
globose drupes, black when ripe.
Uses: The bark is useful in burning sensation, hyperdipsia, seminal weakness and
general debility.
39. Helicteres isora L.(Sterculiaceae)
Local Name: Maradsing
Fls: July-Oct. Frs: Aug.-Apr.
Description: A small tree with grey bark and young shoots clothed with stellate
hairs. Leaves simple, alternate, bifarious, obovate, obliquely cordate and serrate. Flowers
red, axillary cluster. fruits reenish brown.
Uses: The roots and bark are useful in colic, scabies, diabetes, diarrhoea and
dysentery. The fruits are useful in colic flatulence diarrhoea, dysentery, wounds ulcers
and diabetes.
40. Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. ex G. Don (Apocynaceae)
Local Name: Indrajav
FIs: Jan.-June. Frs: Mar.-Dec.
Description: A tree. Bark pale-brown. Leaves opposite, oval, subsessile. Flowers
white in axillary or terminal corymbiferous cymes. Seeds numerous, brownish.
Uses: The trunk bark is effective against amoebiasis. Leaves cure scabies. Bark
is used in amoebic dysentery and diarrhoea.
41. Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.) Planch. (Ulmaceae)

Local Name: Kanjo
Fls: Dec.-Feb. Frs: Jan.-May.
Description: A medium sized deciduous tree. leaves alternate, simple, distichously,
elliptic, entire, glabrous with rounded base. Flowers greenish yellow. Male and
hermaphrodite mixed in short racemes of fascicles near the leaf scar.
Uses: The bark and leaves are useful in inflammations, colic, helminthiasis,
vomiting, skin diseases, leprosy, diabetes and rheumatism.
42. Lannea longifolia (Koen.) Macbr. (Anacardiaceae)
Local Name: Moyno
FIs: Jan.-June Frs: Feb.-July.
Description: A large tree with grayish bark rough. leaves imparipinnately
compound, crowded at the ends of branches. Leaflets membranous, oblong-ovate, green
above, glabrous, base rounded. flower small, yellowish.
Uses: The bark is useful in cuts, wounds, bruises, ulcers, gout, diarrhoea and
dysentery. The leaves are useful in elephantiasis, inflammations and bruises.
43. Limonia acidissima L. (Rutaceae)
Local Name: Kothi
Fls: Mar.-July. Frs: Mar.-Dec.
Description: A moderate sized deciduous tree, armed with strong, straight, axillary
spines. Leaves compound, imparipinnate, alternate, obovate. Flower small, dull red.
Fruits globose, woody, rough, grey-coloured berries.
Uses: The leaves are useful in gastropathy, anorexia, diarrhoea, vomiting, cough,
bronchitis and hiccough. The unripe fruits are useful in diarrhoea, dysentery, vomiting,
stomatitis, tumour, cough, asthma leucorrhoea, wounds and ulcers. The gum is useful
in diarrhoea, dysentery, gastropathy and diabetes.
44. Madhuca longifolia(Koen.)Macbr.(Sapotaceae)
Local Name: Mahudo
FIs & Frs: Mar.-June.
Description: A large evergreen tree with dark grey bark. Leaves thin, clustered
near the ends of branches. Flower pale yellow and fleshy appearing in dense cluster
near the ends of branches, corolla tubular. Fruits ovoid berries, yellow when ripe.
Uses: The bark is good for inflammations, sprains and pruritus. Flowers are useful
in strangury, verminosis, haemoptysis and hepatopathy. The fruits are useful in
bronchitis, consumption. The oil obtained from the seed is useful in dermatopathy,
rheumatism and haemorrhoids.
45. Mangifera indica L.(Anacardiaceae)
Local Name: Ambo
Fls: Dec.-May Frs: Feb.-July.
Description: A large evergreen tree. Leaves simple, crowded at the ends of

branches, linear-oblong or elliptic-Ianceolate, acute, acuminate. flower small, pungently
odorous, reddish white. fruits large, fleshy drupes, green, orange, yellow or red.
Uses: The roots and bark are useful in metrorrhagia, colonorrhagia, leucorrhoea,
wounds, ulcers, vomiting, diarrhoea, dysentery and rheumatism. The leaves are useful
in burning sensation, wounds, ulcers and diarrhoea. The flowers are useful in
haemorrhagia, haemoptysis, wounds, ulcers and dyspepsia.
46. Manilkara hexandra (Roxb.) Dub. (Sapotaceae)
Local Name: Rayana
FIs: Sep.-Oct. Frs: Nov.-Apr.
Description: A medium sized glabrous evergreen tree with grey bark. Leaves
simple, alternate, elliptic-obovate or oblong, glabrous on both side. Flowers white or
pale yellow, axillary, solitary. Fruits one seeded reddish yellow berries, ovoid or ellipsoid.
Uses: The bark is useful in ulorrhagia, ulitis, odontopathy, fever, colic, dyspepsia
and burning sensation. The fruits are useful in consumption, hallucinations loss of
consciousness, anorexia, dipsia and leprosy. The seeds are useful in ulcers and the opacity
of the cornea.
47. Melia azedarach L.(Meliaceae)
Local Name: Bakanlimdo
Description: A tree. Bark pale brown, lenticellate, longitudinally furrowed. Leaves
alternate, odd- pinnate; leaflets opposite, serrate. flower white. Drupe ovate or ellipsoid-
globose with 4 seeds.
Uses: Root-bark is used in treating ascariasis and oxyuriasis and vaginal infection.
Decoction is effective for trichomonas infection.
48. Michelia champaca L.(Mangoliaceae)
Local Name: Pilo Champo
Fla & Frs: Apr.-Aug.
Description: A small evergreen tree, leaves lanceolate, glabrous. Flowers yellow,
fragranted. fruit an etaerio of follicles.
Uses: Young leaves are beneficial for clear vision. Leaf juice with honey is used
for colic. Bark decoction used in rheumatism. Flowers are used in gonorrhoea and fevers.
Flower oil is used for cephalagia, ophthalmia and gout.
49. Miliusa tomentosa (Roxb.) Sinclair (Annonaceae)
Local Name: Umbio
Fls: Mar.-Apr. Frs: Apr.- June.
Description: A deciduous tree. Leaves alternate, ovate-oblong, Flowers on slanders
pedicels. Fruit subglobose, tomentose, stipulate.
ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS OF NORTH GUJARAT PART-II 209.
Uses: Leaves are used on ulcers and animals wounds. Leaves warmed and applied
on castor oil then used on inflammation due to guinea worm infection.
50. Moringa concanensis Nimmo ex Dalz. & Gibs. (Moringaceae)
Local Name: Kadvo Saragavo
Fls & Frs: Oct.-Dec.
Description: Deciduous tree. Wood soft and white. Bark rough, thick and corky.
Leaves pinnate, rachis jointed, opposite. Flowers bisexual, irregular. Seeds numerous,
3-andled.
Uses: The root and root bark are useful for the treatment of paralysis, intermittent
fever, epilepsy, rheumatism and giddiness. Stem bark is abortifacient and fruits are used
for curing liver and spleen diseases, joint pains and paralysis. Flowers are used as
aphrodisiac. Seed oil is used for treatment of rheumatism. Gum is used for treating
dental and ear problems.
51. Moringa olei/era Lamk. (Moringaceae)
Local name: Saragvo
Fls &Frs: Throughout the year.
Description: Deciduous tree, rough, greyish-brown, corky bark. Leaves ovate,
glabrous, and axillary. Capsule pendulous, deeply striate. Seeds triangular, winged on
angles, glabrous.
Uses: The roots are useful in dyspepsia, anorexia, verminosis, diarrhoea, colic
flatulence, paralysis, anemorrhoea, fever, ascites, cough, asthma, bronchitis and pectoral
diseases. The bark is useful in ascites, ringworm. Leaves are useful in scurvy, wounds,
tumours and helminthasis. The seeds are useful in neuralgia, inflammations and
intermittent fevers.
52. Morns alba L.(Moraceae)
Local Name: Shetur
Description: A deciduous tree, stem brown, rough. Leaves alternate, very variable
in size and shape. Flower monoecious or dioeciously, greenish, grouped in stalked,
hanging catkin. Fruit aggregate, consisting of all the ovaries of the catkin forming a
crustaceous.
Uses: Leaves are useful to cure cough and dyspnoea, facial dropsy, oedema,
oliguria and injury.
53. Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. (Oleaceae)
Local Name: Parijatak
Fls & Frs: Aug.-Feb., often throughout the year.
Description: A hardy small tree with grey or greenish white rough bark. Leaves
simple, opposite, ovate, acute or acuminate. Flowers small, white with bright orange
corolla tubes.
Uses: The leaves are useful in vitiated condition of vata and kapha, inflammations,
dyspepsia, pruritus, dermatopathy, chronic fever, bronchitis, asthma, cough, greyness
of hair and blandness. The flowers are useful in inflammations, ophthalmopathy,
flatulence, colic, dyspepsia, greyness of hair and baldness. The seeds are very useful
in baldness, scurvy and affections of the scalp.
54. Oroxylum indicum (L.) Vent. (Bignoniaceae)
Local Name: Tetu
Fls: June-Aug. Frs: Aug.-Dec.
Description: A medium sized deciduous tree with soft wooded. Leaves very large,
2-3 pinnate, rachis very soft, cylindrical. Flowers lurid to reddish purple outside, dull
or pale pinkish yellow within, numerous in large erect racemes. Fruits flat capsules.
Uses: The roots are useful in inflammations, dropsy, sprains, cough, asthma,
bronchitis, dyspepsia, diarrhoea, dysentery, gout, vomiting and fever. The leaves are
useful in ulcers. The mature fruits are useful in cardiac disorders, bronchitis and
haemorrhoids.
55. Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.)Benth. (Mimosaceae)
Local Name: Gorasamli
Fls & Frs: Dec.-Apr.
Description: A tall armed tree. Leaves bipinnate, stipulate modified in to spines.
Leaflets 2, oblong obtuse, oblique. Flowers creamy white, in axillary and terminal
panicles, globose heads.
Uses: Pulp of pod is eaten along with sugar in jaundice and diarrhoea. Paste of
leaves is applied on blunt injury and to promote hair growth. decoction of bark is given
in fever and diarrhoea.
56. Polyalthia longifolia (Sonner.) Thw. (Annonaceae)
Local Name: Asopalav
Fls: Dec.-June. Frs: Apr.-Aug.
Description: A tall handsome evergreen tree, bark smooth, grayish brown. Leaves
simple, green, shining with undulate margins. Flowers yellowish green in fascicles, fruits
a bunch of small ovoid one seeded berries.
Uses: The bark is useful in fever, skin diseases, diabetes and hypertension.
57. Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre (Fabaceae)
Local Name: Kanji
Fls & Frs: Feb.-Aug.
Description: An evergreen tree. Leaves alternate, imparipinnate, leaflets broadly
ovate, acute. Flowers purplish white in axillary racemes.
Uses: Twigs are used as tooth brushes, it relieves toothache. Leaves are useful
in rheumatism, dyspepsia, diarrhoea, cough and whooping cough. Flower is useful in
diabetes. Bark is useful in piles. Seed oil is applied to skin diseases. Seed powder is
given in fever and rheumatism.
58. Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce (Mimosaceae)
Local Name: Khijado
Fls & Frs: Dec.-May.
Description: An armed small tree. Leaves bipinnate, opposite, leaflets oblong,
linear. Flowers yellow, in axillary spikes. Pods straight, cylindrical.
Uses: Decoction of bark is given in rheumatism, sprue, diabetes and diarrhoea.
Leaves useful in boils, cough, asthma and diarrhoea. Pods are used in diarrhoea and
for energy.
59. Psidium guajava L. (Myrtaceae)
Local Name: Jamphal
Fls & Frs: Major part of the year.
Description: A small tree. Bark peeling off. leaves opposite, elliptic-oblong,
coriaceous. flowers white in axillary, solitary. Fruit a fleshy berry, pyriform. Seed small
and hard.
Uses: Unripe fruit is employed in diarrhoea. Leaf decoction is given in scurvy,
ulcers, as mouth wash in stomatitis, swollen gums, cholera, vomiting and diarrhoea.
60. Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. (Fabaceae)
Local Name: Biyo
Fls: Apr.-May. Frs: May-Oct.
Description: A tall, deciduous tree. leaflets ovate oblong, glabrous. Flower on
panicles, terminal and axillary. Pods glabrous.
Uses: Gum is used in diarrhoea. Root paste is used on swelling.
61. Salvadora persica L.(Salvadoraceae)
Local Name: Piludi
Fls & Frs: Nov.-Feb.
Description: A much branched evergreen small tree with short trunk and drooping
branches. leaves somewhat fleshy, grayish green, ovate, oblong, and often mucronate
at the apex. Flowers small, greenish yellow in axillary and terminal compound lax
panicles. Fruits globose and smooth.
Uses: The stem bark is good for gastropathy. The leaves are useful in asthma,
bronchitis, cough, painful tumours and haemorrhoids. Shoot and leaves useful in all
types of poisons, cough and bronchitis. The fruits are useful in gastropathy, constipation
and seminal weakness.
62. Sapindus laurifolia Vahl (Sapindaceae)
Local Name: Aritha
FIs: Sep.-Dec. Frs: Nov.-Mar.
212 N.K. PATEL, I.C. PATEL, A.R. SELIYA AND D.N. PARMAR
Description: Medium sized deciduous tree with grey smooth bark. Leaves pinnate,
leaflets 2-3 pairs, terminal pair being largest. Flowers white, male flower many, bisexual
flower few. Fruits fleshy drupes.
Uses: The roots are good for hemicranias, hysteria and epilepsy. The fruits are
beneficial for asthma, diarrhoea, cholera, lumbago, verminosis and gastralgia.
63. Saraca asoca (Roxb.) de Wilde. (Caesalpiniaceae)
Local Name: Ashok
Fls: Dec.-April
Description: A medium sized handsome evergreen tree. leaves pinnate. Flowers
orange or orange-yellow in dense corymbs, very fragrant. fruits leathery, compressed.
Uses: The bark is useful in dyspepsia, fever, dipsia, burning sensation, colic, ulcers,
leucorrhoea and pimples. The leaves are used for treating stomachalgia. The flowers
are used in hyperdipsia, burning sensation, dysentery. The dried flowers are used in
diabetes. The seeds used for treating bone fractures.
64. Semecarpus ana cardium L.f. (Anacardiaceae)
Local Name: Bilva
Description: A medium sized tree with grey bark. leaves simple, alternate,
obovate-oblong, rounded at the apex. Flowers greenish-white, fascicled in pubescent
panicles. Fruits obliquely ovoid or oblong.
Uses: The fruits are useful in beriberi, cancer, neuritis, cough, asthma, colic,
helminthiasis ~ specially hookworms, leprosy, leucoderma, scaly skin eruption, fever,
diabetes and ulcers.
65. Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Poir. (Fabaceae)
Local Name: Agathio
Fls & Frs: Aug.-Feb.
Description: A soft wooded, quick growing tree. leaves paripinnate, pulvini large
leaflets obovate. flowers white-pinkish, torulose. Seeds oblong.
Uses: Leaf juice is used as nasal drops in headache. Fruits used as vaginal douche
in leucorrhoea. Fruits used as curative agents in colic, jaundice and food poisoning.
Root is useful in rheumatic swelling.
66. Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels (Myrtaceae)
Local Name: Jambu
Fls: Feb.-Apr. Frs: Mar.-July.
Description: A large tree, with smooth light grey bark. Leaves simple, opposite,
variable in shape, smooth and shiny. Flowers greenish-white. Fruits oblong or ovoid-
oblong.
Uses: The bark is useful in fever, gastropathy and dermatopathy. The leaves are
used for strengthening the teeth and gums. Tender leaves used for vomiting. The fruits
and seeds are useful in diabetes, diarrhoea, and ringworm.
67. Syzygium malaccense (L.) Merr & Perry. (Myrtaceae)
Local Name: Safed Jambu
Fls & Frs: Apr.-Jun.
Description: A small tree. Leaves opposite, oblong-Ianceolate, coriaceous, gland
dotted. Flowers creamy white in dense racemes. Fruit obovoid.
Uses: Leaves powdered are applied in cracked tongue.
68. Tamarindus indica L.(Caesalpiniaceae)
Local Name: Amli
Fls: Mar.-July. Frs: Apr.-Nov.
Description: A large to very large evergreen tree with grey bark. Leaves
paripinnate, rachis slender, subsessile, and oblong. Flower yellow. Fruits pods, brownish
ash coloured. Seeds enveloped by a tough leathery epicarp
Uses: The root bark is useful in diarrhoea, asthma, amenorrhoea and ulcers. The
leaves are useful in swelling, fever, wounds, ulcers, jaundice, tumours, ringworms, boils.
The fruits are useful in gastropathy, vomiting, scabies, stomatitis, haemorrhoids and
ophthalmopathy. The seeds are useful in stomachalgia, diarrhoea, dysentery, dipsia,
burning sensation, vertigo, ulcers and diabetes.
69. Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight & Am. (Combretaceae)
Local Name: Arjun Sadad
Fls: Mar.- Apr. Frs: May - Nov.
Description: A large evergreen tree with buttressed trunk, bark smooth. Leaves
simple, sub opposite, oblong or elliptic. Flowers white in panicles of wings.
Uses: The bark is useful in fractures, ulcers, leucorrhoea, and diabetes, vitiated
conditions of pitta, anaemia, fatigue, asthma, bronchitis, tumours and inflammations.
70. Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. (Combretaceae)
Local Name: Behda
Fls: Jan.-May. Frs: Throughout the year.
Description: A large deciduous tree. Leaves simple, alternate, long-petioled,
broadly elliptic, and entire. Flowers pale greenish yellow. Fruits ovoid grey drupes,
obscurely 5 angled, narrowed into a very short stalk.
Uses: The bark is useful in anaemia and leucoderma. The fruits are useful in cough,
bronchitis, insomnia, dropsy, dipsia, vomiting, skin diseases, leprosy, fevers and ulcers.
The mature and dry fruits are useful in diarrhoea and dysentery. The seeds are useful
in skin disease and leucoderma.
71. Tenninalia catappa L. (Combretaceae)

Local Name: Deshi Badam
Description: l.arge, spreading tree with leaves mostly near ends of branches.
Leaves alternate, short-petiolate, the blade obovate, deciduous and turning orange to
red before falling. Flowers small, white borne in densely packed spike.
Uses: The fluid from the bark is used to treat diabetes and as a tonic. It is used
to treat thrush. The juice of the leaves is used for cough. Leaves are used to treat jaundice,
indigestion. The bark is used to treat mouth sores and stomach-ache. The leaves are
used to treat wound and burns.
72. Terntinalia chebula Retz. (Combretaceae)
Local Name: Harde
Fls: Mar.-May. Frs: Oct.-Dec.
Description:- A moderate sized to large deciduous tree. Leaves ovate, elliptic or
obovate. Fruits glabrous, shining, obovoid or ovoid drupes, yellow coloured.
Uses: The fruits are useful in wounds, ulcers, inflammations, and gastropathy,
anorexia, leprosy, jaundice, cough and skin diseases.
73. Tenninalia crenulata Roth (Combretaceae)
Local Name: Sadad
Fls: Feb.-May. Frs: Apr.-Dec.
Description: A medium sized to large tree with clear bole and grayish black bark.
Leaves simple, leathery" under surface villous, linear-oblong with two large glands.
Flowers in willows panicles.
Uses: The bark is useful wounds, ulcers, haemoptysis, diarrhoea, dysentery, cough,
bronchitis, leucorrhoea and gonorhoea.
74. Thespesia populnea (L.) Soland.ex Corr. (Malvaceae)
Local Name: Paras Piplo
Fls & Frs: Oct.-Mar.
Description: An evergreen tree. Leaves broadly ovate, cordate, acuminate, and
entire. Flowers sulphur yellow. Fruits globose. Seeds black, hairy.
Uses: Fruit juice is used on rheumatism sprains, eczema, scabies, swellings insect
bites and warts. Pulp of fresh fruits is applied for relief of migration. Unripe fruit juice
is used to cure piles. Decoction of bark is given in diarrhoea and arthritis.
75. Wrightia tinctoria R.Br.(Apocynaceae)
Local Name: Kudi
Fls: Dec.-June. Frs: Throughout the year.
Description: A small deciduous tree, with pale grey, smooth, thin bark. Leaves
simple, opposite, elliptic-ovate or oblong, acuminate. Flowers white, fragrant, in lax
terminal. Fruits follicles in pairs, pendulous, cylindrical.
Uses: The leaves are useful in odontalgia and hypertension. The bark and seeds
are useful in dyspepsia, flatulence, colic, diarrhoea.
76. Ziziphus nummularia (Burm.f.) W.&A. (Rhamnaceae)
Local Name: Chani Bor
Fls: Sep.-Feb. Frs: Nov.-Feb.
Description: A spiny deciduous small tree, leaves alternate, ovate. Inflorescence
an axillary cymes. flowers perfect, 7-8 flower in each cluster, greenish-yellow coloured.
Uses: Fruits are used for poor appetite, general fatigue, loss bowels, palpitations
insomnia, night sweats and hysteria.
77. Ziziphus xylopyra (Retz.) (Rhamanaceae)
Local Name: Gut Bor
Fls: Oct.-Nov. Frs: Nov.-Jan.
Description: An armed, small tree. Leaves broadly elliptic-oblong, apprised hairy
beneath. Flowers creamy white, in axillary fascicles.
Uses: Leaf paste is applied on boils and wounds. Bark decoction is given in
diarrhoea.
TABLE 1
Inventory of angiospermic plants of north Gujarat region

1. Acacia catechu Lf. Willd. Mimosaceae
2. Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. Mimosaceae
3. Acacia nilotica (L.)Del. Mimosaceae
4. Acacia senegal (L.)Willd. Mimosaceae
5. Adansonia digitata L. Bombacaceae
6. Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. Rutaceae
7. Ailanthus excelsa Roxb. Rutaceae
8. Albizia lebbeck (L.)Willd. Simaroubaceae
9. Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. Mimosaceae
10. Annona squamosa L. Apocynaceae
11. Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. ex Guill. Annonaceae
12. Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Combretaceae
13. Bauhinia racemosa Lamk. Meliaceae
14. Bauhinia variegata L. Caesalpinaceae
15. Boswellia serrata Roxb.ex Colb. Caesalpiniaceae
Contd ...
... Contd.

16. Bombax ceiba L. Burseraceae
17. Buchanania lanzan Spreng. Bombacaceae
18. Butea monospenna (Lamk.) Taub. Anacardiaceae
19. Caesalpinia sappan L. Fabaceae
20. Callistemon lanceolatus DC Caesalpiniaceae
21. Carica papaya L. Myrtaceae
22. Caryota urens L. Arecaceae
23. Cassia fistula L. Caesalpiniaceae
24. Casuarina equisetifolia L. Casuarinaceae
25. Ceiba pentandra (Linn.) Gaertn. Bombacaceae
26. Citrus limon (L.)Burm. Rutaceae
27. Cordia dichotoma Forstf. Boraginaceae
28. Crateva adansonii DC Capparaceae
29. Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. ex DC Fabaceae
30. Delonix elata (L.) Gamble Caesalpinaceae
31. Delonix regia (Boj. ex Hook.)Raf. Caesalpinaceae
32. DnJPetes roxburghii (Wall.) Hurusawa Euphorbiaceae
33. Erythrina variegata L. Fabaceae
34. Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. Myrtaceae
35. Ficus benghalensis L. Moraceae
36. Ficus carica L. Moraceae
37. Ficus religiosa L. Moraceae
38. Grewia tiliifolia Vahl Tiliaceae
39. Helicteres isora L. Sterculiaceae
40. Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.)Wall.ex G. Don Apocynaceae
41. Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.)Planch. Ulmaceae
42. Lannea longifolia (Koen.) Macbr. Anacardiaceae
43. Limonia acidissima L. Rutaceae
44. Madhuca indica (Koenig) Macbride Sapotaceae
45. Mangifera indica L. Anacardiaceae
46. Manilkara hexandra (Roxb.) Dub. Sapotaceae
47. Melia azedarach L. Meliaceae
48. Michelia champaca L. Mangoliaceae
Contd ...
... Contd.
49. Miliusa tomentosa (Roxb.) Sinclair Annonaceae
50. Moringa concanensis Nimmo ex Dalz. & Gibs. Moringaceae
51. Moringa oleifera Lamk. Moringaceae
52. Morus alba L. Moraceae
53. Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. Oleaceae
54. Oroxylum indicum (L.) Vent. Bignoniaceae
55. Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.)Benth. Mimosaceae
56. Polyalthia longifolia (Sonner.) Thw. Annonaceae
57. Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre Fabaceae
58. Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce. Mimosaceae
59. Psidium guajava L. Myrtaceae
60. Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. Fabaceae
61. Salvadora persica L. Salvadoraceae
62. Sapindus lauriJolia Vahl Sapindaceae
63. Saraca asoca (Roxb.) de Wilde. Caesalpiniaceae
64. Semecarpus anacardium Lf Anacardiaceae
65. Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Poir. Fabaceae
66. Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Myrtaceae
67. Syzygium malaccense (L.)Merr & Perry. Myrtaceae
68. Tamarindus indica L. Caesalpiniaceae
69. Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC) Wight & Am. Combretaceae
70. Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Combretaceae
71. Terminalia catappa L. Combretaceae
72. Terminalia chebula Retz. Combretaceae
73. Terminalia crenulata Roth Combretaceae
74. Thespesia populnea (L.)Soland.ex Corr. Malvaceae
75. Wrightia tinctori,a R.Br. Apocynaceae
76. Ziziphus nummularia (burmf) W. & A. Rhamnaceae
77. Zizyphus xylopyra (Retz.) Rhamnaceae
4. SUMMARY
Ethnomedicinal uses of 77 species belonging 31 families of angiosperms are being
communicated as adhered from the tribal and rural slots of North Gujarat part of Gujarat
state. The data includes botanical name and its family, local plant name, part employed,
diseases/ animals treated, besides phenology and precise description of each species.
CJCJCJ
FOLK REMEDIES AGAINST SKIN AFFLICTIONS
IN MAHARASHTRA
SHUBHANGI PAWAR, M.V. PATIL AND D.A. PATIL
Chapter Outline
1. Introduction
2. Method adapted
3. Discussion
4. Summary
5. References
1. INTRODUCTION
The state of Maharashtra is a political entity extending 800 km east-west and 700
km north-south. It is an irregular dentate pentagon lying between 221'-164' north
latitude and 726'-809' east longitude. It has total area of 307762 sq.km. It limited to
the west by the Arabian Sea with about 120 km coastline. It is limited to Goa and
Karnataka to the south, by Andhra Pradesh on the south-east, by Madhya Pradesh on
the north, and by Gujarat to its north-west. It is a part of Indian Peninsula. It comprises
four regions viz., Vidarbha, Desh, Marathwada and Konkan.
Climate of Maharashtra is mainly monsoonal. The climate, temperature, humidity,
rainfall are very varied throughout the state. The highest annual rainfall is at
Mahabaleshwar (6226.3 mm) in Western Ghats. The number of rainy days are also
variable in the state. The temperature rises maximum 48C in some parts of the state.
The state is divisible into nine agro-cIimatic zones. This indicates that a large variety
of crop plants can be raised in the region. The total forest area is 54,188 hundred hectares.
Area under agriculture is 68.8%. The forests in the state are concentrated in four regions
viz., Chandrapur-Bhandara, Tapi Valley (Satpura mountain), Western Ghats (Sahyadri
mountain) and Melghats (Spur of Satpuras). The forests types are also variable
considerably. They belong to : (i) Tropical west evergreen forests, (ii) Tropical semi-
FOLK REMEDIES AGAINST SKIN AFFLICflONS IN MAHARASHTRA 219
evergreen forests, (iii) Tropical moist deciduous forests, (iv) Littoral and swamp forests
and southern tropical dry deciduous forests. Thus state is fairly species-rich.
As far as people of Maharashtra is concerned, people from nearly all religions,
many castes, sub-castes and tribes inhabit the state as in other parts of our country.
The state is predominantly rural and there are some districts completely tribal in nature.
Agriculture is the mainstay of the people. Still they depend traditionally on minor forest
products. It is doubtless that they have close association with plants an in other Indian
communities.
A large number of botanists botanized in the state, as a part of Western India.
These works before independence has culminated into a monumental compilation 'The
Flora of the Presidency of Bombay' by T. Cooke. It is also surveyed floristically after
independence, as a result many district floras have been published. Earlier uses of plants
were mostly noted as a part of floristic studies. But in recent times, the wave of
'Ethnobotany' is discernible in the state also. Considerable number of publications are
on record. The earliest documentation of plants is found in the work of Van Rheede
and Garcia de Orta who published 'Hortus Indicus Malabaricus' and 'Simple D~gs
of India (cf Page 861, Mahabale, 1987). The present attempt is to review the
ethnomedicinal plants emphasizing particularly plants employed to combat skin afflictions
in the state.
2. METHOD ADAPTED
Authors attempted to collect data related to various skin diseases, their plant
remedies, recipe, plant part/ product used plant and its family name, local name and
area of study especially in the state of Maharashtra. The results of our literature survey
are given in tabular form.
3. DISCUSSION
The word 'hygiene' is originated from 'Hygeia', the goddess of health in Greek
mythology. Hygiene is the science of health and embraces all factors which contribute
to healthful living. Hygiene is 'health', and health is both-physical and mental. Physical
health is an important component of total health. In encompasses all organs of the human
body. Skin plays important role in human health. The skin is a finely laminated three-
layered coating viz., hypodermis (subcutaneous tissue), fatty insulating cushion and
dermis. The dermis contains blood vessels and nerve endings, sweat glands and hair
follicles. The epidermis conducts various functions such as protection, sense, heat
regulation, excretion and source of vitamin-D. The skin is thin or thick. It can be normal
or dry. Since skin is in contact with the external environment it accumulates dirt which
may consists of evaporated sweat, bacteria and dead epithelial cells. This dirt on account
of one's negligence toward personal hygiene leads to many diseases, being a very
complex tissue. Human societies take care of it using different methods and drugs. The
present review is focused on skin care by plant-derived drugs as employed by the
inhabitants of the state of Maharashtra.
220 SHUBHANGI PAWAR, M.V. PATIL AND D.A. PATIL
The present appraisal includes as many as 287 plant species belongs to about 65
families of angiosperms used in combating different skin afflictions amongst the rural
and tribal communities along with their local names, family, parts/ products employed
and recipes. Of these about 15 species are found under cultivation as seasonal crops
or planted on bands of fields of farmyards, home gardens etc. The various afflictions/
diseases that disturb normal skin are : scabies, ringworm, carbuncles, eczema, psoriasis,
sores, wounds, injuries, pimples, boils, burns, itching, leprosy, reddening of skin, white
or black spots on skin, cuts/scars on feet, skin irritation, leucoderma, tumours, ulcers,
swellings, rashes, blisters, scalds, abscesses, soggy cuts between toes, allergic dermatitis,
'anjuri' etc. These are cured using various plant parts like leaves, stem and root barks,
roots, tubers, bulbs, rhizomes, wood, flowers/inflorescence, fruits and seeds. Mature or
sometimes young parts are employed to prepare various recipes. Plant products such
as latex and gum/gum-resin are also in vogue. The various recipes include decoction,
infusion, juice, extract, powder, paste, poultice, ash or even fumes. Entire plants are
used in few cases. They are used either singly or in combination with parts of other
plants. Certain additives e.g. oils, milk, honey etc. are mixed while preparing medicines.
The ethnomedicines/home remedies are regaining their lost esteem. The green wave
all over the world is discernible and pushing the traditional knowledge on the ascending
spirals. These will/are lead/leading to remarkable discoveries from the world of plant-
based medicines. They are being appreciated by research workers of various fields e.g.
ethnobotany, phytochemistry, pharmacology, folk remedies, ethnomedicine, indigenous
/ traditional medicines etc. These would obviously help survive golden heritage of our
wise ancestors.
4. SUMMARY
Ethnomedicinal studies have offered wider scope and great opportunities for the
development of new drugs. Many modern drugs sprung from folklores. The efforts of
research workers in the state of Maharashtra have yielded a considerable bulk of
ethnomedicinal information of different human diseases. Their claims are highlighted
and reviewed in this contribution selecting a group of ailments particularly skin
afflictions. More than 30 diseases or ailments of skin are very common in the state.
These are cured by as many as 287 species of angiosperms belonging to about 65
families. Majority of them are wild in nature, very few (about 15 species) are observed
under cultivation for various purposes. Their phytochemical and pharmacological
screening apart from biological activities will help lead to discovery of new drugs for
skin diseases. The interest in ethnomedicinal research over the last few decades has
been although episodic, there are very few attempts to summarize and review them
diseases-wise.
ITj
TABLE 1 0
r-<
Ethnomedicinal plants against skin afflictions in Maharashtra ~
~
Sr. Botanical Name & Family Local Name Study Area Plant part used Ailment Literature Source rn
No.
1. Cassia tora L. Will Senna Pune
and Recipe
Leaf decoction
Treated
Skin disease Anand Kumar et al., 1981. -
rn
==
t:l
rn
en
Caesalpiniaceae Chukanda >
2. Mimosa pudica L.
Mimosaceae
Lajalu Pune Root decoction Sores Anand Kumar et al., 1981.
-..,
0
>
Z
en
3. Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.

Apiaceae
Bhahmi Pune Plant Eczema,
Leprosy,
Syphilitic ulcers
Anand Kumar et al., 1981.
->
C/l
~
Z
-B
"11
4. Leptadenia reticulata Shinguti Pune Plant, leaves root Skin disease Anand Kumar et al., 1981. "11
r-<
(Retz.) Wt. & Am.
Asclepiadaceae 0
Z
5. Hemidesmus indica (L.)
R. Br.
Anantmool Pune Dried root Skin disease Anand Kumar et al., 1981.
-
en
Z
Periplocaceae ~
6. Argyreia nervosa (Hurm. Somandarka Pune Leaves Skin disease Anand Kumar et al., 1981. >
:r:
f.) Boj. pat >
~
en
Convolvulaceae
7. Jatropha gossipifolia Bherenda Pune Leaves, seed oil Carbuncles Anand Kumar et aI., 1981.
2i
L. Euphorbiaceae Eczema, Itches ">
8. Crinum asiaticum L. Nagdavan Pune Bulb Skin disease Anand Kumar et al., 1981.
Amary llidaceae
9. Crinum defixum L. Kergawat Pune Bulb Skin disease Anand Kumar et al., 1981.
Amary lIidacee
10. Cymbopogon martini Rosh Gawat Pune Bulb Skin disease Anand Kumar et aI., 1981.
(Roxb.) Wats Poaceae
N
N
Contd ... I-l
... Contd. N
N
Sr. Botanical Name & Family Local Name Study Area Plant part used Ailment Literature Source N
No. and Recipe Treated
II. Alangium salvifolium Akkal Dhule, Root paste Skin disease Bhamare, 1998
(L.f) Wong Alangiacee Nandurbar
12. Abutllan indicum (L. )SW. Khapat Dhule, Leaves, Fresh Eczema Bhamare, 1998
Malvaceae Nandurbar juice
13. Albizia amara (Roxb.) Kansar Dhule, Leaf pulp Leucoderma Bhamare, 1998
Biovin Mimosaceae Nandurbar
14. Aloe vera (L.) Burmf Korphad Dhule, Leaf pulp Wounds due to Bhamare, 1998
Liliaceae Nandurbar burns
15. Azadirachta indica Neem Dhule, Leaves and bark Ringworm, Bhamare, 1998
A.Juss. Nandurbar juice Scabies
Meliaceae C/)
Baliospermum raziana Dati Dhule, Latex Scabies Bhamare, 1998 :=
16. c::
OJ
Keshav et. Yog. Nandurbar :=
Euphorbiaceae >
Z
17. Bombax cieba L. Sayar Dhule, Bark pest Pimples Bhamare, 1998 C'l
....
Born bacaceae Nandurbar Iotj
18. Cassia fistula L. Carmal Dhule, Leaf decoction Scabies, Bhamare, 1998 ~
Caesalpiniaceae Nandurbar Psoriasis >
~
19. Curculigo orchioides Kalimusali Dhule, Rhizome paste Pimple Bhamare, 1998
Caertn. Nandurbar ~
Hypoxidaceae ~
....~
20. Datura innoxia Mill. Kantal Dhule, Seed oil Scabies, boils Bhamare, 1998
Solanaceae Nandurbar
I'"'
2I. Pongamia pinnata (L.) Karanj Dhule, Seed oil Scabies, ring- Bhamare, 1998
Pierre Papilionaceae Nandurbar worm ~
0
22. Eclipta prostata (L.) L. Kala Maka Dhule, Leaves Fresh wound, Bhamare, 1998 0
Nandurbar Itch
Asteraceae
~
23. Euphorbia parviflora L. Dhudi Dhule, Stem, Latex Boils, Bhamare, 1998 Iotj
Nandurbar
Euphorbiaceae Scabies
~
I'"'
Contd ...
...Contd. "r:I
0
t""'
Sr. Botanical Name & Family Local Name Study Area Plant part used Ailment Literature Source :or:::
No. and Recipe Treated ~
r!\
is:
24. Fagonia bruguieri DC. var.
bruguieri, Zygophyllaceae
Dhamsa Dhule,
Nandurbar
Root, Stem paste
mixture
Tumours Bhamare, 1998
-
0
r!\
r !\
en
25. Ficus arnottiana (Miq.) Amasa Dhule, Stem and bark Scabies Bhamare, 1998 >
C)
26.
Miq. Moraceae
Meyna laxifiora Robyns. Alu
Nandurbar
Dhule,
Nandurbar
decoction
Wound Bhamare, 1998 -..,
;I>-
Z
en
Rubiaceae
CJ'l
27. Martynia annua L.
Martyniaceae
Kutri, Vichhdo Dhule,
Nandurbar
Seed oil Scabies, Itching Bhamare, 1998
-
:or:::
Z
Dhule,
>
"ll
28. Ocimum canum Sims. '. Rantulus Leaves Ringworm Bhamare, 1998 "ll
t""'
29.
Lamiaceae
Psoralea corilyfoIia L. Brachi
Nandurbar
Dhule, Leaves, seed oil Scabies, Leprosy Bhamare, 1998
9
0
Nandurbar Z
Papilionaceae en
30. Sida mysorensis Wight & Gubata Dhule, Leaves Fresh wounds Bhamare, 1998 Z
Arn. Malvaceae Nandurbar ~
;I>-
31. Soymida febrifuga (Roxb.) Rehani Dhule, Stem bark paste Scabies Bhamare, 1998 ::t:
;I>-
A. Juss. MeIiaceae Nandurbar ::=::
;I>-
Bhala Dhule, Tuber paste Boils Bhamare, 1998 en
32. Tacca leoneptoloides (L.)
O. Ktze. Taccaceae Nandurbar :1::=::
;I>-
33. Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.) Arjuna sadada Dhule, Stem bark Wounds due to Bhamare, 1998
Wight & Am. Nandurbar burning
Combretaceae
34. Tridax procumbens L. Ghavati Dhule, Leves Fresh burning Bhamare, 1998
Asterceaae Nandurbar injuries
35. Typha angustifolia L. Chilam Dhule, Inflorescence Eczema Bhamare, 1998
Typhaceae Nandurbar
Contd ... N
N
~
... Contd. N
Sr. Botanical Name & Family Local Name Study Area Plant part used Ailment Literature Source ~
36. Kickxia ramosissima Samber weI, Marathwada, Leaves Skin disease Rathor et ai., 2002
(Wall.) Janchen. Bhinth, Galodi Nanded
Scrophulariaceae
37. Homonoia retusa Lour. Pashona Bhada Marathwad a, Leaves Skin disease Rathor et ai., 2002
Euhorbiaceae Nanded
38. Ziziphus oenoplia Mill. Kadavel Vengurla Fresh Wound Kulkarni,1968
Rhamnaceae Sawantwadi,
Phonda,
Ratnagiri,
Dishea
39. Tinospora cordifolia Gulvel Vengurla Skin disease Kulkarni, 1968 (J'J
(W illd.) Miers. Sawantwadi, ::r:
e
1:11
Menispermeaceae Phonda, ::r:
Ratnagiri,
~
40. Cassia fistula Linn. Bhava
Dishea
Vengurla Skin disease Kulkarni,1968 -
C"l
~
Fabaceae Sawantwadi, ~
Phonda, >
Ratnagiri, ~
District ~
41. Wagatea spicata Dalz. Chaukal Vengurla, Skin disease Kulkarni, 1968 ~
Sawantwadi,
->~
Caesalpiniacee
Phonda,
Ratnagiri r-<
District
Z
42. Centella asiatica (Linn.) Bramhi Vengurla, Skin disease Kulkarni,1968 t:)
Urb. Apiaceae Sawantwadi, 0

Phonda,
Ratnagiri
~
~
..,>
District
Contd ... -
r-<
...Contd.
Sr. Botanical Name & Family Local Name Ailment Literature Source
61
I"'
Study Area Plant part used l"!
ttl
43. Embelia tsjeriam-cottam Wavding Vengurla, Skin disease Kulkarni,1968 ==
ttl
DC. Myrisnaceae Sawantwadi, 0
....
ttl
Phonda, C/l
Ratnagiri >
Cl
District
i!:
44. Leucas lavandulaefolia Bhedshi VengurIa, Skin disease Kulkarni, 1968 Z
J.E.Sm. Lamiaceae Sawantwadi, ~
Phonda,
en
....~
Ratnagiri Z
District >
~
45. Curculigo orchioides Kalimusli Vengurla, Wounds Kulkarni, 1968 ....
I"'
Gaertn. Hypoxidaceae Sawantwadi, q....

