Latest Addition To Gate Topics PDF

Addendum Material
For
Civil Engineering
By
www.thegateacademy.com
Contents
Changes in Syllabus of GATE-2016
Subjects Page No.

Transportation 1 31
Topic Added
Geometric Design of Railway Track, ,
Airport Engineering
Channelization
Geomatics Engineering 32 51
Topic Added
Remote Sensing
GIS, GPS, Total Station
Curves (Horizontal & Vertical)
Construction Materials & Management

New book Added
Engineering Mechanics
New book Added
:080-617 66 222, info@thegateacademy.com Copyright reserved. Web:www.thegateacademy.com i

Transporting Engineering
Geometric Design of Railway Track
Track Alignment
The Direction and position given to the centre line of the Railway track on the ground is called
Track alignment
Horizontal alignment includes the straight path, its width, deviations in width and curves.
Vertical alignment includes changes in gradients and Vertical Curves.
Basic Requirements of an Ideal Alignment

1. Purpose of track:
a) Transportation service
b) Political & strategic
c) Linking of centres
d) To open up new tracks
e) Shortening existing track
2. Feasibility
3. Economy
4. Safety
5. Aesthetic aspects
Factors in Selection of Good Alignment

1. Obligatory or controlling points:
(a) Points through which a track must pass
Important towns and cities
Major bridges on river crossings
Hill passes or saddles
Tunnel sites
(b) Points through which a track should not pass
Costly lands
Religious places
Flood areas
2. Position, amount and type of traffic
3. Gauge selection
4. Geometric standards
5. Topography of the country
Survey for Track Alignment

The steps/surveys in their respective order are
1. Map study or paper location.
2. Traffic survey.
: 080-617 66 222, info@thegateacademy.com Copyright reserved. Web:www.thegateacademy.com 1

3. Reconnaissance survey
4. Preliminary survey (initial location survey)
5. Detailed survey Final location survey)
Geometric Design of Track

Railway track should be designed, suiting to load and speed of the train and meeting the safety
requirement and economic considerations.
Elements of Geometric Design

1. Gradients and Grade Compensation
2. Speed
3. Radius and Degree of Curve
4. Cant/Super Elevation
5. Curves
6. Widening of Gauges on Curves
Gradient & Grade Compensation

Any departure of the track from the level is known as grade or gradient.
Gradients are provides due to following reasons:
1. To provide a uniform rate of rise or fall
2. To reach various stations at different elevations.
3. To reduce the cost of earth work.
The various gradients used on tracks are:
Ruling Gradient: The steepest grade which exists in a particular section is called the ruling gradient,
as it limits the maximum weight of the train which can be hauled by a locomotive on the particular
section.
Momentum Gradient: It is the grade steeper than the ruling gradient. This can be overcome by a
train due to its own momentum gathered on its run
Pusher or Helper Gradient: When the grade is so steep as to necessitate the help of an extra engine
for pushing the train, it is called the pusher grade. The extra engine so used is called Pusher or
Banking engine.
Ghat Sections: Sections which have a considerable length of grade of 1 in 200 or steeper are called
ghat section
Grades in station yards:

The grades in station yards have to be sufficiently flat in order that
(i) Unconnected vehicles, left standing on the tracks, do not start moving on their own due to
the effect of gravity coupled with the effect of a strong wind and/or a gentle push
(ii) Locomotives, which have to overcome a higher starting resistance are not encumbered with
further resistance due to steep grade.

