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Challenge Theory

Educators and philosophers have been exploring how and why learners learn since Plato.

However, it wasnt until psychology was recognized as a science (around 1883) that the study of

animal and human behavior began to be investigated in a more controlled manner. This naturally

led many to study the how human beings as well as their thought-processes develop. How do

humans learn?

Shunk (2012) states, Theories provide frameworks for making sense of environmental

observations (p. 27). Learning theory developed as educators and theorists observed humans

either in natural situations or contrived experiments from infancy into adulthood and far into old

age in an effort to explain how the mind and body processes information. While there is no

consensus on a definition of learning, and no one seems to hold the same view on the cause,

process, or consequence of learning, most educators agree with the following statement:

Learning is an enduring change in behavior, or in the capacity to behave in a given

fashion, which results from practical or other forms of experience. (Shunk, 2012, p. 3)

Shunk defines theory as a scientifically acceptable set of principles offered to explain a

phenomenon (2012, p. 10). Learning theory is rooted in the founding psychology as being

recognized as science, however, the art of learning was studied long before that. Theory helps us

understand how we might explain or present the information to the learner more effectively. The

research in this paper suggests a new theory, one meant specifically for adolescents that explores

the psychology and art of learning. It shall be called Challenge Theory.

Do Our Current Theories Fit Our Needs?

In Piagets Cognitive Theory, formal operations are the final stage reached by

adolescents through adulthood where individuals may use abstract symbols related to abstract

concepts, think about multiple variables in systematic ways, formulate hypotheses, and
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contemplate abstract relationships and concepts.

Current Learning Theories
However, in a study conducted in 1998 by Huitt
Behaviorism (Skinner)
and Hummell, they discovered that only 35% of Cognitive Learning (Piaget)
Social Behavioral & Cognitive
high school graduates in industrialized countries Learning (Bandura)
Social Cultural Learning
obtain formal operations; many people do not think (Vygotsky)
Moral Development (Kohlberg)
formally during adulthood (Zhou & Brown, 2014, Experiential Social Learning
(Dewey)
p. 15). This begs the question Why not? Bioecological Model of
Development
While cognitive theories, and its offshoot,
(Bronfenbrenner)
Psycho-Social Theory: Crisis
constructivist theories, promote self-efficacy, they
Resolution Stages (Erikson)
create the issue of ensuring proper interpretation of Multiple Intelligences
(Gardner)
information. Researchers of cognitivism believe Blooms Taxonomy (Bloom)
Hierarchy of Needs Theory and
students make sense of the world, actively Motivation (Maslow)
Information Processing Theory
creating meaning while reading texts, interacting

with the environment, or talking with others (Wilson & Peterson, 2006, p. 3). Furthermore,

research has shown that students beliefs that the earth is flat last well after teachers and others

have told them otherwise (p. 3). Teachers might create opportunities for students to learn, but

teachers cannot control students interpretations (p .3). Having an environment which supports a

learners metacognition alongside their experience is paramount to a students eventual success.

The other most common category is Behaviorism. In education, advocates of

behaviorism have effectively adopted this system of rewards and punishments in their

classrooms by rewarding desired behaviors and punishing inappropriate ones (Zhou & Brown,

2014, p. 5). Behaviorism relies heavily on logical consequences, cause and effect, and direct

observation by the person in authority. B.F. Skinner, a renowned behaviorist who studied both
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animal and human behavior, and upon whom many educators base behavioral models,

concluded both animals and humans would repeat acts that led to favorable outcomes, and

suppress those that produced unfavorable results (p. 5). However, behaviorism may not be the

ideal theory to apply to an educational setting for adolescents and young adults as it does little to

encourage self-efficacy when compared to other theories.

Logic and Experience. One theory or practice not covered as yet is the classical

education model, often called the trivium. The whole structure of the trivium recognizes that

there is an ideal time and place for each part of learning: memorization, argumentation, and self-

expression (Wise & Bauer, 2009, p. 23). The trivium is based on the Socratic Method of

teaching, and in regard to adolescent instruction, it would focus on the art of self-expression.