Phonda, 0
Z
Ratnagiri C/l
District
....
Z
46. Gloriosa superba Linn. Danoli Vengurla,
Sawantwadi,
Partial affection Kulkarni,1968 a:
>
Liliaceae
Phonda, ==
>
Ratnagiri ~
C/l
District :i
47. Ageratum conyzoides L. Osadi Kolhapur Leaves Skin disease Vartak et al., 1986 ~
Asteraceae
48. Amoord lawii Bed. Burundi Kolhapur Leaves Skin disease Vartak et al., 1986
Meliaceae
49. Blumeasp. Kolhapur Leaves Skin disease Vartak et al., 1986
Asteraceae
50. Melanthesa turbinata Owi,Por Kolhapur LeafJuice Redness of skin Vartak et al., 1986
Euphorbiacee N
N
Contd ... U1
...Contd. ~
0'1
Sr. Botanical Name & Family Local Name Study Area Plant part used Ailment Literature Source
51. Cassia fistula L. Bahava Kolhapur LeafJuice Ringworm Vartak et al., 1986
Caesalpiniaceae
52. Calycopteris floribunda Ukshi Kolhapur LeafJuice White patches Vartak et al., 1986
Lam. on skin
Combretaceae
53. Ficus glomerata Roxb. Umber Kolhapur Leaf Juice Dermatis Vartak et al., 1986
Moraceae
54. Strychnos nux-vomica L. Kochilakhai Chandrapur Stem bark Skin 'disease Das & Misra, 1988
55. Carissa congesta Wight Karvanda Western Root paste in leaf Skin disease Upadhey et al., 1994 en
Maharashtra, juice c:
==
Apocynaceae 01
Pune, Raigad,
>
==
Z
Shindkheda
56. Entada rheedii Spreng. Garbi Western Seed paste Scabies Upadhey et al., 1994
....
C)
"'tI
Fabaceae Maharashtra,
Pune, Raigad, ~
>
Sindhudurga, ~
Kolhapur
57. Hiptage benghalensis (L.) Madhavi Western Leaves Scabies Upadhey et al., 1994 ~
==
Kurz. Maharashtra, "'tI
Malpighiaceae Pune, Raigad, ~
....
Sindhudurga, t""
Kolhapur >
Z
58. Garcinia indica Choiss Bhirand, Sawantwadi Seed oil Healing wounds Almeida & Almeida, 1989 Ij
Guttiferae Kokam 0
59. Bombax ceiba Linn. Savar Sawantwadi Hard thorns Pimple Almeida & Almeida, 1989 ~
Bombaceae Iod
>
Contd ... ....
.-j
t""
... Contd. ~
0
t"'
~
3:
60.
61.
Mangifera indica Linn.
Anacardiaceae
Kalanchoe pinnata
Amba
Panphuti
Sawantwadi
Sawantwadi
Leaves
Juice of plant
Healing wounds
Fresh wounds
Almeida & Almeida, 1989
Almeida & Almeida, 1989

-
f!1
0
f!1
CIl
(Lamk.) Pers. Crassulaceae >

C)
62. Pedilanthus tithymaloides

(Linn.) Poit.
Nival Sawantwadi Fruit Skin infection Sharma & Malhotra, 1984 ->
Z
~
63.
Euphorbiaceae
Alangium salvifolium Western Fruit Wound Sharma & Malhotra, 1984
~
Z-
I:JJ
-q-~
(L.f.) Wang. Alangiaceae Maharashtra
64. Agertatum conyzoides L. Western Leaf paste Wound Sharma & Malhotra, 1984
Asteraceae Maharashtra
65. Emilia sonchifolia L. Western Leaf paste Wound Sharma & Malhotra, 1984 0
Z
66.
Asteraceae
Tridax procumbens L.
Asteraceae
Maharashtra
Western
Maharashtra
Leaf paste Wound Sharma & Malhotra, 1984 -
CIl
Z
~
Decoction of Cracked feet Sharma & Malhotra, 1984
>
::r:
67. Vitex negundo L. Western
Verbenaceae Maharashtra leaves >
~
>
68. Madhuca longifolia 0) Mahuwa Western Latex Skin disease Sharma & Malhotra, 1984 CIl
(Koen.) Macbr. var. Maharashtra :i

~
latifolia (Roxb.) Chev. >
Sapotaceae
69. Acacia ferruginea Willd. Pandharkhair Western Leaf juice Eczema Jayanand Tosh, 1996
Leguminoceae Maharashtra
70. Cassia fistula L. Bhahava Western Leaf paste Scabies Jayanand Tosh, 1996
Caesalpiniaceae Maharashtra
Contd ... N
N
.......
...Contd. N
N
Sr. Botanical Name & Family Local Name Study Area Plant part used Ailment Literature Source co
71. Crotalaria verrucosa Linn. Western Leaf juice Skin disease Jayanand Tosh, 1996
Leguminoceae Maharashtra
72. Hydrocarpus wightiana Kadu Kavath Western Seed oil Pimples boils Jayanand Tosh, 1996
Blume Flacourtiaceae Maharashtra
73. Butea monosperma Palas Amaravati Leaves Scabies Deshmukh et ai., 1999
(Lamk.) Taub. tahsil
Leguminoceae
74. Crotalaria retulsa L. Khulkhula Amaravati Plant Skin disease Deshmukh et ai., 1999
Leguminoceae tahsil
75. Psoralia corylifolia L. Bawchi Amaravati Seed oil Leprosy Deshmukh et ai., 1999
tahsil til
Leguminoceae
e1:11
==
76. Albizia procera (Roxb.) Kinnal Raigad Root Bark Skin disease, Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
Benth. Mimosaceae District leprosy >
==
77. Albizia lebbek (L.) Benth.
Mimosaceae
Shirish Raigad
District
Root, Seeds Leprosy Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
-
Z
C"l
~
78. Turraea villosa Benn. Kapur bhendi Raigad Root tuber Leprosy Kothari & Moorthy, 1988 ~
District
>
Mcliaceae ~
79. Aristolochia indica L. Sapsan Raigad Root tuber Leprosy Kothari & Moorthy, 1988 ~
Aristolochiaceae District ~
80. Barleria prionitis L. Akhara Raigad Leaf ash Leprosy Kothari & Moorthy, 1988 ~
Acanthaceae District ~
r-<
81. Curcuma pseudomontana Panhaladi Raigad Rhizome and Leucoderma Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
Grah. Zinziberaceae District tubers >
Z
0
82. Coldenia procumbens L. Tripakshi Raigad Plant ash Eczema Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
District 0
Boraginaceae
83. Euphorbia thymifolia L. Dakati Dudhi Raigad Plant Ringworm Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
~
~
Euphorbiaceae District
Contd ... -
~
r-<
...Contd. ~
0
t"'
~
a::
84.
85.
Argemone mexicana L.
Papaveraceae
Argyriea sericea Dalz.
Pivla Dhotra
Gaval
Raigad
District
Raigad
Root, Leaf, Seed
Leaf juice
Scabies
Scabies
Kothari & Moorthy, 1988

-:>
rTI
0
rTI
fJ)
C)
86.
Convolvulaceae
Cassia fistula L. Bahava
District
Raigad Leaf juice Scabies Kothari & Moorthy, 1988 -
>
Z
fJ)
>oj
Caesalpiniaceae District
en
87. Striga gesneroides (Willd.)
Vatke Scrophulariaceae
Raigad
District
Fruits Pimples Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
-:>
~
Z
88.
89.
Woodfordia fruiticosa (L.)
Kurz. Lythraceae
Cissus pallida (Wt and
Dhati
Khaud
Raigad
District
Raigad
Flower paste
Root
Injuries
Tumours

--q""
~
0
Am.) Steud. Vitaceae District Z
fJ)
90. Carallia brachiata (Lour.) Phanasi Raigad Bark, fruit Ulcer Kothari & MoorthY' 1988 Z
Merr. Rhizophoraceae District
s::
91. Hydrolea zeylanica (L.) Raigad Leaf Poultice Ulcer Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
:=>
Vahl Hydrophyllaceae District >
:;::l
92. Ageratum conyzoides L. BhamSet Raigad Leaf paste Wounds Kothari & Moorthy, 1988 >
fJ)
Asteraceae District ~
:;::l
93. Argyriea nervosa (Burm. Samydra Shok. Raigad Leaf Poultice Wounds Kothari & Moorthy, 1988 >
f) Bojer. Convolvulaceae District
94. Termanalia arjuna (Roxb.) Arjuna Raigad Bark, Leaves Wounds Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
Wt. & Am. Combretaceae District
95. Ipomoea obscura (L.) Ker. Pungi Jalgaon Leaf Paste Swellings Shisode & PatiI, 1993
-Gawl. Convolvulaceae District
96. Tragia phukenetii R. Smith Agya JaIgaon Root Injury Shisode & PatiI, 1993
Euphorbiaceae District
~
Contd ... \0
...Contd. N
~
Ailment Literature Source 0
Sr. Botanical Name & Family Local Name Study Area Plant part used
97. Clematis gouriana Roxb. Maruvel Dahanu Leaf paste Blisters on skin Shah et al., 1983
Ranunculaceae District
98. Coculus hirsutus (L.) Verti, Vag Vel Dahanu Leaf & Root Rash on the skin Shah et al., 1983
Diels. Menispermacee District extract
99. Cleome gynandra L. Tilivani Dahanu Leaf juice Skin disease Shah et al., 1983
Capparadiaceae District
100. Derris indica (Lam.) Karanj Dahanu Seed oil Cutaneous Shah et al., 1983
Bennet. Fabaceae District disease
101. Cassia occidentalis L. Ran Takala Dahanu Leaf juice Ringworm Shah et al., 1983
District
CJ'l
102. Ageratum conyzoides L. Mika Dahanu Leaf juice Ringworm Shah et al., 1983 ::I:
c::
Forest OJ
Asteraceae ::I:
division >
Z
C)
103. Eclipta alba L. Asteraceae Bhanjra Dahanu Plant extract Skin rash Shah et al., 1983 ....
Forest ~
~
division
104. Neuracanthus trinervis Nasula Dahanu Plant ash Skin disease Shah et al., 1983 :(J
wt. Acanthaceae Forest
division ~
105. Vitex negundo L. Nirgudi Dahanu Leaf paste Eczema Shah et al., 1983 :<
Forest ~
Verbenaceae
division ~
I""
106. Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R. Dipmal Dahanu Flower bud Ringworm Shah et al., 1983 >
Br. Lamiacee Forest Z
0
division
0
107. Amaranthus spinosus L. Dahanu
Forest
Root decoction Eczema' Shah et ai" 1983
~
Amaranthaceae ~
division ..,>
Contd ... r=
...Contd. IoTj
0
r'
ttl
108. Conyza stricta WilId. Bham bynti Khandala Root decoction Skin disease Ved Prakash & Mehrotra, 3:
109. Argemone mexicana Linn. Piw la Dhotra Khed Taluka Plant juice Skin disease
1987
Ved Prakash & Mehrotra,
-
ttl
Cl
t tl
til
Papaverceae 1987 >

110. Cleome chelidonii Linn. f
Capparidiaceae
Khed Taluka Infusion of plant Skin disease janardhanan,1963 -
G"l
>
Z
~
111. Malvastrum
coromandelianum (L.)
Garcke Malvaceae
Ambadi Khed Taluka Plant juice Sores, wound janardhanan,1963
-
C/l
~
Z
112. Thespesia populnea Linn.

Soland ex Corr. Malvaceae
Ran Bhendi Khed Taluka Leaves Eczema janardhanan,1963
~
113. Ziziphus mauritiana Bor Khed Taluka Root powder Ulcer, old janardhanan,1963
90
Z
114.
Lamk. Rhamnaceae
Zizyphus oenoplia Mill. Burja Khed Taluka Decoction or
Root bark
wounds
Fresh wounds janardhanan,1963 -E:
til
115. Abrus precatorius Linn. Lalgunja Khed Taluka Leaves, root Skin disese janardhanan,1963 >
::t:
bark, seeds >
Fabaceae
~
til
116. Desmodium trifolium Ranmethi Khed Taluka Fresh leaves Wound absecess janardhanan,1963
(Linn.) DC. Fabaceae ~
::o::s
117. Indigofera tinctoria Linn. Nil, Cali Khed Taluka Root juice Ulcer sores, janardhanan,1963
>
Fubaceae scabies
118. Pongamia pinnata (Linn.) Karanj Khed Taluka Root juice Ulcer, sorus, janardhanan,1963
Pierre Fabaceae scabies
119. Cassia occidentalis Linn. Rantakala Khed Taluka Leaves, seeds Skin disease janardhanan,1963
Caesalpiniaceae
120. Cassia tora Linn. Takaia Khed Taluka Root paste Ring worm, skin janardhanan,1963
Caesalpiniaceae disease ~
Vl
Contd ... .....
...Contd.
'"
~
Sr.
No.
Botanical Name &: Family Local Name Study Area Plant part used
and Recipe
Ailment
Treated
Literature Source
'"
121. Acacia arabica Willd. Babhul KhedTaluka Gum powder Burns, scald Janardhanan,l963
Mimosaceae
122. Acacia rugata (Lamk.) Shikakai Khed Taluka Pod decoction Dendruff Janardhanan,l963
liam.Mimosaceae
123. Mitragyna parviflora Kadam Khed Taluka Barkpste Muscular pain Janardhanan,l963
(Roxb.) Korth Rubiaceae
124. Artemisia nilagirica Pomp. Dhordavan KhedTaluka Infusion of plant Skin disease Janardhanan,1963
Rubiaceae
125. Plumbgo zeylanica Linn. Chitrak Khed Taluka Root paste Skin disease Janardhanan,1963
Plumbaginaceae en
126. Dregea volubilis (Linn. f.) liirandodi Khed Taluka Leaves Boil, abscesses Janardhanan,1963 c:==
Benth. ex liook. f. =
>
==
Asc1epiadaceae
127. liemidesmus indicus
(Linn.) Schultz.
Anantmul KhedTaluka Root Skin disease Janardhanan,1963 -
Z
C"l
~
Asc1epiadaceae ~
>
128. Datura metel Linn. Dhatura Khed Taluka Seed, leaves Skin disease Janardhanan,1963 ~
Solanaceae ~
129. Leucas aspera Spreng. Dipmal Khed Taluka Roots Scabies Janardhanan,1963 :<
130. Curculigo orchioides Kali musali Khed Taluka Leaves Itch, skin Janardhanan,1963
131.
Gaertn. liypoxidaceae
Aloe vera Linn. Liliaceae Korphad Khed Taluka Rhizome
disease
Skin disease Janardhanan,1963 -~
r-<
>
Z
132 Gloriosa superba Linn. Bach-nag Khed Taluka Leaf juice Skin disease Janardhanan,1963 0
Liliaceae
0
133. Ocimum sanctum L.
Labiatae
Tulsi Marathwada Leaves Skin disease Rohidas & Bankar, 2002
~
~
Contd ... ~
r-<
...Contd. 'T.I
0
r"
Sr. Botanical Name &: Family Local Name Study Area Plant part used Ailment Literature Source X
No. and Recipe Treated :;:a
t!1
134. Argyreia nervosa (Burm. Samudrashok Marathwada Flower Skin disease Jtohidas & Bankar, 2002
135.
f) Convolvulaceae
Calophylum inophylum L. Tripakshi Raigad Leaves Skin disease Kothari & Moorthy, 1996
-
==
t!1
0
t!1
fIl
district >
G1
136. Heterophragma
quadriloculare (Roxb.)
Raigad
district
Wood extract Skin disease Kothari & Moorthy, 1996 -..,
>
Z
fIl
K.Schum. Bignoniaceae (/)
137. Murraya koenigii (L.) Kadhineem Raigad Root extract Itching, Kothari & Moorthy, 1996 ZS
Z
Spreng. Rutaceae district Leucoderma
>
-q
."
138. Plumbago zeylanica L. Chitrak Raigad Root paste Skin disease Kothari & Moorthy, 1996 ."
r"
Plumbaginaceae district
139. Argemone mexicana Linn. Piwla dhotra Kamala Root Seed Skin disease Vartak & Mandavgane, S
Z
140.
Papaveraceae
Cassia fistula L.
Caesalpiniaceae
Bhava
tribal area
Kolaba Dist. Rhizome Skin disease
1981
Vartak & Mandavgane,
1981
-a::
fIl
141. Curculigo orchioides Kali musali Kolaba Dist. Fruit, Bark Skin disease Vartak & Mandavgane, ~
Gaertn. Hypoxidaceae 1981 >
142. Kokam Vartak & Mandavgane,
~
Garcinia indica Choisy Kolaba Dist. Root bark Skin disease fIl
Guttiferae 1981 =
..,
~
143. Wagatea spicata Dalz. Vagati Kolaba Dist. Leaves Black spot on Vartak & Mandavgane,
Caesalpiniaceae skin 1981
144. Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Shurpunkha Dhule Leaf root Ringworm Yadav & Bhamare, 1989
Pers. Papilionaceae
145. Cassia tora L. Takalu Dhule Achenes Skin disease Borse et al., 1990
Caesalpiniaceae
146. Vernonia anthelmintica Kadu-jira Dhule Bulb Burns, swelling Borse et al., 1990
(L.) Willd. Asteraceae N
~
Contd ... ~
... Contd. N
147. Crinum defixum Ker.- Kumbaya Nasik Dist. Ash of Wound, Sharma &
GawI. Amaryllidaceae inflorescence swelling Lakshminarsimhan, 1986
148. Lepidagathis trinervis Nasik Dist. Plant latex Boils Sharma &
Wall. ex Nees Acanthaceae Lakshminarsimhan,1986
149. Phyllanthus fraternus Dador Nasik Dist. Seed oil Skin disease Sharma &
Webster Euphorbiaceae Lakshminarsimhan, 1986
150. Argemone mexicana L. Salsette Gum Blisters Shah, 1984
Papaveraceae island near
Bombay
151. Sterculia urens Roxb. Salsette Seed oil Cutaneous Shah, 1984
Sterculiaceae island near disease C/'J
Bombay =
c::
til
152. Azadirachta indica A.
Juss. Meliaceae
Salsette
island near
Root paste Skin disease Shah, 1984
=
>-Z
C)
Bombay ....
153. Plumbago zeylanica L. Salsette Leaves Scabies, skin Shah, 1984 loti
Plumbaginaceae island near disease ~
>-
Bombay !!J
154. Acalypha indica L. Salsette Cloves Skin disease Shah, 1984 ~
Euphorbiaceae island near
Bombay
~
155. Allium cepa L. Liliaceae Salsette
island near
Paste of leaves Sores Shah, 1984 ~
....
t'"
Bombay >-
Z
156. Cissampelos pareira Linn. Kuru phad Chandra pur Paste of leaves Boils Malhotra & Moorthy, 0
Menispermaceae 1973 0
157. Argemone mexicana Linn. Piwla dhotra Chandrapur Plant Burns Malhotra & MoorthY' ~
Papaverceae 1973 loti
>-
...,
Contd ... ....
t'"
...Contd. "T1
0
t""
Sr. Botanical Name & Family Local Name Study Area Plant part used Ailment Literature Source :;0:
tn
158. Polycarpea corymbosa Bhisky Chandra pur Paste of leaves Boils Malhotra & Moorthy,
159.
Linn. Caryophyllaceae
Portulaca oleracea Linn.
Portulacaceae
Pasale Chandrapur Plant Burns
1973
Malhotra & Moorthy,
-:>
==
tn
t:l
tn
trJ
1973
0
160. Abutilon indicum (Linn.)
Sweet. Malvaceae
Kankari Chandra pur Paste of leaves
and flowers
Skin disease Malhotra & Moorthy,
1973 -
>
..,Z
trJ
161. Sida rhombifolia Linn. Gubatada Chandrapur Leaves Swelling Malhotra & Moorthy, en
162.
Malvaceae
Byltneria herbacea Roxb. Chandra pur Powdered stem Swelling
1973
Malhotra & Moorthy,
-:>
:;0:
Z
Sterculaceae 1973
163. Boswellia serrata Roxb.
Burseraceae
Salai Chandrapur Gumresin Sores Malhotra & Moorthy,
1973
-B
~
t""
0
164. Azadirachta indica A. Neem Chandrapur Paste of seed Skin disease Malhotra & Moorthy, Z
165.
Juss. Meliaceae
Abrus precatorius Linn.
Fabaceae
Gunja Chandrapur Leaves Skin disease
1973
Malhotra & Moorthy,
1973
-
trJ
Z
~
>
::t:
166. Butea monosperma Palas Chandrapur Leaves Skin disease Malhotra & Moorthy, >
(Lamk.) Taub. Fabaceae 1973 ::::l
>
trJ
167. Psoralea corylifolia Linn.
Fabaceae
Bavachi Chandrapur Seed Powder Piles Malhotra & Moorthy,
1973
..,::t:
~
168. Albizzia lebbeck Benth. Chinchola Chandrapur Seed Powder Piles Malhotra & Moorthy,
Mimosaceae 1973
169. Careya arborea Roxb. Kumbi Chandrapur Bark powder Skin disease Malhotra & Moorthy,
Lecythidacee 1973
170. Glinus lotoides (Linn.) Cho.ndrapur Decoction of Piles Malhotra & Moorthy,
Kuntze. Aizoaceae plant 1973
171. Tricholepis glaberrima Bhrhmidandi Chandra pur Paste of plant Skin disease Malhotra & Moorthy,
DC. Rubiaceae 1973
N
w
Contd ... til
... Contd. t-)
~
C"\
172. Verononia cinerea (Linn.) Osari Chandrapur Plant Wound, sore Malhotra & Moorthy,
Less. Rubiaceae 1973
173. Diospyros melanoxylon Tumri Chandrapur Dried flower Skin disease Malhotra & Moorthy,
Roxb. Ebenaceae 1973
174. Phyla nodiflora (Linn.) Julapimpli Chandrapur Poulitice of Boils Malhotra & Moorth) ,
Green Euphorbiaceae leaves 1973
175. Mallotus philIippensis Korvel Chandrapur Root powder Skin disease Malhotra & Moorthy,
(Lamk.) MuelI.-Arg. 1973
Euphorbiaceae
176. Ricinus communis Linn. Erand Chandrapur Stem Skin disease Malhotra & Moorthy,
Euphorbiaceae 1973 en
::t:
177. Ficus religiosa L. Umber Chandrapur Root fumes Piles Malhotra & Moorthy, c:
l:1l:I
Moraceae 1973 ::t:
>
Z
178. Argemone mexicana L. Piwla Dhotra Akola Tuber paste Ulcer Kamble & Pradhan, 1980 ~
....
Papaveraceae District
179. Butea superba Roxb. Palas bel Akola Decoction of fruit Skin disease Kamble & Pradhan, 1980 ~
Fabaceae District ~
~
180. Garcinia indica Choiss. Ratan bel Akola Fruit paste Boils Kamble & Pradhan, 1980
Clusiacee District 3::
181. Ziziphus oenoplia Ramber West Stem bark Wounds Badhe & Sharma, 1981 ~
MilI.Rhamnaceae Melghat "tI
~
....
182. Ougeinia dalbergioides Tinis West Root bark Wounds Badhe & Sharma, 1981 I"'
Benth. Papilionaceae Melghat >
Z
183. Celastrus paniculata Malkagni West Leaf powder Skin disease Badhe & Sharma, 1981 0
Willd. Celastraceae Melghat 0
184. Capparis horrida Lj. Taral Baramati Piles Deokule & Magdum, ~
Cappiridacee 1992 "tI
~
....
Contd ... I"'
... Contd. "rl
0
r-'
Sr. Botanical Name & Family Local Name Study Area Plant part used Ailment Literature Source :;;r:::
m
185. Azadirachta indica A. Kadulimb Baramati Bark leaves seeds Skin disease Deokule & Magdum, ==
m
Juss. Meliaceae 1992 0
....
m
'JJ
186. Derris indica A. Juss. Karanjii Baramati Seeds Skin disease Deokule & Magdum,
Fabaceae 1992 >
C)
187. Psoralea corylifolia L. Bawachi Baramati Whole plant Skin disease Deokule & Magdum, >
....
Z
Fabaceae 1992 'JJ
>-l
Unhali Baramati fJl

188. Tephrosia purpurea L. Whole plant Skin disease Deokule & Magdum,
1992
....:;;r:::
Fabaceae Z
189. Coccinia indica L. Tondali Baramati Leaves Skin disease Deokule & Magdum, ~
1992 ~
....
Cucurbitaceae
q
....
190. Plumbago zeylanica L. Chitrak Baramati Root, Milky juice Scabies Deokule & Magdum, 0
Plumbaginaceae 1992 Z
'JJ
....
191. Jasminum grandiflorum Jai Baramati Leaves Skin disease Deokule & Magdum, Z
(L.) Bailey Oleaceae 1992 ~
192. Asclepias currassavica L. Haldi- Baramati Root, leaves, Pile Deokule & Magdum, >
::e
kumkum flower 1992 >
:=
Asclepiadaceae
>
'JJ
193. Mirabilis jalapa L. Gulbakshi Baramati Root, leaves Boils Deokule & Magdum, ::e>-l
Nyctaginaceae 1992 :=
>
194. Aristolochia bracteata Popte Baramati Root, leaves Eczema Deokule & Magdum,
Retz. Aristolochiaceae 1992
195. Gossypium herbaceum Kapasyo Baramati Root leaves Abscess Deokule & Magdum,
Linn. Malvaceae 1992
1%. Urginea indica Kunth Jangali kando Baramati Fruits Abscess Deokule & Magdum,
Liliaceae 1992
197. Acacia catechu Willd. Katis Baramati Bulb Cuts on feets Deokule & Magdum,
Mimosaceae 1992 I'.J
~
Contd ... 'I
...Contd. N
~
Local Name Study Area Plant part used Ailment Literature Source C
Sr. Botanical Name & Family
198. Citrus medica Linn. Nimbavi Baramati Bark decoction Scabies Deokule & Magdum,
Rutaceae 1992
199. Argemone mexicana Linn. Unhalyo, Baramati Fruit Scabies Deokule & Magdum,
Papaveraceae Piw la dhotra 1992
200. Butea monosperma Palaho, palas Baramati Latex Scabies Deokule & Magdum,
(Lamk.) Taub. Fabaceae 1992
201. Annona squamosa Linn. Sitaphal Baramati Flower infusion Abscess Deokule & Magdum,
Anonnaceae 1992
202. Vigna trilobata Verdc. Baramati Root paste Abscess Deokule & Magdum,
Pa pilionaceae 1992
203. Carica papaya Linn. Papai Baramati Root paste Ringworm Deokule & Magdum, fJl
::t:
Caricaceae 1992 c::
204. Lawsonia inermis Linn. Mehndi Baramati Fruit Scabies, Soggy Deokule & Magdum, =
::t:
>
Lythraceae cuts between 1992 Z
C)
toes ....
~
205. Pongamia pinnata Pierre Konji, Konruj Baramati Leaf paste Scabies Deokule & Magdum,
Papilionaceae
Baramati Abscess
1992
Deokule & Magdum,
~
~
206. Ficus religiosa Linn. Pimple Seed oil
Moraceae 1992 ~
207. Tridax procumbens Linn. Kodakja khod, Baramati Bark ash Bleeding Deokule & Magdum, ~
Compositae Ghav Pala, wounds 1992 ~
....~
Unnalgo
208. Aegle marmelos Corr. Bili, Bil Baramati Leaf paste Abscess Deokule & Magdum, !'"'
Rutaceae 1992 >

Z
t:j
209. Mangifera indica Linn. Amba Baramati Leaf juice Wounds Deokule & Magdum,
Anacardiaceae 1992 0
210. Ficus arnottiana (Miq.) Amsa Jalgaon Bark decoction Ringworm Pawar & Patil, 2004 ~
Miq. Moraceae District ~
~
Contd ... r:::
...Contd. IT.!
ar-<
r!1
211. Lawsonia inermis L. Mendi Jalgaon Leaf extract Allergic Pawar & Patil, 2004 ~
r!1
Lythraceae District dermatitis t:j
....
r!1
212. Cassia tora L. Tarota, Takala Jalgaon Seed and other Wound due to Pawar & Patil, 2005 til
Caesalpiniaceae District additives thorns >

C)
213. Cassine albens (Retz.) Pimpal Jalgaon Gum Anjuri Pawar & PatiI, 2005 >-
....
Kosterm. Celastraceae District Z
til
-l
214. Ficus religiosa L. Wad Jalgaon Bark infusion Scabies Pawar & PatiI, 2005 C/l
~
Moraceae District ....
Z
215. Ficus bengalensis L. Pan phuti Nasik Leaf infusion Abscess Pawar & Patil, 2005
Moraceae District ..,r-<~
216. Bryophyllum pinnatum Amba Nasik Leaf poultice Wound, boils, Sonawane et al., 2006
Kurz. Crassulaceae District swellings ~
....
a
217. Mangifera indica Ekdandi Nasik Rooted leaves Cracked feet cut Sonawane et al., 2006 Z
til
Linn.Anacardiaceae District ....
Z
218. Tridax procumbens Linn. Rui Nasik Gum Cuts, wounds Sonawane et al., 2006
Asteraceae District ~
::r:
219. Calatropis gigantea R.Br. Sawar Nandurbar Leaf juice Scabies, abscess D'souza, 1993 >-
:::0
District >-
til
220. Salmalia malabarica Sch. Hawari Nandurbar Root paste Pimples D'souza, 1993 ::r:
-l
& Endl. Bombacaceae District :::0
>-
221. Convolvulus microphylIus Lapati Nandurbar Entire plant Abscess D'souza, 1993
Linn. Convolvulaceae District
222. Sesamum indicum Linn. Tili Nandurbar Seed oil Abscess D'souza, 1993
Pedaliaceae District
223. Cyperus rotundus Linn. Gundayo Nandurbar Tuberous root Boils, abscess D'souza, 1993
Cyperaceae cunjwla District pastel powder
224. Martynia annua Linn. Wagh nokhyo Nandurbar Ripe fruit oil Scabies D'souza, 1993
Pedaliaceae District N
w
Contd ... 1.0
... Contd. ~
Sr. Botanical Name & Family Local Name Study Area Plant part used Ailment Literature Source 0
225. Ocimum sanctum Linn. Kali tulji Nandurbar Leaf paste Wounds D'souza, 1993
Lamiaceae District
226. Ocimum gratissimum Ran tulus Nandurbar Leaf paste Abscess D'souza, 1993
Linn. Lamiaceae District
227. Aloe barbadensis Mill. Dekti Korphad Nandurbar Leaf pulp Bums, wounds D'souza, 1993
Liliaceae District
228. Psoralea corylifolia Linn. Bapchyo Nandurbar Leaf powder Scabies, white D'souza, 1993
Papilionaceae Bawachi District entire plant paste spots on skin
229. Clerodendrum phlomidis OraniPokai Nandurbar Leaf juice Scabies D'souza, 1993
Linn. Verbenaceae arandi District
230. Cleome viscosa Linn. Berocero Nandurbar Leaf paste Wound D'souza, 1993 fJl
:I:
Capparadaceae District c::
CiS
231. Cajanus cajan Millsp. Stengalue Nandurbar Leaf paste Fresh wound D'souza, 1993 :I:
>
232.
Pa pilionaceae
Trichodesma indicum R.
Br. Boraginaceae
Leydya
Tuwi Tor
District
Nandurbar
District
Leaf paste Scabies D'souza, 1993 -
Z
C)
233. Operculina turpenthum Agykhod Nandurbar Leaf paste Abscess D'souza, 1993
~
Silva Manso. Agyo District ~
Convolvulaceae 3::
234. Sterospermum suaveolens Padlo Nandurbar Leaf paste Abscess D'souza, 1993 ~
DC. Bignoniaceae District ~
235. Orthosiphon pallidus Sonyo Jaigli Nandurbar Leaf paste Wounds D'souza, 1993 ~
r"'
Royle Lamiaceae tulasi, Mali District ringworm
phuli >
Z
t:l
236. Cayratia camosa Gagnes Tiwanyo Nandurbar Leaf powder Wounds D'souza, 1993
Vitaceae District 0
237. Apluda mutica Linn. Tilkhado Nandurbar Bark Paste Boil with pus D'souza, 1993 ~
Poaceae District ~
Contd ... -
~
r "'
...Contd.
61
!""
~
~
238. Crataeva nurvula Ham. Wayrow Nandurbar Bark paste Scabies D'souza, 1993 :::rn
239.
Capparidaceae
Azadirachta indica A. Nimbwo,
District
Nandurbar Fumes of dried Skin allergy D'souza, 1993
-
0
rn
en
Juss. Meliaceae Nimbda District leaves ~

240. Tectona grandis Linn.
Verbenaceae
Hag, Sag Nandurbar
District
Entire plant
paste or ash
Scabies D'souza, 1993 -
>
Z
~
241. Cressa cretica Linn. Ran Chana, Nandurbar Leaf paste Scabies D'souza, 1993 C/l
Convolvulaceae RanChano District ~
--~
242. Hibiscus cannabinus Linn. Kheto-pendo Nandurbar Root paste Abscess D'souza, 1993
Malvaceae District
243. Grewia tiliaefolia Vahl Tomano Nandurbar Entire plant Wound D'souza, 1993 Q
Tiliaceae Dhamda District decoction 0
Z
244. Polycarpaea corymbosa
Lam. Caryophyllaceae
Pandharphuli,
Viali Phuli
Nandurbar
District
Tender leaf Rinworm D'souza, 1993
-
en
Z
~
245. Cassia fistula Linn. Kerwalo Nandurbar Bark paste Scabies D'souza, 1993 >
Pa pilionaceae Bahava District >
==
::c
246. Jatropha gossipifolia Linn. Roturondo Nandurbar Latex Burns D'souza, 1993 >
en
Chandrya District
Euphorbiaceae :i::c
247. Ziziphus oenoplia Mill. Chambor Nandurbar Root paste Abscess D'souza, 1993 >
Rhamnaceae District
248. Alstonia scholaris R. Br. Sciten Nasik Stem bark smoke Itching Patil & Patil, 2006
Apocynaceae District
249. Amaranthus spinosus L. Kate-math Nasik Leaf ash Eczema Patil & Patil, 2006
Amaranthaceae District
250. Argemone mexicana L. Kardai Nasik Latex Skin infection Patil & Patil, 2006
Contd ... ..-~

...Contd. ~
Sr. Botanical Name & Family Local Name Study Area Plant part used Ailment Literature Source N
251. Cassine albens (Retz.) Bhuttya kalas Nasik Latex gum Crack of lips Patil & Patil, 2006
Koestem. Celastraceae District
252. Cryptolepsis buchananii Bhui-kawali Nasik Latex Boils Patil & Patil, 2006
R.&S.. Asclepiadaceae District
253. Cucumis prophetarum Chibbd Nasik Fruit paste Eczema Patil & Patil, 2006
Linn. Cucurbitaceae District
254. Curculigo orchioides Kala cheda Nasik Root paste Wounds Patil & Patil, 2006
Gaertn. Hypoxidaceae District
255. Eclipta alba (Linn.) Hassk. KalaMaka Nasik Leaf juice Soggy cracks Patil & Patil, 2006
Asteraceae District between toes
rJl
256. Ficus amottiana (Miq.) Khadak Payer Nasik Latex Boils, pimples Patil & Patil, 2006 :=
c:::
Miq. Moraceae District 1:11
:=
257. Ficus glomerata Roxb. Umber Nasik Root latex Chicken pox, Patil & Patil, 2006 >
Z
District small pox C1
....
258. Ficus virens (Miq.), Mig. Ambepayer Nasik Latex Eczema rayer Patil & Patil, 2006 I-d
Moraceae District ~
259. Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Haldu Nasik Stem bark ash Burns Patil & Patil, 2006
>
~
Ridsd. Rubiaceae District
~
260. Hemidesmus indicus R. Anantmul, Nasik Root Paste Itching and Patil & Patil, 2006 ;<:
Br. Asclepiadaceae Upsali District burning
261. Heterophragma Waras Nasik Fresh bark paste

sensation of skin
Injuries Patil & Patil, 2006
~
....
r-<
quadriloculare (Roxb.) K. District
~I:j
Schum. Bignoniaceae
262. Indigofera glandulosa Vasolya tarota Nasik Leaf ash Soggy cuts Patil & Patil, 2006 0
Wendle Fabaceae District between toes ~
I-d
Contd ... ~
....
r-<
...Contd. 'T.I
0
Sr. Botanical Name &; Family Local Name Study Area Plant part used Ailment Literature Source r-<
~
~
263.
264.
Ipomoea illustris (CB.CI.)
Prain. Convolvulaceae
Lannea coromandelica
Gogveli
Mondhal
Nasik
District
Nasik
Leaves fumes
Stembark paste
Chicken box
Swellings
Patil & Patil, 2006
Patil & Patil, 2006

-
==
I!I
0
I !I
CII
;I>
(Houtt.) Merril District C'l
265.
Anacardiaceae
Luffa acutangula (Linn.) Dodka Nasik Leaf paste Leprosy Patil & Patil, 2006
-
>
Z
CII
"'l
en
266.
Roxb. Cucurbitaceae
Meyna laxiflora Robyns
Rubiaceae
Aliv
District
Nasik
District
Warmed leaf Inflammed part
or swelling
Patil & Patil, 2006
~
Z-
;I>
267.
268.
Mukia maderaspatana (L.)
Roem. Cucurbitaceae
Phyllanthus fratemus
Mekh,Gel
Mekh
Dadar
Nasik
District
Nasik
Leaf ash
Plant paste
Soggy cuts been
toes
Boils, skin
Patil & Patil, 2006
Patil & Patil, 2006

-q-
:;!
r-<
0
Z
269.
Webster Euphorbidceae
Pistia stretiotes Linn.
Araceae
Gondal
District
Nasik
District
Leaf ash
infections
Burns Patil & Patil, 2006 -
CII
Z
~
>
270. Polygonum barbatum
Linn. Polygonaceae
Nasik
District
Leaf extract Septics wounds Patil & Patil, 2006
=
>
271. Pongamia pinnata (L.) Karanj Nasik Seed oil Eczema Patil & Patil, 2006
">CII
Pierre Fabaceae District =
"'l
272 Psoralea coryllifolia L. Bauchi Nasik Seed oil Leucoderma Patil & Patil, 2006 ">
Fabaceae District
273. Stemodia viscosa Roxb. Ramban Nasik Leaf ash Leprosy Patil & Patil, 2006
Scrophulariaceae District
274. Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. Arjuna Sadada Nasik Stem bark ash Injuries Patil & Patil, 2006
ex DC) Wight & Am. District
Combretaceae
Contd ... ~
~
...Contd.
Sr. Botanical Name & Family Local Name Study Area Plant part used Ailment Literature Source t
275. Ipomoea obscura (L.) Ker.- Pingul weI Nasik Leaf paste Swellings, Knots Patil & Patil, 2006
Gawl. Convolvulaceae District
276. Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f Kunwarpato Nasik LeaflJulp Burns Tayade & Patil, 2005
District
277. Argemone mexicana L. Piwala Dhotra Nandurbar Latex Scabies Tayade & Patil, 2005
278. Aristolochia bracteata Kidmar Nandurbar Leaf juice Eczema Tayade & Patil, 2005
Retz. Aristolochiaceae District
279. Baliospermum raziana Dati Nandurbar Seed paste Scabies Tayade & Patil, 2005
Keshav et Yog. District
Euphorbiaceae en
::r:
280. Butea monosperma (Lam.) Palas Nandurbar Flower paste Scabies Tayade & Patil, 2005 c::
Taub.Papilionaceae District =
::r:
281. Calatropis gigantea (L.) Rui Nandurbar Latex Boils, Scabies Tayade & Patil, 2005 ~
Cl
....
R.Br. Apocynaceae District
""d
282. Crataeva adansonii DC. Varno Nandurbar Bark infusion Boil withpus Tayade & Patil, 2005
Ca pparidaceae District ~
,?:l
283. Emblica officinalis Gaertn. Awala Nandurbar Fruit powder Scabies Tayade & Patil, 2005
Euphorbiaceae District ~
284. Jatropha gossipifolia L. Chandra Jyot Nandurbar Latex Burn Tayade & Patil, 2005
~
District ""d
....I""'~
Euphorbiaceae
285. Lawsonia inermis L. Mendi Nandurbar Leaf paste Scabies Tayade & Patil, 2005
Lythraceae District >
Z
t:l
286. Trichondesma indica (L.) Udanfuli Nandurbar Leaf powder Scabies Tayade & Patil, 2005
R. Br. Boraginaceae District
0
287. Azadirachta indica A. Neem Nasik Bark infusion Scabies Patil & Patil, 2006
~
~
Juss. Meliaceae District
~
....
Contd ... I""'
... Contd. "rj
0
Botanical Name & Family Local Name r-<
Sr. Study Area Plant part used Ailment Literature Source ~
tTl
:::
288. Cassia fistula "Linn.
Caesalpiniaceae
Costus speciosus (Koenig)
Bahava
Pewda
Nasik
District
Nasik
Leaf paste
Bark paste
Ringworm
Scabies
Patil & Patil, 2006
-
tTl
!;j
tTl
rn
289. Rhizome Leprosy PatH & Patil, 2006
>
290.
J. E.5m. Zingiberaceae
Maduca longifolia (Koen.)
Macbr. Sapotaceae
Mahuwa
District
Nasik
District
Flower paste Abscess PatH & Patil, 2006 -
Cl
>
Z
rn
o-l
en
291. Plumbago zeylanica Linn.
Plumbaginaceae
Chitrak Nasik
District
Root juice Scabies, leprosy,
white spot on
skin
Patil & Patil, 2006 ~
Z->
~
q-
292. Terminalia bellirica Roxb. Behda Nasik Seed oil Pimples PatH & Patil, 2006
293.
Combretaceae
Thespepsia lampas Dalz. Panbhendi
District
Nasik Root powder Skin disease Patil & Patil, 2006 0
Z
-
rn
Malvaceae District
Z
~
>
:t:
>
~
rn
:t:
o-l
:;::::I
>
246 SHUBHANGI PAWAR, M.V. PATIL AND D.A. PATIL
REFERENCES
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Anand Kumar, Kulkarni, B.G. & Singh, N.P. (1981) Medicinal and economic plants growing at
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000
JHARKHANDt INDIA
HARISH SINGH
Chapter Outline
1. Introduction
2. Enumeration
3. Summary and conclusion
4. Acknowledgements
5. References
1. INTRODUCTION
th
Jharkhand is the 28 State of the Indian Republic, formed by carved out from
Bihar on November 15, 2000. It is lies between 220 00' and 240 37' N latitude and 83 0
15' and 870 01' E longitude. The state is bounded by Bihar in the North, West Bengal
on the East, Chattisgarh in the West and Orissa on the South with 79,714 sq. km.
geographical area. The phisiography of the state is hills, valley, and plateau with altitude
ranging from 1000 to over 4000 feet.
Jharkhand is the home of many tribal communities along with a dynamic floristic
diversity. The scheduled tribe population of Jharkhand is 26.30 % of the total population
of the state. There are all together 29 scheduled tribe in the state, but the largest tribal
group are Munda, Oraon, Kharia, Ho and Santhal. The tribes are mainly concentrating
in Chhotanagpur Plateau and Santhal Parganas including Ranchi, Gumla, Lohardaga,
Palamau, Hazaribagh, Singhbhum, Giridih, Dhanbad, Sahibganj, Godda, Pakud, Dumka
and Deoghar districts.
Due to close association of forest, the tribes possess a unique knowledge about the
medicinal uses of plant wealth of their surroundings from many generations. They depend
mostly on ethno medicines for the treatment of different diseases, disorders and ailments.
This traditional knowledge is now fast disappearing due to modernization, habitat
destruction and tendency of the younger generation to discard traditional health system.
ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS OF JHARKHAND, INDIA 249
A considerable ethnomedico-botanical work has been done by a large number of