Indian railways permitted maximum gradient for all gauges in station yards is 1 in 400, whilst a
gradient of 1 in 1200 is recommended.
Grade Compensation on Curves

If a curve happens to fall on a ruling grade, it will not be possible for a train to overcome the
resistance caused by the gradient and the curve. In such cases either the train load is decreased
or the gradient is flattened. This flattening of the grade is called grade compensation on curves.
In India, compensation for curve is given at:
0.04%: BG
0.03%: MG
0.02%: NG, for per degree of curve
Railway Curves
Railway curves except transition curves are of uniform nature i.e., for any unit of length travelled
round the curve, there is same amount of change of direction. The only curve which has his property
is the circumference of the circle. Railway curves are precisely like circumference of a circle.
Classification of Curves
1. Simple Curve: This has only one radius throughout
2. Compound Curve: This comprises two or more simple curves, both curving in the same way
3. Reverse Curve: This is made up of two or more simple curves in opposite direction
A1 A2
A1 A2 r2
O1
r1 r1
r1 O
A
0
Simple Curve Compound Curve
O1
r2
C2
r2
C1
C r1
r1
O
Reverse Curve
Degree of a Curve
Railway curves are described by the length of their radius or by the angle subtended at the centre
by a chord of 100 ft. (30.5 m).
If the angle subtended by 100 ft, chord is 1 at centre then the curve is called 1 curve.
Radius of 1 curve,
Circumference
R1 =
2
300 100
=
2
= 5730 ft
= 1750 m
Similarly, Radius of D degree Curve,
5730
R= ft
D
1750
= m
D
Therefore, the degree of curve varies inversely as its Radius.
The maximum degree of curve is the smallest radius on which a railway may be laid. It depends
upon
(A) Wheel base of the vehicle
(B) Maximum super elevation that can be permitted
(C) Increases in operation and maintenance costs of track and rolling stock on sharp curves.
The maximum degree of curvature as permitted for various gauges in the Indian Railways are:
B.G.: 10or 175 m radius
M. G. : 16 or 109 m radius
N. G. 40or 44 m radius
Degree and Radius of Curves taking off from main Line Curves
Normally, turnout curves take off from the straight main line as shown in figure.
Turnout
Curve
Main Line
But there are many situations when a turnout is required to take off from a curved main line. They
are:
Similar Flexure: When a turnout is curve take off in the same direction as the main line curve, it is
known as a curve of similar flexure (figure)

Turnout Curve
Main Line
Contrary Flexure: when the turnout curve takes off in the opposite direction to the main line curve it
is known as curve of contrary flexure (figure)
Main Line
Turnout Curve
When the radii of the main line and the turnout curves in the contrary flexure are the same, it is
known as Symmetrical Split
Let D and R be the degree and radius of turnout curve respectively, when taken from a straight
main line; DM and R M the degree and radius of main line curve; and DR and R R the degree and
radius of resultant curve. Then,
For Similar Flexure
DR = DM + D
1 1 1
and, = +
RR RM R
For contrary flexure:
DR = DM D
1 1 1
and, =
RR RM R
Note: There are two standard turnouts (1:8.5 and 1:12) are used in Indian railways. They have
degree of curvature of 8 and 4 respectively.
Relation between chord, Radius and Versine of a Curve

Let, R = Radius of Curve
C = Chord length
V = Versine
Using property of Chords,
C C
(2R V)V =
2 2
Neglecting V 2 , we get,
C2
V= where, V is in m
8R
C2
V = 12.5 V is in cm
R
If relationship is to be found out with D the degree of curve then

C2 D
V = 12.5
1750
Now, if we choose C = 11.8 m then,
12.5 (11.8)2 D
V= =D
1750
Thus, for 11.8 m chord, the versine in cm gives the degree of curve. This fact is used in field by
measuring versine of 11.8 m chord and getting degree of curve.
Super Elevation or cant for Railway Track

When a body moves on circular path, it is acted upon by a centrifugal force (out wards). The
weight of the body acts in downwards direction. The resultant force, thus, acts towards the outer
rail, and exerts a greater load on outer rail. Further, when velocity increases centrifugal force
increases and resultant passes through the outer rail, now there is no load on inner rail and
vehicle will overturn.
mV 2
R
R mg
In railways overturning rarely happens but the flange of the wheels try to climb over the rail and
derailment occurs. Besides this, centrifugal force causes irregular stressing of rails and other
track components, both in vertical and lateral mode.
The method adopted for counteracting the centrifugal force is, to make the plane of the tops of
rails normal (at right angles) to the resultant of the centrifugal force and the weight. This means
that the outer rail is raised above the inner rail or that the track is CANTED. Thus, the term CANT
or Superelevation is used to represent the amount by which one rail of the track is raised above
the other. It is considered positive when the outer rail is raised above the inner rail and is
negative when inner rail is raised above outer rail
Computation of superelevation
mV 2
R G
e