Moreover, even in the classical

education model there are two schools of

thought. Plato believed that knowledge is

discovered through the senses; that all people

are born with innate knowledge and ideas and

have only to reflect upon them to acquire

Source: Blattner, n.d., n.p.
reason, information, and create meaning. This

theory is put under the heading of Rationalism. Aristotle argued that experience was the source

of true knowledge; that ideas cannot exist without processing the external world. This is called

Empiricism. All current learning theories may fall under one or the other of these headings.

Bringing Past, Present, and Future Together

Challenge theory hypothesizes that learners require both empiricism and rationalism,

thrive under both cognitivism and behaviorism. People are born with a natural perception of the
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world and that helps them create order, but

Rationalism Empiricism Cognitivism Behaviorism through experience and experimentation

they may build new knowledge and

understanding. Each person has a visceral

Challenge Theory need for order, personal praise and

correction, and also has the core ability to

be intrinsically motivated, choose their own path, and scaffold their own learning. Maurice

Gibbons, the mind behind challenge theory and the learning methods it endorses, and Steve

Musson (1988) argue the theory works because it is built on logic [rationalism] and experience

[empiricism] (p.15).

Rationalists believe first in individual deduction, that the individual knows what is good

for them, while empiricists believe that experience is the best teacher. Behaviorists utilize

contracts to encourage desirable behavior, or mitigate poor behavior. A core concept among

cognitivists, and constructivists, is that individuals create ideas and actively construct their own

knowledge. Challenge theory utilizes contracts in the form of Passages so that students choose

their own outcomes (Gibbons, 2002, p. 438), which is also a core principle of rationalism,

establishing that students can direct their own learning only when they begin to know

themselves and the direction they want their lives to take (p. 165). However, challenge theory

also states, It seems reasonable to conclude that students will earn best by coherently extending

their experience in their own emerging style that takes full advantage of their individual

strengths (p. 177), effectively incorporating empiricism, cognitivism, and constructivism, as

well.
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Challenge Learning

Maurice Gibbons began as a college professor, a teacher of teachers, in the 1960s and

eventually moved onto developing schools and programs based on his educational philosophy of

challenge-ability. Challenge-ability is not only an essential skill, but one necessary for individual

maturation. He began exploring challenge learning and its methods, ultimately developing the

Walkabout, so named for the aboriginal rite of passage from adolescence into adulthood.

Gibbons believed that young people can learn to direct their own learning programs through the

medium of challenge (Gibbons & Musson, 1998, p. 8). Students only succeed if they are

pursuing personal goals, if they are reaching forward in an attempt to grow (p. 9). And if

something is innately built into an individuals psyche, and/or can be learned, then it can be built

into our educational systems.

Challenge theory brings together behaviorism and cognitivism theories by utilizing the

best aspects of both contracts and intrinsic motivation. Students must be allowed the freedom

to choose their own goals, their own learning path, and the method in which they follow it, but

also have some process of accountability. Gibbons (2002) states:

Competencies and challenges provide a general framework within which each student

can find personal focus and effort. By learning to set their own goals, students also learn

to motivate themselves. The learning contract and major challenges or graduation

passages focus students on the task. (p. 1359)

The contract is initiated by the student, not because they are having an issue or problem, but

because they are seeking success and accountability within their community.

The challenges and passages extended projects often conducted in the field are

designed to guide and support students through their struggles to complete the tasks of personal
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transformation and to equip them

for the rigors of the transition

from childhood to young

adulthood (Gibbons, 2002, p.

194). Arnold Langberg, one of

the founders and first principal

of Jefferson County Open High

School (now called Jefferson

County Open School) states,

Projects and Passages are meant

to have real world relevance

(1984, p. 604). In the effort to

transition from adolescence into

adulthood, these challenges and

passages require students to have

Source: JCOS, 2016, p. 1

taken the successes and the failures that have come with the process and have learned and

grown from them (Horwood, 1987, p. 68). It requires each student to hold themselves

accountable not only for their choices, but for their growth, and apply it all to the real world.