ethnobotanists on the state viz., (Bodding, 1925, 1927; Bondya et al., 2004; Chandra, 1995;
Chandra and Pandey, 1984, 1985; Chandra et al., 1985,1987; Chaudhuri, 1974; Chaudhuri,
and Pal, 1976; Chaudhuri et al., 1977; Girach and Aminuddin, 1995; Goel et al., 1984,
1987, 1987; Goel and Mudgal, 1988; Guha, 1957; Gupta, 1963, 1981, 1987; Hembrom,
1991, 1994, 1996; Hembrom and Goel, 2005; Islam & Jha, 2003; Jain, and Tarafder, 1970;
Jain, 1989, 1996, 2003; Jain et al., 1990, 1994; Jaipuriar, 2003; Jha et al., 1997; Jha and
Verma, 1996; Kumar, 1997; Kumar and Goel, 1998; Kumar, 1992; Kumari et al., 1991;
Mahato and Mahato, 1996; Mahato et al., 1996, 1992; Manna and Samaddar, 1984; Pal,
1980; Pal and Jain, 1998; Pal and Srivastava, 1976; Pandey et al., 1998; Paul, 1977; Prasad
et al., 1998; Prasad, 1988; Raghav et al., 2005; Ram and Saha, 1998; Rani, and Mishra,
2002; Roy Choudhuri, 1963; Sahoo and Mudgal, 1993(1997); Sahu et al.,2003; Saren et
al., 2006; Sarkar & Agarwal, 1978; Sharma, 1981, 1988; Sharma & Sinha, 1980; Shukla
and Verma 1996; Singh, 2003; Singh and Singh, 1992; Singh and Sinha, 1991; Singh et
al., 1992, Singh, 1987; Singh, 1955; Sinha et al., 1981; Sinha and Nathwat, 1989, 1989,
1991; Srivastawa and Verma, 1981; Srivastava, 2006; Tarafder, 1978, 1983a, 1983b, 1983c
1983d, 1984a, 1984b, 1984c, 1984d, 1984e, 1985, 1986, 1987; Tarafder & Chaudhuri, 1981;
Topno, 1997; Trebedi, 1986; Trevedi et al., 1985,1987; Uniyal, 1995; Upadhyay et al., 1998;
Verma and Pandey, 1990; Verma et al., 1999; Vidhyarthy and Gupta, 2004). In the present
paper, author has given emphasis on diseasewise ethnomedicinal plants, which might
be useful for further ethno-pharmacological investigation.
2. ENUMERATION
In the present paper, the plant species have been arranged alphabetically in each
group of diseases, disorders and ailments alongwith parts used, author citation, parts
used and local names in brackets.
Abortion
Root of Barleria cristata L. (Bantishi), root of Ruellia suffruticosa Roxb. (Charpandu,
Ranu) and soft twig of Vitex negundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar
and Tursi) are used for abortion porposes.
Asthma
Bark of Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. ex Guill. (Dhauta, Dhaonta), leaf
of Bacopa monnieri (L.) Penn. (Brahmi), fruit pulp of Cassia fistula L. (Bandur lauri, Harri,
Amaltas, Bandar lahari), root of Clerodendrum serra tum (L.) Spreng. (Bhanwar muili,
Bharangi), leaf, flower and seed of Datura metel L. (Tuntura, Datura), root of Desmodium
gangeticum (L.) DC. (Sinar), fruit of Trichosanthes palmata Roxb. and root of Vitex negundo
L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) are given in asthma,
bronchitis, lung infection and as expectorant.
Bone fracture
Roots of Vitis repanda W. & A. (Harjora, Harjarwa) is used on bone fracture in tribal
belt of Jharkhand.
Burns
Seed of Argemone mexicana L. (Bakula, Rangeni Kata, and Sial Kanta), root of Bombax
250 HARISH SINGH
ceiba L. (Mur-red, Simbal), rhizome of Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. (Baia Shir, Kitamuli,
Masvaru, and Talmuli) and fruit of Marttj11ia annua L. (Budisarsar) are used in the treatment
of burns.
Contraceptives
Root of Flemingia c/tappar Buch.-Ham. ex Benth. and leaf juice of Vitex negundo
L. (Sind war, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) are used as contraceptives
in the tribal area of Jharkhand.
Cough and Cold
Seed of Abrus precatorius L. (Gunj, Karjani, Ghunchi, and Kanijari), leaf of Adhatoda
vasica Nees (Vasaka, Basak), leaf of Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. (Be]), stem bark of Anogeissus
latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. ex Guill. (Dhauta, Dhaonta), plant of Barleria cristata L.
(Bantishi), bark of Cleistanthus collinus (Roxb.) Benth. ex Hook.f. (Dauntha), root of
Clerodendrum serratum (L.) Spreng. (Bhanwar muili, Bharangi), root of Desmodium gangeticum
(L.) DC. (Sinar), fruit of Emblica officinalis Gaertn. syn. Phyllanthus emblica L. ( Emli, Aura,
Meral, Aonla, Aoula), leaf of Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. (Saparum, Khirsari, Harsingar), root
of Polygala crotalarioides Buch.-Ham. ex DC. (Chanbida, Nilkanthi, Nil Kanti), fruit and
flower of Solanum nigrum L. (Makoi), fruit of Terminalia chebula Retz. (Rolla, Harra), seed
of Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalz. ex Dalz. ex Gibs. (Bankapas, Ban Kapasi), and root of Vitex
negundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) are used by the
tribe in cough and cold.
Diaorrhoea and Dysentery
Bark of Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd.ex Del. ssp. indica (Benth.) Bren. (Babul), plant of Aerva
lanata (L.) Juss. ex Schult. (Midni, Lupora), stem bark of Alstonia scholaris (L.) R.Br. (Chhatni,
Chatian), gum of Anogeissus lati/olia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. ex Guill. (Dhauta, Dhaonta), bark
of Bauhinia purpurea L. (Singda, Koinar), root bark of Calotropis gigantea (L.) R.Br. (Palati,
Akanta, Akwan, Palti), root of Croton roxburghii Balak. syn. C. oblongifolius Roxb. (Kuti-Kun-
Jaw, Miridi, Putri, and Gote Potri), root of Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC. (Sinar), stem bark
of Desmodium oojeinensis (Roxb.) Ohashi (Sanan), tuber of Dioscorea bulbifera L. (Darukanda),
fruit, seed oil and bark of DiosptJros melanoXljlon Roxb. (Tiril, Kend, Tendu, Kendu, Terel),
root of Elephantopus scaber L. (Asma-ri-red, Nankijari, Marachuta, Mejurjhuti, Chirchitri and
Bugrodenti), plant of Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC. (Buang-dumbo, Teli), leaf of Gloriosa superba
L. (Kari-hari, Nagaser), root of Glossogt;ne pinnatifida DC. (Otebarangu, Bajardanti), bark of
Holarrhena antidysenterica (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. (Karaia, Korea, Hat dudhia, Toa and Koroiya),
stem bark of Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C.B.Robinson (Meda, Meda bokla), plant of Mimosa pudica
L. (Lajouni, Jajwanti, Chauimaui), root of Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. (Saparum, Khirsari,
Harsingar), leaf of Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. , fruit of Punica granatum L. (Anar), fruit of
Solanum nigrum L. (Makoi), and fruit of Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels (Kudda, Jamun) are given
in the treatment of diarrhoea, dysentery and cholera.
Diabetes
Root of Abrus precatorius L. (Gunj, Karjani, Ghunchi, Kanijari), wood of Pterocarpus
marsupium Roxb. (Bija, Bijasal), seed and bark of Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels (Kudda,
Jamun) are used in the treatment of diabetes.
Digestive disorder
Seed of Abrus precatorius L. (Gunj, Karjani, Ghunchi, Kanijari), leaf of Aegle marmelos
(L.) Carr. (Bel), plant of Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Wall. ex. Nees (Chirak, Kalmegh,
Kamraj, Chireita, Chiraita), root of Aristolochia bracteolata Lamk. (Rajguru mba, Gadh), root
of Asparagus racemosus Willd. (Sataur, Atkir, Sabnul, Satawar, Satur and Gogotram), root
and flower of Bauhinia purpurea L. (Singda, Koinar), root of Blumeopsis jlava (DC) Gagnep.
(Mageba, Bansorso), root of Bombax ceiba L. (Mur-red, Simbal), Bark of Butea monosperma
(Lamk.) Taub. (Benda, Paras, Palas, Dhak), leaf and fruit of Cassia fistula L. (Bandur lauri,
Harri, Amaltas, Bandar lahari), leaf of Cassia tora L. (Chakar, Chakor), root of Cissampelos
pareira L. (Parai, Nankijari, Parhi, Chatakpapar, Pitusing and Bandarkana), plant of
Commelina benghalensis L. (Kanchare), root of Croton r~xburghii Balak. syn. C. oblongifolius
Roxb. (Kuti-Kun-Jaw, Miridi, Putri, Gate Potri), root of Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC
(Sinar), root of Desmodium pulchellum (L.) Backer (Eth-Ka-Jar), fruit of Emblica officinalis
Gaertn. syn. Phyllanthus emblica L. (Emli, Aura, Meral, Aonla, Aoula), plant of Emilia
sonchifolia (L.) DC (Buang-dumbo, Teli), plant of Equisetum debile Roxb.ex Vauch. (Hajorua),
fruit of Ficus racemosa L. syn. F.glomerata Roxb. (Dumbri, Gular), root of Holarrhena
antidysenterica (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. (Karala, Korea, Hat dudhia, Toa and Koroiya), root
of Lygodium jlexuosum (L.) Sw. (Kalijhiri, Kalijhak, Nagenacha, Mahadebjat, Bish and Sita
chouri), root of Meyna laxiflora Robins. (Katob, Mauna, Ber-Ka-Mowna-Gach), bark of
Mitragyna parviflora (Roxb.) Korth. (Karmi), plant of Polygonllm barbatllm L. (Gara-bera-aha,
Sensa), bark of Pongamia pi/mata (L.) Pierre (Karanj), flower of Pterospermum acerifolium
willd. (Mackchand, Mackchun), seed of Ruellia Sllffruticosa Roxb. (Charpandu, Ranu), resin
of SllOrea robusta Roxb. ex Gaertn. f (Sal, Sakhua), root of Smilax zeylanica L. (Ram Pawan,
At- Ker, Ram datoon), stem bark of Spodias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz (Amra), plant of Swertia
angustifolia Buch.-Ham. (Chiraita), fruit of Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels (Kudda, Jamun), bark
and leaf of Tamarindus indica L. (Emli, Tetar), fruit of Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb.
(Bahera, Bahaira), fruit of Terminalia chebula Retz. (Rolla, Harra), and root of Thalictrum
foliosum DC Gurbula) are used in digestive disorder including indigestion, stomach pain,
gastric trouble, as appetizer, constipation, biliousness, burning sensation etc.
Delivery
Root of Achyrallthes aspera L. (Chirchiti, Sitirked, Chirchiri, and Chirdhiri), root of
Adhatoda vasica Nees (Vasaka, Basak), leaf of Aristolochia bracteolata Lamk. (Rajgurumba,
Gadh), root of Elephantopus scaber L. (Asma-ri-red, Nankijari, Marachuta, Mejurjhuti,
Chirchitri and Bugrodenti), root of Gloriosa superba L. (Kari-hari, Nagaser), flower of
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. (Urhul), root of Moringa oleifera Lam. (Munga, Sajna), bark of Sterculia
urens Roxb. and root of Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalz.ex Dalz.ex Gibs. (Bankapas, Ban
Kapasi) are used to accelerate and for easy, smooth and painless delivery.
Dog bite
Plant of Achyranthes aspera L. (Chirchiti, Sitirked, Chirchiri, Chirdhiri), flower of
Calotropis gigantea (L.) R.Br. (Palati, Akanta, Akwan, Palti), bark of Cassia fistula L. (Bandur
lauri, Harri, Amaltas, Bandar lahari), leaf of Clerodelldrum viscosum Vent. (Chamgar, Ghato,
Bhant), plant of Lygodium jlexuosum (L.) Sw. (Kalijhiri, Kalijhak, Nagenacha, Mahadebjat,
Bish and Sita chouri), root of Sida acuta Burm. f (Baria~, Ipidipium, Bariari), root of
252 BARISH SINGH
Xeromphis spinosa (Thunb.) Keay syn. Randia dumetorum (Retz.) Lam. (Kharhar, Loto and
Mouna) and fruit of Solanum nigrum L. (Makoi) are used in jackal, monkey and dog bite
including hydrophobia.
Ear trouble
Seed of Argyreia nervosa (Burm. f.) Bojer syn. A. speciosa (Lf) Sweet (Marang- harlu,
Jamru chalam, Chherisim), seed of Cassia fistula L. (Bandur lauri, Harri, Amaltas, Bandar
lahari), fruit of Trichosanthes palmata Roxb., root of Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. syn. Vernonia
conyzoides DC (Kaliziri, Jonkitin, Ranu) are used in earache, pus discharges and infection
in ear.
Epilepsy
Seed oil of Celastrus paniculata Willd. (Kujri- daru, Malkan-gui, Minjni, Kujri), whole
plant of Centella asiatica (L.) Urban (Chokiada, Bengsak, Brihmi, Ben sag), plant and root
of Ipomoea hispida (Vahl) Roem. & Schult. (Pitohri) and leaf of Marttjnia annua L.
(Budisarsar) are given in epilepsy.
Eye complaints
Seed of Argemone mexicana L. (Bakula, Rangeni Kata, Sial Kanta), root and leaf of
Clerodendrum serra tum (L.) Spreng. (Bhanwar muili, Bharangi), plant of Cynodon dactylon
(L.) Pers. (Dubilata), fruit of Emblica officinalis Gaertn. syn. Phyllanthus emblica L. (Emli,
Aura, Meral, Aonla, Aoula), plant and root of Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC (Buang-dumbo,
Teli), seed of Flemingia chappar Buch.-Ham. ex Benth.(Gal Phuli), fruit of Solanum nigrum
L. (Makoi),stem bark of Symplocos racemosa Roxb. (Lodh, Ratan Gaur, Ratanganda), root
of Thalictrum foliosum DC (Jurbula)and plant of
Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. syn. Vernonia conyzoides DC (Kaliziri, Jonkitin, Ranu)
are used in the treatment of redness, swelling, pain, inflammation, conjunctivitis etc. in
eyes.
Fever
Bark of Adina cordifolia (Willd.ex Roxb.) Benth. & Hook.f. ex Brandis (Karam,
Karam), plant and root of Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. ex Schult. (Midni, Lupora), leaf of
Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Wall. ex. Nees (Chirak, Kalmegh, Kamraj, Chireita,
Chiraita), root of Aristolochia bracteolata Lamk. (Rajgurumba, Gadh), root of Asparagus
racemosus Willd. (Sataur, Atkir, Satmul, Satawar, Satur and Gogotram), seed of Caesalpinia
crista L. (Kath Karanj), root of Carissa spinarum L. (Gara, Gadasur, Khunti, Karonda,
Karanda, Konad), leaf of Cassia fistula L. (Bandur lauri, Harri, Amaltas, Bandar lahari),
root of Cassia occidentalis L. (Ba:ka Chakur, Chakar), plant and root of Cissampelos pareira
L. (Parai, Nankijari, Parhi, Chatakpapar, Pitusing and Bandarkana), root of Clerodendrum
serratum (L.) Spreng. (Bhanwar muili, Bharangi), root of CnJPtolepis buchanani R.Br. ex
Roem & Schult. (Vaish- Lakashman, Medha- Singhi), leaf, seed and root of Datura metel
L. (Tuntura, Datura), root of Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC (Sinar), seed oil and bark
of Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb. (Tiril, Kend, Tendu, Kendu, Terel), root and stem bark
of Diosptjros montana Roxb. (Kendu), root of Elephantopus scaber L. (Asma-ri-red,
Nankijari, Marachuta, Mejurjhuti, Chirchitri and Bugrodenti), leaf of Emblica officinalis
Gaertn. syn. Phyllanthus emblica L. (Emli, Aura, Meral, Aonla, Aoula), root of Gloriosa
superba L. (Kari-hari, Nagaser), root of Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R.Br. (Chotaka -dudhi,
Anaising, Dudhmala, Dudhijeri), bark of Holarrhena antidysenterica (Buch.-Ham.) Wall.
(Karaia, Korea, Hat dudhia, Toa and Koroiya), root of Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw.
(Kalijhiri, Kalijhak, Nagenacha, Mahadebjat, Bish and Sita chouri), bark of Melia azedaraclz
L. (Bakain, Nim), fruit of Meyna laxiflora Robins. (Katob, Mauna, Ber-Ka-Mowna-Gach),
plant of Mimosa pudica L. (Lajouni, Jajwanti, Chauimaui), bark of MitragrJna parviflora
(Roxb.) Korth. (Karmi), bark of Moringa oleifera Lam. (Munga, Sajna), root of Mucuna
pmriens (L.) DC (Alkusi, Algusi), root of Plumbago zeylanica L. (Chitrak), root of Polygala
crotalarioides Buch.-Ham. ex DC (Chanbida, Nilkanthi, Nil Kanti), seed oil of POllgamia
pinnata (L.) Pierre (Karanj), root of Smilax zeylanica L. (Ram Pawan, At- Ker, Ram datoon),
root of Thalictrum foliosum DC (Jurbula), bulb of Urginea indica (Roxb.) Kunth. (Ban-
Piyaj, Jangli Piyaj), whole plant of Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. syn. Vernonia conyzoides
DC (Kaliziri, Jonkitin, Ranu), leaf and root of Vitex negundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri,
Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi), root of Wattakaka valubilis L. Stapf. (Par, Nak-chikni),
root of Woodfordia fruticosa ( L.) Kurz (Dhutkiphul, Itchea, Dhawai, Ichha, Dhaunai), root
of Wrightia toementosa (Roxb.) Roem. & Schult. (Kari-dudhi), plant of Xanthium strumarium
L., root of Xeromphis spinosa (Thunb.) Keay syn. Randia dumetomm (Retz.) Lam. (Kharhar,
Loto and Mouna) are used in fever including malarial, typhoid, intermittent and high
fever with senselessness.
Gum diseases
Leaf of Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. and leaf of Vitex llegundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar,
Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) are used in gum diseases including swelling,
pyorrhea, bed smell etc.
Headache
Plant of Andrographis palliculata (Burmf.) Wall. ex Nees (Chirak, Kalmegh, Kamraj,
Chireita, Chiraita), leaf of Blumeopsis flava (DC) Gagnep. (Mageba, Bansorso), root of
Croton roxburghii Balak. syn. C. oblongifolius Roxb. (Kuti-Kun-Jaw, Miridi, Putri, Gote
Potri), plant of Ipomoea hispida (Vahl) Roem. & Schult. (Pitohri), fruit of Leonotis nepetafolia
(L.) R.Br. (Pogu-jata, Tompepuru, Traangia), Leaf of Ocimum basilicum L. (Achi-Koam,
Jatni), bark of Oroxylum indicum (L.) Vent. (Banskali), Spilanthes calva DC, root of
Trichosanthes palmata Roxb., leaf of Vitex llegundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair,
Sunduwar and Tursi) and root of Woodfordia fruticosa ( L.) Kurz (Dhutkiphul, Itchea,
Dhawai, Ichha, and Dhaunai) are used for treating headache.
Jaundice
Whole Plant of Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. (Chokiada, Bengsak, Brihmi, Ben sag),
Leaf of Phyllanthus nimri L.(Jara amla), plant of Solanum nigmm L. (Makoi) and whole
plant of Urtica dioica L. (Bichhu ghas) are used in jaundice and liver troubles.
Leprosy
Whole Plant of Commelina benghalensis L. (Kanchare), flower bud of Hibiscus rosa-
sinensis L. (Urhul), plant of Ipomoea hispida (Vahl) Roem. & Schult. (Pitohri), and root
of Mucuna pmriens (L.) DC (Alkusi, Algusi) are used in leprosy and leucoderma.
Leucorrhoea
Root of Asparagus racemosus Willd. (Sataur, Atkir, Satmul, Satawar, Satur and
254 HARISH SINGH
Gogotram) and rhizome of Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. (Baia Shir, Kitamuli, Masvaru,
Talmuli) are used in the treatment of leucorrhoea.
Miscarriage
Seed of Butea monospenna (Lamk.) Taub. (Bendo, Paras, Palas, Dhak), root of Oroxylum
indicum (L.) Vent. (Banskali), fower and root of Prosopis spicigera L. (Mimosaceae), leaf of
Punica granatum L. (Anar) and wood of Symplocos racemosa Roxb. (Lodh, Ratan Gaur,
Ratanganda) are used to prevent miscarriages during pregnancy.
Pains
Leaf of Abrus precatorius L. (Gunj, Karjani, Ghunchi, and Kanijari), root of Achyranthes
aspera L. (Chirchiti, Sitirked, Chirchiri, and Chirdhiri), stem bark of Alstonia scholaris (L.)
R.Br. (Chhatni, Chatian), root of Asparagus racemosus Willd. (Sataur, Atkir, Satmul, Satawar,
Satur and Gogotram), whole plant of Atljlosia scarabaeoides (L.) Benth. (Bonkurthy, Bankurthi),
root of Carissa carandas L. (Kanwad) and Carissa spinarum L. (Gara, Gadasur, Khunti,
Karonda, Karanda, Konad), seed oil of Celastrus paniculata Willd. (Kujri- daru, Malkan-
gui, Minjni, Kujri), whole plant of Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. (Chokiada, Bengsak, Brihmi,
Ben sag), root of Clerodendrum viscosum Vent. (Chamgar, Ghato, Bhant), whole plant of
Crotolaria spectabilis Roth syn. c.sericea Retz. (Jhuka, Jhunjhunia), rhizome of Curculigo
orchioides Gaertn. (Baia Shir, Kitamuli, Masvaru, Talmuli), root of Desmodium gangeticllm
(L.) DC. (Sinar), root of Desmodium oojeinensis (Roxb.) Ohashi (Sanan), root of Lygodillm
fIexuosum (L.) Sw. (Kalijhiri, Kalijhak, Nagenacha, Mahadebjat, Bish and Sita chouri), seed
of Ruellia suffruticosa Roxb. (Charpandu, Ranu), resin of Shorea robllsta Roxb. ex Gaertn.
f (Sal, Sakhua), root of Smilax ovalifolia Roxb. (Atkir), stem, leaf and fruit of Tillospora
cordifolia (L.) Miers. (Gursilai), leaf of Vitex negundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair,
Sunduwar and Tursi) and root of Vi tis repanda W. & A. (Harjora, Harjarwa) are used
in body pain, muscle strain, chest pain, etc. by the tribal people of Jharkhand.
Piles
Whole plant of Achyranthes aspera L. (Chirchiti, Sitirked, Chirchiri, Chirdhiri), leaf
of Blumea lacera (Burm.f.) DC. (Kakrendha), rhizome of Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. (Baia
Shir, Kitamuli, Masvaru, and Talmuli), tuber of Dioscorea bulbifera L. (Darukanda), whole
plant of Equisetum debile Roxb.ex Vauch. (Hajorua), peduncle of Solanum melollgena L.
(Baigan), plant juice of Solanum nigrum L. (Makoi) and leaf juice of Vitex negundo L.
(Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) are used in the treatment of
itching piles, bleeding piles and fistula.
Post delivery complaints
Stem bark of Calotropis gigantea (L.) R.Br. (Palati, Akanta, Akwan, Palti), leaf of
Centella asiatica (L.) Urban (Chokiada, Bengsak, Brihmi, Ben sag), root of Costus specioslls
(Koen.)Smith, plant of Crotolaria alata Buch.-Ham. (Jhunjhunka), root of Piper longum L.
(Pipali), root of Pogostemon parviflorus Benth., bark of Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. (Bija,
Bijasal), leaf of Punica granatum L. (Anar), root of Ruellia suffruticosa Roxb. (Charpandu,
Ranu), and leaf of Vitex negundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and
Tursi) are used in fever, weakness, and to check bleeding and to remove out the placenta
after delivery.
Rheumatism
Gum of Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Colebr. (Salga, Salia), whole plant of Crotolaria
spectabilis Roth syn. c.sericea Retz. (Jhuka, Jhunjhunia), root and plant of
Ipomoea hispida (Vahl) Roem. & Schult. (Pitohri), seed oil of Moringa oleifera Lam.
(Munga, Sajna), pseudo bulb of Pholidota imbricata (Roxb.) Lindl. (Patharkela), seed oil of
Pongamia pimzata (L.) Pierre (Karanj), root of Smilax ovalifolia Roxb. (Atkir) and root of Vitex
negundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) are used in the
treatment of rheumatism.
Scorpion sting
Plant of Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC) Wall. ex Guill. (Dhauta, Dhaonta), root
of Calotropis gigantea (L.) R.Br. (Palati, Akanta, Akwan, Palti), root of Desmodium gangeticum
(L.) DC (Sinar) and root of Rubia cordifolia L. are used locally on the part stung by scorpion.
Skin diseases
Seed of Abrus precatorius L. (Gunj, Karjani, Ghunchi, Kanijari), plant of Achyranthes
aspera L. (Chirchiti, Sitirked, Chirchiri, Chirdhiri), leaf of Ageratum conyzoides L. (Gandhari,
Puru), leaf of ArgtjTeia nervosa (Burm. f) Bojer syn. A. speciosa (Lf) Sweet (Marang- harlu,
Jamru chalam, Chherisim), whole plant of Bacopa monnieri (L.) Penn. (Brahmi), gum of
Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Colebr. (Salga, Salia), seed of Cassia tora L. (Chakar, Chakor),
seed oil of Celastrus paniculata Willd. (Kujri- daru, Malkan-gui, Minjni, Kujri), root and
leaf of Clerodendrum viscosum Vent. (Chamgar, Ghato, Bhant), leaf of Commelina bengizalensis
L. (Kanchare), rhizome of Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. (Baia Shir, Kitamuli, Masvaru,
Talmuli), seed ,leaf and root of Datura metel L. (Tuntura, Datura), tuber of Dioscorea bulbifera
L. (Darukanda), plant of Elephantopus scaber L. (Asma-ri-red, Nankijari, Marachuta,
Mejurjhuti, Chirchitri and Bugrodenti), fruit of Emblica officinalis Gaertn. syn. Phyllanthus
emblica L. (Emli, Aura, Meral, Aonla, Aoula), plant of Euphorbia hirta L. (Lal dhunia), whole
plant of Ipomoea hispida (Vahl) Roem. & Schult. (Pitohri), inflorescence of Leonotis nepetafolia
(L.) R.Br. (pogu-jata, Tompepuru, Traangia), stem bark of Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) CB.Robinson
(Meda, Meda bokla), seed oil of Melia azedarach L. (Bakain, Nim), seed oil of Moringa oleifera
Lam. (Munga, Sajna), root of Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. (Saparum, Khirsari, Harsingar),
inflorescence of Ocimum basilicum L. (Achi-Koam, Jatni), seed oil of Pongamia pinnata (L.)
Pierre (Karanj), seed oil of Schieichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken (Kusum), wood oil of Tectona
grandis L.f. (Sagwan), fruit of Terminalia chebuia Retz. (Rolla, Harra) and leaf of Vitex
negundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) are used in skin
diseases including ringworm, itches, scabies, acne, boils, blister, sores, ulcer, tumor,
irritation, sprain, blood purifier etc.
Snake bite
of Ageratum conyzoides L. (Gandhari, Puru), plant of Anogeissus Iatifolia (Roxb. ex DC) Wall.
ex Guill. (Dhauta, Dhaonta), root and leaf of Barleria cristata L. (Bantishi), root of Bauhinia
vahlii (Wt. & Am.) Benth. (Gungu Sakam), stem bark of Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Colebr.
(Salga, Salia), root of Cissampelos pareira L. (Parai, Nankijari, Parhi, Chatakpapar, Pitusing
and Bandarkana), root and leaf of Clerodendrum serratum (L.) Spreng. (Bhanwar muili,
256 HARISH SINGH
Bharangi), root of Clerodendrum viscosum Vent. (Chamgar, Ghato, Bhant), root of

Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC (Sinar), root of Heteropogon contortus (L.) P.Beauv. ex Roem.
& Schult. (Saurighas, Chorant), bark of Moringa oleifera Lam. (Munga, Sajna), whole plant
of Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth.ex Kurz (Serpgandha) and root of Rubia cordifolia L.
are used in snakebite as well as to keep away the snakes.
Swelling
Root and leaf of Barleria cristata L. (Bantishi), root of Clerodendrum viscosum Vent.
(Chamgar, Ghato, Bhant), seed of Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R.Br. (Pogu-jata, Tompepuru,
and Traangia) is used in the treatment of swollen breast of woman and root of Lygodillm
flexuosum (L.) Sw. (Kalijhiri, Kalijhak, Nagenacha, Mahadebjat, Bish and Sita chouri) are
used in the treatment of swelling.
Throat sore
Leaf of Moringa oleifera Lam. (Munga, Sajna), plant of Spilanthes calva DC, gum of
Sterculia urens Roxb. and fruit of Terminalia chebula Retz. (Rolla, Harra) are used in the
treatment of throat infection.
Toothache
Bark of Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd.ex Del. ssp. indica (Benth.) Bren. (Babul), seed of
Argemone mexicana L. (Bakula, Rangeni Kata, Sial Kanta), root of AhJlosia scarabaeoides (L.)
Benth. (Bonkurthy, Bankurthi), plant of Blumeopsis flava (DC) Gagnep. (Mageba, Bansorso),
fruit of Datura metel L. (Tuntura, Datura), whole plant of Elephantopus scaber L. (Asma-
. ri-red, Nankijari, Marachuta, Mejurjhuti, Chirchitri and Bugrodenti), leaf of Emilia sonchifolia
(L.) DC (Buang-dumbo, Teli), whole plant of GlossogtJne pinnatifida DC (Otebarangu,
Bajardanti), fruit of Melia azedarach L. (Bakain, Nim), plant of Spilanthes calva DC, and
leaf and twig of Vitex negundo L. (Sind war, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and
Tursi) are used in the treatment of toothache, swelling and caries.
Tuberculosis
Seed oil of Celastrus paniculata Willd. (Kujri- daru, Malkan-gui, Minjni, Kujri), seed
of Holarrhena antidysenterica (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. (Karaia, Korea, Hat dudhia, Toa and
Koroiya) and leaf of MarhJnia annua L. (Budisarsar) are given in the treatment of
tuberculosis.
Urinary disorder
Root of Asparagus racemosus Willd. (Sataur, Atkir, Satmul, Satawar, Satur and
Gogotram), root of Mimosa pudica L. (Lajouni, Jajwanti, Chauimaui), leaf of Phyllanthus
reticulatus Poir., root of Pueraria tubeorsa (Roxb. ex Willd) DC (Bandundi, Sarur) and root
of Smilax ovalifolia Roxb. (Atkir) are used in renal trouble, gravel complaint, blood
discharge and other urinary disorder.
Venereal diseases
Seed of ArgtjYeia nervosa (Burm. f) Bojer syn. A. speciosa (Lf.) Sweet (Marang- harlu,
Jamru chalam, Chherisim), bark of Cleistanthus collinus (Roxb.) Benth. ex Hook.f. (Dauntha),
fruit of Emblica officinalis Gaertn. syn. Phyllanthus emblica L. (Emli, Aura, Meral, Aonla,
Aoula), twig of Sida acuta Burm. f (Bariatu, Ipidipium, Bariari), root of Smilax ovalifolia
Roxb. (Atkir), leaf of Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels (Kudda, Jamun), root and fruit of
Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalz.ex Dalz.ex Gibs. (Bankapas, Ban Kapasi) and root of Vitex
negundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) are used in burning
sensation in vagina, gonorrhoea, spermatorrhoea, irregular menstruation cycle, hydrocele
and genital related diseases.
Veterinary
Leaf of Abrus precatorius L. (Gunj, Karjani, Ghunchi, Kanijari), bark of Alstonia
scholaris (L.) RBr. (Chhatni, Chatian), leaf of ArgtjYeia neroosa (Burm. f) Bojer syn. A.
speciosa (Lf.) Sweet (Marang- harlu, Jamru chalam, Chherisim), plant of Attjlosia
scarabaeoides (L.) Benth. (Bonkurthy, Bankurthi), fruit of Cassia fistula L. (Bandur lauri,
Harri, Amaltas, Bandar lahari), root of Dillenia indica L. (Korkot), whole plant of
Elephantopus scaber L. (Asma-ri-red, Nankijari, Marachuta, Mejurjhuti, Chirchitri and
Bugrodenti), leaf of Emblica officinalis Gaertn. syn. Phyllanthus emblica L. (Emli, Aura,
Meral, Aonla, Aoula), plant of Euphorbia hirta L. (Lal dhunia), bark of Litsea glutinosa
(Lour.) C.B.Robinson (Meda, Meda bokla), bark of Pueraria tllbeorsa (Roxb. ex Willd.)
DC. (Bandundi, Sarur), root of Smilax ze1jlanica L. (Ram Pawan, At- Ker, Ram datoon),
leaf and branch of Sterculia urens Roxb., root of Trichosallthes palmata Roxb., bulb of
Urginea indica (Roxb.) Kunth. (Ban-Piyaj, Jangli Piyaj) and whole plant of Vernonia cinerea
(L.) Less. syn. Vernonia conyzoides DC. (Kaliziri, Jonkitin, Ranu) are used in diarrohoea,
swelling, esophagus trouble, hoof disease, injury, fracture and other diseases of cattle/
animals.
Vomiting
Root of Achyranthes aspera L. (Chirchiti, Sitirked, Chirchiri, Chirdhiri), root of
Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC. (Sinar), stem bark of Diospyros montana Roxb. (Kendu),
whole plant of Elephantopus scaber L. (Asma-ri-red, Nankijari, Marachuta, Mejurjhuti,
Chirchitri and Bugrodenti) and plant of Swertia angustifolia Buch.-Ham. (Chiraita) are
used to check vomiting.
Vermifuge
Fruit granules of Mallotus philippensis (Lamk.) Muell.-Arg. (Gari- Sandari, Ruri-
gach, Rori and Thipaj kanla), leaf of Melia azedarach L. (Bakain, Nim), pseudo-bulb of
Pholidota imbricata (Roxb.) Lind!. (Patharkela), whole plant of Urtica dioica L., root of
Vitex negundo L. (Sind war, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) and root of
Wattakaka valubilis L. Stapf. (Par, Nak-chikni) are used for killing/removing tapeworm,
thread worm, round worm, hook worm, pin worm, ascaris, and other intestinal worms.
Weakness
Roots of Asparagus racemosus Willd. (Sataur, Atkir, Satmul, Satawar, Satur and
Gogotram), leaf of Attjlosia scarabaeoides (L.) Benth. (Bonkurthy, Bankurthi), leaf of Centella
asiatica (L.) Urban (Chokiada, Bengsak, Brihmi, Ben sag), root of Crotolaria alata Buch.-
Ham. Ghunjhunka), root of Diplocyclos palmatus (L.) Jeffrey (Kaoputki), root of Rubia
cordifolia L., plant of Swertia angustifolia Buch.-Ham. (Chiraita), fruit of Terminalia chebula
Retz. (Rolla, Harra), root of Thalictrum foliosum DC. Gurbula) and leaf and root of Vitex
negundo L. (Sind war, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) are used as tonic
in weakness for vigor, vitality and strength.
258 HARISH SINGH
Wound
and inflorescense of Ageratum conyzoides L. (Gandhari, Puru), leaf of Argemone mexicana
L. (Bakula, Rangeni Kata, Sial Kanta), bark of Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Colebr. (Salga,
Salia), root of Carissa spinarum L. (Gara, Gadasur, Khunti, Karonda, Karanda, Konad), seed
oil of Celastrus paniculata Willd. (Kujri- daru, Malkan-gui, Minjni, Kujri), plant of Lygodium
j1exuosum (L.) Sw. (Kalijhiri, Kalijhak, Na&enacha, Mahadebjat, Bish and Sita chouri), fruit
of MarhJnia annua L. (Budisarsar), leaf of Vitex negundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri,
Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) and root of Vi tis repanda W. & A. (Harjora, Harjarwa)
are used for cut, wound, injury, sore and inflammation.
Wormicide
Bark of Adina cordifolia (Willd.ex Roxb.) Beth. & Hook. f. ex Brandis (Karam, Karam),
seed and bark of Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. (Bendo, Paras, Palas, Dhak), root of
Carissa spinarum L. (Gara, Gadasur, Khunti, Karonda, Karanda, Konad), root of Dioscorea
alata L. (Pahadkanda, Chupri- Au), whole plant of Elephantopus scaber L. (Asma-ri-red,
Nankijari, Marachuta, Mejurjhuti, Chirchitri and Bugrodenti), and leaf of Vitex negundo
L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) are used to kill sore worm.
3. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
The present paper describes some important ethnomedicinal plants of Jharkhand,
which are being used by various tribes for the treatment of forty major groups of diseases,
disorders and ailments (Abortion, asthma, bone fracture, burns, contraceptives, cough and
cold, diarrhoea and dysentery, diabetes, digestive disorder, delivery, dog bite, ear trouble,
epilepsy, eye complaints, fever, gum diseases, headache, jaundice, leprosy, leucorrhoea,
miscarriage, pains, piles, post delivery complaints, rheumatism, scorpion sting, skin
diseases, snake bite, swelling, throat sore, toothache, tuberculosis, urinary disorder,
venereal diseases, veterinary, vomiting, vermifuge, weakness, wound and as wormicide).
These plant species have been arranged alphabetically in each group along with author
citation, parts used and local names in parenthesis.
4. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is grateful to the Director, Botanical Survey of India, Kolkata and Deputy
Director, Central Botanical Laboratory, Howrah for all necessary facilities.
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000
THE PARASITIC ANGIOSPERMS : FROM
MYTHOLOGY TO MEDICINE
R.B. JADHAV, S.P. BHATNAGAR AND S.J. SURANA
Chapter Outline
1. Introduction
2. Parasitic angiosperms : General consideration
3. Parasitic plants : Myths or medicine ?
4. Parasitic plants : Diversity and distribution
5. Host-Parasite interaction : Cause and consequence of pharmacological
Effects
6. Are the parasitic plants only pests or more than that ?
7. Conclusions
8. References
1. INTRODUCTION
Despite of remarkable developments in separation and screening sciences,
bioinformatics and data handling systems, computational and combinatorial chemistry,
natural products (NP) remain dominant part of modem medicine. From recent survey,
it is evident that about 67% of today's marketed drugs find their origin in natural products
(Newman et. al., 2003). Unsurpassable structural and functional diversity, unique design,
relevance to biological systems and biocompatibility of NP constitute the central dogma
of drug discovery arena (Feher & Schmidt, 2003; Grabowski & Schneider, 2007). The
industrial drug discovery is always in search of novel molecules that can be developed
into the drugs. This drug discovery and development is trillion dollars business and large
amount of money is invested in searching such new molecules. Since success rate in 'lead'
finding is frequently poor, the drug discovery program usually includes chemically diverse
material in lead finding process in order to enhance chances of getting new molecules.
In addition of 'normal' life-forms, unusual life-forms thus considered as important source
THE PARASmC ANGIOSPERMS: FROM MYfHOLOGY TO MEDICINE 265
of unusual molecules. Parasitic plant community consequently attracted researchers

because of their strange habit and long ethnomedicinal history.
About 3900 species of parasitic plants (about 1 % of flowering plants) are reported
from in nearly every habitat type and plant communities found throughout world
(Musselman & Press, 1995). Because being unusual life-form, parasitic plants remain
subject of much curiosity to the scientific community since ancient times. Similarly their
strange growth habit, blooming during winter, does not follow a 12 month vegetation
period, unusual mode of seed dispersal, and wide spread distribution could be the origin
of their mystic and ethnomedicinal use in different cultures. The European mistletoe,
Viscum album L. having more than 2000 year's history of its medicinal uses. The term
'mistletoe' has been used to refer to a large number of perennial hemi-parasitic flowering
plants from the families Viscaceae and Loranthaceae sensu stricto. The term 'mistletoe'
derives from the Anglo-Saxon misteltan (or mistiltan); 'mistle' meaning dung, and 'tan'
meaning twig. Thus it literally means 'dung-on-a-twig' (Calder 1983). The mistletoe as
a medicine was not restricted to Europe, but is also observed in other parts of the world,
or was transformed to similar plants. Mistletoes, in general, are considered to have magical
properties and uses among different cultural groups. These are primarily thought to be
mystic in origin (Arndt 2000).
Despite of widespread prevalence of parasitic plants in ethnomedicine, except few
European species, most of the parasitic plants of world have not been investigated
extensively in terms of modern pharmacology. The major problem in rationalization of
ethnomedicinal claims of mistletoes is transformation of similar folk remedy claims to
several different mistletoes. The likeness in their morphological and nutritional mode
might be the reason for such transformation. In addition, presence of certain secondary
compounds varies within and among the populations of parasitic plants, depending on
the host association of individual parasite (Stermitz & Harris 1987). Thus their"
characterization as well as specifying host plant is necessary to authenticate the folk'
remedy claims and to allocate observed pharmacological activities. It is, therefore,
important to know the species-wise ethnobotanical information which is much more'
pertinent in rationalizing their ethnomedicinal claims.
In present communication effort has been made to review the parasitic plants used
traditionally by different ethnic groups/ cultures and civilizations in the light of recent
pharmacological and phytochemical findings. On the basis of data accumulated and our
experience on some parasitic plants, we observed some trends in both folk medicine and
pharmacological activities. These are also discussed in this paper. Unfortunately, parasitic
plants are largely investigated as invasive pests and as a detriment to forest health by
policy makers, foresters, lay people and even biologists. However, recent studies underline
their significance in different facets of life sciences. A brief account of these investigations
is also considered to familiarize with significance of parasitic plant community.
2. PARASITIC ANGIOSPERMS: GENERAL CONSIDERATION
The medicinal properties of plants are dependent on their chemical composition.
Several exogenous and intrinsic factors are known to affect chemical makeup of the plants.
These factors include climate, altitude, ontogenetic stage, geographical location, diurnal
266 R.B. JADHAV, S.P. BHATNAGAR AND S.J. SURANA
changes, genetic make-up etc. In addition to these factors, chemical composition of