mg

By equating forces in horizontal and vertical direction, we get,

Gv 2 GV 2
e= =
gR 127R
Where, V = Speed in kmph
v = Speed in m/s
R = Radius of Curve in m
g = 981 cm/s2
e = Super elevation in mm
G = Distance between the centres of rails
For Indian Railways,
G = 1750 mm for B.G.
= 1057 mm for M.G.
The superelevation computed by above formula is called EQUILIBRIUM CANT for radius R and
speed V.
Equilibrium Speed
Cant varies with square of velocity. Therefore, in a section where goods, passenger and express
trains run at different speeds, cant provided will be in excess for some trains and less for others.
Excess cant can cause overloading of lower rail while less cant causes more weight to be thrown on
higher rail. Unbalanced radial acceleration causes discomfort to passengers. Improper cant can
causes excess wear of rails and greater disturbance to track geometry. The amount of
superelevation thus depends upon the maximum speed of the fastest trains and indeed on the speed
and volume of slow goods traffic on a particular section. Excess superelevation is reported to have
contributed to overturning of empty goods rolling stock when exposed to high velocity winds.
Therefore a compromise is required to decide the speed for which superelevation is to be provided.
This speed is called EQUILIBRIUM SPEED and is arrived at by determining the maximum speed
which can actually be attained by fast and slow trains, stopping places and gradients.
Equilibrium or Average Speed is given by

(a) When maximum sanctioned speed > 50 kmph:
(i) Average speed = 3/4 Vmax [Subjected to min. of 50 kmph]
(ii) Safe speed on curve
[(i) or (ii) whichever is less]
(b) When maximum sanctioned speed 50 kmph
(i) Average speed = Vmax
(ii) Safe speed of curve.
[(i) or (ii) whichever is less]
(c) On some railways weighted average is calculated to find out he equilibrium speed,
n1 v1 + n1 v2 + n V
= =
n1 + n2 + n
Where, n1 , n2 , n3 . etc. are number of trains running at speeds v1 , v2 , v3 etc

Maximum Superelevation
The limits of maximum superelevation as given by Indian Railway are:
1. Broad Gauge
Group A, B and C rates 165 mm.
185 mm
(in future planning is considered)
Group D & E Routes 140 mm
2. Metre gauge 90 mm
100 mm (on high speed routes)
3. Narrow Gague 65 mm
75 mm (with special permission)
Note: While solving problem, if nothing is mentioned about maximum cant, one can assume the max
value of cant as 1/10th of gauge
Cant Deficiency
Cant deficiency occurs when a train travels at a speed more than the equilibrium speed
Cant deficiency = Theoretical cant provided for such speed actual cant provided.
Permitted values of max. cant deficiency are:
(i) Board gauge 75 mm 100 mm (for speed > 100 kmph on Group A and B routes)
(ii) Metre Gauge 50 m
(iii) Narrow gauge 38 mm
Cant Excess
Cant excess on the other hand occurs when a train travels round a curve at a speed less than the
equilibrium speed.
Cant excess =actual cant Theoretical cant required for such speed
Maximum values of cant excess are
(i) Broad gauge 75 mm
(ii) Metre gauge 65 mm
Negative Cant
When a main line is on a curve and a branch line branches off from with a curve in contrary flexure
to the main line, the outer rail vis-a-vis the inner rail has to remain lower up to a certain distance
from the take off point. This is necessary because of:
(a) Canted curve of the outer rail of main line and
(b) The turnout sleeper, being in same inclined plane
This continuity of plane makes the inner rail of the branch line higher than its outer rail. The lower
amount of cant of the outer rail vis--vis the inner rail in a branch line is called negative cant
Maximum Permissible Speed on a Curve: The maximum permissible speed on a curve is taken as the
minimum value of speed calculated by the following methods:
(a) Maximum sanctioned speed of the section.
(b) Safe speed over the curve. (Based on MARTINs formulae)
(c) Speed based on consideration of superelevation