Gibbons and Musson (1988) suggest eight challenges (Adventure, Creative Expression,

Sports, Practical Skills, Logical Inquiry, Job Experience, and Personal Improvement) (p.8), while

schools such as JCOS in Lakewood, CO, which implemented the Walkabout program as

conceptualized by Gibbons, incorporates six Passages (Adventure, Career Exploration,

Creativity, Logical Inquiry, Global Awareness, and Practical Skills) (Gibbons, 2002, p. 2029).
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These six Passages are the primary method in which students graduate at JCOS. Furthermore,

there are other Walkabout schools throughout the United States and world, schools such as

Baylor School in Chattanooga, TN and the Graham Family of Schools in Columbus, OH, which

use other Passage formats similar to JCOS. The primary similarity is that each has a rubric

demanding students develop foreknowledge, document their learning process, goals and

expected outcomes, check-in regularly with their advisor/teacher and panel, and complete a

wrap-up process.

Self-Efficacy

Challenge theory utilizes metacognitive competencies, requiring students to think about

their thoughts in order to make good decisions and about their decisions to ensure successful

action (Gibbons, 2002, p. 182). It is an acknowledgement of self, and an awareness that the self

is able to regulate its own actions and reactions. This idea, expressed by Gibbons that high

school is a rite of passage from adolescence to mature adulthood (Horwood, 1987, p. 1),

demands that students develop adult competencies by promoting self-reliance, a connection to

experience (p. 88), then converted to learning through thought and reflection (p. 36). This

moves challenge theory beyond the confines of behaviorism and into a balance of rationalism,

empiricism, and cognitivism.

Horwood refers to Argys and Schns Double-Loop Learning Model regarding students

engaged in challenge learning. As discussed regarding cognitive theory, it is essential there are

checks and balances to ensure that students interpretation of information is accurate. Argys and

Schn state that those individuals who learn or operate in a system without internal or external

checks and balance practice Model I behavior, which is

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[g]overned by the need to rigorously pursue goals, maximize winning, suppress personal

conflict, and maintain rationality. These needs, called governing variables, are controlled

by an extensive repertoire of tactics which include professional control and ownership of

the work, defensiveness in exchanges between people, withholding information to help

others and by private decision-making. (Horwood, 1987, p. 81)

This is Single-Loop Learning. There is no in-between for those who have never learned to

think outside of the first loop, those individuals do not question their own assumptions.

Contrarily, the Model II

behavior practitioner is modifying

information about themselves in

risky situations, sharing tasks,

openly confronting difficult issues,

and offering choices (Horwood, p.

Source: Argys, 2009, n.p.

82). The difference in what is called Double Loop Learning is that the practitioner operates with

a positive quality of life, high authenticity, large freedom of choice, and great effectiveness in

solving difficult problems (pp. 82-83). Horwood extensively studied the Jefferson County Open

School community (then popularly known as Mountain Open or Jefferson County Open High

School) and found that neither students, teachers, principal, nor staff behaved in accordance

with Model I (p. 84). Rather, he observed an environment where people were not seen as

winners or losers but a community with shared responsibility, equality (students are treated as

equal to teachers and administration in decision-making), an abiding commitment to excellence,

full disclosure, risk-taking, and validity (pp. 84-85).

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Adolescents are Tomorrows Adults Any subject can be given

scholarly value if the
Structuring learning experiences to adolescents in the student can trace its
historical development,
same way that we structure learning for young children is reflects on its origins, and
theorizes about its future.
detrimental to their ability to become independent thinkers
- Neil Postman
and doers. Returning briefly to the classical education (qtd. in Bauer & Wise, 2009, p. 599)

method, adolescents enter into rhetoric, or the art of self-expression. It requires students to

pursue debate, defense of position, and specialization. Dorothy Sayers, a Socratic scholar, states:

Any child who already shows a disposition to specialize should be given his head: for

when the use of the tools has been well and truly learned, it is available for any study

whatever. It would be well, I think, that each pupil should learn to do one or two subjects

really well, while taking a few classes in subsidiary subjects so as to keep his mind open

to inter-relationships of all knowledge. (1978, p. 11)

This philosophy is significantly different from the current 23 Colorado graduation requirements

in four core subjects and various electives. Those few elective hours do not allow a student to

specialize, or discover their path to adulthood.