parasitic plants is dependent on type of host plant and degree of dependence of parasitic
plant on the host. In understanding the degree of influence caused by host plant on
secondary chemicals of parasitic plant, it is pertinent to consider various nutritional
modes of parasites. The parasitic plants are evolved with complex nutritional mode
which is quite different from 'normal' photosynthetic green plants. On the basis of
nutritional modes, flowering plants can be categorized as autotrophic and heterotrophic
(Daniel 2002). The majority of green plants (angiosperms) are autotrophic. The plants
which have adopted a heterotrophic mode, obtain all or some of their carbohydrates
from another organism. The heterotrophs are further divided into two groups, mycotrophs
and haustorial parasites (Furman & Trappe 1971). Haustorial parasite that form modified
roots called haustoria constituting the morphological and physiological connection with
host plant. Haustorial parasitism appears to have evolved only in flowering plants
(dicots). Among the various unrelated families of parasitic plants, two basic types of
parasitism exist: holoparasites and hemi-parasites. Holoparasites are totally achlorophyllus
(or nearly so), non-photosynthetic, and obtain all their water and nutrients from host
xylem and phloem. Most holoparasites occur on host roots; however, some species of
Cuscuta are stem parasites that have lost thylakoids, chlorophyll and light-dependent
CO2 fixation (Machado & Zetsche 1990). Holoparasitism has evolved independently in
different lineages like Cynomorriaceae, Convolvulaceae Balanophoraceae,
Scrophulariaceae, Rafflesiales, Lennoaceae and Hydnoraceae.
Hemi-parasites (semi-parasites) are chlorophyllus and photosynthetic (at least
during some part of their life cycle) yet they obtain water and nutrient via haustorial
connections to the host plant. Depending upon their degree of dependence on host,
hemiparsites can be grouped into facultative and obligate. Facultative hemiparasites do
not require a host to complete their life cycle but are photosynthetic and, when presented
with host roots, invariably form haustorial connection. When attached to host roots,
these parasites extract water and dissolved mineral via direct, cell-to-cell connections
to the xylem. Facultative hemiparasites found in several root parasitic families such as
Scrophulariaceae, Oleaceae, Opiliaceae, Santalaceae and Krameriaceae.
Obligate hemiparasites needs to attach to a host to complete their life cycle. These
are further grouped as primitive and advanced type. The primitive type includes stem
parasites of Loranthaceae, Misodendraceae and some Viscaceae. These parasites are
photosynthetic xylem feeders, but being stem parasites, they cannot exist independent
of host plant. The advanced obligate hemiparasites attach not only to host xylem but
also obtain host carbon via phloem connections. Concomitant with this nutritional is the
loss of photosynthetic function, at least to some degree or during some stage of life cycle.
It includes most species of Phacellaria (Santalaceae), Cuscuta (Convolvulaceae), Arceuthobium
(Viscaceae), Cassytha (Lauraceae) and Striga gesnerioides (Scrophulariaceae). The present
review, however, considers not only hemi-parasites (mistletoes) but also holoparasites since
later category demonstrated some interesting pharmacological properties.
3. PARASITIC PLANTS: MYTHS OR MEDICINE?
In many cultures, mistletoes have been a source for many concepts, symbols, and
rituals. Since early days, they have been one of the most magical, mysterious and scared
THE PARASITIC ANGIOSPERMS: FROM MYTHOLOGY TO MEDICINE 267
plants of folklore. Mistletoes, in general, are considered to have magical properties and
uses among different cultural groups tend to be primarily for illness thought to be mystic
origin. Because of their unusual life-form (strange growth habit, blooming during winter,
does not follow a 12 month vegetation period, and unusual mode of seed dispersal), many
cultures have respected, feared or thought them to have magical properties (Polhill &
Wiens 1998; Arndt 2000). To them, plant represented ever-lasting life and they believed
the plant was antidote for poisons and ensured fertility, and to possess miraculous
properties to cure each illness. The mythological and medicinal history of parasitic plants
is more or less co-evolved with European mistletoe, Viscum album L. Even today, the
evergreen mistletoe is thought to be a symbol of fertility and good luck during the
Christmas tide in many European countries and North America. This tradition dates back
several thousand years to a time when bough of mistletoe were hung to protect evil spirit
and to promote fertility (Kandela, 2001).
The occurrence of Viscum album L. in Southern Europe was first reported by
Theophrastus (321-287 BC) and was later mentioned by others such as Aristotle and
Plinius (Doris 2004). The intensions of mistletoe uses were manifold and conflicting in
several cases. According to the Greek physician and author Dioscorides (15-85 AD),
Hippocrates (460-377 BC) used the mistletoe to treat disease of the spleen and complaints
associated with menstruation. Plinius (23-79 AC) reported mistletoe from Oak trees, when
applied as chewed pulp, to be beneficial for epilepsy, infertility and ulcers. Around 150
AC, the Platonist Celsus reported the use of mistletoe in the treatment of swelling or tumors
(Arndt 2000). During middle ages, mistletoe was recommended as a treatment for epilepsy.
In the 12th century, the abbess and composer Hildegard von Bingen (1098-1179) wrote
mistletoe as a treatment for spleen and liver. It was also applied for deworming children,
to treat labour-pains, gout and affections of lung and liver. However, when applied in
wine, it was used to treat leprosy. When applied as a plaster, mistleto~ was suggested
to be beneficial in the treatment of mumps and fractures, while the binding of their leaves
to the palms and sole will heal hepatitis.
During the 18th century, mistletoe was applied for 'weakness of the heart' and
oedema. Mistletoe-containing ointment, Viscin, was reported to be effective for eczema,
ulcers of the feet, burns and granulating wounds. The scientific interest on mistletoe
awakened in the 20 th century, as Gaultier (1910) investigated the effect of oral or
subcutaneous applications of fresh V. album extracts on blood pressure in man and
animals. In 1920, Rudolf Steiner (founder of anthroposophy), introduced Viscum album as
anti-cancer agent. Around 1960, anti-cancer lectins were isolated by Vester and Nienhaus.
Recognition of these medicinal properties substantially changes the view of European
community towards this plant. Perhaps made possible by their wide distribution, mistletoe
species have been used in folk medicine by cultures on almost every continent at some
point in history. Similar to Europe, mistletoe as a remedy is also observed in other parts
of the world. It is evident that several of ethnomedicinal claims of Viscum album were also
transformed to several different mistletoes around globe. The likeness in their morphological
and nutritional mode might be the reason for such transformation. The North American
mistletoe (Pharadendran spp.) was used by the Native Americans as an abortifacient, and
by farmers for 'clearing cattle'. Argentine mistletoe (Ligaria cuneifalia) is used in local
folk medicine to treat hypertension (Arndt 2000). In Africa, Viscum aethiopicum was a
remedy to treat diarrhoea. Loranthus and Viscum species were used by the Zulu as an
enema for stomach troubles in children. To treat diabetes mellitus, Loranthus bengwensis
L. has been widely used in Nigerian folk medicine (Obatomi et. al., 1994). Similar to
Europe, mistletoes in Asia are known for their magical as well as medicinal properties.
In Nepal, Tamang ethnic group of Phulchoki area believed that the use of mistletoes
infected Urtica dioica wood brings good luck during gambling (Kunwar et.al., 2005).
Mistletoes are also used by several ethnic groups in India with bad intension to reduce
fertility and milk in cattle. In Japanese folk medicine, mistletoe (Taxillus kaemferi) was
a remedy to treat hypotension while other mistletoes such as Loranthus parasitikus,
Loranthus yadoriki were used in Traditional Chinese Medicine to treat hypertension,
spasms of the heart, rheumatic pain, threatened abortion and locally to treat frost-bite
(Paulus & Ding, 1987). In western part of India, a tea prepared from mistletoe is
traditionally used to treat diabetes. In Nepal, mistletoes are used as medicine, fodder
and food. Besides these, few species are used in trapping birds and few others are for
food for birds and butterflies. These are extensively applied for curing muscular swelling,
sprains, fractures and dislocations (Kunwar et.al., 2005). Some important parasites with
their ethnomedicinal claims and findings in pharmacological activities along with their
chemical constituents are given in table 1.
4. PARASITIC PLANTS : DIVERSITY AND DISTRIBUTION
Although parasitic plants do not constitute dominant life form in an ecosystem,
there exists approximately 3900 species of haustorial parasitic plants (about 1 % of flowering
plants) distributed in 278 genera of 18 families. Parasitic plants are present in highly diverse
ecosystems from tropics to temperate and are reported from in nearly every habitat type
found throughout world except tropical rain forests from where only few species of
parasitic plants are reported. This might be because of special requirement of negative
water potential for parasitic (especially hemi-parasites) plants which is difficult to maintain
high transpiration rate in dense and dark conditions of tropical rain forests. The moist
tropical habitats are dominated by families such as Rafflesiaceae, Loranthaceae,
Balanophoraceae, Mitrastemonaceae and Olaceae. In Grassland and Savannah ecosystems,
diverse members of families Scrophulariaceae and Loranthaceae are observed. Savannas,
with large solar exposure and several host trees, provide ideal habitat for these mistletoes.
From xeric habitats families such as Cynomoriaceae, Hydnoraceae and Apodanthaceae
are reported. In terms of overall numbers, the majority of parasitic plant species occur
in ecosystem undisturbed by humans. The habitat is topographically and ecologically
defined by the host trees. Host size and canopy characteristics determine where mistletoe
can grow (Dawson et. al., 1990). The parasite families, Loranthaceae and Viscaceae have
separate geographic origins and a different cytological history. The most primitive genera
of LQranthaceae occur in South America, New Zealand and Australia. The Viscaceae seems
to have originated in south-east Asia, from where it has dispersed mainly in the tropics
and northern hemisphere (Kirkup et. al., 2000).
The accrual of knowledge of medicinal properties of natural products in any ethnic
group is largely dependent on the distribution and diversity of flora and fauna of region.
THE PARASmC ANGIOSPERMS: FROM MYTHOLOGY TO MEDICINE 269
This can be evident from distribution data of Loranthaceae and Viscaceae. About 280
species of Loranthaceae and Viscaceae are reported from Africa. From this brief review,
it is perceptible that diverse mistletoes constitute the part of African folklore out of
which Loranthaceae members are predominant. It was also recorded that in comparison
to Viscaceae, Loranthaceae are more prominent group of mistletoes in Africa (Kirk up
et. al., 2000). Thus it appears that the evolution of folklore is largely dependent on
magnitude of biodiversity of region. From this brief survey of parasitic plants, it is
evident that about 71 % folk remedy claims are acceptable when validated in terms of
modern pharmacology. Most frequently recorded folk remedy claims of parasitic plants
are (in decreasing order): anti-hypertensive, anti-cancer, anti-microbial, anti-arthritic,
wound-healing, anti-diabetic, anti-asthmatic, anti-convulsant, diuretic, hepatoprotective,
anti-inflammatory activities. Most frequently observed pharmacological activities of
parasitic plants are (in decreasing order): cytotoxic/ anti-cancer, anti-microbial, anti-
hypertensive, anti-viral, anti-diabetic, anti-fertility, anti-oxidant, imm~lnomodulatory,
anti-inflammatory and diuretic.
S. HOST-PARASITE INTERACTION : CAUSE AND
CONSEQUENCE OF PHARMACOLOGICAL EFFECTS
Although chemical ecology of interaction between parasitic plants and their hosts
is poorly understood, transfer of secondary compounds to a parasite from its host plant
is known to sustain the existence of parasites (Adler et al. 2001). The host plant does
have influence on secondary chemicals and thus observed pharmacological activity
(Osadebe et. al., 2004). When such activities are based on phenolics of parasite, the
chances of variation are high. This is due to fact that several phenolics are reported
to transfer from host to parasitic plant ijadhav et. al., 2005). Additionally the variation
is also dependent on the degree of dependence of parasitic plant on host. The transfer
of secondary metabolites from host to parasite is parallel to their nutritional mode. The
holoparasite chemistry is largely dependent on host since these are non-photosynthetic,
and obtain all their water and nutrient from host xylem and phloem. On other hand,
the hemiparasites are photosynthetic yet they obtain water and nutrient from host xylem,
thus the presence of certain secondary compounds varies within and among the
populations of hemiparasitic plants, depending on the host association of individual
parasites (Stermitz & Harris 1987). It was also recorded that a high concentration of
phenolics appears to be a general feature of parasitic angiosperms (Khanna et al., 1968).
This broad class comprises flavonoids, tannins, phenolic acids and phenylpropanoid
compounds. The reduced forms of polyphenolics are powerful antioxidants equivalent
to ascorbate. Thus several activities such as cytoprotection, anti-inflammatory, anti-
diabetic, anti-microbial, anti-fertility, anti-ulcer, anti-hypertensive and eNS related
activities are mediated, at least in part, through anti-oxidant potential of these
polyphenolics. However, it should not be confused that it is only transferred secondary
chemicals that are responsible for activity. The parasitic plants (both holoparasite and
hemi-parasite) have their own secondary chemicals. It is also known that parasitic plants
do not synthesize or modify the secondary compounds taken up from their hosts (Simms,
1992). Thus the secondary chemicals of parasitic plant are the sum of the accumulated,
transferred chemicals from host and its own chemicals. Thus this might be the reason
why several parasitic plants are effective in treatment of different disorders.
270 R.B. }ADHAV, S.P. BHATNAGAR AND S.}. SURANA
The parasitic plants unable to biotransform the transferred secondary chemicals

because of absence of enzymes required. This subsequently leads to accumulation of certain
secondary compounds in parasitic plant and their quantity in certain parasite found to
be several fold higher than host plant (Katrin et. al., 1999). The chances of maximal transfer
and accumulation of secondary chemicals are more in holoparasitic plants since these are
feeding on xylem as well as phloem. This is an important part of commercial exploitation.
An additional benefit in this connection is that holoparasite offer lower chemical
complexity and thus simplicity of isolation in comparison to the host plant.
Along with primary metabolites, secondary metabolites such as alkaloids can be
transferred from host plants to certain parasitic plants without the capability of
producing alkaloids (Stermitz & Harris, 1987). Alkaloids are an important class of
phytoconstituents having potential and diverse pharmacological activities. Transfer of
alkaloids from host to parasitic plant has been reported in several genera e.g. Cuscuta
(Convolvulaceae), Viscum (Viscaceae), Castilleja, Pedicularis, Orobanche and Ortizocarplls
(Scrophulariaceae) (Adler & Wink, 2001). The alkaloid transfer in hemiparasite is due
to fact that these compounds are trapped by hemiparasite when these are moved via
the phloem as alkaloid N-oxides. It was also recorded that transferred alkaloids are
utilized for defense purpose by parasite either directly or in modified forms ego Castilleja
and Pediculan's spp. are known to synthesize their own irridoid toxins. It should be
however noted that uptake of alkaloids is selective and only one or more of the alkaloids
of the host are found in parasite. Further, a given parasite growing on different host
may sequester different kinds of alkaloids and the amount of the alkaloids borrowed
from given host by different parasites is also different (Harbone, 1999). Although the
passive as well as active transport mechanisms are reported in such transfer, why only
selective secondary chemicals are transferred and by which mechanism is largely still
remains to be answered.
One of the potential applications of mistletoe is their anti-cancer activity. Ample
information available that indicates that the European mistletoe, Viscum album, can be used
as adjuvant in treatment of cancer therapy because of its anti-cancer and immunomodulatory
activity. Similar use of several other parasites from different continent is also reported (Varela
et. al., 2004). It is apparent that compounds such as lectins, viscotoxins, thionins, proteins,
yeptides, oligosaccharides, alkaloids and polyphenolic are responsible for cytotoxic and
immunomodulatory effects (Pfuller, 2000). Certain C16-alkynic fatty acids are reported to
have inhibitory effects on cancer cell invasion (Ohashi et. al., 2003).
Thus from above discussion it is clear that in addition to the other factors, influence
caused by host on secondary chemicals becomes important concern in pharmacological
rationalization of folk remedy claims of given parasite. However, only in few cases,
such claims are given on host basis. Probably, this might be the reason why different
species of parasitic plants have been investigated for similar pharmacological properties.
Interestingly, folk remedy claims share striking similarity between different cultural
groups and persisted for over 2000 years are also reflected in pharmacological validation.
6. ARE THE PARASmC PLANTS ONLY PESTS OR MORE mAN TIIAT?
The major part of world community considers parasitic plants as invasive pests
and eventually strategies are framed to destroy them in protection of the forests.
TABLE 1 ~
:I:
rrJ
Parasitic plants with their ethnomedicinal claims and recorded pharmacological activities
~
Parasitic plant Ethnomedicinal use(s) Pharmacological Phytochemical(s) References >
~
Balanophora abbreviata
activity reported
(Thailand) Used in treatment of
report
Antibacterial and anti- Lignans Hosokawa et. aI., 2004;
--
>
cr>
>-j
n
BI. (Balanophoraceae) infectious fever and thought to inflammatory activities Trakulsomboon et. al.,
z:>
be a toxic herb which causes
leprosy and lymph-node
cancer.
2006.
-
Cl
acr>
'"tI
rrJ
~
Cassytha filiformis L. (Denmark) Used as anti- Anti-hypertensive and Aporphine alkaloids Adsersen & Adsersen, s::
cr>
(Lauraceae) hypertensive agent cytotoxic 1997; Stevigny 2002.
Cuscuta chinensis Lam. (Asia) Used as a tonic for liver Bone healing, Flavonoids, cuscutic Yahara, 1994; Yao et. aI., ~
(Convolvulaceae) and kidney, and to treat
impotence and seminal
immunomodulatory,
anti-oxidant and
acids A-D, alkaloids,
glycosides,
2005; Hang-Jun, 2005;
Yen, 2007.
~
emission. Also used as hepatoprotective polysaccharides and ~
aphrodisiac and anti-tumor activity lignans ~
:I:
agent ar-<
Cuscuta japonica (Asian) Used as a substitute of Anti-hypertensive and Caffeoylquinic acid Oh et. aI., 2002; Yang et. a
Cl
100(
Choisy Cuscuta cJlinensis anti-oxidant activity Derivatives and al.,2006. >-j
(Convolvulaceae) flavonoids a
Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. (India) In treatment of fits, Anti-fertility effects Cuscutalin (lactone), Awasthi, 1981; Gupta et. ~
--
rrJ
(Convolvulaceae) insanity, melancholy, (Delayed maturation flavonoids, and proteins al., 2003; Pal et. al., 2003; 0
protracted fevers, retention of and suppression of Pal et. aI., 2006. n
wind and indurations of the ovarian Z
rrJ
liver and externally for itch steroidogenesis), anti-
microbial, analgesic,
anti-convulasant, anti-
viral activity
Dendrophthoe falcata (India) Used as astriengent, Diuretic, anti-lithiatic, Triterpenoids, Hemadri et. al., 1983;
(Linnf-) aphrodiasiac, narcotic and anti-hypertensive, anti- flavonoids Alekuttey et. aI., 1993;
(Loranthaceae) diuretic. Plant useful in fertility activity Balraman et. al. 1993;
N
Contd ... ;::1
... Contd. N
~
Parasitic plant Ethnomedicinal use(s) Pharmacological Phytochemical(s) References
activity reported report
pulmonary TB, asthma, wound Nadkami, 2000;
swelling, renal calculi and also Mallavadhani et. al., 2006.
used as anti-fertility agent
Elytranthe globose BI. (Indonesia) Cough, headache, Antiviral and cytotoxic Flavonoids, steroids, Lohezic-Le D. at et. aI.,
(Loranthaceae) and expel the afterbirth activities condensed tannins 2002.
Elytranthe maingayi (Indonesia) In treatment of Antiviral and cytotoxic Alkaloids, amino acids, Lohezic-Le D. et. al.,
Van Tiegh. cancer, malaria, and as tonic activities flavonoids, 2002.
(Loranthaceae) and diuretic triterpenoids,
hydrolysable tannins
Elytranthe tubaej10ra (Indonesia) In treatment of Antiviral and cytotoxic Alkaloids, flavonoi~, Lohezic-Le Devehat et.
Ridley (Loranthaceae) cancer, malaria, and as tonic activities triterpenoids, al.,2002. ~
Globimetula cupulata
(DC.) Van Tiegh.
(Loranthaceae)
and diuretic
(Africa) Used in treatment of
diabetes mellitus and
hypertension
Anti-diabetic and anti-
hypertensive activity
hydrolysabIe tannins
Ojewole & Adewole,
2007.
-
~
>
0
:=
~
Korthalsella opuntia (Denmark) Used as anti- Anti-hypertensive Adsersen & Adsersen,
r;J'l
(Thunb.) Merrill hypertensive agent 1997.
(Loranthaceae) ~
Ligaria cuneifolia (R. et (Argentina) As substitute of
P.) Tiegh. Viscum album for anti-
Immunomodulatory,
cytotoxic, anti-
Galactoside-specific
lectin,
Fernandez et. al., 2003;
Cerda, 2005.
=
:=
>
>-l
(Loranthaceae) hypertensive effects proliferative and pro- leucoanthocyanidins, Z
>
apoptotic activities catechin-4-a-01 and C')
Proanthocyanidins and
>
flavonoids
'"
>
Z
Loranthus bengwensis (Africa) Used in the treatment Anti-diabetic activity Obatomi et. aI, 1994. 0
L. (Loranthaceae) of diabetes mellitus r;J'l
Loranthus globosus (Asia) Used in the treatment of Antihypertensive, Anti- Sadik et. al., 2003; Islam ~
r;J'l
Roxb. (Loranthaceae) menstrual abnormalities, to microbial, cytotoxic, et. al., 2004. c::
check abortion, acute and antiviral,
'"
>
Z
>
Contd ...
... Contd. "":l
m
==
Parasitic plant Ethnomedicinal use(s) Pharmacological Phytochemical(s) References "0
~
CIl
chronic diarrhea, headache and antihepatotoxic activity.
itch
:3
(")
Loranthus micranthus (Africa) Used in the treatment Anti-microbial, anti- Alkaloids, cyanogenetic Osadebe et. al., 2004; >
Z
Linn. (Loranthaceae) of epilepsy, diabetes, diabetic activity. glycosides, saponins, Osadebe & Akabogu, Cl
....
hypertension, headache, fIavonoids, tannins, 2006; Ojewole & 0
CIl
infertility, cancer, rheumatism, proteins, and resins Adewole, 2007. "U
m
:;o:l
menopausal syndrome, Plant is ::CIl
also used locally as an
antimicrobial and ITt
:;o:l
antispasmodic agent 0
Loranthus parasiticus (China) Used to tonify liver Bone healing and Sesquiterpene lactones Okuda et. al., 1987; Yang ::
Linn. (Loranthaceae) and kidney, dispel wind-damp, hepatoprotective et. al., 1987; Yao et. al., ~
strengthen sinews and bones, activity 2005. ~
and nourish blood. Also used 0==
I"'"
to treat defiCiency of liver and 0
Cl
kidney, with symptoms of pain 0<
~
of the joints and muscles or 0
weakness of the tendons and
~
m
bones
Lorantltus yadoriki Anti-viral activity Triterpenoids and Yung, 1996; Wang et. al., ....t:::J
....
(")
Sieb. (Loranthaceae) saccharides 2000. Z

m
Phoradendron (Bolivia) Used to treat fever Cytoprotective activity Gonzales et. al., 2000.
crassifolium (Pohl ex
DC.) Eichler
(Viscaceae)
Phoradendron liga (Gill. (Argentina) Used in the Anti-hypertensive, Galactose-specific lectin Varela et. ai., 2004.
ex H. et A.) Eichl. treatment of hypertensive and immunomodulatory , (Ligatoxin-B),
(Viscaceae) as substitute of Viscum album anti-cancer, anti- Flavonoids, C-
microbial activity N
Contd ... tj
~
..Contd.
~
glucosylflavones, 3-
desoxyproanthocyanidins
Phoradendron Used as substitute of Viscum Anti-mycobacterial Rivero-Cruz et. al., 2005
robinsonii Urb. album activity
(Viscaceae)
Phoradendron Used as substitute of Viscum Cytotoxic activity Apigenin, apigenin C- Dossaji et. al., 1983;
tomentosum (DC.) album glycosides, vitexin, Johansson 2003.
Gray. (Loranthaceae) schaftoside and
isoschaftoside,
phoratoxins
Phrygilanthus (Argentina.) Used in the Anti-microbial, anti- Daud et. al., 2005; Daud ~
acutifolius (Ruiz & treatment of throat pain and inflammat.ory, anti- et. ai., 2006. !=
Pav.) Eichler respiratory diseases nociceptive antipyretic '-"
>
I::J
(Loranthaceae) effects and diuretic
==
activity ~
Psi ttacanthus (Mexico) Used in the treatment Endothelium-dependent Rodriguez-Cruz et. al.,
calyculatus (DC.) G. of hypertension vaso-relaxation in rat 2003 CIl
Don. (Loranthaceae) aortic ring ~
Psittacanthus (Argentina) Used to cure (+ )-catechin, quercitrin, Graziano et. al., 1967. c=
cuneifolius (Ruiz and fractures. reynoutrin (quercetin- >
==
Pav.) Blume 3-xyloside) and
>
2l
(Loranthaceae) avicularin (quercetin- G1
3a-arabofuranoside)
>
Scurrula atropurpurea Oava and Indonesia) Used for Inhibitory effects on Xanthines, flavanes, Ohashi et. al., 2003. "~
(Blume) Danser the treatment of cancer cancer cell invasion flavonol glycosides, I::J
(Loranthaceae) activity monoterpene CIl
glucoside, lignan ~
CIl
glycoside and fatty e
acids
Contd ...
>
Z
>
"

...Contd. ~
::r:
tTl
activity reported report ~
~
-
fIl
Scurrula ferruginea (Indonesia) Used in treatment Antiviral and cytotoxic Flavonoids, condensed Lohezic-Le D. et. al., 2002. =l
Danser of snakebite, wounds, fever, activities tannins ( ')
~
(Loranthaceae) beriberi, malaria and after
childbirth
Scurrula fusca (BL.) G. (Indonesia) Used for the
treatment of cancer
Anti-tumor activity Perseitol (D-glycero-D-
galacto-heptitol)
lsruzu et. al., 2002. -
C')
0
fIl
Don. (Loranthaceae) ~
Scurrula oortiana (Indonesian) Used to treat Anti-tumor activity Murwani, 2003. :=
:::fIl
(Korth) Danser tumors
(Loranthaceae) "T1
Striga densiflora (India) Used to prevent Anti-fertility activity Flavonoids Hiremath et. al., 1997. :=
0
(Benth.) Benth. conception :::
(Scrophulariaceae) ~
Striga hermonthica (Africa) Used in the treatment Anti-malarial activity Okpako & Ajaiyeoba, ~
::r:
(Del.) Benth. of malaria 2004. 0
r-<
(Scrophulariaceae) 0
C')
Striga lutea Lour. (India) Used to prevent Anti-fertility Flavonoids Hiremath et. al., 1997. 0<
-,j
(Scrophulariaceae) conception 0
Striga Orobanchioides (India) Used in treatment of Anti-fertility, Flavonoids Hiremath 1997; Harish
~
Benth. diabetes Antiandrogenic, et.al., 2001; Badami et. al.,
--
tTl
I:)
(Scrophulariaceae) antibacterial, anti- 2003. ( ')
oxidant, antihistaminic, Z
tTl
mast cell stabilizing
activities
Struthanthus (Latin America) In treatment of Inhibit the Otero et. al., 2000.
orbicularis (H. B. K.) snakebites haemorrhagic effect
Blume (Loranthaceae) induced by Bothrops
atrox venom in vitro
Tapinanthus (Africa) In treatment of Anti-microbial activity Anthraquinones, Deeni & Sadiq, 2002;
dodonelfolius (DC.) stomach ache, diarrhea, saponins and tannins Ojewole & Adewole, 2007. N
Contd ... "
U1
...Contd. N
~
Danser, dysentery, wound and cancer Antioxidant activity
(Loranthaceae)
Tapinanthus globiferus (Mexico USA) Used as food Cook et. al., 1998.
(A. Rich.) Van Tiegh.
(Loranthaceae)
Tapinanthus nyasicus (Africa) Used in treatment of Anti-diabetic activity Musabayane et. al., 2006.
(Baker & Sprague) diabetes mellitus and
Danser hypertension.
(Loranthaceae)
Tapinanthus (Africa) Used in the treatment Anti-malarial, anti- Okpako & Ajaiyeoba,
sessilifolius (p. Beauv.) of malaria microbial, calcium Avicularin 2004; Tarfa et. al., 2004. ~
~
--=
van Tiegh channel-blocking (glycosylated
(Loranthaceae) activity flavonoid), quercetin Wang et. al., 2006. >
Taxillus chinensis Inhibit fatty acid t:l
(Dc.) Danser synthase ~
(Loranthaceae)
C/)
Viscum album L. var. (Europe) Used in managing of a Vasodilator, sedative, Lectins, non-lectin Pfuner Uwe, 2000;
album wide range of diseases such as cardiac-depressant, proteins, peptides, Gurbuz et. al., 2002; ~
Q:j
diabetes mellitus, chronic diuretic, anti- thionins, alkaloids, Orhan et. al., 2005.
cramps, stroke, stomach inflammatory, flavonoids, =
~
problems, heart palpitations, to lmmuno-stimulant, phenylpropanoids, Z
>
Viscum angulatum lower blood pressure, difficulties anti-ulcer, anti-diabetic, triterpenoids, C"l
Heyne ex DC. in breathing and hot flushing in anti-oxidant activity polyalcohols and
>
:;a
(Viscaceae) menopause. Also used as polysaccharides >
Z
sedative and anticancer (Asia) t:l
Viscum articulatum Used to treat hypertension, Flavonoids, Chiu & Chang, 1986; 'J)
Burm. f. (Viscaceae) atherosclerosis, rheumatism, triterpenoids and fatty Rastogi & Mehrotra, ~
C/)
neuralgia and arthritis in acids 1993; Krishnamani & c::
:;a
Chinese medicine. In India, Kumar, 2000; Kshirsagar >
Z
Contd ... >
... Contd.
whole plant is used externally & Singh, 2001; Lin et. al.,
in the form of pest for skin cuts 2002.
and as food source
(Asia) In India it is used as Anti-inflammatory Flavanones and Jain, 1%5; Chandra et.
alexipharmic, aphrodisiac, and activity triterpenoids. al., 1985; Tiwari 1995;
alternative, useful in 'kapha', Chhetri et. al. 2005; Chiu,
'vata', disease of blood and in 1996; Leu et. al. 2004.
treatment of ulcer, epilepsy
and biliousness and paste
applied on minor fractures. In
Chinese medicine plant used in
treatment of hemorrhage,
pleurisy, gout, heart disease,
epilepsy, arthritis and
hypertension
Viscum capense L. j, (Africa) for the treatment of Antimicrobial and Alkaloids, flavonoids, Amabeoku et. al., 1998.
(Viscaceae) epilepsy, asthma, bronchitis, anticonvulsant activities saponins, tannins and
warts, excessive or irregular triterpene steroids
menstruation and also applied
to bleeding parts including the
nose, to stop hemorrhage
Viscuin coloratum Used in treatment of Inhibitor of Viscolin, a chalcone Hwang et. al., 2006.
(Kom.) Nakai inflammation phosphodiesterase (PDE)
(Viscaceae) activity
Viscum cruciatum (palestinian) Used in treatment Antimitotic and cytostatic - Ahumada et. al., 1995;
Sieber (Viscaceae) of cancer activity Mohammed et. m., 2000.
Viscum trifiorum DC. (Denmark) Anti-hypertensive Anti-hypertensive Adsersen & Adsersen ,

(Viscaceae) 1997.
Viscum tuberculatum Kenya as a poultice on the Arndt,2000.
A. Rich. (Viscaceae) chest for pneumonia and liver
trouble
However, numerous studies have shown that mistletoes are an important structural and
functional com!,onent of forests and woodland communities. It is an ideal material for
understanding the various interaction interfaces such as plant-plant, plant-microorganisms,
plant-animals and plant-plant community. Mistletoes having profound consequences for
those species associated with their hosts and also have a strong impact on the larger
communities in which they occur by altering forest structure and composition (Geils
& Hawksworth, 2002). The common opinion that mistletoes are destructive weeds should
be challenged. These are more important as indicators of habitat health, rather than agents
of destruction. Their significance is already proven in supporting continental drift theory
(Leppik, 1973). The communication in between two cells is hot topic in life sciences.
Parasitic plants have proven their suitability in understanding such communications.
Recently, these are identified as ideal tool to understand the horizontal gene transfer
(Mower et. al., 2004; Roney et. al., 2007). Therefore conservation of this unusual life-form
needs to be emphasized.
7. CONCLUSIONS
Mistletoe was considered a heal-all by the Druids and the history of its use reflects
this idea. Surprisingly, although much of early uses of parasitic plants were based on
myth and folklore, many of these uses may be supported by the findings of modern science.
However, only few species have been attempted for systematic investigation and several
species need validation in terms of modern pharmacology. Mistletoe may prove beneficial
as primary or adjunct treatment of various pathologies and its therapeutic utility in cancer
treatment can be hoped as only just beginning. The parasitic plants have history of
thousand years for their medicinal uses and are also proven their suitability in treatment
of several disorders. In addition, these are emerging as fundamental instructive tools in
understanding various biochemical processes. Thus conventional thinking about parasitic
plants needs to be changed and these should be viewed in broader perspective.
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000
IN VITRO ANTHELMINTIC ACTIVITY OF
SOME MEDICINAL PLANTS OF
GENUS BAUHINIA LINN.
RAVINDRA G. MALI, SHAILAJA G. MAHAJAN AND ANITA A. MEHTA
Chapter Outline
1. Introduction
3. Results
5. References
1. INTRODUCTION
Plants are recognized for their ability to produce a wealth of secondary metabolites
and mankind has used many species for centuries to treat a variety of diseases (Cragg
et ai., 1999). Secondary metabolites are biosynthesized by plants for different purposes
including growth regulation, inter and intra-specific interactions and defense against
predators and infections. Many of these compounds from natural sources have been shown
to present interesting biological and pharmacological activities and are used as
chemotherapeutic agents. They serve as the prototypes or models for synthetic drugs
possessing physiological activities similar to the originals (Verpoorte, 1998).
The traditional medicines hold a great promise as source of easily available effective
anthelmintic agents, particularly in tropical developing countries. It is in this context that
the people consume several plants or plant-derived preparations to cure helminthic
infections (Satyavati, 1990). Mali et ai (2004, 2005, 2007) have studied indigenous medicinal
plants for anthelmintic activity; similar activity is evaluated of three species of the genus
Bauhinia Linn. (Caesalpiniaceae) viz., Bauhinia variegata, Bauhinia tomentosa and Bauhinia
racemosa.
Bauhinia is a genus distributed throughout the tropical regions of the world. About
15 species of Bauhinia occur in India (Anonymous, 1988). Many useful products such
as tannin, fibre, gum and oil are obtained from Bauhinia species. Bauhinias are also
286 RAVINDRA G. MALI, SHAILAJA G. MAHAJAN, ANITA A. MEHTA
used for afforestation and in the manufacturing of wood wool board (Puntambekar,
1952).
BAUHINIA VARIEGATA LINN.
The plant popularly known as 'Raktakanchan' is a medium sized deciduous tree
found throughout India, Burma and China (Kirtikar and Basu, 1999). A freshly collected
bark is greyish brown externally and cream colored internally. The internal surface,
however,gradually turns red and on drying becomes brown and smooth. The external
surface remains greyish brown and rough due to large number of exfoliations, transverse
cracks and fissures (Prakash et al., 1978). Leaves are 10-15 cm long, rigidly sub-coriaceous
and deeply cordate. The flowers are bisexual, irregular and light magenta in colour.
The pods are long, hard, flat, dehiscent and 10-15 seeded.
Bauhillia variegata Linn.

Traditional uses
All parts of the plant like bark, root, flower and flower buds are ascribed to possess
various medicinal properties. In Ayurveda, stem bark is reported to be useful in krmiroga
(helminthic infestation), gandamala (scrofula) and vrana (wounds). In Unani system of
medicine, the bark is described as liver tonic and useful in asthma, wounds, leprosy,
dysmenorrhoea and menorrhagia.The flower buds are useful for piles, cough, eye diseases,
liver complaints, as styptic in haematuria and menorrhagia (Kirtikar and Basu, 1999). The
root is carminative and is used in dyspepsia and flatulence. Decoction of the root is
reported to prevent obesity. The bark is astringent, tonic and anthelmintic. It is also
beneficial in scrofula, ulcers and skin diseases. Dried flower buds are used for the
treatment of diarrhoea, dysentery, worms, piles and tumours. Decoction of the buds is
given in cough, piles, haematuria and menorrhagia. The flowers are used as laxative
(Chopra et al., 1956; Nadkarni, 1954; Anonymous, 1988).
In a preliminary phytochemical study, the stem bark of B.racemosa showed presence
of steroids, saponins and tannins Ooshi and Sabnis, 1989). The stem bark also showed
presence of hentriacontane, octacosanol and stigmasterol (Prakash and Khosa, 1978). The
IN VITRO ANTHELMINTIC ACTIVITY OF SOME MEDICINAL PLANTS 287
stem yielded a flavonone glycoside characterized as 5, 7-dihydroxyflavonone-4 -0 -

a -L - rhanmopyranosyl- P - D - glucopyranoside (Gupta et ai., 1979). The isolation
of d-sitosterol, lupeol, kaempferol-3-glucoside and a 5, 7-dimethoxyflavonone-4 -0 -a
- L - rhanmopyranosyl- P- D-glucopyranoside was also reported from the stem of the
plant (Duret and Paris, 1977; Gupta et ai., 1980).
Pharmacological Studies
The effects of B.variegata were studied on rats with goitre induced by neomercazole
and found to be effective in bringing the goitrogenic thyroid to normal level (Veena et
ai., 1975). The saline extract of seeds exhibited haemagglutinating activity against
erythrocytes of man, rat, rabbit, sheep and horse (Roy and Bhalla, 1981). The leaf extract
of the plant exhibited toxicity against ringworm causing fungi Epidennophyton floccosum,
Trichophyton mentagrophytes and Microsporum gypseum (Mishra et ai., 1991). The decoction
of bark and leaves was found to inhibit the activity of peptic enzymes like protopectinase
andpolygalacturonase of Alternaria tenuis (Prasad and Gupta, 1967). The antitumour
activity of ethanol extract of B.variegata was evaluated against Ehrlich ascites carcinoma
in Swiss albino mice (Rajkapoor et al., 2003).The plant has shown chemoprotective and
cytotoxic effect against N-nitrosodiethylamine induced liver tumours and human cancer
cell lines (Rajkapoor et al., 2006). As claimed in the traditional system, the stem bark of
B.variegata is not investigated for its anthelmintic potential.
BAUHINIA TOMENTOSA LINN.
Bauhinia tomentosa Linn. popularly known as 'Pivala kanchan' is an erect shrub
found throughout India, North and South America, Australia, Nepal and China. The
leaves are broader than long, coriaceous and pubescent below. The flowers are yellow,
with a maroon dot at the base of the central petal and distinct odour. Pods are stalked,
flat, pointed, glabrous and 8-12 seeded (Kirtikar and Basu, 1999).
Traditional uses
All parts of the plant like leaves, fruits, flowers, seeds, root bark and stem bark have
been reported to be useful in traditional system of medicine to relieve a variety of ailments.
Decoction of the root bark is prescribed for liver troubles and as a vermifuge. The bruised
bark is externally applied on tumours and wounds. Infusion of the stem bark is useful
as an astringent gargle. The leaves constitute an ingredient of a plaster applied to
abscesses. The native practitioners in southern India prescribe the small dried buds and
young flowers in dysentery. The fruit of the plant is diuretic while seeds are used as tonic
(Nadkarni, 1954; Chopra et al., 1956; Anonymous, 1988).
The flowers are reported to yield rutin, quercetin (Rowand Viswanadham, 1954),
isoquercetin and quercetin-3-glucoside (Subramanian and Nair, 1963). The seeds are rich
source of minerals like Ca, Mg, Fe and Zn (Mohan and Janardhan, 1995).
The 50 percent ethanolic extract of the plant screened for various biological activities,
viz., antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, antiprotozoal and diuretic (Abraham et ai.,
1986).Various extract of dried leaves of B.tomentosa were screened for antimicrobial activity
and chloroform and ethanol extract of the plant showed significant antimicrobial activity
against tested organisms (Mythreyi et al.,2005).
As mentioned in indigenous system of medicine, the root bark of B. tometltosa
is not investigated for its proclaimed anthelmintic activity.
BAUHlNIA RACEMOSA LAMK.
It is a small, bushy tree with drooping branches, found throughout India, Ceylon
and China. Leaves are broader than long, rigidly coriaceous and slightly cordate. The
bark is bluish black, rough, pinkish red inside, turning brown on exposure. Flowers
are white or pale yellow and pods are stalked, glabrous, blunt at the apex, tapering
to the base (Kirtikar and Basu, 1999).
Traditional Uses
Traditionally the leaves are used in diarrhoea, pyrexia and as astringent and
alexipharmic. Decoction of leaves is given in malaria. They are also. used as fodder and
in the manufacturing of bidis. The bark is astringent and used for the treatment of
diarrhoea and dysentery. It is reported as vermicide (Nadkarni, 1954; Chopra et al., 1956;
Anonymous, 1988).
The stem bark of B. racemosa was reported to contain octacosane, a-amyrin and
a-sitosterol (Prakash and Khosa, 1976). The root bark yielded a new, tetracyclic 2, 2-
dimethykhroman derivative, de-O-methylracemosol along with racemosol (Prabhakar
et al., 1994). The fixed oil obtained from seeds was found to be rich with linoleic acid
and others were lauric, myristic, stearic, palmitic and oleic acids ijoshi and Garg, 1980}.
The 50 percent ethanolic extract of the stem bark revealed CVS effects in dogs
and cats, hypothermia and gross behavioral effects in mice and anticancer activity against
human epidermoid carcinoma of nasopharynx in tissue culture (Dhar et al., 1968). The
seed extract is reported to exhibit platelet antiaggregation activity (Mukherjee and
Chatterjee, 1991).
As described in traditional system of medicine the bark of B.racemosa is not
investigated for its anthelmintic activity. The phytopharmacologicalliterature search and
wide variety of traditional uses of all these three species of Bauhinia Linn. prompted
us to investigate their anthelmintic potential in a scientific manner.
Plant collection and authentication
The stem bark of B.variegata, root bark of B.tomentosa and stem bark of B.racemosa
were collected from the fields near Chopda and their botanical identification were
confirmed from Botanical Survey of India (BSI), Koregaon Road, Pune. Specimen voucher
of each plant having No.165415, RGM Aland RGM A4 has been deposited in the
department of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, College of Pharmacy, Chopda.
IN VITRO ANrnELMINTIC AcrIVITY OF SOME MEDICINAL PLANTS 289
Preparation of extract
The plant materials were dried for several days in shade and powdered with the
help of an electric grinder. The powder (300 g) of each plant, were defatted using
petroleum ether (40-60C). They were subjected for air drying and extracted exhaustively
with 95 % ethanol in a Soxhlet apparatus separately. The liquid extracts so obtained
were filtered and distilled on water bath to get syrupy mass. The extracts were finally
dried at low temperature under reduced pressure in a rotary evaporator. The crude
ethanolic extracts so obtained were subjected to preliminary phytochemical testing for
the presence of different chemical classes of compounds (Kokate, 1994; Harborne, 1994).
Worms Collection and Authentication
Indian earthworm Pheretima posthuma L.Vaill (Annelida) were collected from the
water logged areas of soil and Ascardia galli Schrank (Nematode) worms were obtained
from freshly slaughtered fowls Gallus gallus Spadiceus (Phasianidae). Both worm types
were identified at the P.G. Department of Zoology, Pratap College, Amalner, Maharashtra.
Preparation of Test Sample
Samples for in vitro study were prepared by dissolving 2.5 gm of crude ethanolic
extract of each plant in 25 ml of distilled water to obtain a stock solution of 100 mg/
ml. From this stock solution, different working dilutions were prepared to get
concentration range of 10, 50 and 100 mg/ml.
Anthelmintic Assay
The anthelmintic assay was carried out as per the method of Ajaiyeoba et al. (2001)
with necessary modifications. The assay was performed on adult Indian earthworm,
Pheretima posthuma due to its anatomical and physiological resemblance with the
intestinal roundworm parasite of human beings (Vidyarthi, 1967; Thorn et al., 1977; Vigar,
1984; Chatterjee, 1967). Because of easy availability, earthworms have been used widely
for the initial evaluation of anthelmintic compounds in vitro (Sollmann, 1918; Jain et
al., 1972; Dash et al., 2002; Szewezuk et al., 2003; Shivkar et al., 2003). Ascardia galli worms
are easily available from freshly slaughtered fowls and its use, as a suitable model for
screening of anthelmintic drug was advocated earlier (Kaushik et al., 1974; Lal et al.,
1976; Tandon et al., 1997). Fifty ml formulations containing different concentrations of
crude ~thanolic extracts (10, 50 and 100 mg/ml in distilled water) were prepared and
six worms (same type) were placed in it. This was done for both types of worms. Time
for paralysis was noted when no movement of any sort could be observed except when
the worms were shaken vigorously. Time for death of worms were recorded after
ascertaining that worms neither moved when shaken vigorously nor when dipped in
warm water (50C). Piperazine citrate (10 mg/ml) was used as reference standard while
distilled water as control.
3. RESULTS
TABLE 1
Anthelmintic activity of ethanolic extract of stem bark of B. variegata
Test subs. Concentration Time taken for Paralysis (P) and Death (D) of worms
(mglml) (Minutes)
P. posthuma A.galli
P D P D
Vehicle
Extract 10 49.250.31 60.840.45 57.160.29 64.940.33
Extract 50 21.860.52 41.200.35** 30.140.21 42.920.36*