The above there methods are used when the length of transition curve can possibly be
increased. But in case, length of transition curve cannot be changed the following fourth
method is used:
(d) Speed from the length of Transition curve.
Note: Maximum sanctioned speed is specified by Railway authorities based on condition of track.
Safe Speed Based on Martins Formulae

(a) When transition curve exists
(i) For B.G. and M.G., V = 4.35 R 67
Or V = 4.4 R 70 (V is in kmph)
(ii) For N.G., V = 3.6 R 6.1
Or V = 3.65 R 6
(Subject to a maximum of 50 kmph)
(b) On non-transitional curves
4
(i) For B. G. and M. G. , V = speed calculated
5
in (a)above
4
(ii) For N. G >, V = speed calculated in (a)above
5
(Subject to a maximum of 40 kmph)
(c) For high speeds
V = 4.58 R
Safe speed based on superelevation

(a) On fully transitional curves
(i) For B. G. , V = 0.27 (Ca + Cd )R
(ii) For M. G. , V = 0.347 (Ca + Cd )R
The above two formula are based on the
GV 2
Basic formula: e = , on the assumption
127R
That, G = 1750 mm for B. G.
= 1057 mm for M. G.
(iii) For N. G. (762 mm), V = 3.65R 6
(Subject to max of 50 kmph)
In above formula, V = speed in kmph
R = Radius of curve in mm.
Ca = Actual cant in mm.
Cd = Cant deficiency in mm.
(b) Non Transitional Curves
(i) Non transitional curves with cant on virtual transitions
Concept of Virtual Transition: A vehicle moving with uniform velocity on the straight track
begins to change its linear velocity into angular velocity as soon as the front bogie of the
vehicle reaches the tangent point. The change continues till the rear bogie of the vehicle
reaches the tangent. At that stage, the vehicle acquires full angular velocity. The change in

motion of the vehicle from the straight to curved condition takes place over the shortest
distance between the bogie centres, which is considered as the virtual transiting
Normally this distance is 14, 8 m in B.G, 13.7 m on M.G., and 10.3 m on N.G., commencing on
the straight at half the distance beyond the tangent point.
The deficiency of cant is considered as being gained in the length of the virtual transition
and cant has to be gained in similar manner. The safe speed is worked out on the basis of
cant, which can actually be provided on the above basis.
(ii) Non transitional curves with no cant in such cases, the safe speed is calculated on the basis
of cant deficiency than can be permitted on the curve.
(iii) Curves laid with inadequate length of transition.
The safe permissible speed is arrived at on the basis of actual cant/cant deficiency, which
can be provided taking into consideration limiting cant/cant deficiency gradient.
Speed from the Length of Transition Curve

(a) For Speed upto kmph
134 L
either, Vmax = (i)
Ca
Where,
L = Length of transition curve based on rate of change of cant as 38 mm/sec for speed upto 100
kmph and 55 mm/sec for high speeds.
134 L
or, Vmax = . . (ii)
Cd
Ca = Actual cant in mm,
Cd = Cant deficiency in mm
The lesser value of speed obtained from (i) and (ii) is used.
(b) For High Speed Trains (Speed > 100 kmph)
198 L
either, Vmax = (i)
Ca
198 L
or, Vmax = . . (ii)
Cd
(Lesser of the two is adopted)
Transition Curves
To counteract the centrifugal forces on the curves, superfetation has to be provided throughout the
length of curve. When a circular curve joins the straight track, such a condition exists at the tangent
point, that at one moment no superelevation is required. It is neither possible nor desirable to have
such a sudden change on track. The only method of overcoming this difficulty is to insert another
curve between the straight and circular curve. In the inserted curve the radius is gradually
decreased from infinity (radius of straight line) to that of circular curve. Such a curve is called
transition of easement curve, and the curve usually employed is a cubic parabola.