Furthermore, adulthood is not an arbitrary age, such as 18 or 21. It is not reached in a set

timeframe. In schools such as JCOS, learning is self-regulated and self-paced; graduation is

determined by the student first deciding they are ready, and coming together with their

community advisor, parents, peers to agree upon their readiness. This also means that

graduation statistics will appear different. It is essential to know that although students may not

enter in the 9th or 10th grade, all students are still required to complete six Passages in order to

graduate. The following chart demonstrates graduation rates for students after four years in the

program, and an extended time of seven years:

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Jefferson County Open School 4-Year (2015-16) 7-Year (2012-13)

Students with Disabilities 50% 83.3%
Limited English Proficient 0% (No Students to Chart) 0% (No Students to Chart)
Economically Disadvantaged 50% 73.7%
Title 1 0% (No Students to Chart) 100%
Homeless 0% (No Students to Chart) 100%
Gifted-Talented 50% 100%
Source: Colorado Department of Education, 2016, n.p.

The placement of power in the hands of the student is an essential aspect of challenge theory. As

students mature, they begin to view school as a form of employment, relating the two in their

own minds (Horwood, 1987, p. 58). In a challenge theory environment, students can practice

being adults (Gregory & Smith, 1987, p 73) as the gains are not measured by test scores, but by

steps toward maturity (p. 73). Therefore, remaining in school longer is not only accepted, but

often encouraged, guaranteeing that the student believes themselves ready for adulthood.

Challenge Theory Needed

The Colorado Legislature determined that incoming 2017-18 freshmen would have to

fulfill one of several options in order to complete high school in addition to the requisite credit

hours. One of these options is a capstone project in English Language Arts, Math, Science, and

Social Studies. Colorado joins a growing number of states including Georgia, Florida, Virginia,

and Ohio to name a few who allow its high school graduates to engage in Project Based, or

Challenge, learning to graduate.

The Colorado Department of Education defines the capstone as culminating exhibitions

of project, performance, or structured experience that demonstrates learning of pre-determined

outcomes (Asia Society, 2014, p. 7). The purpose of the capstone is that students challenge

themselves to discover meaning, to find purpose beyond the classroom structures, and establish
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ownership of their education. Challenge

learning theory asks students to set a

goal for personal excellence, plan what

to do to reach the goal, manage how the

student will put the plan into effective

action, explain the results the student

expects to achieve and specify what the

results actually were, reflect on the

Source: Colorado Department of Education, n.d., p. 5

challenge process, and how the student expects to challenge themselves next (Gibbons and

Musson, 1988, p. 29). Challenge theory fits the capstone as if it were created for it.

Conclusion

Learning theory is rooted in the founding of psychology as being recognized as a science,

however, the art of learning was studied long before. Learning theory might be broken into two

eras classical education: the work of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, beginning in approximately

440 BCE, and modern psychology which first formally separated from philosophy with the

founding of the Institute for Experimental Psychology at the University of Leipzig in Germany in

1897 by Wilhelm Wundt. The latter began a trend of theorists fascinated by the study of human

development. As the interest in how the human mind functioned grew, the natural byproduct was

understanding how humans learned at every developmental stage.

While there are many learning theories currently in use, few directly address the

adolescent mind. Challenge theory addresses how an adolescent thinks, anticipates where the

adolescent needs to go next (adulthood), and provides a pathway for them to succeed. By

providing a nurturing community, one which first supports the student, then releases the student
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to follow their own path, it allows the for the personal, social, and intellectual development

necessary for an adolescent to transition into adulthood. Challenge theory supports adolescents in

a way no other theory does in current use. It utilizes the best of past and present learning

theories, meshing them together into one cohesive theory.

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References

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