Extract 100 14.270.41*** 29.930.43*** 10.970.12** 22.130.25***
Piperazine 10 20.100.13 59.080.14 16.170.14 55.320.19

citrate
Results expressed as Mean SEM of six observations. Values are significantly different from
reference standard (piperazine citrate) ***p<O.OOli **p<O.Oli *p<O.OS.
TABLE 2
Anthelmintic activity of ethanolic extract of root bark of B. tomentosa
(mglml) (Minutes)
P. posthuma A.galli
P D P D
Vehicle
Extract 10 55.320.31 65.430.41 59.490.10 68.240.31
,
Extract 50 19.260.41 39.350.38 28.120.22 36.490.54*
Extract 100 12.220.30*** 22.490.51 *** 09.270.28** 20.310.11 ***
Piperazine 10 20.100.13 59.080.14 16.170.14 55.320.19

citrate
reference standard (Piperazine citrate) ***p<O.OOli **p<O.Oli *p<O.OS.
IN VITRO ANTHELMINTIC ACTIVITY OF SOME MEDICINAL PLANTS 291
TABLE 3
Anthelmintic activity of ethanolic extract of stem bark of B.racemosa
(mlifml) (Minutes)
P. posthuma A.galli
P D P D
Vehicle
Extract 10 44.31 0.52 65.450.10 35.540.40 67.180.20
Extract 50 21.370.32 53.510.61 * 18.330.26 51.220.11*
Extract 100 10.410.41*** 31.540.21*** 11.430.48** 28.510.33***
Piperazine 10 20.100.13 59.080.14 16.170.14 55.320.19
citrate
reference standard (piperazine citrate) ***p<O.OOl; **p<O.01; *p<O.OS.
The origin of many effective drugs is traced from the traditional medicines and in
view of this it is important to undertake studies pertaining to screening of the folklore
medicinal plants for their proclaimed anthelmintic efficacy.
Preliminary phytochemical screening of crude ethanolic extracts of all three plants
revealed the presence of alkaloids, saponins, flavonoids and tannins. As shown in Table
I, ethanolic extract of B.variegata exhibited anthelmintic activity in dose-dependant manner
giving shortest time of paralysis (P) and death (D) with 100 mg/ ml concentration, for
both types of worms. The ethanoIic extract of B.variegata caused paralysis in 14 min and
death in 29 min respectively against the earthworm P. posthuma The reference drug
Piperazine citrate showed the same at 20 and 59 min respectively. Ascardia galli worms
were also shown sensitivity to the ethanolic extract significantly at higher concentration
of 100 mg/m!. The ethanolic extract caused paralysis in 10 min and death in 22 min
respectively. Piperazine citrate did the same at 16 and 55 min respectively.
Table 2 and Table 3 depict the results of anthelmintic activity of ethanolic extracts
of B.tomentosa and B. racemosa respectively. Both the plant extracts exhibited activity against
P.posthuma and A.galli at all concentrations used for the study. The activity was found
to be dose dependant and maximum activity was observed at highest concentration of
100 mg/ml used for the assay. The predominant effect of Piperazine citrate on worm is
to cause a flaccid paralysis which results in expulsion of the worm by peristalsis.
Piperazine citrate by increasing chloride ion conductance of worm muscle membrane
produces hyperpolarisation. It reduces excitability that leads to muscle relaxation and
flaccid paralysis (Martin, 1985). The ethanolic extract of B.variegata, B.tomentosa and B.
racemosa not only demonstrated paralysis, but also caused death of worms especially at
higher concentration of 100 mg/ ml, in shorter time as compared to reference drug
292 RAVINDRA G. MALI, SHAILAJA G. MAHAJAN, ANITA A MEHTA
Piperazine citrate. Phytochemical analysis of all the crude extracts has revealed tannins
to be among the chemical constituent contained within them. Tannins were shown to
produce anthelmintic activities (Niezen et al., 1995). Chemically tannins are polyphenolic
compounds (Bate-Smith, 1962). Some synthetic phenolic anthelmintics e.g. niclosamide,
oxyclozanide, bithionol etc., are shown to interfere with energy generation in helminth
parasites by uncoupling oxidative phosphorylation (Martin, 1997). It is possible that
tannins contained in the ethanolic extracts of all three plants produced similar effects.
Another possible anthelmintic effect of tannins is that they can bind to free proteins in
the gastrointestinal tract of host animal (Athnasiadou et al., 2001) or glycoprotein on the
cuticle of the parasite (Thompson and Geary, 1995) and cause death. In conclusion, the
folkloric uses of these plants in traditional system of medicine have been confirmed, as
extracts displayed anthelmintic properties against the worms used in the study. Moreover,
these results could be useful in the search for newer, more selective and potent anthelmintic
compounds. In a nutshell, further studies are suggested to isolate the possible constituents
those are responsible for the anthelmintic activity and to establish the mechanism (5) of
action.
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000
MEDICINAL USES OF PLANTS AS REVEALED
FROM TRIBAL COMMUNITIES IN PURULIA
DISTRICT, WEST BENGAL
SUJIT KUMAR MANDAL AND AMBARISH MUKHERJEE
Chapter Outline
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3.
4.
.
Results and Discussion
Summary
1. INTRODUCTION
Purulia is the westernmost district of West Bengal. It lies between 2341' North
and 22 43' South latitude and between 8654' East and 8549' West longitude and covers
an area of 6259.00 Sq Km. The district is a part of the lateritic region of the state being
flanked by the state of Jharkhand. The eastern border is in conformity with the districts
of Burdwan in the north, Bankura in the major part and Midnapur in the south.
Flora of Purulia and ethnobotanical heritage both are very rich. Forests of this
district belong to the dry deciduous type. While studying the flora Malick (1966) recorded
94 families, 287 genera and 405 species of which 78 families, 235 genera and 324 species
were dicots and the rest monocots. From the proposed Purulia Pumped Storage Hydropower
Project at Bagmundi Hills as many as 246 species under 192 genera of 78 families of
angiosperms could be identified by Paul (2003) of which 54 species were found to be
ethnobotanically important.
The major part of the district is inhabited by tribal communities viz., Majhi, Kishku,
Murmu, Mandi, Soren, Santhal and Munda. The cultural heritage of these tribes add much
to the ethnobotanical reputation of the district and offer ample opportunities to undertake
research programmes on various aspects of direct man-plant relationship. The tribal
communities have been sustaining many forest as sacred groves in the district which
constitute the refuge of certain plant species protected on religious ground. These have
the potential to satisfy aesthetic, scientific, cultural and recreational needs of mankind.
296 SUJIT KUMAR MANDAL AND AMBARISH MUKHERJEE
These groves have been studied extensively by Basu (2000a, 2005a) who has also brought
into light their status and future prospects. Traditional uses of plants in curing different
diseases by tribal in Purulia have been recorded by Basu (2000b, 2005b); Maiti and Manna
(2002) and Sur et al. (1992). However, there is still many more items of indigenous
knowledge about practice of medicine, pharmacy, pharmacology and preservation of
herbal medicines which need to be documented, evaluated and therapeutically proved
for strengthening the rural primary health care system. The district, thus, necessitates a
thorough medico-ethnobotanical study and documentation on war footing in the interest
of extending its benevolence to greater section of mankind through enrichment of modern
systems of medicine.
The present study is based on application of standard ethnobotanical methods (Rao,
1989).Data were collected during field work in 10 villages of the district,~viZ. Bhalurdi,
Kelahi, Karanjberia, Baragoria, Lohat, Bhatuykend, Uluberia, Goalberia, Pathuragoria and
Ketankiari. Plants considered in this work were shown to the Folk doctors, elder women
and other knowledgeable informants who were utilized as data sources from time to time
to compile with the authors' own knowledge and experience .The concerned villages were
visited periodically to crosscheck the data by interviewing reliable secondary sources and
observing the medicinal practices. The specimens collected were used for their taxonomic
studies and processing them for herbarium preservation as voucher specimens. The species
are tabulated in alphabetic order with their respective family and local names and their
medicinal uses.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
It Clppears from the comparison of the data scored for 33 species (Table I) with the
information available from literature (Chopra et al., 1956; Kirtikar and Basu, 1975;
Mukherjee and Namhata, 1988; Namhata ad Mukherjee, 1988; Jain, 1991; Sur et al. 1992;
Guha Bakshi et al., 1999; Basu, 2000b and 2005b; Maiti and Manna, 2002) hat most of
the information have novelty except for Cajanus cajan and Phyllanhus fraternus which
are popular throughout India for curing jaundice. Interestingly,hypotensive property of
lllsticia adhatoda, Hygrophila schulii, and Tabernaemontana divaricata has been revealed. The
species called 'Somraj' (Blainvillea latifolia) is extensively used as revitalizer. From the work
of Paul (2003) the plant leachate of Andrographis paniculata appears to have use against
small worms of children. External use of seed oil of Argemone mexicana for treating sores
and of leaf decoction of Tridax pocumbens against scorpion sting carne to be known from
the same work. However, in the present work certain other uses of these three species
have been recorded. Andrographis paniculata leaf-tablets are prescribed in dysentery and
dermatitis. Local application of the latex of Argemone mexicana in curing ulceration within
mouth cavity and of aqueous extract of leaf of Tridax procumbens in external injury are
novel records in this communication. The present authors could find that cases of external
injury and wounds could be easily healed with leaf juice of Clitoia ternatea. Ripe fruits
of Semecarpus anacardium are warmed and applied over the injured part of the body. Certain
very common diseases like cough and cold were seen to be cured with Paedaria joetida,
Solanum incanum, S.surattense. Against skin diseases Andrographis paniculata and Cocos
MEDICINAL USES OF PLANTS AS REVEALED FROM TRIBAL COMMUNITIES 297
TABLE 1
Medicinal uses in Purulia district, West Bengal
Botanical Vernacular Family Parts used Diseases Method of
name name use
Adhatoda Basak Acanthaceae Leaves High blood To be chewed
zeylanica Medic. pressure
Aegle marmelos Bel Rutaceae Lea'Ves General Given as
Corr. weakness powder after
drying.
Andrographis Kalmegh Acanthaceae Leaves Dysentery and Crushed
paniculata Nees dermatitis leaves
pelleted and
dried, used @
2 pellets once
daily the
morning in
empty
stomach
Argemone Kaurkata Papaveraceae Shoot Ulceration of Latex collected
mexicana Linn. mouth on finger tip
and applied
on the
ulcerated spot
in mouth and
washed after
five minutes.
Azadirachta Neem Meliaceae Leaves Dermatitis Pounded
indica A. Juss. leaves made
into tablets,
dried and
taken @ 1-2
tablets 2-3
times a day
for about a
week or so.
Blainvillea Sayraj, Asteaceae Seeds Debility Crushed seeds
laifolia DC. Somraj, given with
Saoraj seeds of
Nigella sativa,
Cuminum
cyminum and
leaves of Aegle
marmelos.
Blumea lacera Kaksima Asteraceae Roots Dysentery 3-4 leaves
DC. chewed 3-4
times a day,
for 2-3 days.
Contd ...
298 8UJrr KUMAR MANDAL AND AMBARISH MUKHERJEE
... Contd.
n:fme\l\ name use
Bambax eeiba Sin)UI Bombacaceae Bark, gum Polyurea Useful parts

Linn. and roots (10gm)
aqueous
extracted,
sieved, mixed
with 3-4 sugar
candies and a
soft drink
(100m!)
prepared for
use once in
the morning
per day for
about a
fortnight.
Madhuea latifalia Maul Sapotaceae Young branch Zingivitis Used as tooth-
(Koen.) Macbr. brush
Butea Palash Fabaceae Young branch Ulceration of The stem
manasperma mouth burnt at one
(Lamk.) Taub. end and the
exudate
collected at
the other end.
Cajanus eajan Raher, Arhar Fabaceae Leaves Loss of Leaf extract
(Linn.) Millsp. vitality, blood administered
sugar & orally
jaundice
Clitaria ternatea Aparajita Fabaceae Leaves External injury Crushings are
Linn. given at the
site of injury.
Cocos nudfera Narkel Arecaceae Fruit coat and Ringworm Seed coats
Linn. oil after burning
are
thoroughly
mixed with
coconut oil
and given in
the form of
ointment.
Calatrapis Akanda Asclepiadaceae Petiole with Bleeding of To be chewed
praeera (Ait.) R. latex female along with
Br. betel leaf.
Curcuma langa Halud Zingiberaceae Leaves Dysentery Leaf extract
Linn. mixed with
the solution of
Contd ...
MEDICINAL USES OF PLANTS AS REVEALED FROM TRIBAL COMMuNmEs 299
... Contd.
name name use
lime and
eaten.
Hygrophila Kuilakhara Acanthaceae Leaves High blood Used as a
schullii (Buch.- pressure vegetable and
Ham.) M.R. & taken as soup.
S.M. Almeida
Jatropha Kuchiverra Euphorbiaceae Young Gingivitis and Stem used as
gossypifolia Linn. branches and external injury tooth brush
leaves and crushed
leaf applied on
wounds.
Ludwigia Parsuti Onagraceae Whole plant General Decoction of
parviflora Roxb. weakness, the plant
usually in orally taken.
pregnant
women.
Nymphoides Panhar Menyanthaceae Rhizome Leucorrhoea Paste rhizome
hydrophyllum is given with
(Lour) Kuntze white sandal
wood dust.
Oryza sativa Dhan Poaceae Roots Dysentery 2-4 gm roots
Linn. are chewed
with a betel
leaf.
Paederia foetida Gandal Rubiaceae Leaves Cough and Leaves used
Linn. cold to prepare a
soup with a
little amount
of ginger.
Phyllanthus Bhuiamla Euphorbiaceae Whole plant Jaundice The plant
amarus crushed and
Schumach& mixed with
Thonn. water and
drunk.
Pongamia Karang, Fabaceae Young branch Gingivitis Used as tooth
pinnata karanja bush
(L.) Pierre
Semecarpus BhaIa Anacardiaceae Ripen fruit External injury Ripen fruits
ana cardium L. warmed and
used at the
point of injury
Solanum Birati, Brihati Solanaceae Fruit Cough and Used as
incanum Linn. cold vegetable
Solanum Goat begun Solanaceae Fruit Cough and Used as
virginianum L. cold vegetable
Contd ...
300 SUJIT KUMAR MANDAL AND AMBARISH MUKHERJEE
...Contd.
name name use
Santalum album Sada Santalaceae Branch Leucorrhoea Used with

Linn. chandan rhizome of
Nymphoides
hydrophyllum
Tabernaemontana Khude Apocynaceae Leaves High blood Chewed
divaricata (Linn.) tagar pressure
R. Br.
Tridax Bhuydingla Asteraceae Leaves External injury Given in the
procumbens Linn. form of
extract
Catharanthus Nayantara, Apocynaceae Leaves Blood sugar Chewed
roseus (L.) G. pachpata
Don
nucifera are very useful. Uses of Nymphoides hydrophyllum and Santalum album for the
treatment of leucorrhoea and Calotropis procea for dysmenorrhoea are especially noteworthy.
4. SUMMARY
The present communication, based on medicoethnobotanical survey of Purulia
District, records the novel uses of 30 species of angiosperms by the tribals in treatment
of as many as 16 human diseases. Botanical name, vernacular name, family, parts
employed, diseases treated, recipe and their administrations have been given. Since most
of these species are quite common in the district and elsewhere in India, the novel uses
recorded in this work can contribute towards the rural primary healthcare system. Some
of the remedies are likely to enrich the modern system of medicine.
REFERENCES
Basu, R. (2000a) Studies on sacred groves and taboos in Purulia District of West Bengal. Indian Forester
126: 1309-1318.
Basu, R. (2000b) Exotic American plants employed as ethno-medicine in Purulia. Ad. Plant Sci. 13
(11): 521-523.
Basu, R. (2005a)Status and future of sacred groves in Purulia, West Bengal. In : Strategy for
conservation of sacred groves, Govt. of West Bengal, pp. 22-29.
Basu, R. (2005b) Traditional utilization of plants in intestinal, malarial and sexual diseases by tribals
of Purulia. Ad. Plant Sci. 18 (1):133-137.
Chopra, R. N., Nayar, S. L. & Chopra, I. C.(1956) Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants. CSIR New
DeIhi.
Guha Bakshi, D. N., Sensarma, P. & Pal, D. C. (1999) A Lexicon of Medicinal Plants in India (Vol. I).
Nayaprokash, Calcutta, India.
Jain, S K. (1991) Dictionary of Indian Folk Medicine & Ethnobotany. Deep Publishers, New Delhi,
India.
Kirtikar, K. R. & Basu, B. D. (1975) Indian Medicinal Plants (Rep. ed.). L. M. Basu, Allahabad.
MEDICINAL USES OF PLANTS AS REVEALED FROM TRIBAL COMMUNITIES 301
Maiti, A.& Manna, C. K. (2002) Some ethno-medicines used by the Santhal of Purulia District, West
Bengal in controlling fertility. Ethnobotany 12: 72-76.
Malik, K. C. (1966) A contribution to the flora of Purulia District, West Bengal. Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 8
(1): 45-59.
Mukherjee, A. & Namhata, D. (1988) Herbal veterinary medicine as practiced by the tribals of
Bankura District, West Bengal. ,. Bengal Nat. Hist. Soc. New Series) 7 (1): 69-71.
Namhata, D. & Mukherjee, A. (1988) Ethnomedicine in Bankura District, West Bengal. Indian ,.
Applied and Pure Bioi. 3 (2): 53-55.
Paul, T. K. (2003) Botanical observation on the Purulia Pumped Storage Hydropower Area,
Bagmundi. Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 45 (1-4): 121-142.
Rao, R. R. (1989) Methods and Techniques in Ethnobotanical Study and Research: Some Basic
Considerations. In: Methods and Approaches in Ethnobotany (Ed. S. K. Jain). Society of
Ethnobotanists, Lucknow, pp. 3-23.
Sur, P. R., Sen, R., Halder, A. C. & Bandopadhyay, S. (1992) Ethno-medicine in the Ajodhya hills
region of the Purulia District, West Bengal. India ,. Econ. Tax. Bot. Addl. Ser. 10: 333-337.
000
INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE OF VETERINARY
MEDICINES AMONG GOND TRIBALS OF
NORADEHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY,
(M.P.)
ANJALI RAwAT, ARTI GUPTA AND T.R. SAHU
Chapter Outline
1. Introduction
2. Methodology
3. Systematic enumeration
4. Result and discussion
5. Summary
6. References
1. INTRODUCTION
Noradehi wildlife sanctuary lies between 79"5' to 7925' East longitude and 2310'
to 2343' North latitude. This sanctuary cover's 1, 197, 042 km of reserved and protected
forest of South Sagar, Damoh and Narsinghpur forest divisions. There are 69 villages
within its periphery. Gond tribals inhabit in the sanctuary. Besides agriculture, cattle
rearing forms an important part-time means of livelihood. Tribals also rear poultry for
their own use, as well as for sale in local markets. Since no modern veterinary medicinal
facilities are available in remote areas, tribals rely mostly on the traditional remedies.
A survey of literature reveals that publications on plants used in veterinary medicine
are few Gain, 1968; Sebastine and Bhandari, 1984; Pal, 1991; Gaur et al., 1992; Borthakur
& Sharma, 1996; Sharma, 2002; Patel and Merat, 2003; Mokat and Deokule, 2004). In
Madhya Pradesh, Sikarwar et al., (1994) have worked on the ethnoveterinary medicines.
The area under study is still untapped on this line. The present is an attempt to fill in
this lacuna.
2. METHODOLOGY
The information provided in this paper is based on observations and inquiry during
field visits in the forest of the sanctuary over a period of 2 years (2004-2005).
INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE OF VETERINARY MEDICINES AMONG GOND TRIBALS 303
Ethnoveterinary information has been collected from knowledgeable persons like

medicine men, Vaidyas, Hakims and elders from different area of the sanctuary. The
Herbarium specimens are deposited in the Department of Botany, Dr. H.5. Gour
University Sagar (M.P.).
3. SYSTEMATIC ENUMERATION
The species are arranged alphabetically. Botanical name, voucher specimen number,
family, habitat, local name, plant part/sand medicinal use are given.
Plant Name Abrus precatorius 1.
VSN 109
Family Papilionaceae
Habitat Growing on hedges as twinners near villages and forest area
Local Name 'Gumchi'
Plant Part Leaves
Uses Paste of leaves used on wounds.
Plant Name Acacia auriculiformis Cunn. ex Benth.

VSN 112
Family Mimosaceae
Habitat Found in mixed forest
Local Name 'Australian babooI'
Plant Part Fruits
Uses Fruits are boiled and vapours are applied on the septic to repel worm
from wound of cattle.
Plant Name Adlzatoda zeylanica Medic.

VSN 121
Family Acanthaceae
Habitat Occasionally found in waste places near habitations, roadsides and
fringes of forests.
Local Name 'Ad usa'
Plant Part Leaves
Uses Leaves crushed mixed with animal fodder relieve abdominal affliction
and to repel intestinal worms.
Plant Name Aerva lanata (1.) Juss.

VSN 291
Family Amaranthaceae
Habitat Found in the areas of the irrigation canals and nallah
304 ANJALI RAWAT, ARTI GUPTA AND T.R. SAHU
Local Name 'Ghreet kumari'

Plant Part Whole plant
Uses Whole plant with Aristolochia indica root, black pepper and garlic
made into juice, given orally to animals as antidote to insect bites
and snake bite.
Plant Name Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f) Wall. ex Nees

VSN 122
Family Acanthaceae
Habitat Common in moist and shady places
Local Name 'Kalmegh'
Plant Part Leaves
Uses Paste of fresh leaves is applied for skin diseases of cattle.
Plant Name Annona squamosa L.

VSN 110
Family Annonaceae
Habitat Found on dry and open forest areas
Local Name '5aripha'
Plant Part Leaves
Uses Leaf paste is applied on the chronic wounds. Leaf juice mixed with
Asafoetida used to kill maggots.
Plant Name Apluda mutica L.
VSN 284
Family Poacea.e
Habitat Common in grasslands of forest area
Local Name 'Phulera'
Uses Paste of whole plant given orally to treat mouth sore in case of calf.
Plant Name Asparagus racemosus Wild.

VSN 301
Family Liliaceae
Habitat Occasionally confined to the moist areas in the forests.
Local Name '5atawari'
Plant Part Roots
Uses Powdered root or whole plant given to cattle to increase lactation.
Plant Name Butea superba Roxb.

VSN 127
Habitat Extensively found in the hilly tracks of forest
Local Name 'Palas bel'
Plant Part Roots
Uses Heated tuberous roots are applied on inflammation and swellings
of cows or buffaloes.
Plant Name Calotropis procera (Ait.) R.Br.

VSN 143
Family Asclepiadaceae
Habitat Extensively found in wasteland and in open dry places
Local Name 'Aak'
Uses Latex is applied on the effected body part.
Plant Name Capparis ze1Jlanica L.

VSN 144
Family Capparidaceae
Habitat A climber over the tall trees in scrub forest
Local Name 'Ardanda'
Plant Part Roots
Uses Root paste is applied on eyes in the case of conjunctivitis of
cattle.
Plant Name Cassia fistula L.

VSN 145
Habitat Found in deciduous forest also.
Local Name 'Amaltash'
Plant Part Fruits
Uses Pulp of fruits mixed with one glass of water given to treat gas and
acidity and decoction of fruits given on cold and throat infection
in cattle.
Plant Name Cissus quadrangularis L.

VSN 139
Family Vitaceae
306 ANJALI RAwAT, ARTI GUPTA AND T.R. SAHU
Habitat As a climber on trees and along with the walls

Local Name 'Hathjode'
Plant Part Stem
Uses A mixture of stem powder and wheat flour in 1:1 ratio is fed to
animals to cure fractures and dislocations of bones.
Plant Name Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Diels

VSN 140
Family ~enispermaceae
Habitat Commonly found in open areas of the forest

Local Name 'Jal jamni'
Plant Part Leaves
Uses The juice of the leaves is rubbed on the body to remove lice or
external parasitic insects on the body.
Plant Name Cochlospermum religiosum (L.) Alston.

VSN 138
Family Cochlospermaceae
Habitat Scattered in the mixed forest
Local Name 'Galgal'
Plant Part Stem
Uses Bark of the stem is pounded and applied to broken limbs of cattle.
Plant Name Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.

VSN 149
Family Cuscutaceae
Habitat Found on small trees, shrubs and on hedges.
Local Name 'Amar bel'
Uses Plant paste mixed with curd is given to treat diarrhoea and other
intestine problems of cattle.
Plant Name Cypents rotundus L.

VSN 281
Family Cyperaceae
Habitat Common in all grassy places
Local Name 'Doob'
Plant Part Leaves
Uses Paste of leaves is given orally to cattle to expel intestinal worm.
Plant Name Dioscorea pentaphylla L.

VSN 155
Family Dioscoreaceae
Habitat Common on trees and shrubs of roadsides and forest hedges
Local Name 'Gathora'
Plant Part Root bark
Uses Bark of root along with stem bark of Siris [Albizia lebbeck (L.) Willd.]
are soaked in butter milk overnight. Then the mixture is crushed
and applied locally. Decoction is also given orally once daily for a
week in the treatment of rheumatism.
Plant Name Dolichos uniflorus Lam.

VSN 152
Habitat Found on hedges and trees.
Local Name 'Kulthi'
Plant Part Seeds
Uses Seeds mixed with pulp of raw fruits of Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr.
increase the lactation in lactating cattle.
Plant Name Echinops echinatus Roxb.

VSN 275
Family Asteraceae
Habitat Common in dry wastelands roadsides, fields and open forests.
Local Name 'Utkatara'
Uses Whole plant chopped fine and mixed with fodder. It is fed to
lactating buffalo to improve milk yield.
Plant Name Euphorbia hirta L.

VSN 274
Family Euphorbiaceae
Habitat Common in forest area.
Local Name 'Chhoti Dudhi'
Uses Dried powder or crushed plants given to cattle to increase lactation.
Plant Name Euphorbia thymifolia L.

VSN 270
Habitat Common in open wastelands.
Local Name 'Thuar'
Uses Whole plant 250 gm crushed with 125 gm of Aspara gives with
wheat dough or water used as lactogauge.
Plant Name Euphorbia indica Lamk.

VSN 271
Habitat Abundant in fields, unused land near villages and rocky crevices.
Local Name 'Lal Dudhi'
Uses Crushed plant given to cattle to dissolve iron nails, iron pieces and
other items eaten by them with fodder.
Plant Name Evolvulus alsinoides L.

VSN 1
Family Convolvulaceae
Habitat Found on rocky slopes with sandy soils.
Local Name '5ankhpushpi'
Plant Part Roots
Uses Decoction of roots with paste of black pepper is used against pain
of neck region of cattle.
Plant Name Ficus hispida Lf.

VSN 162
Family Moraceae
Habitat Less common in dry waste place around villages.
Local Name 'Bhui Gular'
Plant Part Fruits
Uses Fruits crushed with warm water given to cattle as lactogauge.
Plant Name Gardenia lati/olia Ait.

VSN 178
Family Rubiaceae
Habitat Commonly found on dry hills and in dry forests.
Local Name 'Dikamali'
Plant Part Seeds

Uses Oil is given orally and also cotton plug soaked in it is placed on
wounds.
Plant Name Grewia asiatica L.

VSN 174
Family Tiliaceae
Habitat Grown in corners of forest and fields
Local Name 'Dhamin'
Plant Part Fruits
Uses Dried green fruit powder is given to cattle for expulsion of dead
foetus.
Plant Name Helicteres isora L.

VSN 187
Family Sterculiaceae
Habitat Common in rocky places of hills.
Local Name 'Marorphalli'
Plant Part Fruits
Uses Powder of dry fruits along with water used to cure stomach problem.
It is also given as appetizer regularly.
Plant Name Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.) Planch.

VSN 184
Family Ulmaceae
Habitat Common in wasteland around cultivated field and road side
Local Name 'ChiroI'
Plant Part Stem
Uses Fibres obtained from stem are tied around the neck of a bullock
to cure neck swellings.
Plant Name Jatropha curcas L.

VSN 191
Habitat Common in wastelands near villages
Local Name 'Ratanjot'
Uses Latex of the plant is applied on injuries and tumorous of cattle.
310 ANJALI RAWAT, ART! GUPTA AND T.R. SAHU
Plant Name Lagerstroemia paroijlora Roxb.

VSN 197
Family Lythraceae
Habitat Common in dry forest areas and wasteland
Local Name 'Karia seja'
Plant Part Leaves
Uses Paste of leaves in applied on the dislocation or injury on any part
of body.
Plant Name Lantana camara L.

VSN 199
Family Verbenaceae
Habitat Found in wastelands, roadsides and along the cultivated field
Local Name 'Vidya nasni'

Plant Part Leaves
Uses Paste of leaves is given orally to goats to reduce swellings caused
due to consumption of poisonous plants.
Plant Name Listcea glutinosa (Lour.) Robins

VSN 194
Family Lauraceae
Habitat Found usually in valley and fairly moist places
Local Name 'Maida lakri'
Plant Part Leaves
Uses Crushed leaves are given with fodder to treat indigestion of domestic
animals.
Plant Name Mangifera indica L.

VSN 202
Family Anacardiaceae
Habitat Commonly planted along the roadside and wasteland
Local Name 'Aam'
Plant Part Fruits
Uses Unripe fruits are crushed in water and infusion is given to chicks
to control the dysentery.
Plant Name MarhJnia annua L.

VSN 254
Family Pedaliaceae
Habitat Rarely found along roadside, river banks and also in open forest
area.
Local Name 'Harhjori'
Plant Part Leaves
Uses Leaf paste mixed with turmeric and applied locally for the cuts and
wounds of cattle.
Plant Name Mimosa pudica L.

VSN 206
Family Mimosaceae
Habitat Usually confined to forests edges and on the boundaries of fields
Local Name 'Chuimui'

Plant Part Root
Uses Paste of root mixed with jaggery and butter milk is given orally
once daily for three days in the treatment of dysentery.
Plant Name Oxalis corniclliata L.

VSN 215
Family Oxalidaceae
Habitat Common in field and in wet shady places
Local Name 'Tinipatiya'
Plant Part Leaves
Uses Juice of leaves is given during indigestion.
Plant Name Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb.

VSN 218
Habitat Common in dry deciduous forest
Local Name 'Bijasal'
Plant Part Bark
Uses Juice of bark is given orally against dysentery.
Plant Name Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken

VSN 237
Family Sapindaceae
Habitat Scattered in the mixed forests of hilly places
Local Name 'Kusum'

Plant Part Seeds oil
Uses Seed oil is applied on wounds of cattle to kill worm. Powdered fruits
and sugar are filled in wound to kill maggots.
Plant Name Schrebera swietenoides Roxb.

VSN 234
Family Oleaceae
Habitat Found in mixed forest
Local Name 'Ran palas'
Plant Part Roots
Uses Roots are crushed and used for killing worms in wounds.
Plant Name Semecarpus anacardium Lf

VSN 236
Family Anacardiaceae
Habitat Commonly found in mixed deciduous forest.
Local Name 'Bhilma'
Plant Part Seeds
Uses Crushed seeds used for the treatment of cold infection in cattle.
Plant Name Smilax zeylanica L.

VSN 296
Family Smilacaceae
Habitat Common on trees and shrubs of roadsides and forest hedges.
Local Name 'Ramdaton'
Plant Part Root
Uses Juice of fresh roots is given orally to cure dysentery.
Plant Name Soymida febrifuga (Roxb.) A. Juss.

VSN 304
Family Meliaceae
Habitat Commonly distributed in mixed forests.
Local Name 'Rohan'
Plant Part Bark
Uses Crushed bark is used for the treatment of inflammation on foot of
cattle.
Plant Name Tamarindus indica L.

VSN 250
Family Caesalpiniaceae
Habitat Grown along the road side and waste lands near habitation
Local Name 'Imli'
Plant Part Leaves
Uses Leaves of this plant and soil of ant-hill are mixed in water. Boiled
leaves are applied on swelling part of the cattle.
Plant Name Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers.

VSN 249
Habitat Found in rocky slopes in open and waste places as weed
Local Name 'Sarphonka'
Plant Part Root
Uses Juice of fresh root is given orally for stomach disorders.
Plant Name Trichodesma indicum (L.) Lehm.

VSN 276
Family Boraginaoeae
Habitat Found in the waste places along roadsides and forest areas
Local Name 'Salkanta'
Plant Part Branches
Uses Necklace prepared from the branches of this plant is tied around
the neck of cattle for curing wounds.
Plant Name Tridax procumbens L.

VSN 279
Family Asteraceae
Habitat On grassland which are subjected to a high degree of grazing and
trampling.
Local Name 'Bhrang raj'
Plant Part Leaves
Uses Juice of fresh leaves is applied on the cuts and wounds.
Plant Name Tylophora indica (Burm. f) Merr.

VSN 277
Family Asc1epiadaceae
314 ANJALI RAwAT, ARTI GUPTA AND T.R. SAHU
Habitat Common in grassland and wasteland of forest area.

Local Name 'Anta moor
Plant Part Leaves
Uses Leaves along with pepper and garlic made into a fine paste and
given to cattle as an antidote.
Plant Name Vitex negundo L.

VSN 254
Family Verbenaceae
Habitat Scattered in wastelands, cultivated fields and along roadsides.
Local Name 'Nir gundi'
Plant Part Leaves
Uses Leaves are boiled in water and poured over the paralytic part of
the animals.
Plant Name Zingiber cernUU11l Dalz.

VSN 302
Family Zingiberaceae
Habitat Common cultivated for its rhizomes.
Local Name 'Gaura Sonth'
Plant Part Rhizome
Uses Rhizome used to increase lactation.
4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Stomach disorders, swelling, cuts and wounds, conjunctivitis, dislocation/ fracture,
dysentery, rheumatism and lactation are the most common diseases amongst the cattle
of the Sanctuary area. The present study shows that 50 species belonging to 33 families
are employed for the treatment of animals. In our country, enough attention has not
yet been given to traditional veterinary herbal remedies. Even the 'Rigveda' Atharvaveda'
I
and eight divisions of Ayurveda' the pioneer documents with curative properties of
I
plants, have not provided much information on veterinary remedies. It is not that the
entire tribal community in sauctuary used herbal remedies to cure their domestic
animals. Some approach the nearby veterinary health centres occasionally. The tribals
also believe in supernatural powers. The common recipes are paste, vapours, powder,
decoction and juice. In some cases, entire plants or plant products like latex are used.
Some additives e.g. black pepper, asafetida, wheat flour, curd, butter milk, jaggery, soil
of anti-hill etc. are mixed in the various preparations. All these applications should be
tested on modern scientific lines.
5. SUMMARY
Domestic animals served men in various ways, e.g. food, hide fat, game, riding,
mikhing etc. Indigenous knowledge of folk medicines on veterinary practices existed
in India since long past. Many experienced tribals of the sanctuary employ a large
number of plants for their animal healthcare. The tribal people depend largely on the
plants, not only for supply of fodder but also for the medicines used in the treatment
of common ailments affecting their domestic animals. The present paper deals with the
veterinary uses of indigenous herbal medicines against various diseases such as stomach
disorders, swellings, cuts, wounds, bone fractures, dysentery etc. There is no proper
facilities of veterinary clinics in these remote areas and hence the tribals rely mostly
on the traditional recipes. The present paper enumerates the medicinal uses of 50 plant
species belonging to 33 families of angiosperms.
REFERENCES
Borthakur, S.K & Sharma, U.K (1996) Ethnoveterinary medicine with special reference to cattle
prevalent among the Nepalis of Assam, India. In : Ethnobiology in Human Welfare, Deep
Publications, New Delhi. pp. 197-199.
Gour, R.D., Bhatt, KC. & Tiwari, J.K, (1992) An ethnobotanical Study of Uttar Pradesh, Himalaya
in relation to veterinary medicines. J. Indian Bot. Soc. 72 : 139-144.
Jain, S.K (1968) Medicinal Plants, National Book Trust, New Delhi, India.
Mokat, D.N. & Deokule, 5.5., (2004) Plants used as veterinary medicine in Ratnagiri district of
Maharashtra. Ethnohotany 16 : 131-135.
Pal, D.C. (1991) Plants used in treatment of cattle and birds among tribals of eastern India.
In: S.K Jain (Ed.) Contribution to Indian Ethnobotany, Sci. Publ., Jodhpur: 285-297.
Patil, S.H. & Merat, Manoj, M. (2003) Ethnoveterinary practices in Satpura of Nandurbar district
of Maharashtra. Ethnobotany 15 : 103-106.
Sebastian, M.K. & Bhandari, M.M. (1984) Some plants used as veterinary medicine by Bhils.
Int. J. Trop. Agric. 2 : 307-310.
Sharma, P.P. (2002) Toramal Yethil Vanspatinche Kahi Aushdhiy Gundharm (in Marathi). Institute
of Ethnobiology, Lucknow.
Sikarwar, R.L.5., Bajpai, AK. & Painuli, R.M. (1994) Plants used as veterinary medicines by
aboriginals of Madhya Pradesh, India. Intern. J. Pharmacog. 32(3) : 251-255.
000
ETHNOBOTANY OF WESTERN ORISSA, INDIA
L.M. BEHERA AND S.K. SEN
Chapter Outline
1. Introduction
2. People and ethnology
3. Methodology
4. Enumeration
5. Summary and conclusions
6. Acknowledgements
7. References
1. INTRODUCTION
Orissa is situated in the eastern part of India between 17 49' to 23 34' Nand
81 29' to 87 29' E. Orissa state is a land of ancient temples and villages. Around 86.6
per cent of its total population occupy 51057 villages scattered throughout the state
(Tripathy, 1995), out of which the tribal population is quite sizeable amounting to 81,45,081
out of total population of 3,68,04,660 in the state (Economic Survey, 2004-05). It comes
to 22.13 per cent of tribal population of the state. There are 62 types of tribes recognised
in the state.
Western Orissa consists of 10 districts out of 30 districts of the state. The districts
included under western Orissa are Bargaih, Bolangir, Boudh, Deogarh, Jharsuguda,
Kalahandi, Nuapada, Sambalpur, Subarnapur, and Sundargarh. This part of Orissa lying
between 19 10' to 22 42' N and 82 30' to 85 22'E covers an area of 47157 sq km
where the total forest coverage is 19189.59 sq km. The total population of western Orissa
is 90,15,031. In this part of Orissa 42 types of tribes are prevalent with a total population
of 26,96,375. The prominent tribes of this area are the Kondh, Gond, Binjhal, Sahanra
(Saora), Munda, Kisan, Kharia, Bhuiyan, Oran, Mirdha, Binjhia, Dal, Savar, Lodha,
Bhotoda and Parja.
ETHNOBOTANY OF WESTERN ORISSA, INDIA 317
Phytogeographically western Orissa is very rich with a diverse terrain and offers
immense scope for ethnobotanical study due to the sizeable and diverse tribal population.
According to Champion and Seth (1968) the vegetation of this region in general falls under
the tropical deciduous forest category. The hilly regions of the area are covered with a
variety of vegetation ranging from semi-evergreen to dry-deciduous forests dominated by
timber, fibre, gum and resin yielding plants besides plants providing edible products
useful to mankind. The timber plant species like Shorea robusta Roth, Pterocarpus marsupium
Roxb., Tectona grandis L., Dalbergia latifolia Roxb., Terminalia alata Roth, Madhuca longifolia
(Koen.) Macbr., Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsd., Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC), Gmelina
arborea Roxb., Bridelia retusa Hookf., Buchanania Ian zan Spreng., Lannea coromandelica (Hactt.)
Merr., Bombax ceiba L., CarelJa arborea Roxb., Canthium dicoCCllm (Gaertner) Teijsm. &
Binnend., Grewia tiliiefolia Vahl, Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb., Saraca asoca (Roxb.) de Wilde,
Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken, Mangifera indica L., Phyllanthus emblica L., Terminalia arjllna
(Roxb.) Wt. & Arn., are found to be the dominant species in different forests areas in
western Orissa. Besides these, a large number of important medicinal and economically
important plants are also found in different forests of western Orissa. The important
medicinal plants are Alangium salvifolium (Lf.) Wang., Alstonia scholaris RBr., Andrographis
paniculata Nees, Asparagus racemosus Willd., Boerhaavia diffusa L., Butea monosperma (Lamk.)
Taub., Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb., Catunaregllm spinosa (Thunb.) Tirvengadum, Celastrus
paniculata Willd., Cochlospermum religiosum (L.) Alst., Clerodendnml illdicum (L.) O. Ktze ..,
Cordia macleodii (Griff.) Hook f & Thoms., Costus specious (Koenig) J.E. Sm., Curculigo
orchioides Gaertn., Curcuma aromatica Salisb., Cymbopogoll flexuosus Wats., Cyperus rohmdus
L., Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf, Diplocyclos palmatus (L.) Jefery, Eclipta prostrata L.,
Embelia ribes Burm., Ehretia laevis Roxb., Euphorbia fusiformis (Buch.-Ham.) G.Don, Ficus
racemosa L., Gloriosa superba L., Helicteres isora L., Hemides111lls indicus (L.) RBr., Holarrhena
pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. ex G. Don, Hygrophila schulli (Buch.-Ham.) M.R& S.M.
Almeida, Ichnocarpus jrutescens RBr., Ixora pavetta Andrews, Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C
Robinson, Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Swartz, Mallotlls philippensis (Lamk.) Muell.-Arg.,
Madhuca longifolia (Koen.) Macbr., Michelia c1zampaca L., Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC, Nyctallthes
arbor-tristis L., Pergularia daemia (Forsk.) Chiov., Pueraria tuberosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) DC,
Oroxylum indicum (L.) Vent., Rauvolfia serpentina Benth., Smilax zeylanica L., StnJchnos
potatorum Linn.f, Symplocos racemosus Roxb., Tectaria ciclltaria, Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.)
Roxb., Tenninalia chebula Retz., Tragia involucrata L., Sterclliia urens Roxb., Syzygium cumini
(L.) Skeels, Stereospermum chelolloides DC, Vitex peduncularis Wall. and Wendlandia heynei
(R & S.) Sant. & March.
2. PEOPLE AND ETHNOLOGY
The people of western Orissa are mainly dependent on agriculture and animal
husbandry for their livelihood. The tribals exclusively depend on forest for their livelihood
by practising hunting and collecting different forest products. They live in small huts made
out of clay and plant materials found in the forest. Among the tribals, shifting cultivation,
locally called 'podu ' is the usual practice.
. Festivals
Like other communities, the tribals also observe several festivals (locally called Tihar
318 L.M. BEHERA AND S.K. SEN
or Parab) throughout the year. The ceremonies and festivals of the tribals can be classified
in to two groups such as those that relate to the individual families and those that relate
to the communities as a whole. The ceremonies and rituals relating to birth, marriage and
death are observed family-wise, whereas those relating to agriculture are observed by the
village community.
Some of the important festivals observed by the tribals of western Orissa are as
follows:
(1) Nua-khai: It is also called Nabanna and celebrated during August-September.
It is an important traditional festival of western Orissa celebrated by all tribals
as well as non-tribals during which newly harvested paddy with delicacies is
offered to local deity and the food is consumed by all members of the family
in a group.
(2) Dashera: It is celebrated during September-October to worship Ban Durga (jungle
deity). The tribals worship their weapons. Animal sacrifice is common during
this festival.
(3) Chhad-klzai: This festival is observed during November-December after 'HabiShya'
(a type of ritual where one remains in vegetarian diet for one month following
full-moon day of Dashera to the next full-moon day) consuming the food once
a day (only lunch). After one month one can take non-vegetarian recipe.
(4) Pua-juintia: It is celebrated during September/October (on 8th dark moon day
of Ashwin) when fasting is done by mothers for the well being and long life
of their sons. Nowadays this tradition is also followed for daughters.
(5) Bhai-jllintia: It is celebrated during Dashera (October) on the 8th light fortnight
(Sllklya-pakshya asthami called in local language) where fasting is done by sisters
for the well being and long life of their brothers. The married sisters are also
invited by the brothers for this ritual.
(6) Pllspuni: This festival is celebrated during January on the full-moon day of Pausa
after the harvest of paddy. People prepare various types of delicious food and
cake and after offering to deity Laxmi (the Goddess of Wealth) consume the food
as prasad. This festival is comparable with Pongal of South India.
(7) Chait-puni: The festival is observed during March. During this festival the tribals
go to forest for hunting wild animals after worshipping their deity. They remain
in a festive mood for the whole month. They wear new clothes, sacrifice animals
and birds before their deities, observe feast, drink liquor, sing and dance. During
the day time women, young and old, keep on singing and dancing while men
go out for hunting to the jungle. They bring what ever they kill. The meat is
distributed among all the villagers. The nights are spent in drinking, singing
and dancing.
Besides the main festivals described above each category of tribal has its specific
festival observed in different months of the year. There goes a local saying as Bara-mase
tera parab, which means 13 festivals in 12 months. The Binjhal, Sahanra, and Gond observe
"
the festival locally called as Karma puja to worship the deity Karamsani for well being
of all including domestic animals. The Kisan observe Bihal1-blll1a parab during the rainy
season for sowing seeds. The Kondh observe Klzedll parab, Kadlla jatra or Maa Blldhial1i
latra on the eve of ploughing their crop fields. The Bhuiyan observe Mllthi pllja and
Aam-llua parab. Muthi puja is celebrated to initiate sowing of paddy after worshipping
the Sun God. Aam-Ilua parab is celebrated during February-March after which they eat
the first fruit of mango (Mangifera indica). The Parja observe Bandapana parab or
Langaldhua parab during July. In this occasion they worship all their agricultural
implements by covering these with a white cloth and flowers. The Binjhal observe Harali
parab during July for well being of their children.
Music and dance is an integral part of the festivals and rituals of all the tribals
of western Orissa. These tribals despite their poverty and pre-occupation with the
continual battle for survival have retained the rich and varied heritage of colourful dance
and music. They have specific pattern of dance and music. They enjoy these with great
enthusiasm. Among them, the dance and music is developed and maintained by
themselves in a tradition without help and intervention of any professional teacher or
dancer. It is mainly through the songs and dances, the tribes seek to satisfy their inner
urge for revealing their soul. These are performed by single individual or in group.
A dance may be religious, social or occupational but it is very difficult to make any
specific division between them as they serve a common purpose. The dances in which
the people of western Orissa take part in various festivals and religious ceremonies are
as follows:
(1) Dalkhai : It is a common and the most popular folk-dance of western Orissa,
performed during all important festivals such as Bhai-jiuntia, Phangun-puni
(Full-moon day of Falgun in February-March) and Nua-khai. It is performed
by young women of Binjhal, Kuda, Mirdha and some other tribes of western
Orissa in which men join them as drummers and musicians. The dance is
accompanied by a rich orchestra of folk music played by a number of
instruments known as Dhol, Nisan, Tasa, and Mahuri. However, the Dhol
player controls the tempo while dancing in front of the girls. It is known as
Dalkhai because in the beginning and end of every stanza this word is used
as an address to a girl friend. The love story of Radha and Krishna, the
episodes from Ramayana and Mahabaharata, the description of natural scenery
are represented through the songs. The songs are of special variety with the
additive Dalkhai Bo which is an address to a girl friend.
(2) Dand: Dand (Danda Nata also known as the Danda Jatra) in western Orissa
happens to be one amongst the most ancient form of histrionic arts of the
state. Associated with ritualistic services, Dand forms an institution of dance,
music and dramatics blended with religions, social reformation and an
association of Universal Brotherhood. Mainly worship of Lord Shiva, the God
of destruction of the Hindu mythology, who is also the Lord of histrionic arts
(Nata Raj), this theatrical form brings into its fold a harmonious feeling of
co-existence between followers of different philosophical doctrines, between
political principles and set of opinions. Along with votive dedications to Lord
Shiva (Rudra, Hara, Mahadeva, Shankar, Bholanath etc) in a Dand, the
greatness of other Gods and Goddesses such as Vishnu, Krishna, Ganesh,