Types of Transition Curve

There are following three types
(i) All the requirement of transition curve i.e.,
1
Radius of curvature
Length of Curve
(So that rate of change of acceleration is uniform)
(ii) Cubic Parabola: In this the rate of decrease of radius of curvature is low from 4o to 9o but
beyond 9o there is rapid increase in the radius of curvature.
(iii) Bernoullis Lemniscate: In this the radius decreases as the length increases so the radial
acceleration goes on falling but the fall is not uniform beyond 30o deflection angle.
Major Axis
Bemolli s
Lemniscate
Cubic Parabola
45o Spiral Curve
For deflection upto 4o all the three curves almost trace the same path. For deflection upto 9o
there is not much difference between the paths traced by each of them.
Transition Curve for Railways

Indian Railway has adopted cubic parabola (also known as frauds curve of adjustment), which is
easy to lay by offset method.
Equation of cubic parabola
The general equation is:
y = cx 3 . . (1)
dy
= 3 c. x 2 = Slope of curve
dx
d2 y
and = 6c. x
dx 2
1
= degree of curve =
r
at x = o, r = 1
} = 6 CL
at x = L, r = R R
1
C=
6 RL
Hence the equation (i) becomes,
x3
y= . (ii)
6 RL
In a cubical parabola the offsets from the straight increases in cubical proportion to their
distance from the point of origin and the radius at any point on the curve, varies almost inversely
as the distance of the curve, varies almost inversely as the distance of that point from origin.
As the centrifugal starting from straight, gradually build up on the transition curve, the cant
increases corresponding to the curvature thereby attaining its full value at the commencement of
circular curve. Centrifugal forces therefore continue getting fully compensated as the radius
changes.
A transition curve such as this cannot be inserted between an existing straight and existing curve.
The curve has to be displaced or shifted to a posing parallel to its original alignment. (as shown
in fig. below).
1 1
Straight M 2 T 2 Q
N Y1 Transition
Shift Curve
Original
Circular
V P
X1 Curve
Y
In the figure, the original circular curve is tangential to the straight at T. the curve is shifted to
ZPY and TZ is the amount of shift (s). The transition curve MNP bisects the shift TZ at N. the total
length of transition curve (measured along the straight) is MO and MT is equal to TQ. The
transition curve being a cubic parabola, the offset at Q i.e., QP., at twice the distance from M, is
eight times the offset at T i.e., TN or 4 times the shift i.e., 4S, with the value of shift known, the
offset at any point from the straight can be found out by a simple equation:
Y T1
3
= 3
X X1
1
Where, X1 = Transition length
2
1
and Y1 = Shift (s)
2
Shift
The distance by which the circular curve is shifted inward is called shift and in case os cubic
parabola it is given by,
L2
S=
24R
S = Shift in m
L = Length of transition curve in m
R = Radius of circular curve in m