Durga, Kali etc. are also equally invoked.
(3) Ghoomra : Ghoomra is a typical drum. It is just like a big pitcher with a
long stem made of clay. The mouth is covered with the skin of a Guye (Monitor
lizard).When played with both hands; it produces a peculiar sound quite
different from other varieties of drums. The dance performed to the accompaniment
of this drum is called Ghoomra Nat. It begins fifteen days earlier of Gamha
Purnima (Full moon in September) and culminates on that night in a ceremonial
performance.
(4) Karama : Karam or Karma literally means 'fate'. This pastoral dance is
performed during the worship of Goddess of fate (Karamsani Devi), whom the
people consider the cause of good and bad fortune. It begins from Bhadra Shukla
Ekadasi (eleventh day of the bright moon of the month of Bhadra) and lasts
for several days. This is popular among the scheduled tribes (the Binjhal, Kharia,
Kisan and Kol). In western part of Orissa the dance is performed in honour
of Karamsani, the deity who bestows children and good crops. However, the
rituals connected with the dance remain the same everywhere. In the afternoon
of the auspicious day two young unmarried girls cut and bring two branches
of the Karama tree [Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsd.] from a nearby jungle. They
are accompanied by drummers and musicians. The two branches are then
ceremonially planted on the altar of worship and symbolize the God. Germinated
grains, grass flowers and country liquor are offered to the deity. After completing
the ritual the village-priest tells the story or legend connected with it. This is
followed by singing and dancing in accompaniment of drum (mandal)and
cymbal. The dance performance is full of vigour and energy combined with
charm of the youth decked with colourful costumes. In this dance both men
and women take part and continue to engross themselves for the whole night.
(5) Kirtan: It is a devotional song in which lines are sung by a leader and then
repeated by a larger group. The usual subject is the life of Krishna. The group
move round the platform where a photo-frame of Lord Krishna and Radha is
placed on it.
(6) Samparda : Samprada Dance is also known as Bahaka dance. This type of
dance prevalent in western Orissa is a standardized performance of singing,
danCing and playing on the musical instruments known as mandaI looking
like mridanga but bigger in size and a type of cymbal locally known as kastal.
It is performed by at least two persons known as Bahak (who sing) and Gahak
(who used musical instrument). The peculiarity of this performace is that the
performer displays his capability in singing, playing musical instrument and
dancing. One cannot be an expert performer in this unless one acquires adequate
knowledge in these three aspects. The tuning of the songs, the stepping
movement of feet and rhythmic playing of the musical instruments make the
performance very interesting and charming. This type of dance is generally
arranged on social and festive occasions.
The musical instruments played during these dance programmes in this part of
Orissa are:
(a) Dhol : It is a barrel shaped hollow wooden cylinder with leather covered on
both sides. (b) Ghoomra : Ghoomra is a typical drum. It is just like a big pitcher with
a long stem made of clay. The mouth is covered with the skin of a Guye (Monitor lizard).
(c) Gini : A pair of small plate like instrument made of brass where each one is tied witq
a thread and it is played by beating both like clapping hands. (d) Jhanj : It resembles
gini but large in size. (e) Kastal : It is a pair of large brass plate like structures known
as kastal (cymbal) which are played by beating both at a time. (f) Khanjini : tambourine-
shallow hollow drum with jingling discs in its rim, shaken or banged as an accompaniment.
(g) Mandai: It is a barrel shaped hollow cylinder with both sides narrowed towards the
ends, over which leather parchment is tightly stretched. (h) Muhuri : It is an instrument
like 'Shehnai' but smaller in length and is always played with Dhol, Nisan and tasa.
(i) Murdung : It is a barrel shaped hollow cylinder with one side is much narrow and
the other side much wide over which leather parchment is tightly stretched. 0) Nisan :
It is a huge pot shaped musical instrument, with an animal skin is tightly affixed and
sound is produced on striking it with two leather sticks. (k) Sarangi : It is a hollow clay
pot covered with thin leather with a long bamboo stick attached to it supporting two
strings. A bow made of thin bamboo stick with a string is also used. Sound is produced
when the string of the bow runs over the string of the main instrument. (1) Tasa : A musical
instrument resembling a huge plate, an animal skin fixed to a frame and sound is produced
on striking it with two wooden sticks.
The tribals inhabiting remote areas far from the urban areas, residing deep inside
the forests utilize many locally available plants for various purposes, which provide them
with a wide variety of edible roots and fruits. Besides, the forest also provides animals
for hunting to supplement their dietary requirements. This part of Orissa with its rich
vegetation and variety of tribals; provide a good scope for ethnomedicinal study.
Ethnomedicinal studies on various tribes in western Orissa have been carried out earlier
by Panigrahi (1963), Brahmam and Saxena (1990), Satpathy and Panda (1992), Mishra
et al. (1994), Pradhan et al. (1999), Sen and Pradhan (1999), Sen and Behera (2000,2001,
2003, 2005), Mishra (2004).
3. METHODOLOGY
The methodology adopted for the study was that of Jain (1987). The authors have
conducted extensive field trips to different forest and rural areas of western Orissa for
collecting ethnobotanical data and voucher specimens. The tribals, the local traditional
healers known as Kabiraj, Vaidya,Guniyan and the priests known as Jhankar, Desari,
Dehuri and Jani were contacted individually to discuss and collect information regarding
the ethnomedicinal and other uses of the plants. Common information obtained from more
than one source only has been included in this paper. It has been cross-checked and found
that no such reports are published in other available literature such as Panigrahi et al.
(1964), Choudhury et al., (1975), Saxena and Brahmam (1975), Paul and Mudgal (1985),
Dash and Mishra (1987), Aminuddin and Girach (1991), Kirtikar and Basu (1991),
Ambasta et al. (1992), Chopra et al. (1992), Girach (1992), and Joshi (2006). The plant species
are arranged alphabetically with their family within parenthesis, local name, locality
and collection numbers.
4. ENUMERATION
During the investigation it was observed that 58 plant species are used medicinally
by the tribals and other rural inhabitants. Ethnobotanical uses of the plants are documented
"here as per the information collected.
1. Abrns precatorius 1. (Fabaceae) 'Gunj', Barhaguda-55
A twining shrub. Leaves paripinnate, leaflets linear-oblong. Flowers pink, in axillary
racemes. Seeds scarlet with a black spot.
Use: A piece of root is tied on the opposite ear to cure dental carries.
2. Acacia nilotica (1.) Del. (Mimosaceae) 'Bamur', Ganjaguda-305
Tree; bark deeply cracked. Leaves bipinnata, pinnae 4-6 pairs; leaflets sessile, linear-
oblong. Flowers yellow. Pods green, flat shortly stalked, seeds 2-12 per pod.
Use: Leaf decoction is used as a gargling agent to cure pyorrhea, mouth ulcer and
toothache.
3. Acalypha indica 1. (Euphorbiaceae) 'Kaph-katuri', Ramkhol-726
An ecect herb. Leaves simple, ovate, cuneate, glabrous. Flowers on axillary spikes,
hairy.
Use: Leaf paste boiled with castor seed oil is applied on affected part to cure
rheumatism.
4. Alangium salvifolium (Lj) Wang. (Alangiaceae) 'Ankel', Khandijharan-325
A small deciduous tree, armed. Leaves simple, oblong-elliptic. Flowers white in
axillary fascicles. Fruits ovoid, dark purple when ripe.
Use: Bark paste (5g) is taken twice daily to cure dysentery.
5. Antidesma acidum Retz. (Euphorbiaceae) 'Jamardi', Ramkhol-l64
A small deciduous tree, Leaves elliptic or oblong, acute, cuneate. Flowers green in
slender racemes. Drupes subglobose, purplish red.
Use: Fruit is edible. Fresh root (5g) is crushed with black pepper (12 number) and
is taken once daily for 7 days to cure gonorrhoea.
6. Atylosia scarabaeoides (1.) Benth. (Fabaceae) 'Jharkulthia', Musanal-420
A slender twiner. Leaflets elliptic, obovate-oblong, obtuse or subacute .. Flowers
yellow, in axillary racemes or clusters. Pods oblong, somewhat flattened, straight, densely
hairy.
Use: Root paste is applied externally to cure pimples.
7. Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (Meliaceae) 'Leem', Nrusinghnath-586
A tree. Leaves imparipinnate, leaflets 5-9 pairs, obliquely lanceolate, serrate, glabrous,
cuneate at base. Flowers white fragrant, many in axillary panicles. Drupes ellipsoid, long,
yellow, glabrous.
Use: Leaf crushed with polished rice and the paste is applied externally to cure
syphilis. Bark powder is taken with sugar candy to cure syphilis.
8. Bauhillia racemosa Lamk. (Caesalpiniaceae) 'Kuthel', Bonaigarh-621
A small tree. Leaves simple, bilobed; lobes obtuse, cordate base. Flowers yellowish-
white in terminal and leaf-opposed cymes. Pods falcate, turgid.
Use: Bark paste (1 teaspoon) with Piper nigrum fruit powder is taken once daily
to cure dysentery.
9. Boerhaavia diffusa L. (Nyctaginaceae) 'Gadhapurni', Nrusinghnath-469
A diffuse herb. Leaves simple, opposite, ovate. Flowers pink, in axillary umbels.
Achenes 5-ribbed, hairy.
Use: Equal amount of root of the plant, Oroxylum illdiclIlIl (L.) Vent. bark and
Phyllanthus fraternus whole plant crushed together and the paste (5-10g) is taken once daily
in empty stomach to cure jaundice.
10. Buchallallia lallzall Spreng. (Anacardiaceae) 'Char', Ramkhol-246
A tree; bark tessellated in prominent squares. Leaves simple, broadly oblong, obtuse.
Flowers greenish-white, in terminal and axillary paniculate racemes. Drupes ovoid-oblong,
black.
Use: Bark paste is applied. externally to cure bruises.
"11. Butea mOllosperma (Lamk.) Taub. (Fabaceae) 'PhaIsa', Ramkhol-378
A tree. Leaves pinnately 3-folliolate; leaflets broadly obovate, truncate-mucronate at
apex. Flowers orange-scarlet, in panicles. Pods flat, pubescent.
Use: Young stem tip (3-5 inches long) crushed with Piper lOllgu11l Linn. fruit (5
numbers) is taken 1-2 times daily in empty stomach to cure itches.
12. Butea parviflora Roxb. (Fabaceae) 'Bardalaha', Harishankar-671
A large giant climber. Leaves pinnately 3-foliate; leaflets 10-23 cm long, terminal
ovate or elliptic, acuminate, pubescent beneath, lateral leaflets oblique. Flowers creamy,
long in fascicles of 3. Pods long, ferruginous-tomentose, oblong.
Use: Leaf ash is mixed with Piper longllm fruit powder and a little water. The paste
(2 teaspoon) is taken once daily to cure spleen enlargement.
13. Byttlleria herbacea Roxb. (Sterculiaceae) 'Samarkhai', Khandijharan-317
A perennial herb. Leaves ovate-Ianceolate, dentate, acuminate, glabrous. Flowers
deep purple. Capsule globose; seeds ovoid, angular.
Use: Root paste is applied on the affected part to cure swelling and pain.
14. Caesalpillia bOllduc (L.) Roxb. (Caesalpiniaceae) 'Gil', Ramkhol-239
A large, straggling, prickly shrub. Leaves bipinnate; leaflets elliptic-oblong. Flowers
yellow, in terminal and supra-axillary spicate racemes. Pods broadly oblong densely
clothed with sharp prickles.
Use: Dry seed pulp is crushed to powder and mixed with ghee. It is massaged on
chest to get relief from chest pain.
15. Canthium diococcum (Gaertn.) Teijsm. (Rubiaceae) 'Benimanj', Kunarmunda-550

A small tree with drooping branchlets; bark dark grey, with vertical cracks. Leaves
ovate, elliptic-ovate, acuminate, glabrous, light green above. Flowers white or greenish
in corymbose. Drupe globose, black.
Use: Bark decoction is taken along with honey to cure high blood pressure.
16. Capparis zeylanica L. (Capparidaceae) 'Asdhia', Nrusinghnath-174
A large, thorny, climbing shrub. Leaves simple, ovate-obovate, obtuse. Flowers
pinkish-white, in supra-axillary umbels. Fruit ovoid, reddish-yellow.
Use: Leaf paste (1-2 teaspoon) with sugar candy is taken to cure stomach disorder.
17. Careya arborea Roxb. (Barringtoniaceae) 'Kum', Samardhara-440
A medium-sized, deciduous tree. Leaves simple, obovate. Flowers yellowish-white,
in terminal spikes. Berries globose.
Use: Milky juice is used to cure toothache.
18. Chloroxylon swietenia DC. (Euphorbiaceae) 'Bheru', Ramkhol-374
A medium-sized deciduous tree. Leaves paripinnate; leaflets oblique, rhomboid-
oblong, gland dotted. Flowers pale white, axillary and terminal panicles. Capsules
loculicidal.
Use: Paste made from root and leaf is applied on forehead to cure headache.
19. Cipadessa baccifera (Roxb.) Miq. (Meliaceae) 'Pitmal', Nrusinghnath-514
A much branched shrub. Leaves imparipinnate; leaflets elliptic-Ianceolate, coarsely
serrate. Flowers greenish-white, in axillary corymbose panicles. Berries globose, red.
Use: Equal amount of leaf and bark are crushed together and the paste is applied
on forehead to cure headache and migraine.
20. Cissampelos pareira L. (Menispermaceae) 'Akanbindhi', Ramkhol-733
A twining shrub, tomentose. Leaves simple, ovate, orbicular. Male flowers pale-
green, in axillary cymose clusters. Female pale yellow in racemes. Drupe scarlet.
Use: Leaf extract is sniffed into the nostrils to get relief from migraine.
21. Clerodendrum indicum (L.) Kuntze (Verbenaceae) 'Bhanrmal', Bisra-431
A tall shrub; stem erect, hollow. Leaves 3-5-nately whorled, lanceolate, subsessile,
acuminate, entire. Flowers in axillary cymes; bracts linear. Drupes with red calyx.
Use: Root paste is taken 1-2 times a day to cure stomach-ache during menstruation.
22. Diospyros malabarica Roxb. (Ebenaceae) 'Makarkendu' Nrusinghnath-1B1
A medium-sized deciduous tree. Leaves simple, oblong, glabrous. Flowers yellowish-
white; male in peduncle, axillary cymes; female solitary, axillary. Berries globose.
Use: Fruit paste (5g) is taken twice daily to cure 'dhuda' (a type of infantile
diarrhoea).
23. Enydra fluctuans Lour. (Asteraceae) 'Hidmircha', Kamgaon-248

Prostrate herb; stems succulent. Leaves narrowly oblong, serrate. Heads yellow,
terminal and axillary, sessile.
Use: Leaf extract with honey is taken to cure vomiting of children.
24. Euphorbia fusiformis Buch.-Ham. ex G. Don. (Euphorbiaceae) 'Khirkanchan',
Patharchepa-473
A dwarf herb. Leaves radical, sessile, oblanceolate or broadly obovate-spathulate.
Flowers in short or long peduncled cyme. Capsule glabrous.
Use: Tuber (about 30g) crushed with rice (15g) and taken during third and fifth
day of menstrual cycle as contraceptive for one month.
25. Ficus racemosa L. (Moraceae) 'Dumer', Ramkhol-249
A medium-sized, deciduous tree. Leaves simple, ovate or ovate-oblong, cuneate.
Receptacles in large clusters on leafless branches. Fruit reddish when ripe.
Use: Bark is crushed and boiled along with 'triphala' (fruit of Termillalia bellirica
(Gaertn.) Roxb., Terminalia chebula Retz. and Phyllantl111s emblica L.) powder. The decoction
obtained is useful to wash skin infection.
26. Flemingia stricta Roxb. (Fabaceae) 'Sabalbhanj', Ramkhol-254
A tall shrub, branches triquetrous, hairy. Leaves digitately 3-foliate; leaflets oblong,
narrowed at both ends. Flowers small striped with pink, yellow and violet, in racemes.
Pods small.
Use: Root (1 kg) is crushed and boiled in mustard oil (8 kg). The decoction obtained
is applied on the affected part to cure rheumatism.
27. Gloriosa superba L. (Liliaceae) 'Puraphul', Jampali-789
A climbing herb. Leaves sessile, apex ending in a tendril, ovate-Ianceolate. Flowers
large, reddish-yellow, solitary or in subcorymbose cymes, towards the ends of branches.
Capsules linear-oblong.
Use: Tuber is crushed to paste. Warm paste is applied on the affected part to cure
rheumatism.
28. Guizotia abyssinica (L.) Casso (Asteraceae) 'Gunaphul', Musanal-418
A small herb; stems hairy. Leaves sessile and half amplexicaul, linear-oblong or
lanceolate serrate, acute. Heads on peduncles. Achenes blackish-brown, obovat-e with the
angles rounded.
Use: Leaf paste (5g) is taken once daily to cure constipation.
27. Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. ex G.Don (Apocynaceae) 'Kure', Kamgaon-
247
A large shrub. Leaves simple, ovate-elliptic or oblong, acuminate. Flowers white,
in terminal cymes. Follicles 2 long, round, joined at the tip, seeds oblong.
Use: Bark paste (3-5g) is taken twice daily to cure piles.
28. Holostemma annulare (Roxb.) Schum. (Asclepiadaceae) 'Khadu', Musanal-417

A climbing herb. Leaves oblong-ovate, cuspidate, base deeply cordate. Flowers
white of pale outside, crimson inside. Follicles often solitary, ovoid to ellipsoid, thick
with blunt acute apex.
Use: Root paste with sugar candy is taken once daily in empty stomach to increase
lactation of nursing mother.
29. Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. (Lamiaceae) 'Ban-tulsi', Nrusinghnath-357
A tall, hispid, aromatic shrub. Leaves simple, ovate-Ianceolate, serrate, acuminate.
Flowers pale blue, in axillary umbels. Nutlets ovoid blackish-brown.
Use: Leaves of the plant and rhizome of Zingiber officinale are crushed together to
paste. The paste (half a teaspoon) is taken twice daily to cure dysentery.
30. Ixora pavetta Andr. (Rubiaceae) 'Telkuruan', Manbhang-460
A small tree. Leaves simple, elliptic-obovate, obtuse at apex. Flowers white, in
terminal branched cymes. Drupes black, globose.
Use: Stem is used as toothbrush to strengthen gum and tooth.
31. Justicia adhatoda L. (Acanthaceae) 'Basang', Ramkhol-717
A dense shrub. Leaves, large, elliptic, elliptic-Ianceolate, narrowed to both ends.
Flowers white, subsessile, large, long, in axillary and terminal spikes. Capsule clavate-
oblong, softly hairy, seeds 1-2, suborbicular, compressed.
Use: Leaf extract (3 teaspoon) mixed with ghee (1 teaspoon) and sugar (2 teaspoon)
is taken twice daily to cure dry cough.
32. Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr. (Anacardiaceae) 'Made', Harishankar-542
A medium-sized tree; bark light-coloured. Leaves clustered at the end of branchlets;
leaflets ovate or ovate-oblong, entire, acuminate, oblique at base. Flowers small, yellowish
green, dioecious, fascicled in racemes. Drupes red, curved, oblong, compressed.
Use: Leaf powder is applied externally to cure wound caused due to burn.
33. Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw. (Lygodiaceae) 'Kalamahajal', Harishankar-610
A climbing, shrubby fern. Pinnae pinnately arranged; pinnules ovate, toothed. Sori
in rows at the edge of segments.
Use: Root decoction (2 teaspoon) is taken twice daily for 3-7 days to cure fever.
34. Madhuca longifolia (Koen.) Macbr. (Sapotaceae) 'Mahuli', Uttam-179
A large, deciduous tree. Leaves simple, elliptic, acuminate. Flowers pale yellow, in
dense clusters. Berries ovoid.
Use: Bark powder is massaged on gum to cure bleeding teeth.
35. Marsdenia tenacissima (Roxb.) Moon (Asclepiadaceae) 'Chandur', Kuthikhol-581
A twining herb; with pubescent branchlets. Leaves broadly ovate, acuminate or
cuspidate, velvety, cordate base. Flowers in corymbosely branched cymes. Follicles solitary,
velvety, beaked, seeds flat.
Use: Root of the plant crushed with polished rice washed water and the paste
(1-2 teaspoon) is taken twice daily to cure post-natal pain.
36. Melastoma malabathricum 1. (Melastomaceae), 'Jal-mandar', Nrusinghnath-187
A shrub, densely strigose-hairy. Leaves simple, elliptic-lanceolate, acuminate.
Flowers pinkish-purple in 1-5 flowered panicles. Berries globose.
Use: Root paste (1 teaspoon) with sugar candy is taken 1-3 times daily to cure
fever and stomach disorder.
37. Mucuna pmriens (L). DC. (Fabaceae) 'Baikhujen', Barhaguda-264
Annual twining herb. Leaves pinnately 3-foliate; leaflets appressed, hairy, subacute,
ovate or rhomboid. Flowers dark purple, in peduncle racemes. Pods turgid, twined up
at end, densely clothed with brown irritant bristles, seeds black, shining.
Use: Leaf paste is applied on wound to check bleeding.
38. Ocimum canum Sims. (Lamiaceae) 'Kuabadli', Khandijharan-327
An erect branching herb; young parts softly hairy. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, entire
or slightly serrate. Flowers in whorl, in spike like racemes. Nutlets oblong-ellipsoid, black.
Use: Leaf paste is applied all over the body of cattle to remove maggots.
39. Olax scandens Roxb. (Olacaceae) 'Adniklu' Harishankar-544
A climbing shrub, with curved prickles. Leaves simple, ovate-oblong, puberulous
beneath. Flowers white, in axillary racemes. Drupes ovoid or subglobose, orange.
Use: Leaf paste is used as purgative.
40. Operculina turpethum (1.) Silva-Manso (Convolvulaceae) 'Tihidi', Ramkhol-370
A large climber; stems 3-winged. Leaves broadly ovate, cordate, acuminate or acute,
obtuse and mucronate. Flowers in 3-5 flowered in peduncle cymes. Capsule globose, seeds
obovoid, brown, glabrous.
Use: Leaf paste is applied externally to cure ringworm.
41. Oroxylum indicum (1.) Vent. (Bignoniaceae) 'Phaphen', Ramkhol-718
A small tree. Leaves 2-3-pinnate; leaflets ovate, acuminate. Flowers pinkish-purple,
in terminal racemes. Capsules linear-oblong, woody; seeds winged.
Use: Bark paste (1 teaspoon) is taken along with Piper nigrum 1. fruit (5-7 numbers)
powder once daily in empty stomach for 3 days to cure stomachache during the menstrual
period.
42. Plesmonium margaritifemm (Roxb.) Schott. (Araceae) 'Dheu', Khandijharan-314
A tuberous herb, depressed hemispherical. Leaf solitary, digitately 3-foliate, lateral
leaflet again bipartite and then pinnatifid. Peduncle long, brown streaked and clouded
below. Spadix exserted, long, erect. Berries orange.
Use: Leaf petiole is used as vegetable. Root paste mixed with Sterculia urens Roxb.
gum powder and is applied externally on the affected part to cure scabies.
43. Plumbago indica 1. (Plumbaginaceae) 'Rakat-chintamul', Nrusinghnath-487
An undershrub. Leaves simple, ovate-oblong, acute. Flowers bright-rose Coloured,
in long terminal spikes. Capsules enclosed in a persistent glandular calyx.
Use: Root paste is applied on the affected part to cure piles.

44. Plumbago zeylanica L. (Plumbaginaceae) 'Dhob-chintamul', Nrusinghnath-423
An undershrub. Leaves simple, ovate, entire. Flowers white, in terminal spikes.
Capsules oblong, enclosed in persistent glandular calyx.
Use: Root of the plant and Abrus precatorius L. seeds are crushed to paste and is
applied on the affected part to cure leucoderma.
45. Smilax zeylanica L. (Smilacaceae) 'Muter', Ramkhol-381
Climbing shrub; branches, stout, more of less angled. Leaves variable, lanceolate,
elliptic, oblong or orbicular, acute. Flowers dioecious, greenish, in umbels. Berries globose,
green, 1-3 seeded.
Use: Root (red variety, 2 inches long) crushed with Piper nigrum L. fruit (10-15
numbers) is taken once daily to cure gonorrhoea.
46. Sterculia urens Roxb. (Sterculiaceae) 'Gindel', Ramkhol-255
A deciduous tree; trunk erect. Leaves crowded at the tips of branches. Flowers
yellow. Follicles covered with stinging bristles.
Use: Gum (10-15g) is soaked in water over night and is crushed. The paste obtained
is taken with sugar candy twice daily to cure dysentery.
47. Strychnos potatorum L. (Strychnaceae) 'Koya', Nrusinghnath-518
A medium- sized tree. Leaves simple, ovate, truncate at base, acute at apex. Flowers
white, in axillary cymes. Berries ovoid, bluish-black when ripe.
Use: Fruit is used as fish poison.
48. Tectaria cicutaria (L.) Copel. (Aspidiaceae) 'Rakat mahajal', Harishankar-621
Terrestrial fern. Stripes deep chestnut-brown, scales few, flattened. Lamina pinnatifid,
rarely bipinnate. Sori at the apex of the free veins.
Use: Root (2 inches long) is crushed with Piper nigrnm fruit (7 numbers) and the
paste (1 teaspoon) is taken once daily for 5 days to cure hyperacidity.
49. Tragia involucrata L. (Euphorbiaceae) 'Bichhati', Barhaguda-708
A hispid herb. Leaves ovate, oblong, serrate, acuminate, densely hirsute. Flowers
in leaf opposed to terminal racemes. Capsule globose, 3-lobed; seeds globose, purple black.
Use: Root (5-6gm) crushed with water is taken twice a day to cure indigestion.
50. Urginea indica (Roxb.) Kunth (Liliaceae) 'Banpiaj', 'Kander', Nrusinghnath-485
Bulbous herb; bulb tunicate. Leaves linear, flat, acute. Flowers racemed, bracteate,
appearing much before the leaves. Capsule narrowly ovoid-oblong, coriaceous, 3-quetrous.
Use: Bulb of this plant is hung at the entrance of the house to prevent entry of
evil spirit.
51. Vitex negundo L. (Verbenaceae) 'Nirguni', Ramkhol-369
A large shrub. Leaves 3-5 foliate; leaflets lanceolate, acuminate. Flowers bluish-
white, in pedunculate cymes. Drupes globose, black.
Use: Leaves are crushed with a little salt and applied on the affected part to cure
dental carries.
52. Vitex peduncularis Wall. ex Schauer (Verbenaceae) 'Chadeigudi', Harishankar-475
A medium-sized tree. Leaves 3-foliate, often winged; leaflets sessile, elliptic, elliptic-
oblong, entire or serrate, acuminate. Flowers white with yellow palate, in cymes. Drupes
obovoid.
Use: Leaf paste is taken twice a day to cure discharge of blood in urine.
53. Ventilago madraspatana Gaertn. (Rhamnaceae) 'Keinti', Ramkhol-521
A large climbing shrub; branchlets pubescent. Leaves simple, elliptic of ovate-
lanceolate, subacute at base, entire, acute or acuminate at apex. Flowers pale yellow, in
terminal panicles. Fruit a samaroid nut.
Use: Seed oil is applied externally to cure itches and scabies.
54. Wendlandia heynei (Roem. & Schult.) Sant. & Merch. (Rubiaceae) 'Tilai', Harishankar-
543
A small tree; bark light brown. Leaves elliptic, elliptic-oblong, acuminate, hoary-
tomentose, base acute. Flowers white, in terminal, branched, panicles. Capsule, globose,
pubescent.
Use: Bark (5gm) is crushed with Piper nigrum fruit (15 numbers) and is taken once in
empty stomach as an antifertility drug.
55. Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz. (Lythraceae) 'Dhatki', Ramkhol-396
A mush-branched shrub leaves simple, ovate-Ianceolate, acuminate. Flowers reddish-
orange in axillary panicled cymes. Capsules ellipsoid.
Use: Flower is crushed to paste and is applied on wound for quick healing.
56. Xanthium indicum Koenig (Asteraceae) 'Kanthu', Barhaguda-391
A small herb; stem stout, terete. Leaves ovate-triangular, long petioled, toothed
scabrid and hispid. Head unisexual, monoecious, globose in axillary and terminal short
racemes. Achenes 2, oblong-ovoid, compressed, glabrous, black.
Use: Root paste (3-5gm) with honey is taken once daily to cure leucorrhoea.
57. Ziziphus oenoplia (L.) Mill. (Rhamnaceae) 'Bagh-ampra', Nrusinghnath-426
A straggling thorny shrub; trunk armed. Leaves obliquely ovate or ovate-Ianceolate,
entire or crenate, acute or acuminate. Flowers small, in axillary sessile, dichotomous cymes.
Drupe black, globose.
Use: Root paste is applied on the affected part to cure hydrocoel.
58. Ziziphus rugosa Lamk. (Rhamnaceae) 'Hadkankali', Manbhang-461
A large armed shrub; young parts tomentose. Leaves elliptic, suborbicular, serrate.
Flowers greenish-yellow, in peduncled cymes arranged in large tomentose panicles.
Drupes globose or pyriform, stone thin-walled; seeds obovoid, turgid.
Use: Bark paste (5gm) with honey (5gm) is taken twice daily to cure muscular pain.
5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The present study has enumerated 58 plant species of ethnobotanical interest
belonging to 40 families. Among the 58 species two are ferns. Emphasis has been laid
on the method of preparation of drug, dosages on important diseases like rheumatism,
gynic disorders, jaundice, dysentery, piles, constipation, fever, dental problem, skin
disease, contraceptive and antiferlity. The plant species reported here may be used as fast-
aid medicine but with the advice of an experienced herbal medicine practitioner. This
study recommends a thorough and in-depth clinical study of those plants, which are used
as medicine. Among the tribals, traditional beliefs and practices are deep-rooted. The
tribals believe that many problems arise due to evil spirits. People suffer from diseases
and sometimes they are faced with social problems as well. As a result, they contact the
traditional healers like Jhankar, Desari, Dehuri Guniyan and Jani having knowledge to
fight evil spirits. Besides prescribing medicines mostly prepared from plants, they also
perform mantra-tantra or hymn for witch craft to fight evil spirits.
Apart from this, during the field survey it was noticed that the distribution of several
important plant species like Alangium salvifolium, Ehretia laevis, Euphorbia fusiformis,
Gloriosa superba, Ixora pavetta, Lygodium flexuosum, Oroxylum indicum, Stnjchnos potatorum,
Tectaria cicutaria, Tragia involucrata, Vitex peduncularis, Wendlandia heynei are rare species
in this part of Orissa. Therefore, it is highly essential to monitor such rare and valuable
plants to prevent them from extinction. Appropriate care should also be taken by the local
inhabitants and NGOs to save these plants. Moreover, protective measures should be
implemented strictly by the central and state government so that indiscriminate over-
exploitation of the valuable plants may be checked.
6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are thankful to Mr N. B. Pradhan, Retired Reader in Botany and
Pareswar Sahu, Department of Botany, Panchayat College, Bargarh for their kind help
and suggestions. The authors are also thankful to the informants for sharing valuable
information reported in this paper and the forest officials for their help during the survey.
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Jain, S.K (1987) A Manual of Ethnobotany. Scientific Publications, Jodhpur, India.
Joshi, S. G. (2006) Medicinal Plants. (Repn. Edn.). Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New
Delhi, India.
Kirtikar, K R & Basu, B. D. (1991) Indian Medicinal Plants. 4 vols. (Repn. Edn.). Lalit Mohan
Basu, Allahabad, India.
Mishra, R.C (2004) Therapeutic uses of some seeds among the tribals of Gandhamardan hill range,
Orissa. Indian J. Trad. Knowledge 3 (I.): 105-115.
Mishra, RC, Panda, P.C & Das, P. (19q4) Lesser known medicinal uses of plants among the
tribals of Gandhamardan hill range, Orissa. Higher plants of Indian subcontinent (Additional
Series of Indian Journal of Forestry No.VI) 3: 135-142.
Panigrahi, G. (1963) Gandhamardan Parbat, Orissa - A potential source of important indigenous
drugs. Bull. Reg. Res. Lab., Jammu 1:111-116.
Panigrahi, G., Choudhury, S., Raju, D.CS. & Deka, G. K. (1964) A contribution to the botany
of Orissa. Bull. Bot. Sum India 6(2-4): 237-266.
Paul, T.K. & Mudgal, V. (1985) Unreported medicinal uses of some plants recorded from the tribals
of Koraput (Orissa). Bull. Bot. Sum India 26(1-4): 69-71.
Pradhan, N. B., Pradhan, R. N., Sen, S. K & Sahu, P. (1999) Some threatened noteworthy medicinal
plants of Bargarh district (Orissa). Neo Botanica 7: 97-100
Satpathy, KB. & Panda, P.C (1992) Medicinal uses of some plants among the tribals of Sundargarh
District, Orissa. J.Econ. Tax. Bot. Addl. Ser 10: 241-249.
Saxena, H.D. & Dutta, P.K (1975) Studies on the ethnobotany of Orissa. Bull. Bot. Suro. India
17(1-4): 124-131.
Sen, S.K. & Behera, L. M. (2000) Ethnomedicinal plants used against jaundice at Bargarh district
in Orissa. Adv. Plant Sci. 13:329-330.
Sen, S.K. & Behera, L. M. (2001) Ethnomedicinal plants used against diabetes at Bargarh district
in Orissa. Bull. Bot. Sum India 43: 195-197.
Sen, S.K. & Behera, L. M. (2003) Ethnomedicinal plants used against skin diseases at Bargarh
district in Orissa (India). Ethnobotany 15: 90-96.
Sen, S.K. & Behera, L. M. (2005) Cordia macleodii (Ehretiaceae) : A wonderful wound healer-A
case study at Bargarh District in Orissa. Ethnobotany 17: 90-96.
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Orissa. Adv. Plant Sci. 12(1): 207-213.
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Orissa, Bhubaneswar.
DOD
ETHNOBOTANICAL SURVEY IN WEST RARRH
FOR NATURAL HEALTHCARE AND
GREEN BELT MOVEMENT
ASHIS GHOSH
Chapter Outline
1. Introduction
3. Results and discussion
4. Summary
5. References
1. INTRODUCTION
The hill tribes and aborignials of west Rarrh are the Gonds, Kols, Mahali, Puraons
Sabar (Kheria), Lodha, Munda, Santal, Oraon, Mahali, Bhumij, Mech and Bedia etc. The
west Rarrh of W. Bengal mainly constituted the districts of Murshidabad, Bardwan,
Birbhum, Bankura, Purulia and Midnapore. It is the extended part of Chhotonagpur
plateau. The forests are distributed roughly in a triangle with the base running north
and south, from the tip of Birbhum district to the southern part of Midnapore district.
Forest lie scattered in small patches between latitude 21 75' to 24 33'N and longitudes
85 70' to 87 80'E. Here the hills are relict type. The remarkable hills are Beharinath
and Sushunia lie among Bankura district. The forests are in the laterite soil through
which main rivers like Ajay, Maurakshi, Damodar, Shilabati etc. run roughly west to
east fall into Hoogly while the Subarnarekha flows independently and fall into the Bay
of Bengal. In west Rarrh three types of soil (alluvial, red and laterite) are present. The
dominant trees in the forest are Shorea robusta Gaertn. f, Madhuca indica Gmelin, Terminalia
chebula Retz., Terminalia belliriea (Gaertn.) Roxb. etc.The denuded or blank areas have
been afforested chiefly by Eucalyptus globosus, Tectona grandis Lf, Acacia auriculiformis
A. Cunn. etc.
Basically dominance of hot and humid climate alongwith a short duration of winter
(December to January). Temperature reaches its maximum upto 39.45C (in average) in
ETHNOBOTANICAL SURVEY IN WEST RARRH 333
the month of May and lowers down in the month of January upto 12.57C, South west
monsoon is the chief source of rains. Rainfall continues from the June to September.
Major crops of this region are rice, maize, groundnut, potato etc.
The total population of West Rarrh of West Bengal is 2,1967823 of which population
of schedule tribes (ST) are 1,940 842 (Census-1991). Bhumij, Lodhas, Kherias, Mundas,
Mahalies, Santa Is generally build small huts. Catching fish, crabs etc. by bamboo traps,
nets, and palm fibers and creepers like Ichnocdrpus frutescens (L.) RBr. and also by
different poisonous plants like Euphorbia, Antiquorum etc. Beside catching of tortoise,
iguana, rat-snake, bat, squirrel, larva of red ants, cocoons is the general practices of
the tribals. Tribals prepare traditional craft like bamboo based combs, basket, weaving
of mats and brooms of different plants.
Lodha, Sabar and Munda etc. have their some own traditional peculiarities such
as the mother is given some Kurthi water (Dolichos bijlorus L.) just after her delivery.
It is then both the new born baby and the mother are bathed in turmeric water (Curcuma
Zonga L.) on the 9th day.
Plants have been used as a source of medicine for living beings from ancient times.
According to an estimate of WHO, approximately 80% of the people in developing
countries rely chiefly on traditional medicines for primary healthcare. Ethnomedicinal
surveys help mankind to search and develop new cures to treat various ailments. The
inhabitants of those districts have rich heritage particularly in relation to plant utility.
The region was largely untapped from this point of view. The present author, therefore,
initiated in-depth studies on this line (Ghosh 2002, 2003). The present communication
focussed some more plant species from this region.
Field study was carried out between the years 2001-2003. Information on foJk-
medicinal use of plant was obtained through interview enquiring local plant name, parts
used, other ingredients added (if any), method of preparation and mode of administration
etc. for each species. Samples of all folk drugs were collected, preserved and housed
in the herbarium of the institution. The ethnomedical information is presented in tabular
form (Table-1).
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Locally available plants are used by the people as their household remedies. The
data has been accrued from the tribal and rural people of the 7 districts which still
find place in their traditional therapy. However, isolution of active principles and
pharmacological investigations are desired to validate the claims of the traditional
healers. This may provide new sources of herbal drugs. The formulation of these effective
phyto-medicines should be encouraged for their sustainable uses. Information for
treating a particular aliment from different informants certainly reflects the accuracy
and authenticity of the folk drugs employed.
The villages of the region are rich in ethno-medicine knowledge owing to their
close affinity with the surrounding plant cover. They obtain a variety of plant products
from wild plants to fulfill their own needs as they are economically weaker sections
TABLE tIJ
~
Ethnomedicinal plants of Rarrh (West Bengal)
Ailments Local name Botanical name & family Parts used Recipe Administration
Malignant tumour Sasha Cucumis sativus L. Fruit One fresh fruit Consumed raw once daily
(Cucurbitaceae) (100 gm) to prevent cancer.
Bilati Begun Lycopersicum esculenum Fruit Fruit Consumed raw
Mill. (Solanaceae)
Snake's bite (Boas) Kantal Artocarpus heterophyllus Pedunele Juice Fed 1 cup juice thrice daily
Lamk. {Moraceae) immediately after bite
Snake bite lswamul Aristolochia indica L. Bark, root Juice Fed to the human and
{Aristolochiaceae) cows 1/2 cup juice twice
daily till cure
Food poison Arimed Acada leucophloea (Roxb.) Bark or latex Juice Fed it immediately
Willd. (Mimpsaceae)
Blood vomiting Berela Sida cordifolia L. Root, leaf Paste Fed it immediately
(Malvaceae)
Accumulation of fat Nishinda Vitex negundo L. Leaf Juice One teaspoonful fed daily
(Verbenaceae) for 45 days alongwith few
drops of lemon (lime) juice
Accumulation of fat Mangustan Cardnia mangostena L. Leaf, husk Juice One tea spoonful fed daily
(Guttiferae) for 30 days
Pain in teeth Gorap - Begun Solanum virginianum L. Root Fresh root Grind the root by the
(toothache) (Solanaceae) affected teeth
Anti-fertility Nagdona Artimisia vulgaris L. Leaf, root Crushed and 10 tablet in each cycle
(Asteraceae) made into claimed to be contraceptive
tablet
Impotence Shialkanta Argemone mexicana_ L. Seed, plant Crushed seed, 5 gm paste taken daily for
(papaveraceae) latex with its latex 30 days to cure >
fIl
Blood dysentery I Ramdatan Smilax indica {Liliaceae) Root Juice Drunk 1/2 cup juice twice :=
....
fIl
Diarrhoeal Night Ulatkambal Abroma augusta L. Root Juice daily till cure
wetting (Sterculiaceae) Drunk 1/2 cup juice once daily ~
:=
0
fIl
Contd... :=
...Contd.
~
:=
Ailments Local name Botanical name & family Parts used Recipe Administration Z
0
Wasp bite B..'1ichi Flacourtia indica_(Burm. f.) Stem, bark Fresh bark Bark chewed and =
S
Alopecia / Boils/
Wounds
Karanj
Merr. (Flacourtiaceae)
Caesalpinia crista L
(Caesalpiniaceae)
Seed Oil extracted
from seeds.
swallowed
Hair, boils and wounds
smeared with oil till cure
-
>
Z
n
>
I"'
Blood Sugar Karanj Caesalpinia crista L Leaf Crushed 10 Fed to the patient CIl
c::
(Caesalpiniaceae) leaves and Once daily for 7 days ~
made into ~
Dandruff / Premature Sikaki Acacia concinna DC. Leaf, seed

paste
Juice Regular external
-
Z
hair greying (Leguminosae) applications administered. ~

Ul
Mis-carriage i) Anantamul Hemidesmus indicus_R.Br. Root 21/2 gm roots Administered to the patient ~
ii) Daruchini
(Asclepiadaceae)
Cinnamomum zeylanica
of anantamul once a day for 7 days ~
:=
Bark and 2 gm of :=
Breyn. (Lauraceae) daruchini :=
boiled in a
glass of cow's
milk
Acene Ayapan Eupatorium ayapana Vent. Leaf Juice Externally apply on the
(Asteraceae) face
Alopecia Datura Datura metel L. Leaf Juice Smear the juice in head for
(Solanaceae) 30 minutes
Acne/ Alopecia i) White Brassica campestris L. Seed Both seeds (1:1 Externally applied on head
Sarisha (Brassicaceae) ratio) crushed and face
and made into
paste
ii) Til Sesamum indicum DC. Seed
(pedaliaceae)
Miliaria rubra Anantamul Hemidesmus indicus_R.Br. Root Juice Smear on the body
(Asclepiadaceae)
tIJ
Contd ... ~
tI)
... Contd. tI)
a'I
t
Kidney stone Mashkalai Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper. Cotyleden Infusion A cup of infusion drunk at
(papilionaceae) morning
Food poison Iswarmul Aristolochia indica L Bark, root Juice Fed to the cows
(Aristolochiaceae)
Diarrhoea Swarnalata Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Stem Juice Fed to the cows thrice daily
(Cuscutaceae) till curl.
Cut Bherenda Jatropha curcas L. Latex Fresh Latex Latex smeared on the
(Euphorbiaceae) wound
Cut Kamini Murraya paniculata (L.) Leaf Powder Apply powder to check
Jack (Rutaceae) bleeding.
Weak nerve Pan Piper betle L. (piperaceae) Leaf Green leaves Fed one raw leaf daily
alongwith honey for 30
days.
Louse infestation Bach Acorus calamus L. Rhizome Infusion Applied infusion in affected
(Araceae) parts
Diabetes Currypata Murraya koenigii (L.) Leaf Fresh leaves Fed 10 leaflets once daily
Spreng. (Rutaceae) before lunch
Infertility Bon-dhenros Malachra capitata L. Fruit Fresh fruit Fed to the patient 5 raw
(Malvaceae) fruits daily .during
menstrual period for 3
months
Ashma Dayalu flower Aeroa lanata (L.) Schult Flower with Juice Drunk the 5 ml juice with
(Amaranthaceae) leaf few drops of honey for one
month
Infertility Swet-Iajjabati Mimosa pudica L. Root Juice Drunk one tea spoonful
(Mimosaceae) juice along with a pepper
>
fIl
=:
.....
Swet-aparajita Clitoria ternnatea L. Root Juice for 20 days fIl
(Caesalpineae) Do ~
=:
0
Contd ... fIl
=:
...Contd. rTf
;!
Ailments Local name Botanical name & family Parts used Recipe Administration Z
0
Low blood-pressure Bon-kalmi Ipomoea paniculata R.Br. Leaf Juice Drunk 1/2 cup juice once =
~
Enlargement of-Liver/ Bon-charal
(Convolvulaceae)
Desmodium gyrans DC. Leaf Juice
daily for 15 days
Drunk 2 spoonful juice ...n~
Dim sighted (Fabaceae) daily >
I'""
Small pox Swet Kantikari Solanum virginianum L Aerial part Crushed and 2 dry tablets consumed U'J
C
(Solanaceae) made into daily for 7 days as an ~
...Z~
paste antidote both in human
and cow
Hydrophobia i) Bans Bambusa vulgaris_ Schrad. Root Crushed in Orally use and externally
(Poaceae) (1:1) ratio. applied on the wound as ~
an antidote ~
ii) Ankar Alangium salviifolium (L:f.) Root ~
Wang. (Alangiaceae) ~
Snake bite Barachadar Rauvolfia canescens L. Root Juice Drunk the 10ml juice and "::r::
(Apocynaceae) also smear the juice in the
wound.
Blood sugar Barachadar Rauvolfia canescens L. Root Juice Fed to patient along with
(Apocynaeae) Terminalia arjuna bark.
Gulmar, Gymmema sylvestre R. Br. Leaf, fruit Juice Drunk 5 ml Juice once
Diabetes Meshsringi (Asclepiadaceae) daily for 30 days before
lunch.
Constipation Golmorich Piper nigrum L. Fruit Powder Powder mixed in a cup of
(Piperaceae) lukewarm water drunk at
night.
Flatulence Kul Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk. Leaf Paste Paste rubbed on abdomen.
(Rhamnaceae)
High Bilirubin BhuiAmla Phyllantltus amarus Entire plant Juice Drunk 5 ml. juice once
Schumach & Thonn. daily for 10 days before
(Euphorbiaceae) lunch.
~
~
Contd ... 'I
...Contd. til
til
(X)
Jaundice Chichinga Trichosanthes anguina L. Leaf, seed Juice Drunk 5ml Juice once daily
(Curcurbitaceae) for 7 days
Bedsore Nishinda Vitex negundo L. Leaf Paste Smear in affected region
(Verbenaceae)
Alopecia i) Ghritakumari Aloe vera L. Intact leaf juice Methi Seeds Smear the decoction of
(Liliaceae) germinated in germinated seeds
leal Juice alongwith coconut oil
ii) Methi Trigonella foenum-graecum Seed Seed
L. {Fabaceael Juice
Burn, Rough skin Ghritakumari Aloe vera L. (Liliaceae) Fresh leaf Juice Juice Smear in skin
Epilepsy Shet Karabi Neirium indicum Mill. Root Juice Drunk 5 ml juice once daily
(Apocynaceae) for 15 days
ETHNOBOTANICAL SURVEY IN WEST RARRH 339
of the society. In the tribal areas the rules and regulations by which the tribal people
have been traditionally governed are now being gradually abolished by the young
literature generations. Another crucial factor responsible for such change is the migration
of youth from tribal areas to urban areas. This gap is further widened the adoption
of modern medicine.Therefore, the importance of recording indigenous knowledge base
related technology as described here become essential in view of rapid socio-economic
and cultural changes and for high tech low cost solution. Religious and cultural faith,
poor economy and lack of modern medical facilities in these villages seem to be the
cause of utilisation of these plants. While conducting the survey the inhabitant revealed
that most of the people were dependent on plants and they also preferred it, although
the preparing methods are known only to local faith healers. Due to rapid increase in
human population and biotic interference, some specious are dwindling from their
natural habitats. It is , therefore, imperative that green medicines of the aborigines which
are still in vogue should be documented for obvious reasons.
4. SUMMARY
Traditional methods of treating human afflictions using plant drugs are obtained
from tribal and rural folks in West Rarrh region, West Bengal. A total of 48 plant species
belonging to 31 families of angiosperms are employed by the inhabitants in the form
oa infusion, decoction, oil, paste, latex etc. either as a sole drug or in combination. The
dose/ s, duration and method of administration are given alongwith correct botanical
name, family, part! product used and local plant names. The folk uses however require
further modern laboratory testing.
REFERENCES
Ghosh, A. (2002) Ethnoveterinary medicines from the tribal areas of Bankura and Medinipur
districts, West Bengal, lJTK 1: 93-95
Ghosh, A. (2003) Herbal folk remedies of Bankura and Medinipur districts, West Bengal. IJ.T.K
2 :393-396.
Jain, S.K. (1991) Dictionary of Folk Medicine and Ethnobotany. Deep Publications, New Delhi,
India.
000
ETHNOBOTANY IN CHHATTISGARH (INDIA)
A GRAPHIC REVIEW AND FUTURE
DIRECTIONS
AMIA TIRKEY
Chapter Outline
1. Introduction
2. Analysis of papers
3. Gaps in work and future directions
4. Summary
5. Acknowledgements
6. Refefences
1. INTRODUCTION
The sea-horse shaped Chhattisgarh state come into existence on 1st November 2000
by the Bill "Madhya Pradesh Reorganisation Act. 2000" passed in the parliament. Until
then it was a part of Madhya Pradesh state. It is situated between 17046' to 2405' North
latitude and 8015' to 8426' east longitude. It measures 360 km from North to South
and 140 kms, from West to East, comprising an area about 135194 sq.km, which is about
4.14% of India's total land area and 30% of its parent state "Madhya Pradesh". The
southeastern districts of Madhya Pradesh, viz., Bastar, Bilaspur, Dantewara, Dhamtari,
Durg, Janjgir-Champa, Jashpur, Kanker, Kawardha, Korba, Koria, Mahasamund,
Rajnandgaon, Raigarh, Raipur, Sarguja etc. form Chhattisgarh. This state is surrounded
by Orissa and Jharkhand on the East, Uttar Pradesh on the North, Madhya Pradesh
and Maharastra, on the West and Andra Pradesh on the South. Geographically a large
part of Chhattisgarh lies in the valley of rivers Mahanadi and Sheonath. The eastern
part lies on the Chhota-Nagpur plateau and the southern part in the Deccan plateau.
Chhattisgarh is abundantly endowed with natural resources. Its dense forest cover
occupies about 41.42 percent of the area of the state with a number of wild life sanctuaries
populated by tigers, leopards, bears, bisons, hyenas, wild bears etc.
The state is rich for different tribes. According to the Census of 1991, the Scheduled
ETHNOBOTANY IN CHHATTISGARH (INDIA) 341
Caste people constitute about 12.19% of the total population and scheduled tribes are
about 32.46%. It is four times more than that of national figure (8%). In other words
it can be said that nearly every third person in the state is a tribal. The life style of
tribal people depends upon the land. Their sustenance depends on agriculture, hunting,
fishing, collection of forest products, bamboo work or labour of any kind. Scheduled
Castes viz., are Chikwa, Ghasi, Mahar, Chamar, Mehtar and Scheduled tribes are viz.,
Oraon, Agria, Bhil, Gond, Bhungia, Bharia, Kol, Khairwar, Korwa, Manjhi, Muria, Saharia
etc.
Ethnobotany, as an organised discipline of study in India, is rather young, just
about five decades old. The first bibliography of ethnobotany in India was published
in the early eighties Gain et ai., 1984). Since the eighties, however, emphasis has been
laid on more specific work on particular classes of indigenous uses, like plants in food,
medicine, other material culture and even faith tradition selected to conservation of
bioresources and on particular diseases or ethnic groups. A recent detailed bibliographic
work on Indian ethnobotany Gain 2002) has brought out certain facts and also trends
in research. The following analysis covers approximately the period 1902-2005. First book
published was one century year ago by Wood (1902) on plants of Chota-nagpur including
Jashpur and Surguja.
2. ANALYSIS OF PAPERS
These are 315 references listed in a recent "Bibliography of Ethnobotany of e.G.
state" (Minor research project submitted to IOE, Gwalior by Tirkey 2005). These references
relate strictly to ethnobotanical work or very closely allied themes on Chhattisgarh.
(A) ETHNIC GROUPS
Over 59 papers relate to specific ethnic groups. Studies on the different aspects of
Oraons (Sahu 1980, Sen 1965, Tirkey 1992, Das 1959, Danda 1977, Roy 1915,1928,2004)
c=::J
-I
Bharia
F==l
t:::::=J
Khairwar t:::::::J
1::::=:J
Abujhmaria
Kharia
Korwa 10 Series 11
Baiga
Maria
Oraon
0 2 4 6 8 10
Fig. 1 : Numbers of Ttitles on ethnic groups

342 AMIA TIRKEY
Baiga, Gond and Sahariya of central India (Brij La11993, Elwin 1958, Jain 1965, Grigson
1949, Jain A.K. 1990), Bhils (Koppers et al., 1948, Ranade 1956, Shrivastava 1985), Munda,
Nagas, Korwa, Khairwar (Basu 1932-33, Jamir 1990, Baghe11981, Bajpai 1997, Lakra 1997),
Maria, Pahariya and Kharia (Elwin 1943, 1947, Sahay 1966, Roy et al., 1937) and the
Abujhmaria and Bharia (Maheshwari 1989, 1985) have resulted in many publication
(Fig.1).
(B) ETHNOMEDICOBOTANY
Though a very little publication of papers on ethnomedicobotany deal with some
diseases. Only 12 kinds of ailments and injuries have been studied in 16 papers (Tirkey
et.al., 2004, 2000, Jain 1987, Brij, 1988) on some topical themes like indigestion, dysentery,
jaundice, bone fracture, rheumatism, ethnoveterinary, snake bite, skin disease and hair
problems (Fig.2).
1~=========:J
Kala-Aur
Antipyretic ========:::::::J
=========:J
I
CI
Antidabetic 't:1
j
Snake bite
Rheumetism ~=========:J
~=========:J
I~========:::::::J
Bone fracture
Jaundice
Dysentery J
IOSeries 11
Indigestion I~========:::::::J
Bhnoveterinary J~==================:J
Harr~~1================================~
Skin disease
oEE====~=============~~-----~
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Fig. 2 : Numbers of titles on diseases or properties
(C) REGIONAL COVERAGE

The districts / regions in Chhattisgarh on which 65 or more publications have
appeared are shown in Fig 3. This analysis is based on the name of district / tehsils
appearing in title and can be only approximate, because many papers mention names
of India and its parent state M.P.
A number of papers deal with dozens of families and some plant species of
ethnobotanical significance in any area. About 9 papers deal with only one or two
particular species in detail. Few plants like Mahua (Roy et. al., 1959), Polypleurum
dichotomum (Roy et. al., 1986), Water bottle Gain 1964), Bauhinia vahlii Gain et al., 1973),
Nyctanthus arbor - tristis Gain et al., 1964), and Elephantopus scaber (Kumar et al., 2002) have
been the subject of only one title.
About 28 families of flowering plants namely: Asteraceae, Mimosaceae, Aizoaceae,
Molluginaceae, Malvaceae Oleaceae, Burseraceae, Passifloraceae, Fabaceae, Leguminoseae,
Ulmaceae, Moraceae, Opiliaceae, Elacegnaceae, Verbenaceae, Araliaceae, Euphorbiaceae,
Polygonaceae, Cyperaceae, Commelinaceae, Orchidaceae, Ebenaceae, Convolvulaceae,
E11INOBOTANY IN CHHATTISGARH (INDIA) 343
rI!I Jashp~;--- -'

10Rajnandgaon
I-Ourg
IIl'IBiiaspur
leRaipur
_Raigarh
OSurguja
OBastar
31
Fig. 3 : Numbers of titles on various region,IDist. of state
Hydrocharitaceae, Eriocaulaceae, Rosaceae, Rubiaceae, Bignoniaceae have known medicinal

plants of Chhattisgarh.
Fortunately, it is not only the Angiosperms which have attracted ethnobotanists,
other groups of plants have also received attention of ethnobotanists, e.g. Brij Lal et al.,
(1995,1985) on lichenos. Lal & Anand (1998) on Pteridophytes and Rai et al. (1992) on
fungus.
'UNTRODDEN PATHS'?
A few interesting publications describe the journeys of their authors into 'untrodden
paths', like Magico-religious beliefs about plants (Banerjee, 1974). A note on bidi leaf (Das
et al., 1963), Plants used as fish Poison (Kumar et al., 2003), Ghirra mahotsav (GoeI1990),
Musical instruments. (Elwin, 1955,a,b), Ranu- A tribal tablet (Chaudhuri et al., 1977),
Cottage industries Gain, 1995, Brijlal et al., 1993), Observations on some energy plants
(Singh et. al., 1999) Food plants Gain et al., 1990,1988, Rai 1925, Kumar 2003) short note
on tribal folk (Chattopadhyaya, 1954) and Toys of tribal children (Elwin, 1953).
WORKERS AND JOURNALS
All 315 references shows that about 110 persons, mostly botanists and usually
taxonomists, have been bublishing on ethnobotany in e.G. Published papers have
appeared in over one hundred periodicalS. Journal of Economic and Taxonomic Botany and
Ethnobotany have published over 100 papers each during the period under review; other
notable journalS in this respect are Economic Botany , Ancient science of life, Bulletin of
Botanical Survey of India, Bulletin of Medicoethnobotanical Research, And Journal of
Ethnophannacology.
3. GAPS IN WORK AND FUTURE DIRECfIONS
Finally, the analysis brings out certain lacunae and possible directions for future
work. On the basis of literature Bastar district and Surguja districts are particularly rich
in plant diversity, including land races and wild relatives of crop plants. They are alSo
home of varied ethnic groups. Yet, studies on these hilly regions have not been adequate;
344 AMIA TIRKEY
e.g. there are only about a dozen papers. Very little work has been done on district
like Raigarh, Jashpur, Durg, Rajnandgaon, Raipur and Bilaspur. Rest of 8 districts have
been not touched at all.
Many important aspects of ethnobotany on which botanists, anthropologists,
agriculture scientists, geographers and other naturalists are working and pubishing in
other parts of the India, are hardly being studied in Chhattisgarh. Some such topics or
themes desired are mentioned below :
1. The impact of use of one or few specific plants for food, medicine, music, dyes,
gums, house-building or other needs and trade on the population of these
species or on biodiversity and ecosystem of the region;
2. The impact of faith and taboos associated with certain plants or sacred groves
on conservation of those species and on the ecosystem and other conservation
practices of the folk;
3. The concept of the folk about taxonomy of various kinds of plants of their
surroundings, e.g. any notable system of classification into small or large groups,
comparable in any manner with botanical families, genera or other taxa, and
any expression of such knowledge in local names of plants;
4. Any discernible gender, age, occupa.tion or other demarcations among the folk
relating to knowledge about plants of their vicinity;
5. Tribal arts like painting, tatooing and artifacts; many of the latter can be
developed into cottage industries for souvenies, etc. and bring socia-economic
benefits,
6. More tribe and plant specific studies.
Alcorn (1995) studied the writings of several ethnobotanists in developing countries
relating specially to problems of socioeconomic development. She laid emphasis on the
question: What good is this plant? If this question can become the focus of field workers,
the interviews, the data, and the intreprectations of ethnobotanical researches can become
still more meaningful. The planners do need data on such natural wealth of a region,
which can become an economic resource, directly or after some improvement and
processing. Of particular interest and use in this respect should be critical studies and
the way the local folk attempt to manage them.
4. SUMMARY
This article reviews ethnobotany in Chhattisgarh state covering approximately the
period 1902-2005. During this period about 315 publications have appeared on ethnobotany
of e.G. and closely bordering topics. Papers have been published in about 50 journals
in India and abroad. Some 110 persons have been writing on ethnobotanical themes ;
most of these are plant taxonomists. Work has been published on over 16 ethnic groups.
Only three or four ethnic groups have been the subject of more than five publications.
Only two districts Bastar & Surguja have been well covered. Rest of the districts have
been little worked or not worked at all. Ethnomedicine for over 12 diseases/ ailments
and injuries figure in titles of papers. Based on this analysis, certain themes and areas
are suggested for more intensive work.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The autor thanks the HOD, School of Life Sciences, Pt. R.S.U., Raipur for facilities
provided. She expresses her thanks to Dr.S.K. Jain for his cooperation, moral support,
inspiration, affection and timely encouragement and the Director NBRI, Lucknow for
providing their kind help and library staff, finally, gratefully express her sincere thanks
to Dr.Asok Jain, Hon. Director, 10E, Jiwaji University, Gwalior for financial support.
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000
NEEM (AZADIRACHTA INDICA
A. JUSS.) : A PANACEA
M.V. PATIL, SHUBHANGI PAWAR AND D.A. PATIL
Chapter Outline
1. Introduction
2. Methodology adapted
3. Discussion
4. Summary
5. References
1. INTRODUCTION
Intimate relationship and familiarity with bio-resources has become an integral
part of our traditions. Man, from his early times, thought the plants as his partners
in collective management of the plant-wealth. Even he worshiped and respected them.
Realizing this significance of traditional knowledge, the recently modified Convention
on Biological Diversity lime-lighted their traditions. This also helped aware about our
cultural practices, life-styles, economic measures and customary uses. This, in turn,
enforced the biologists to look at plants and animals as sources of genes and chemicals
for his benefit.
There are very few plants which are held in great reverence. For example, Coconut
tree in tropical coasts, Baobab tree in Africa and Mulberry tree in China are named
/regarded as 'Tree of Heaven' (Kalpa Vriksh), 'Tree of Life' or 'Tree of Abundance'.
To date, Neem (Azadirachta indica AJuss.) has not been revered so, although it has
attained similar status. A review of literature, even in bird's eyeview, indicates that every
part of it is used by Indian society for various needs. Although so, it is patented by
a non-Indian in US, which is an eye opener instance for scientific community, nay, for
entire Indian nation. This patent taught a lesson that traditional knowledge can be
patented, if some value addition has been made to it. These circumstances attracted
NEEM (AZADIRACHTA INDICA A. JUSS.) : A PANACEA 349
the attention of the present authors to shed light on the traditional knowledge, especially
on ethnomedicine of this much discussed tree species.
2. METHOD ADAPTED
Authors have tried to gather information particularly for Neem plant especially
focusing traditional/folk medicines from Indian territory. It covers medicines for
both - human and livestock. The result of our literature surveys is tabulated in the
Table 1 and 2 with respect to part/product used, recipe, application, disease treated
and literature source.
3. DISCUSSION
In Latin, scientific name for 'Neem' is coined as Azadirachta indica. Its generic name
'Azadirachta' originated, in Arabic language, Azad-Dhirakat, meaning free growing, noble
tree. Its specific epithet 'indica' suggests its nativity as India. This tree species has varied
uses in Indian culture. It is a multipurpose species. Still it was/is not referred as
'Kalpavriksh'. It offered a large number uses as shown in Table-I & II. The traditional
knowledge of Indian society when hammered upon scientific anvil, it turned out one of
the important species for mankind. Although, majority of these uses/ applications were/
are in vogue, the modern scientific researches gave explanation for its wide applicability.
It is the modern science that brought name/fame globally for this noble tree.
There has been a great appreciation and awareness about investigation on traditional
therapeutics to search out the leads for modern drugs during last few decades. It is also
to be noted that the long traditions and accumulated wisdom appear transmitted into
well classified systems. For example, curcumine (Curcuma longa), psoarlons (Psoralia
corylifolia), guggulsterone (Commiphora wightil), reserpine (Rauvolfia serpentina), berberimec
(Berberis aristata) etc. The 'Neem' is not lagging in this regard. It is also rich in azadirachtin.
All these sprung from traditional folklores.
It has became now obvious that information from traditional societies has played
a vital role in the discovery of novel products from plants as chemotherapeutic agents.
The traditional uses of Neem clearly warrant the potentiality for few more drug discovery.
Some have been already revealed by recent researches.
The great sages exploited the folk medicines of those days to enrich the Ayurvedic
system. Thus they are responsible for the symbiotic relationship between Indian system
of medicine like Ayurveda and folk medicine. The traditional knowledge of tribal'Ezhavas'
of Kerala is integrated with Ayurveda. This is written in their regional language, e.g.
'Yogamrithnam' written by Uppot Kannan, 'Oushadhi Nighantu' by Thayyil Kumaran
Krishnan, 'Keralaramam' by Itty and Achuthan (cf. Rajasekaran et al., 1996). This may
be also the case of drugs of Neem mentioned in Ayurvedic literature which are so deeply
rooted in Indian societies. Our review related particularly to Indian folk/ traditional
medicine brought out state of the art. The bark is used for about 58 diseases, leaves for
about 84 diseases, flowers for about 20 diseases, fruits for about 19 disease, seeds for
about 40 and twigs or entire plants for about 28 diseases. The neem products like cake,
toddy, gum, sap etc. are used for about 13 diseases, apart from its uses as adhesive,
agricultural implements, house and hut construction, crop protection manure, cattle feed
350 M.V. PATIL, SHUBHANGI PAWAR AND D.A. PATIL
TABLE 1
Indian folk medicine for human-beings
(A) Bark
Sr. Recipe & Application Disease Source of Literature
No. (If anl)
1. Decoction Malarial fever Sai Prasad Goud et al., 2000
2. Bark powder mixed with Scabies, ring worms Satpathy and Brahmam,
turmeric powder applied over 2000
body
3. Juice Diabetes Dash and Misra, 2000
4. Juice with cow milk Diabetes Panda and Das, 2000
5. Infusion Headache Saren et al., 2000
6. Bark ash mixed with coconut oil, Scabies Saren et al., 2000
Paste applied on body
7. Extractor infusion To regulate Saren et al., 2000
Menstruation
8. Powder or infusion Diarrhoea Saren et al., 2000
9. Dried powder taken orally Cough and cold Nargas and Trivedi, 2000
10. Paste applied on body Elephantasis, backache, Nargas and Trivedi, 2000
joint pains
11. Powder given orally Cough, cold, dog bite Singh and Pandey, 1998
12. Bark powder mixed with milk Pimples Pawar and Patil, 2007
applied on face
13. Decoction Stomach-ache Pawar and Patil, 2007
14. Decoction Stomach-ache Pawar and Patil, 2007
15. Extract Chronic fever Hussain et al., 2000
16. Extract Skin disease, leprosy Hussain et al., 2000
17. Powder Skin disease, boils, Jain,1991.
tonic, also shows
antifertility activity
18. Infusion Abdominal pain, Marie D'Souza, 1993
Diarrhoea, Purification
of blood, Headache
19. Slits of inner white bark Cures sore eyes Marie D'Souza, 1993
bandaged on eyes at bed-time
20. Infusion Regulates menstruation Marie D'Souza, 1993
21. Ash mixed with coconut oil, Cures scabies Marie D'Souza, 1993
paste applied on body
22. Juice of root bark and fruits Fever, debility, nausea, Watt, 1889-1895
vomiting, skin diseases
23. Stem bark Skin diseases Anonymous, 1948-1976
24. Infusion/ Decoction Liver disorders, Chatterjee, 1994.
malaria, pyresis,
dyspepsia, debility,
skin diseases,.
25. Bark Fever, syphilitic Sores Vartak and Ghate, 1990
26. Bark applied as ointment Cures skin diseases Shah et al., 1983
27. Juice mixed with cow milk Diabetes Das and Misra, 1988
Contd ...
... Contd.
No. (If any)
28. Paste Wounds, skin disease Shekhawat and Anand,
1984.
29. Bark Bitter tonic, astringent, Anand Kumar et al., 198C
alteative, antiperiodic,
anthelmintic,
antispasmodic and
stimulant
30. Bark Jaundice Rao, 1981
31. Bark Antipyretic, blood, Data, 1994
purifying agent,
paralysis and liver
complaints
32. Extract Inflammatory stomatitis Lorenz, 1976
in children
33. Extract given after menstruation Contraceptive Pal and Jain, 1998
period as contraceptive
34. Root bark Syphilis Pal and Jain, 1998
35. Root Bark Fever Pal and Jain, 1998
36. Decoction with honey Irregular menses, Beg et ai., 2006
diarrhoea
37. Bark ash with coconut oil Scabies, ulcer wounds Beg et aI., 2006
38. Bark extract Boils, pimples Soma-Sen and Batra, 1997
39. Bark, leaves and roots of Epileptic attacks Kaushal Kumar and Goe~
Cissampelos pareira L. and 1998
Aristolochia indica L. are crushed
and extract drop in nostrils.
40. Bark Ulcers, inflammation, D'Rozario et al., 2004
leprosy, blood
complaints, urinary
discharges, fever, skin
diseases, amenorrhoea,
and as contraceptive
41. Root bark decoction Fever and as tonic D'Rozario et aI., 2004
42. Decoction of root bark Rheumatism, fever Nagendra Prasad et al.,
1996
43. Powder, extract or decoction of Intermittent fever, Nadnkarni,2000
bark malarial fever, relieves
thirst, nausea and
vomiting, fever, general
debility, convalescence
after fevers, loss of
appetite, skin diseases.
44. Bark ash with coconut oil Chronic, septics, ulcers. Patil and Patil, 2005
45. Paste, applied over affected part Gives relief from scabies Patil and Bhaskar, 2006
at night
'(B) Leaves
Sr. Recipe &: Application Disease Source of Literature
No. (If any)
1. Juice given orally Against snake-bite Painula and Maheshwari,

19%
2. Decoction applied externally Against snake-bite Anand Kumar, 1996
3. Paste applied Boils Hosagouder and Henry,
19%
4. Paste applied Chicken-pox Hosagouder and Henry,
1996
5. Leaf paste with turmeric powder Scabies Hosagouder and Henry,
1996
6. Juice-two spoon taken internally Scabies Mishra et al., 1996
7. Decoction Work infection and Singh, et al., 1996
stomach pain
8. Juice Blood purification, Siwakoti and Siwakoti,
intestinal worms, 2000
wounds, sores, blisters
and skin diseases
9. Paste mixed with pepper Diabetes Rana et al., 2000
powder
10. Extract and seed oil Hypoglycaemic activity Rana et al., 2000
11. Decoction Scabies Singh,2ooo
12 Poultice Boils Singh, 2000
13. Decoction Dermatitis Dash and Misra, 2000
14. Juice Stomachic Banerjee, 2000
15. Slurry Fever in infants Saren et al., 2000
16. Extract Blood purification, cures Nargas and Trivedi, 2000
boils and pimples
17. Juice with honey Jaundice, skin diseases Nargas and Trivedi, 2000
18. Decoction Skin diseases like eczema Nargas and Trivedi, 2000
19. Extract taken orally Vomiting, cholera Nargas and Trivedi, 2000
20. Bath water mixed with leaf Cures skin infection Nargas and Trivedi, 2000
extract given to a pregnant
woman
21. Fresh leaves kept in room Cures chicken pox, small Nargas and Trivedi, 2000
around bed pox
22. Leaves burnt and fumes passed Against malarial fever Nargas and Trivedi, 2000
over body
23. Infusion Chronic Malarial fever Nargas and Trivedi, 2000
24. Fresh leaves chewed Acts as antidote Nargas and Trivedi, 2000
25. Extract Maintains blood pressure Nargas and Trivedi, 2000
also useful in
menstruation
Contd ...
... Contd.
No. (If any)
26. Paste applied externally Against boils, chronic Nargas and Trivedi, 2000
ulcers, syphilitic sores and
glandular swellings, also
used in gum swellings
and dental ailments
27. Extract given orally Blood purification and
removal of intestinal Varma et al., 1999
worms
28. Leaf paste Skin disease small pox
29. Paste Useful against snake bite, Varma et al., 1999
scorpion sting Singh and Pandey, 1998
30. Leaves warmed and tied on For easy expulsion
stomach guinea worms Singh and Pandey, 1998
31. Leaves and fruits mixture Against tuberculosis,
heart disease and Rao, 1981
purification of blood
32. Extract or juice taken orally Reduces body
temperature avoids Pawar and PatiI, 2007
vomiting
33. Paste applied Swollen chicks in mumps
34. Extract taken orally Malaria Pawar and Patil, 2007
35. Extract regularly applied on face Scars of measles Pawar and Patil, 2007
36. Extract, Hair wash Preventive, premature Pawar and Patil, 2007
hair fall Pawar and Patil, 2007
37. Leaves boiled in water, vapours Cures ear-ache
allowed to pass in ears Pawar and Patil, 2007
38. Extract mixed with sugar, taken Syphilis
orally Pawar and Patil, 2007
39. Five to ten leaflets chewed Controls acidity
regularly Pawar and Patil, 2007
40. Extract given to a delivered Reduces size of uterus
woman after pregnancy Pawar and Patil, 2007
41. Extract with rock-salt diluted in Kill worms in digestive
water system Pawar and Patil, 2007
42. Leaves heated, alumn powdered Malaria
and made into pills given orally Hussain et al., 2000
43. Decoction used for bathing Skin diseases, eczema
44. Decoction taken orally Gout and jaundice Hussain et al., 2000
45. Juice taken orally Against snakebite Hussain et al., 2000
46. Extract applied on body or Small pox and measles Hussain et al., 2000
person lied down on leaves Hussain et al., 2000
47. Decoction, Poultice Boils, ulcers, and eczema
Contd ...
...Contd.
Sr. Redpe & Application Disease Source of Literature
No. (If any)
48. Boiled in water for few minutes Ring-works Hussain et al., 2000
and used for bathing Hussain et al., 2000
49. Juice Fever
so. Extract, Juice Dysentery, diarrhea, Hussain et al., 2000
heart complaints, scabies, Jain, 1991
against snake-bite
51. Smoke from dried leaves Insect repellant
52. Crushed fine, rubbed in water Cures fever in infants Jain,l991
to get foam and applied on Marie-D'souza, 1993
body
53. Infusion Snake-bite
54. Dried leaves burnt and ash Psoraisis Marie-D'souza, 1993
mixed with cow-ghee, externally Watt, 1889-1895
applied against
55. Juice with salt Intestinal worms
56. Juice with honey Skin disease and jaundice Watt, 1889-1895
57. Pulp applied on breast Increases secretion of Watt, 1889-1895
milk Watt, 1889-1895
58. Poultice Ulcerations, skin diseases
59. Infusion formenting swollen Watt, 1889-1895
glands, bruises, sprains Watt, 1889-1895
60. Boiled and applied in form of Skin diseases
pC'ultice Anonymous, 1948-1976
61. Decoction Ulcers, eczema
62. Poultice Boils, abscensses, adenitis, Anonymous, 1948-1976
eczema, ulcers Chaterjee, 1998
63. Hot infusion Formenting bruises,
sprains, swollen glands Chaterjee, 1998
64. Young leaves, fruits and seeds Tuberculosis
65. Leaves Snake-bite, wounds Kothari and Moorthy, 1996
66. Leaves Carminative, expectorant, Rahizad and Bankar, 2002
anthelmintic, insecticidal Anand Kumar et al., 1980
67. Leaves Blood purifying angent,
antidibetic and in heart Chopra et al., 1952
ailments
68. Decoction Round worms and as
antidote Chopra et al., 1952
69. Leaves extract Antidote
70. Leaves Antibiotic, used in tooth Vaidya and Dhumal, 2004
ache Amit Tomar, 2007
71. Leaves, twigs and bark Malaria mumps, eczema,
skin diseases Triath[ et al.,2007
Contd ...
...Contd.
No. (If any)
72. Extract of leaves taken orally Vomiting

against Jadeja et aI., 2006
73. Leaf decoction Septic, wounds
74. Leaf extract Febrifuge and blood Pal and Jain, 1998
purifier Pal and Jain, 1998
75. Paste mixed with leaf paste of Prevents hair falling and
Eclipta alba L. cures dandruft Pal and Jain, 1998
76. Extract Controls diabetes
77. Leaves, extract, infusion, paste Malarial fever, sun- Pal and Jain, 1998
stroke, backbone decay Harish Singh, 2006
swellings, pimples,
itching, skin diseases as
virmifuge
78. Leave and rhizome of Curcuma Boils of chicken pox to
domestica Veleton. are pounded dry up Sarkar and Sarma, 2006
and paste applied externally on
79. Extract two drops applied in ear Otalgia
SO. Infusion of fresh leaves Malaria, intermittant Kalita and Tamuli, 2006
fever Beg et al., 2006
81. Juice Infacilitating the normal
delivery Beg et aI., 2006
82. Leaves Flatulence, phlegm, urine
discharge, eruption of Beg et al., 2006
small-pox, glandular
swellings, syphilis
83. Juice Skin diseases and
wounds, kills lice, cure Vishwa Vihari, 1995
dandruff from hair
84. Paste applied on infected sites Chickenpox and measles
85. Paste applied externally Cures itches Verma et al., 1995
86. Decoction drunk Cholera, diabetes, and Soma Sen and Batra, 1997
malaria Jamir,1997
87. Paste applied Skin diseases
88. Juice given internally Cures piles, jaundice, Jamir, 1997
fever. Bhatt and Mitaliya, 1996
89. Paste applied Wounds, ringworms,
eczema, scorpion sting Bhatt and Mitaliya, 1996
90. Leaves boiled in bath water Boils, itching
91. Poultice applied externally Eczema Sarma et al., 1999
Gogai and Bhorthakur,
92. Extract taken with water Constipation 2001
93. Leaf powder mixed with dung Boils, itching, dermatitis Khanna, 2002
Contd ...
... Contd.
No. (If any)
of goat, paste obtained applied Sarma et al., 2002

against
94. Powder of dried leaves applied Wounds of ears
externally Sarma et al., 2002
95. Extract or decoction is used to Skin disease
wash skin Panthi and Chaudhary,
96. Decoction Skin diseases with itching 2003
97. Complete bath of decoction with Useful remedy against Pandey, 2003
bath water skin diseases in children Pandey, 2003
98. Fresh leave spread on bed of a Chicken-pox, cow-pox
child Ishnava Kalpesh et al., 2004
99. Leaves used to fumigate Insects and mosquitoes
surroundings repels Ishnava Kalpesh et al., 2004
100. Extract sprinkeled on crops Kills pests
101. Fresh leaves eaten raw Health vitalizer Ishnava Kalpesh et al., 2004
Nandankunjidam and
102. Paste applied Skin diseases and small- Abirami, 2005
pox Pandey and Rout, 2006
103. Leaves boiled in rice-starch Purification of blood
water and administered Bondya et al., 2006
104. Paste of leaves and bark applied Against skin disease
10~. Glassful of leaf juice taken orally Prevention of Bondya et al., 2006
miscarriages during Jadhav, 2006
menstruation period
106. Young leaf decoction in oil of Insects and scorpion bite
Brassica compestris and applied Kumar and Chauhan, 2006
externally
107. Poultice Skin disease, eczema,
leprosy D'Rozario, et al., 2004
108. Decoction of mature leaves Ulcers, relieves nasal
problems heals wounds, D'Rozario, et al., 2004
good garglein stomatitis,
bad gums.
109. Juice Snake-bite, scorpion
sting, also useful in D'Rozario, et al., 2004
rheumatism, earache,
reduces inflammations
used in syphilitic sores,
boils, purifies blood.
110. Dried leaves powder applied on Intestinal worms.
annal opening of children D'Rozario, et al., 2004
111. Paste or poultice Skin diseases
Contd ...
... Contd.
No. (If any)
112. Juice with edible oil Intestinal worms Nadkarni,2000

113. Juice with honey Jaundice Nadkarni, 2000
114. Paste Small-pox Nadkarni, 2000
115. Soup of leaves Convalscence after Nadkarni, 2000
diarrhoea Nadkarni, 2000
116. Juice dropped in ears Ear-ache
117. Decoction Fever Patil and Patil, 2005
118. Leaves chewed Reduces poison after Patil and Patil, 2005
snake-bite Patil and Patil, 2005
(C) Flowers

No. (If any)
1. Oil extracted from flowers, fruits As insect repellant, keeps Banerjee, 1996
and seeds, applied on body skin soft
2. Fried or roasted, powder used Against diabetes Balu et ai, 2000
3. Flowers dried, powder given Stomach ailments Nargas and Trivedi, 2000
4. Extract To suppress bile, and Nargas and Trivedi, 2000
against intestinal worms,
phlegm
5. Paste taken orally Malarial fever Singh and Pandey, 1998
6. Juice Stimulant, tonic, Watt 1889-1895
dyspepsia, debility
7. Poultice Kids lice cures eruption Vartak and Ghate, 1990
of scalp
8. Flowers dried, powder mixed Provides relief to malaria Shekhawat and Anand,
with leaf juice 1984
9. Flowers General weakness and Arora, 1996
dyspepsia
10. Flowers with leaves Wounds Arora, 1996
11. Flower powder Anthelmintic Pal and Jain, 1998
12. Flowers Itching, boils, blisters Harish Singh, 2006
13. Flowers fried, eaten with cow Purifies blood Beg et ai., 2006
ghee
14. Flowers Anthelmintic, stimulant, D'Rozaro et ai., 2004.
stomachic, used in
dyspepsia, debility
(0) Fruits
No. (If any)
1. Ripe fruits eaten Phlegm, epistaxis, eye Nargas and Trivedi, 2000
troubles and wounds
2. Fruits mixed with jaggery Piles Pawar and Paitl, 2007
3. Ripe fruits mixed with common Improves digestion Pawar and Paitl, 2007
salt, and consumed
4. Extract Piles, leprosy, urinary Jain,1991
complaints
5. Juice Piles and urinary Chatterjee, 1994
complaints
6. Fruits Cataneous, diseases Daga, 1994
urinary diseases and piles
7. Fruits eaten Purifies blood Beg et al.,2002
8. Paste applied externally on fore- Head-ache Khanna, 2002
head
9. Unripe fruits Urinary discharges, skin D'Rozario et al., 2004
diseases, tumors, piles,
tooth-ache
10. Ripe fruits Eye diseases D'Rozario et al., 2004
11. Fruits Intestinal worms, leprosy, Nadkarni,2ooo
urinary discharge
12. Kernels with jaggery Piles N adkarni, 2000
(E) Seeds
No. (If any)
1. Oil applied externally Give relief from head- Nagendra Prasad, 19%
ache
2. Oil applied externally Dermatitis Mishra et al., 1996
3. Oil applied externally Rheumatism Dash and Misra, 2000
4. Oil applied externally Skin protection, and Banerjee, 1996
mosquito repellant
5. Power mixed with coconut oil Remove lice from hair Saren et ai., 2000
6. Oil applied externally Parasiticide, used against Nargas and Trivedi, 2000
ringworms and scabies
7. Oil applied externally Leprosy, chronic skin Nargas and Trivedi, 2000
disease, small pox,
chickenpox, arthritis
8. Kernels consumed Leprosy and intestinal Nargas and Trivedi, 2000
worms
9. Oil dropped in vagina before Controls birth Singh and Pandey, 1998
intercourse
Contd ...
... Contd.
Sr. Recipe' & Application Disease Source of Literature
No. (If any)
10. Powder taken orally with water Improves functions of Pawar and Patil, 2007
uterus
11. Few drops of seed oil Cures piles Pawar and Patil, 2007
administered orally
12. Oil applied externally Controls debility, post- Jain, 1991
natal complaints,
rheumatism, destroys lice
13. Powder mixed with coconut oil Removes lice from hair Marie-D'Souza, 1993
applied on fore-head
14. Oil applied externally Used as insecticide and Watt, 1889-1895
anti-septic
15. Oil applied externally Ulcers, sores, ring-worm Anonymous, 1948-1976
scrofula and rheumatism
16. Oil Used as antiseptic, Chatterjee, 1994
eczema, leprosy,
dermatitis, rheumatism
17. Kernel oil applied Chronic skin diseases, Chatterjee, 1994
leprosy ulcer,
rheumatism sprains
18. Warm oil Relieves, ear, dental and Chatterjee, 1994
gum troubles
19. Oil mixed with coconut oil Prevents baldness Chatterjee, 1994
20. Oil applied externally Skin diseases, ulcers, Vartak and Ghate, 1990
leprosy
21. Seed powder added in water Destroys lice Shekhawat and Anand,
1984
22. Oil Skin diseases, Anandkumar et al., 1984
rheumatism
23. Seed oil externally applied Skin diseases, ulcers, Anonymous, 1985
rheumatism, leprosy,
sprain
24. Neem oil Antifertility properties Koul et al., 1990
25. Oil Scabies, promotes growth Pal and Jain, 1998
of hair
26. Oil Piles Harish Singh, 2006
27. Seed powder with honey To prevent bleeding due Sarkar and Sarma, 2006
to piles
28. Paste with coconut oil Removes head-lice Beg et al., 2006
29. Oil, mixed with powder to Skin diseases Panthi and Chaudhari,
Terminalia chebula fruits and cow 2003
butter, pste applied externally
Contd ...
... Contd.
No. (If any)
30. Oil Skin diseases Nadanakunjidam and

Abirami, 2005
31. Oil applied on body As mosquito repellent Pandey and Rout, 2006
32. Seed oil Skin diseases, leprosy, D'Rozario, Bera and
prevents baldness and Mukherji, 2004
graying of hair,
rheumatisms,
Contraceptive, antiseptic
33. Oil taken internally by women Pregrnancy D'Rozario, Bera and
Mukherji, 2004
34. Oil (maximum dose harmful) Dressings for ulcers, head Nadkarni,2ooo
ache, leprosy, urticaris,
eczema, erysipelas,
scrofula, scabies, ring
wounds
(F) Twigs or Entire Plants

No. (If any)
1. Fresh twigs Brushing teeth, against Nargas and Trivedi, 2000
worms, flatulence,
spermatorrhoea
2. Fresh twigs Brushing teeth, Anonymous, 1948-76
pyorrhoea
3. Fresh twigs Anti-pyrorrhoeal, Chatterjee, 1994
crminative, digestive
4. Entire plant parts (PX) Cancer, cholera, measles, Jain, 1991
rheumatism, smallpox,
spleen complaints
syphilis, tumous, ulcers,
inflammation of Gum
5. Entire plant parts Antiseptic in boils, ulcers, Kumar and Nagiyan, 2006
eczema, stomachic,
anthelmintic, rheumatism,
stimulant, catarrhal
affections
6. Twigs Eye disease, toothache, Singh, 2006
dog-bite, snakebite,
scorpion sting
Contd ...
... Contd.
No. (If any)
7. Patient made to sit under plant Cures rheumatism Punjani, 2002

to take rest for 3-4 days night
and sharp blows given with
twigs
8. Young twigs Asthma, cough, piles, D'Rozario et aI., 2004
tumors, and urinary
discharge
(G) Neem Products

No. (If any)
1. Neem cake Livestock feed, source of Nargas and Trivedi, 2000

organic manure
2. Neem cake added in fields Prevents soil diseases in Nargas and Trivedi, 2000
crops and protects from
termites
3. Timber Fencing, poles, cacts, Nargas and Trivedi, 2000
doors, panels, agricultural
implements, musical
instruments, fire wood
4. Leaves Camel and goat feed in Nargas and Trivedi, 2000
scarcity
5. Gum Adhesives Nargas and Trivedi, 2000
6. Toddy Alterative tonic Nargas and Trivedi, 2000
7. Gum Stimulant, useful in Chatterjee, 1994
catarrh and spleenic
enlargement
8. Gum Stimulant and demulcent Kumar et aI., 1980
tonic
9. Gum Blood purifier, stimulant, Mohan Ram and Nair,
demulcent and useful in 1996
catarrahal applications
10. Sap of Neem free if taken daily Leprosy Beg et al., 2006
effective
11. Gum dissolved in rice water and Controls diarrhoea Mohanty and Padhy, 1996
administered twice a day to
.children
12. Sap Chronic leprosy, skin D'Rozario et aI., 2004
disease dyspepsia and
debility
Contd ...
... Contd.
No. (If any)
13. Toddy, (excudation obtained Tonic, also cures skin D'Rozario et al., 2004
from upper parts some trees) diseases like scabies
14. Gum and oil cake/ seed cake Vermicide and insecticide, D'Rozario et al., 2004
fish poison
15. Dried leaves or powder kept in Keeps away insects D'Rozario et al., 2004
clothes
16. Gum Catarrhal affections D'Rozario et al., 2004
17. Neem seed cake rubbed on Cures arthritis and Nargas and Trivedi, 2000
body paralysis
18. Gum useful Scabies, ringworms, Nargas and Trivedi, 2000
ulcers, wounds and
against snakebite
TABLE 2
Indian ethno-veterinary medicine

No. (If any)
1. Leaf powder Effective against cuts, Naser and Vaikos, 2002

wounds, throat infection,
useful as anthelmintic and
indigestion
2. Leaf juice applied locally Mostitis, eczema, Bhatt et al., 2001
ascariasis
3. Infusion given to cattle twice a To cure fever Patil and Merat, 2003
day
4. Ash mixed with butter oil Applied boils to hasten Suresh Kumar et al., 2004
suppuration
5. Decoction of leaves Washing wounds Chitralekha Kadel and
Jain, 2006
6. Seed oil Used as antiseptics, D'Rozario et al., 2004
wounds, ulcers, removes
maggots
etc. It is to be further noted that it is useful also as medicine for livestock. It is helpful
in curing about 14 animal disease.
Neem is known in India as 'Indian Herbal Doctor', Arishta' (meaning reliever
I
of sickness) and 'Village Dispensary'. The above resume clearly justify the various names
given to this tree. The Neem plant finds place in Ayurvedic and Unani systems. In
Ayurveda, it is regarded as 'Sarva Roga Nivarini' (meaning a panacea). It also finds place
in Amarkosa, Upavana Vinoda and Matsyapurana. Apart from its medicinal uses, Neem
offers a great potential for agricultural and commercial exploitation. Various derivatives
from this plant are reported to act as insecticide, nematicide, insect antifeedant, pesticide
adjuvant, fungicide, repellent, deterent, metamorphosis disrupter, molt or chitin inhibitor,
ovicidal, male sterility agent, etc. It is a good source of organic manure, useful in soap
making and as cattle feed. The blend of neem-oil with disel has be(;n suggested for use
without any major engine modification and without drop in engine efficiency (Batra et
al., 2001). Thus 'Neem' tree is, no doubt, a panacea but also can be regarded as 'Kalpvriksh'
(wish fulfilling tree). It is why the neem has attracted attention of the scientists in India
and abroad as well.
4. SUMMARY
Neem, Azadirachta indica A. Juss. is a denizen of Indian subcontinent and one of
the dominant tree species in this region. It is traditionally employed multipurposely, apart
from medicine in traditional/classical systems or folk systems in India. Its patent granted
to non-Indian made aware particularly Indians, the people of third world country and
also world as a whole. India is rich repository of traditional medicines. The case of Neem
is purposely selected for this communication to attract the attention of, researchers, readers
and users of Neem in India. Neem patent taught us to develop value-added products based
on our domestic natural products as early as possible. At the same time, it is also 'a
necessary evil' to survey, document and to publish the results of studies on traditional
knowledge on priority basis.
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000
PHYTOCHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL
IMPORTANCE OF CALENDULA OFFICINALIS L.
MADHURIMA, S.H. ANSARI, MD. SOHAIL AKHTAR
AND PRAWEZ ALAM
Chapter Outline
1. Introduction
2. Chemical components of Calendula officinalis
3. Biological activities of C. officinalis
4. Summary
5. References
1. INTRODUCTION
The name 'Calendula' (Calendula officinalis 1.) is derived from the latin calens
meaning "the first day of each month," since it can bloom every month of year in mild
regions. Another common name 'pot marigold' came from the fact that calendulas were
often grown in containers and marygold- the name early Chirstians gave as it as it bloomed
at the time of all the festivals that celebrates the Virgin Mary. The plant is distributed
from central and southern Europe to Asia and in North Africa (Anonymous 1948-1976).
Calendula officinalis is an aromatic, erect, annual herb, up to 60 cm. in height. The
stem about 30-45 cm., angular, glandular, corymbosely branched above. Leaves about 2.5-
7.5 cm. long, acute, often hispid on both surfaces; lower leaves spathulate quite entire,
upper lanceolate base cordate-amplexicaul toothed. Flowers heterogamous, ray florets
fertile, 5 cm. diameter and under; involucral bracts 6 mm., incurved and appressed to the
ripe achenes; ligules many, bright orange yellow, 3- toothed, tube (Kirtikar and Basu, 2000).
The plant has been employed for a long time in folk medicine. More than 35
properties have been attributed to the decoction and tinctures from the plant, e.g. choleretic,
anti-!"'tflammatory, antispasmodic, mild diaphoretic, anti-haemorrhagic, emmenagogue,
bactericide (Duke, 1991). Traditionally, it has been used to treat gastric and duodenal ulcers
amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea and epistaxis; crucial ulcers, varicose veins, haemorrhoids,
anal eczema, proctitis, lymphadenoma, inflamed cutivaneous lesion (topically) and
PHYTOCHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF CALENDULA OFFICINALIS L. 369
conjunctivitis (as an eye lotion). The German Comission E approved internal and external
use for inflammation of oral and pharyngeal mucosa and external use in treatment of
poorly healing sores (Barnes et. ai., 2002). Calendula extract were reviewed and the
vasoprotective action of the extract was tested on the skin of rabbits by measuring the
decrease of the capillary permeability (Russo, 1972).
Industrial interest of the plant has developed from the discovery of calendic acid
(60%) from its seed oil. Potential use of calendic acid includes paint, coatings and
cosmetics (Muuse, 1992).
In vitro cytotoxicity has been reported for calendula extracts (Boucard-Maitre, 1988).
An uterotonic effect (in vitro) has been reported, and the triterpenoid constituents are
reported to be effective as spermatocides and as antiblastocyst and abortion agents
(Shipochliev, 1981).This review contains information from peroid 1960-2006.
2. CHEMICAL COMPONENTS OF CALENDULA OFFICINALIS
A. Triterpenes
Compound Part of plant Reference
4p-methyl-cholest-20-en-12-o1-3p-olidel, Lanast- Flowers Mukhtar et. al., 2003
20(22)-en-3p-ol, Stigmast-5,22-dien-3p-ol,
Stigmast-5,24(28)-dien-3p-ol
Cholest-7-en-3-p-ol, 24-methylcholest-7-en-3-p- Seedlings Alder and Kasprzyk, 1975
01, stigmast-7-en-3-p-ol, cholesterol, sitosterol,
24-methylcholesta-5, 22-dien-3p-ol, stigmasterol
4p-methylstigmasta-7,24(28)-dien-3p-ol, Leaves Pyrek,1969
41} methylergosta-7, 24(28)-dien-31l-01
Calendasaponins A, B, C, and 0 Flowers Yoshikawa et. ai., 2001;
Officinoside A,B,C,O Marukami et. al., 2001
Heliantriol BOz, BP, B24, and A1 5, Flowers Pyrek,1979
Longispinogenin6
Heliantriol C, Heliantriol Ps Flowers Pyrek,1977
Manilladiol9 Flowers Pyrek, 1979 and 1977
TaraxasterollO, a-amyrinll , LupeoPz Flowers Akihisa et. al., 1996;
Kasprzyk and Pyrek, 1968
\If -taraxasterol13, p -amyrinH Flowers, stems Akihisa et. ai., 1996;
Kasprzyk and Pyrek, 1968
CycloartenoPS, 24-methylene cycloartenol, Flowers Akihisa et. ai., 1996
Taraxerol, Tirucalla-7,24-dienol,
Oammaradienol
Taxastanol Flowers Stevenson, 1961
Faradiol-3-0-palmitate, Faradiol-3-0-myristate, Flowers Neukirch et. ai., 2004;
Faradiol-3-0-laurate, Amidiol-3-0-palmitate, Zitterl-Eglseer et. ai., 1997
Arnidiol-3-0-myristate, Arnidiol-3-0-laurate, Flowers and 2001
Calenduladiol-3-0-myristate, Calenduladiol-3-
O-palmitate
Contd ...
370 MADHURIMA, S.H. ANSARI, MD. SOHAIL AKHTAR AND PRAWEZ ALAM
...Contd.

Calenduladiop6 Flowers Kasprzyk and Pyrek, 1968;
Kasprzyk et. al., 1970
FaradioP7, ArnidioP8 Flowers Kasprzyk and Pyrek, 1968;
Pyrek,1977
Calenduloside N9, Calenduloside B:o Roots Vecherko et. al., 1969, 1971
Calendulosides C21, Calendulosides D22 Roots Vecherko et. al., 1975
Calenduloside E23, Calenduloside F 24 Roots Vecherko et. al., 1973
Calenduloside G25, Calenduloside H Roots Vecherko et. al., 1974
Brein26 Stems Kasprzyk,1973
Urs-12-en3,16,21-trioP7 Flowers Pyrek, 1977; Kasprzyk,
1973
Ursadiol28 Flowers Pyrek, 1977; Kasprzyk,
1973; Sliwoskies et. al.,
1973
Oleanolic acid 3-galactosyl-glucuronide29, Leaves Kasprzyk, 1973; Vecherko
Oleanolic acid 3-(galactosyl-glucuronide)-17- et. al., 1973; Wojciechowski
glucoside-'ll, Oleanolic acid 3-(galactosyl- et. al., 1971
(glucosyl)-glucuronide)31, Oleanolic acid 3-
(galactosyl-(glucosy I)-glucuronide)-17-
glucoside32
B. Carotenoids
Neoxanthin33, 9Z-Neoxanthin Petals Bako et. al., 2002

Violaxanthin34, Luteoxanthin35 Pollens
Lutein36, 9/9?Z-Lutein Leaves
13/13?Z-Lutein, U -Cryptoxanthin~7 Stems Bako et. al., 2002
p -Cryptoxanthin38, p carotene39
Auroxanthin40, Flavoxanthin41 Petals Bako et. al., 2002
9Z-Antheroxanthin, Z-Cryptoxanthin, Pollens
Lycopene 42,U carotene43
9Z Violaxanthin, Mutatoxanthin44 Petals Bako et. al., 2002
Pollens
stems
13Z Violaxanthin ,Antheroxanthin45 Leaves stems Bako et. al., 2002
C. Phenolic acid
p-coumaric acid, Gentisic acid, Vanillic acid Flowers Swiatek and Gora, 1978
Caffeic acid, Syringic acid,
O-hydroxy phenyl acetic acid,
Salicylic acid, Ferulic acid, Protocatechuic acid
PHYfOCHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF CALENDULA OFFICINALIS L. 371
D. Volatile oil
Pedunculatine, a ionone Flowers Gracza and Szasz, 1968
~ ionone, Trans-caryophyllene epoxide,
Geranyl acetone, a ionone-5,
Dihydroacetinidiolide, Oplopanone,
Caryophyllene ketone, Cardinols
E. Flavonoides
lsorhamnetin 3~ D glucopyranoside, Flowers, leaves Vidal-oliver et. al., 1989
Quercetin 3~ D glucopyranoside Khodzha, Janiszowska
Isorhamnetin 3~ D glucopyranosyI
(6~1) ~ L rhamnofuranoside,
Isorhamnetin 3 rutinoside, isoquercitrin,
neohesperidoside, rutin
F. Carbohydrate
Carbohydrate Flowers, stems Khodzhaeva and
Turakhozhaev, 1993
(1~3) linked ~-D-galactan backbone Flowers Varjen et. al., 1989
with branching points
G. Polyprenyl quinones
Plastoquinone, Ubiquinone, a-tocopherol, Flowers Janiszowska et. al., 1976;
8 tocopherol, y tocopherol Leaves Janiszowska and Korczak,
1980
H. Miscellaneous
Loliolide (Calendin) 46 Flowers Willuhn and Wethaus,
1987
Abasova
Calendulin Flowers, seeds UI'chenko
Fleischner, 1985
Calendic acid Seeds
Suchy and Herout, 1961
Phospholipid, glycolipid Seeds
VI' chenko et. al., 1998
Amino acid Leaves, stems,
inflorescence Abasova et. al., 1994
Superscripts number refer to chemical structure
3. BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES OF C. OFFICINALIS

Anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and antiviral activities have been ceported for
Calendula (Russo, 1972). Calendula officinalis L. flowers showed low antibacterial activity
against anaerobic and facultative aerobic periodontal bacteria (Iauk et. al., 2003). An
aqueous ethanolic extract had mild dose dependent action in mouse croton oil test with
20% inhibition being reached at dose of 1200 ~g/ ear, where as a carbon dioxide extract
exhibited 70% inhibition at the same concentration (Della et. al., 1994). The activity was
shown to be due to triterpenoids, the most active being a monoester of faradiol. Further
separation of triterpenoids has shown that the three most active compounds in the croton
oil mouse test are faradiol-3-myristic acid, faradiol-3-palmitic acid ester and 4-taraxosterol
(Zitterl-Eglseer et. al., 1997). The flavonoid skeleton with the phenol group probably
contributes to this inhibitory effect. The isorhamnetin flavonoid glycosides are suggested
as one of the antiinflammatory principles of C. officinalis (Bezakova et. al., 1996).
A proprietary cream containing a combination of plant extracts, including calendula,
has been reported to be effective in dextran and burn oedemas and in acute lymphoedema
in rats. Activity against lymphoedema was primarily attributed to an enhancement of
macrophage proteolytic activity (Casley-Smith, 1983).The trichomonacidal activity of
calendula has been associated with the essential oil terpenoid i fraction (Gracza, 1987).
Crude extract of the plant showed antihelminthic and molluscicidal activity (Rawi et al.,
1996). An in vitro uterotonic effect has been described for calendula extract on rabbit and
guinea pig preparations (Shipochliev, 1981).
In vitro cytotoxic activity and in vitro antitumour activity (against mouse ehrlich
carcinoma) have been documented for calendula extract. The most active. fraction in vivo
(saponin rich) was not the most active in vitro (Boucard-Maitre, 1988). Calendula is highly
effective for the prevention of acute dermatitis of grade 2 or higher and should be proposed
for patients undergoing postoperative irradiation for breast cancer (Pommier et. al.,
2004).Calendula extract were evaluated for anti-hepatoma activity on five human liver-
cancer cell lines. The effects of crude drugs on hepatitis B virus genome-containing cell
lines were different from those against non hepatitis B virus genome-containing cell lines
(Liang-Tzung et. al., 2004).
Extracts of dried flowers from Calendula officinalis were examined for their ability
to inhibit the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-l) replication. Both organic and
aqueous extracts were relatively nontoxic to human lymphocytic Molt-4 cells, but only
the organic one exhibited potent anti-HIV activity in an in vitro MIT / tetrazolium-based
assay (Kalvatchev et. al., 1997).
Immnunostimulant activity, assayed using granulocyte and carbon clearance tests,
of calendula extracts has been attributed to polysaccharide fractions of high molecular
weight (Wagner et. al., 1985). C. officinalis showed a complete inhibitory effect on the
proliferation of lymphocytes in the presence of PHA (SI range 0.01-0.49). Treatment of
mixed lymphocytes with 0.1-10 microg/ml of C. officinalis (SI range 1.34-1.80) strongly
increased the cell proliferation (Amighofran et. al., 2000). Both, methanolic and wate~
extract of Calendula officinalis flower showed good scavenging activity (Cetkovic et. al.,
2004).
Aqueous ethanolic extract containing 0.0075% mass extracted from Calendula

offidnalis was applied to mice to show average 96% hair growth stimulation 5 week later
(lnamoto et. al., 2004). The methanolic extract and its I-butanol-soluble fraction from the
flowers of Calendula offidnalis were found to show a hypoglycemic effect, inhibitory activity
of gastric emptying, and gastroprotective effect. The principal saponin constituents,
glycosides A, B, C, D, and F, exhibited potent inhibitory effects on an increase in serum
glucose levels in glucose-loaded rats, gastric emptying in mice, and ethanol- and
indomethacin-induced gastric lesions in rats (Yoshikawa et. al., 2001).
Acyclovir with the plant extract from Calendula offidnalis, Actium lappa and Geranium
robertianum were studied on 52 patients suffering of herpetic keratitis. Better results in
resolving complain and faster healing of ulceration wa!7 obtained using the associated
treatment then the usual acyclovir treatment only (Corina et. al., 2001).The antidiarrheal
activity of decoctions of Loeselia mexicana, Teloxys graveolens, Oenothera roseae, Castilleja
tenuiflora and Calendula offidnalis were tested on diarrheic mice induced with castor oil.
With C. offidnalis the antidiarrheal activity was not statistically significant (Matev et.
al., 1981). Calendula with other plant extracts was proved to be potent laxative (Matev
et. al., 2001), antiulcer, help in reducing non specific colitis (Chakurski et. al., 1981).
Calenduloside B-trioside of oleanolic acid, isolated from rhizomes of Calendula offidnalis,
Fam. Compositae, used per orally in doses of 5, 10, 20 and 50 mg/kg exerted an
antiulcerous action in 3 experimental ulcer models of different genesis (Iatsyno et. al.,
1978). Saponin, isolated and identified from Calendula offidnalis were investigated for
antimutagenic activity. Few saponin from the plant showed antimutagenic activity with
dose depentdent manner (Elias et. al., 1990). Calendula offidnalis flower extract showed
both, dual and opposite effect (as chemoprotector and promoter) in rat hepatocarcinogenesis
model (Barajas-Farias et. al., 2006).
CH2
Pedunculatine (l ionone
CH2 "" 'cH

CH3 3
~ ionone . Trans-caryophyllene epoxide
CH3
Carvone Geranyl acetone
CH3 CH3
Dihydroacetinidiolide 6-epoxide oxide
HO
o~,,' HA
CH3 CH3 CH3
Oplopanone Caryophyllene ketone
HO
CH3
Cardinol
CH3
Faradiol
H3 C
CH3
I
OH
CH3
HO
CH3
H3 C
Aradinol
)~~ )~~
CH3
CH3
H3 C H3 C
CH3 CH3
, OH
CH3 CH3
. ,
H3C
.
H3C
Calenduladiol Lupeol
376 MAOHURIMA, S.H. ANSARI, Mo. SOHAIL AKHTAR AND PRAWEZ ALAM
CH3
HO
'I'-taraxasterol Taxasterol
CH3
a-amyrin l3-amyrin
COOR'
RO
Calenduloside B
R= Glu(4~1)Gal, R'= Glu
Calenduloside C
R= Glu[(2~1)Glu] (3~1)Gal, R'= H
Calenduloside D
R= Glu[(2~1)Glu] (3~1)Gal, R'= Glu
Calenduloside E
R= Glue. acid, R'= H
Calenduloside F
R= Glue.acid, R'= Glu
Calenduloside G
R= Glue.acid (3~1)Gal, R'= H
Ursadiol Brein
COOR'
Oleanolie acid 3-galaetosyl-glueuronide

R= Glue.add-Gal, R'=H
Oleanolic acid 3-(galactosyI-glucuronide)-17-glucoside

R= Gluc.add-Gal, R'=Glu
Oleanolic acid 3-(galactosyl-(glucosyl)-glucuronide)
R= Gluc.acid (Glu)-GaI, R'=H
Oleanolic acid 3-(galactosyl-(glucosyl)-glucuronide)-17-glucoside
R= Glue.acid (Glu)-GaI, R'=Glu
Calenduloside A
R= Glu-Gal, R'=H
CH3 .,1' CH3 CH3 .1 CH

",I 3 CH
.,' ~ ..... CH 3 ~ ..... - 3
a b
CH3 IICH
"I 3 CH
.' ~ ,,- 3
OH HO
c d
.'
"", CH 3
, CH 3
,,
HO HO
e f
CH 3
... ...
CH3
OH CH3
OH
g h
, ~
,,
R
Structures of carotenoids: antheraxanthin: R= e, Q= Ci auroxanthin: R =Q= fi a-

carotene: R= a, Q= hi hcarotene: R =Q= ai a-cryptoxanthin: R= c, Q= h; h-cryptoxanthin:
R= c, Q= ai flavoxanthin/ chrysanthemaxanthin: R= f, Q= di lutein: R= c, Q= di lutein
5,6-epoxide: R= e, Q= di luteoxanthin: R= e, Q= fi lycopene: R=Q= hi mutatoxanthin: R=
f, Q= Ci neoxanthin: R = g, Q= ei neochrome: R = g, Q= fi violaxanthin: R =Q= ei zeaxanthin:
R =Q= c.
OH
OR
R= H Quercetin
R= Rhamno-glucosyl Rutin
R= CH3 Isorhamnetin
BI, B2, and Al
Heliantriol BO Heliantriol BI
380 MADHURIMA, S.H. ANsARI, MD. SOHAIL AIarrAR AND PRAWEZ ALAM
Heliantriol B2 Heliantriol Al
1 R= H Manilladiol
R= OH longispinogenin
Heliantriol C R = H, Z = ?-OH, ?-H;

Heliantriol F R = OH, Z = H2
HO
o
.
H
H
CH3
4~-methy1cholest-20-en-12a-ol-3~-olide Calendin
HO
Stigmasterol
HO
Cholesterol
HO
Cydoartenol
Sitosterol
CH3 CH3
Urastriol
4. SUMMARY
Variety of constituents have been isolated and chracterized from Calendula
officinaIis. These include terpenoids, carotenoids, flavonoids, phenolic acids, carbohydrate
and volatile oil. The crude extract and pure isolates were found to possess anticytotoxic,
immunostimulant, hypoglycaemic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and different
pharmacological activity.
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000
METHODS OF PURIFICATION OF
TRIBAL DRUGS IN INDIA
D.C. PAL AND C.R. PAUL
C)lapter Outline
1. Introduction
2. Methods of de-toxification and purification
3. Discussion and conclusion
4. Acknowledgements
1. INTRODUCTION
Though the tribal medicine is not considered as traditional system of medicine
as it is not considered as codified medicine i.e. due to lack of proper written document
but it had has age-old tradition and long unwritten historical background. In India,
tribal medicine, both single drug and compound preparations are used for various
therapeutic purposes. These compound reparations contain several ingredients, of which
vegetable products, animal products and minerals are very much common. Sometimes
salt(s) are also used in it. Some of these ingredients are toxic in nature such as Aconite,
Nux, Abrus, Cannabis, Zanthoxylum etc. These toxic ingredients are detoxicated and
purified for use with the recipes.
These processes have been developed through long experience of the tribal
communities.
The main purpose of such combinations are :
(a) To obtain quicker effects
(b) To produce some specific action
The various aims of such process are: (i) To make the recipes easily digestible, (ii)
To make the recipes tasteful, (iii) To make the recipes easily assimilable, (iv) to make the
recipes easily therapeutically more effective, (v) To make the recipe free from toxicity and
more tolerable, (vi) To make the recipe preservable for a longer period.
388 D.C. PAL AND c.R. PAUL
In this paper, a few tribal methods of detoxication and purification of toxic

vegetable products are used in the recipes have been discussed which may help in
standardization of toxic ingredients added to the various recipes used in therapeutic
purposes.
2. METHODS OF DETOXICATION AND PURIFICATION
1. Aconte: (Aconihlm spp.) Ranuculaceae :
The poisonous roots of Aconihml spp. are washed with warm water to clean
the external impurities like sand, mud etc. Thereafter, the roots are cut into pieces
of pea-sized and soaked in cow urine for a week. This urine is replaced by fresh cow
urine at an interval of 24 hours and the container (preferably earthen) is exposed
to sun during day time. Then the roots are thoroughly washed again with warm water.
Thereafter, the outer bark of epidermal portion of the treated root pieces are carefully
removed and the roots are dried in the bright sun.
To ensure the de-toxication and purification of the roots by the adopted process,
the Physican or expert in the community is asked are peeled out using a knife. The
seed kernels are cut into small pieces and boiled in cow milk (seed and milk 1:4)
for four hours duration. The process is repeated consecutively for three days. The
milk is replaced on every-day after boiling. Then, the seeds are washed with warm
water and dried in bright sun. The treated seed kernels are fried in clarified butter
(cow). The fried
kernels are made into a powder and stored in clean dry ground shell for use as
medicine.
2. Nux seed: (StnJchnos nux-vomica L.) Loganiceae :
The dried mature seeds are washed with warm water and put in boiled cow
milk for more than 24 hours. Then the hard outer coats of the treated seeds are peeled
out using a knife. The seed kernels are cut into small pieces and boiled in cow milk
(seed and milk 1:4) for four hours duration. The process is repeated consecutively
for three days. The milk is replaced one every-day after boiling. Then, the seeds are
washed with warm water and dried in bright sun. The treated seed kernels are fried
in clarified butter (cow). The fried kernels are made into a powder and stored in
clean dry ground shell for use as medicine.
3. Abrus: (Abrus precatorius L.) Fabaceae :
(i) The nature seeds of white variety are soaked overnight in a fresh cow milk
for detoxication of its poisonous effect.
(ii) The mature seeds of white, red or brown variety are washed with warm
water, dried in sun and crushed. The crushed seeds are tied in a clean white
piece of cloth hanged by wooden rod in a jar, half-portion of which is filled
with cow milk to make it ready for boiling. As the milk starts boiling, more
fresh milk is added slowly. The process is continued for about three hours.
Thereafter the milk is allowed to cool. Then the crushed seeds in cloth are
collected, washed with warm water and dried in sun. Thus the drug is
detoxicated, purified and made ready for internal use.
METIIODS OF PuRIFICATION OF TRIBAL DRUGS IN INDIA 389

It is worthy to note that the alkaloids of Aconitum nepellus, Aconitum cashmanthum
Aconitum ferox, Aconitum balfourii, Aconitum falconeri, Aconitum falconeri, Aconitum
lacianthum, Aconitum spicatum and Strychnos nux-vomica seeds are mentioned in Indian
literature. These records are the validation of tribal medicine used both in traditional
and modem system of medicine.
Some vegetable produces are minerals used in the tribal recipes are toxic. These
toxic substances are added to the recipes after purification and detoxication only. They
are made suitable for digestion, absorption and assimilation in the body. These are added
to the various traditional methods. The methods of purification of drugs are also being
found in the traditional system like Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha systems and in Tantra
Therapy in India. In this paper, the purification methods of a few toxic vegetable
products like Aconite roots, Nux seeds, Abrus seeds etc. have been discussed. This
may help to physicians, pharmacologists, scientists and research scholars of modern
medicines for standardization and commercializ~tion of recipes which contain toxic
substances.
4.ACKNO~EDGEMENTS
The authors are thankful to the tribals for disclosing the fact during the
ethnobotanical studies among the tribal community.
000
ETHNOBOTANICAL HERITAGE ON TRADITIONAL
DRUG PRACTICES RELATING TO DIABETES IN
MAGADH REGION (BIHAR)
R.K. GOEL, RAJUL GOEL, B.K. PRASAD AND O.K. YADAv
Chapter Outline
1. Introduction
4. Summary
5. References
1. INTRODUCTION
Diabetes or madhumeha (Raj Rog) is the most common disorder of the endocrine
system. The number of individuals suffering fromdiabetes doubles every fifteen years.
Though it is an alarming statement of the World Health Organization (WHO), still we
do not pay serious attention towards the morbidity and mortality of this diseases. Diabetes
mellitus has become the most c;ommon metabolic disorder among the human ailment in
recent times. The modern trends of luxurious and comfortable living along with lack of
exercise, yoga and irregularities of diet tendered the people more susceptible towards this
disease. In spite of the gift of the mother nature, we are still unable to garner the hidden
treasurer of herbs that can be judiciously used to combat this disease. They provide the
human beings with natural cures through their medicinal properties. A number of known
herbs are available which can keep away the morbidities of disease in general and diabetes
in particular, if they are utilized for the benefit of human race (Kirtikar and Basu, 1935;
Jain, 2001; Anomymous, 1973, 1976, Bhattacharjee, 1999). Medicinal plants that can be
used to treat this disease have been presented category-wise in this paper along with
measures for its prevention in future.
Ayurvedic literature reveals, since the time of Charak and Sushrut, many herbal
medicines in different formulations for the treatment of Madhumeh (Diabetes mellitus). A
number of crude drugs extracted from plants such as garlic (Allium sativum), Neem
ETHNOBOTANICAL HERITAGE ON TRADmONAL DRUG PRACTICES RELATING 391
(Azadirachta indica), Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum), Nayantara (Catharanthus roseus) and Gurmar
(Gymnema sylvestre) have been reported to process hypoglycemic activity on experimental
animals, Subsequently these have been validated by modern researches (Arora, 1989;
Manilal, 1989; Ved Praksh, 1997; Natesh and Ram, 1999; Goel et al., 1999 and Varrier
et al. 1994). The present paper enlists some of the locally used plants for the treatment
of diabetes. in this context it is worth nothing that Magadh region is well known for
its excellence during Maurya period during which legendary Vaidas like Jiwak exerted
and worked out on the utility of plants growing around the area. The local people have
inherited these facts from their ancestors.
The present study is based on personal interviews with tribals of various age groups
in the area. The local medicine-men from the villages were requested to accompany us
to collect the plants in the forests. Visits were also made to Parasnath forest range which
is known for its plant biodiversity in the eastern part of the country. The medicinal plant
materials were shade dried and herbarium specimens were deposited in the Herbarium
of Department of Botany, Magadh University, Bodh-Gaya. Therapeutic uses plants against
diabetes and verified using flora (Haines, 1981-25).
3. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
From the above list and the Table-1, it is clear that so many plants such as Aegle
marmeios, Azadirachta indica, Catharanthus roseus, Emblica officinalis, Gymnema sylvestre,
Momordica charantia and Syzygium cuminis have used from the time antiquity. Out of 51
plant species, 31 plants are perennials and are always always available round the year.
Some of the are herbaceous (20), although they are used found during rainy and winter
season. They are also available in the shop of Kanhai Sao, a prominent Vaidya of Gaya
district of Bihar. The botanical of the plant including Bel, Neem, Sadahahar, Amla,
Gurmar, Karela, Jamun etc. have been worked out scientifically at CDRI, CIMAP, and NBRI
Lacknow. Other plants, however, need further investigation with respect to their active
ingredients and their optimality at the different ontogenic stages of the growth.
3. SUMMARY
This paper presents survey and enumeration of medicinal plants commonly used
against diabetes by tribal and local people of Magdh region of Bihar. The tribal area lies
on the southern side of the Magdh University Campus. The local vaidyas and village
headman have recommended different plants to be used against diseases including
diabetes. Out of total 51 plant species collected, twelve are more common. They are Annona
squamosa L., Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr., Capsicum annuum L., Catheranthus roseus (L.) G.
Don, Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) Schult, Helicteris isora L., Hibiscus rosa-sinensis r,.., Momordica
chamtia L., Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers ex Hook., Trigonella foenum-graecum L.,
Syzygium cuminis (L.) Skeels, Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz. They include 20, 13 and 18
herbs, shrubs and trees respectively. There are 35, 12 and 4 mesophytes, xerophytes,
hydrophytes respectively. There different life form classes are: Phanerophytes-31,
chamaephytes-OO, Hemicryptophytes-01, cryptophytes-05 and therophytes-14. There
therapeutic uses include decoction, juice and powders or latex of plantj plant parts.
TABLE-l t.IJ
\C
N
Survey, enumeration and ecotaxonomical study of some medicinal plants used against diabetes in Bihar
Plant species Local name Family Habit Habitat Life Part used Therapeutic uses
forms
Acacia catechu Muell. Kattha Mimosaceae Tree X Ph Heart wood Heart wood, decochon
Acacia niloticia (L.) Del. Babul Mimosaceae Tree X Ph Tender Tender leaves consumed
leaves
Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. Bel Rutaceae Tree X Ph Five tender Leaves consumed early
leaves in the morning
Albizia lebbeck (L.) Willd. Siris Mimosaceae Herb M Ph Seed Seed powder used ~
Allium cepa L. Pyaz Alliaceae Herb M Ph Bulb Immature and mature
~
bulbs consumed
Allium sativum L. Lehsun Aliaceae Herb Bulb extensively used
G'1
M Th Bulb 0
1!1
against diabetes .r
Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Neem Meliaceae Tree M Ph Bark, Decoction of powder of ~
leaves, the entire plant 2:c::
I:"'
seeds
Boerhaavia diffusa L. Punernava Nyactaginaceae Herb M Ph Whole plant Fresh juice effective G'1
Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Sadabahar Apocynaceae Herb M Ph Leaves Five leaves consumed ?il
.r
Don
Capsicum annuum L. Mirch Solanaceae Herb M Th Fruit
early in the morning
Dry fruits powder in
meal lowers down the
=
~
~
sugar level
~
Citrus aurantifolia Kagji Nimbu Rutaceae Shrub M Ph Fruit Use of fruit juice C/l
>
\j
(Chrishn.) Sw. controls the sugar level
Curcuma longa L. Haldi Zingiberaceae Herb M Cr(Geo) Rhizome Rhizome powder used >
Z
\j
with water
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Dub Poaceae Herb X Hemi Whole plant Fresh juice of the plant 0
effective ~
Desmostachya bipinnata Stapf. Kush Poaceae Shrub X Ph Whole plant Fresh juice of the tender to(
plant effective >
\j
Contd ... ~
...Contd. rr1
...,
::t:
Plant species Local name Family Habit Habitat Life Part used Therapeutic uses Z
0
Diospyros malabarica Desv. Tendu Ebenaceae Tree M

forms
Ph Fruits Fruits used for
=
0...,
>
Z
controlling the sugar ....
n
level >
t"'
Dolichos biflorus L. Kulthi Fabaceae Herb M Th Seed Used as a pulse ::t::
t!I
:=
Euphorbia neriifolia L. Euphorbiaceae Herb M Ph Root, Stem, Powder of plant parts ::j
>
C'l
Leaves and or latex effective t!I
Latex 0
Z
Emblica oficinalis Gaertn. AmIa Euphorbiaceae Tree M Ph Fruit, Pull Fruit more effective
~
Elettaria cardamom Maton Elaichi Zingibiheraceae Shrub Hydr Cr Capsule Fruits lower down the :=
>
fruit sugar level 0
::j
Euruale ferox Salisb. Makhana Euryalaceae Herb M Ph Fruit Unripe fruits used to ....
0
control the sugar level Z
>
t"'
Flacourtia jangomas (Lour.) Paniamla Flacourtiaceae Shrub M Ph Fruit Fruits consumed by the
Raeuch patients 0
:=
Gmelina arborea Roxb. Gambhar Verbenaceae Tree X Ph Fruit Fruits powder in small c::
C'l
quantit-j used ~
Ph Leaves Leavs destroy the
:=
Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) Gumar Asclepiadaceae Shrub X >
Schult. sweetness of the q
....
Avertni substances n
t!I
CIJ
Helicteres isora L. StercuHaceae Shrub X Ph Fruits Fruit powder used only ~
t!I
Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Asclepiadaceae Shrub X Ph Fruits Root powder effective t"'
Br. Anantmool (Climber) ....~
Jamminum officinale L. Motiya Oleaceae Shrub X Ph Roots and Powder of roots or Z
C'l
(Climber) Leaves leaves effective
Lawsonia inermis L. Mehndi Lythraceae Shrub M Ph Leaves Dry leave powder with
water used
Contd ... tI.l
\C
tI.l
...Contd. tIJ
~
Plant species Local name Family Habit Habitat Life Part used Therapeutic uses
forms
Momordica charantia 1. Karela Cucurbitaceae Herb Hydr Ph Fruits Fresh juice of the fruits
more effective
Nymphaea nouchali Burm. f. Kamal Nympheaceae Herb X Cr All parts All parts of the plant
used by the patient
Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Jungli Jalebi Mimosaceae Tree M Ph Seed Seed powder used
Benth.
Paspalum scobiculatum 1. Kodon Poaceae Herb Hyder Th Grains Boiled seed used as meal
::r::I
Pistia stratiotes 1. Jalkumbhi Araceae Herb X Cr Whole plant Plant juice used
Phoenix sylvestris Roxb. Kajur Arecaceae Shrub M Ph Fruit Fruits and plant juice ~
used ~
0
Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre Karanj Fabaceae Tree M Ph Kernel of Fruits juice used t!1
.r
Fruits
::r::I
Pterocarpus santalinus 1. Tree M Ph Seed Seed powder used by
~r"'
Rakt Fabaceae
Chandan the patients
Rubia cordifolia 1. Majistha Rubiaceae Herb M Th Leaves and Decoction of leaves used ~
0
Semecarpus anacardium 1. f. Bhilawa Anacardiaceae Tree M Ph
Roots
Fruits Processed seeds used by
p
0::1
the patients
Shorea robusta Gaertn. f. Sal Sakhua Dipterocarpaceae Tree M Ph Heart wood Decoction of heart wood ~
effective ~
:=
Strychonos nux-vomica 1. Kuchla Strychnaceae Tree M Ph Seed Process seeds used by >
CIl
the patients. >

~
Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels. Jamun Myrtaceae Tree M Ph Fruits, Leaf Equal part of fruits of >
Z
Terminalia chebula Retz. Harr Combretaceae Tree M Ph Fruits Harr and Behera mixed ~
Terminlia bellirica (Gaertn.) Bahera Combretaceae Tree M Ph Fruits with the same quantity 0
Roxb. of Amla form a Triphala ~
which can cure diabetes 10(
>
~
Contd ...
~
... Contd. rr.I
~
:x:
Plant species Local name Family Habit Habitat Life Part used Therapeutic uses Z
0
forms =
Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.) Atjun Combreataceae Tree M Ph Bark Powdered barks used Q
>
Z
Wight. and Am. ....
(')
Tinospora cordifolia (Wild.) Guruch Menispennaceae Climbing Hydr 1)\ Green stem Dry stem powder >
t"'
Miers. ex Hook f & Thorn. shrub effective
Trapa natans L. Singara Trapaceae Herb M Cr Fruit Fruits used ==
ttl
....~~
Trigonella foenum-graecum L. Maithia Fabaceae Herb M Th Shoot and Seeds more effective
>
C'l
seeds ttl
Tribulus terrestris L. Gokhuru Zygophyllaceae Herb M Th Fruits and Powder of fruits or 0
Z
Roots roots cure the diabetes
~
Trachispermum ammi (L.) Ajwain Apiaceae Herb M Th Fruit Decoction of fruits used ~
Sprague
>
0
::j
Trichosanthes dioica Roxb. Parwal Cucurbitaceae Herb M Th Fruit and Fruits used as vegetable ....
0
leave Z
Vetivera zizanioides (L.) Nash Khukhus
>
t"'
Poaceae Shrub M Ph Roots Roots powder
prescribed by Vaidyas 0~
Withana somnifera (L.) Dunal Ashwagandha Solanaceae Herb X Th Roots Roots powder water c::
C'l
used ""tl
~
Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Dawi Lytharaceae Shrub Ph Flower Powder of dry flowers a >
effective q
....
(')
ttl
CIl
Cr : Cryptophyte, Geo : Geophytes, Hemi : Hemicryptophytes, Hydr : Hydrophyte, M : Mesophyte, Ph : Phanerophyte, Th :
~
Therophyte, X : Xerophyte ttl
t"'
~
....
Z
C'l
396 R.K. GOEL, RAJUL GOEL, B.K. PRASAD AND D.K. YADAV
REFERENCES
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Herbal Cures - Patil (Ed) (2008)

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Herbal Cures - Patil (Ed) (2008)

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HERBAL CURES: TRADITIONAL APPROACH

Aavishkar Publishers, Distributors

Dr. D.A. Patil

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be

The science of medicine, whether traditional or folkloric, has undergone a

veterinary medicines of Gond tribals (Madhya Pradesh). It also covers topics on

Dhule (Maharashtra) Dr. D. A. Patil

9. Ethnomedicinal Plants of North Gujarat Part-II 197

Akhtar, Md. Sohail

Rani, E. Jennifer Nancy

1. Abrus precatorius 177

24. Cicer arietinum 179

60. Momordica dioica 184

Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (asvagantha), roots or Mandragora officinarum Berlt.

Indrajal Nil Nil Nil Clitoria Adhatoda Nil Nil ~

Contd ... I-l

Bombax ceiba, diffusa, Bombax Bridelia Annona

Sr. Name of the Plant Family Uses prescribed by

Therapeutic uses of seven species of plants in different systems of medicine

Embelia ribes Burm f

Sr. Uses Prescribed by Chemical

7. AP:IV BhatVI The roots and MOD The seeds yield

APPENDIX : (A) CARAKA ON USE OF PLANTS IN THE PHYSIOLOGY

(sitotpala), and PRIYANGU (Aglaia elaeagnoidea ijuss.) Benth. I Callicarpa

For treatment of this condition Caraka prescribes administration of a mixture,

C.P. MALIK, BHAVNEET KAUR, AMAN VERMA

of the drug. Animals treated chronically with Swarmabhasma showed significantly

The Western, based on Greek and Roman sources,

Vietnam - Traditional and oriental medicines are fully integrated into

4. NATIONAL ACTIVITIES CONCERNING MEDICINAL PLANTS

medicine oversee research institutes, which evaluate treatments. The government is

Sr. No. Botanical Name Local Name Part Used Uses

Momordica charantia L. is described as beneficial in diabetic disorders and other

Tewtrakul and co-workers (2003), Toyama Medical and Pharmaceutical University,

Common Name Botanical Name Parts Used

number of molecules involved in inflammation that are inhibited by curcumin,

Eugenia axillaries (Myrtaceae), Lantana involucrata (Verbenaceae) and Myrica cerifera

insects such as bees. Also it is used as a contraceptive agent. Neem is also

Toxicology, Pharmacology, Drug delivery

Bioassays-in vivo, cell based, target based qualitative

Plant Part used

10. CONCLUDING REMARKS

RICHA DEO AND USHA MUKUNDAN

characteristic of this period is that medicine is empirically documented with, however,

One of the largest advances we owe to Ignaz Semmelweis, a Hungarian

1.4 Process of wound healing

susceptibility to infection, and increases mortality and morbidity. Protein deficiency

hydroxylase requires iron. Without hydroxylation of proline, collagen triple helix

Aloe vera Linn.

Berberis aristata DC.

Tenninalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb.

Some plants with Immunomodulator properties

Calycopteris jloribunda Lam., Canthium parviflorum Lam., Catuneregam spinosa (Thunb.)

Some plants with Antiseptic properties

Vernacular name: Petari

Aloe barbadensis Mill.

Parts used: The rhizomes are used

Sphaeranthus senegalensis DC.

Human-being have inherent capacity to discriminate and exploit the natural

or addition to knowledge. He expected that Indian research workers from different

use flowers in impotency. Decoction of flowers is administered to the patient

4. Psoralea corylifolia L. : In China, it is used externally to treat vitiligo (loss

Poorly organized lines of authority for management of nature reserves

Interest in 'Ethno-Medicine' continues to be deep rooted with modern researchers.