Length of Transition Curve

The length of the transition curve is length along the centre line of the track from its meeting
point with straight to that with the circular curve. This length is inserted at the junction half in
straight and half in the curves. (As shown in previous figure).
The Indian railway has specified that greatest of the following length should be taken as the
length of transition curve:
(i) L = 0. 0074 Ca Vmax
(ii) L = 0.0074 Cd Vmax
(iii) L = 0.72 Ca
Where,
L = Length of transition in m.
Vmax = Maximum permissible speed in kmph
Ca = Actual cant on curve in mm.
Cd = Cant deficiency in mm.
Formula (i) and (ii) are based on rate of gain of cant and of cant deficiency of 36 mm per second.
Formula (iii) is based on the maximum cant gradient of 1.4 mm per metre of 1 in 720.
In another approach the length of the transition curve is obtained by the maximum value of the
following values:
(i) As per railway code, L = 4.4R
Where, L and R are in mm.
(ii) At the rate of change of superelevation of 1 in 360.
(iii) Rate of change of cant deficiency, say 2.5 cm is not exceeded.
(iv) Based on rate of change of radial acceleration with radial acceleration of 0.3048 m/sec 2 ,
3.28v 2
L= (where V is in m/s)
R
Realignment of Curves
Railway curves lose their original alignment with the passage of traffic. Unbalanced centrifugal
forces generated by the vehicles running at varying speeds, are the main cause, nut the
irregularities in track geometry and defects in suspension system of the rolling stock also
contribute considerably in distorting the curve alignment.
For smooth and satisfactory running on curves, there should be no abrupt change of curvature
and the cant should be proper. To ensure this, surveys are conducted on curves, in which versine
and cant are recorded all along the curve at 10 m interval and on 20 m chord. Based on these
surveys, commonly known as VERSINE SURVETS, the decision for local correction or complete
realignment of curve is taken
Criteria for Realignment of a Curve

A method for deciding the need for curve realignment is by drawing a cumulative frequency
diagram. It shows the cumulative frequency-indicated as percentage- of occurrence of stations
having versine variation, over the average versine on circular portion and theoretical versines
over transition.
Realignment of curve is taken up if the cumulative percentage having variation within the
prescribed limit. The limits of variations are 4 mm for BG group A routes, and 5 mm for Group B
and other main line routes. After realignment, the cumulative parentage should come within 90
to 95%
String Line Operation for Realignment of Curves

This method is based on following general principles.
(i) Sum of all versines (i.e., mid ordinates) taken on equal chords of any two curves between the
same tangents equal. In other words, sum of the difference between the existing and
proposed versines must be zero.
(ii) Throw at any station is equal to twice the 2nd summation of the difference of the proposed
and existing versines upto the previous station.
(iii) Throws should be adjusted in such a way, that the throws on slews at first and last stations
of the curve should be equal to zero
The realignment work consists of three main operations:
(i) Survey of the existing curve by taking measurement of versines. Versines are recorded 10 m
apart on 20 m chord.
(ii) Determination of the revised alignment and compilation of slews, including calculation for
correct superelevation.
(iii) Slewing of the curve to the revised alignment and provision of proper superelevation.
Based on above, various methods have been evolved to obtain the correct slew. These methods
may be tabular, graphical, mechanical or electronic. Computer programmers have been evolved
which work out a near ideal alignment with minimum slews.
Curve Corrector
Measurement of versines at each and every station and calculations of slews has always been a
laborious and time consuming process. Therefore, Curve-Corrector-a portable instrument- has been
developed, which when moved on curved track gives a continuous recording of versines.
Extra Lateral Clearance on Curves
Extra lateral clearance is desired because

(i) Vehicle may travel with same degree of safety all over the system of a particular gauge.
(ii) On curves, the centre line of the vehicles move away from the centre line track thereby
necessitating extra clearance for structures.
(iii) There is also leaning of vehicle on account f superelevation and swaying on account of speed.
Consider the bogie shown below on a curve of Radius R. L is end to end length of bogie and C is
the centre to centre distance to two bogie centers.
1. Over Throw or extra clearance needed at
C2
Centre =
8R

2. End Throw or extra clearance needed at end

L2 C2
=
8R 8R
On account of super elevation the vehicle lean toward the inner rail (as shown in figure)
he
Lean = Where,
G
h = Height of vehicle
e = Super elevation
G = Gauge
Lean
e
G
Additional Lurch or Sway Inside the Curve:
Additional lurch or sway on the curves will depend upon the unbalanced centrifugal forces
and how the vehicle suspension systems react to such forces.
For present day speeds and vehicle, the extra clearance on account of sway has been
empirically laid down as 1/4 th of extra clearance on account of lean.
Total extra lateral clearance needed outside the curve,
L2 C2
E1 = end throw = (i)
8R
Total extra lateral clearance inside the curve,
E2 = over throw + Lean + sway
C2 he 1 he
+ + . . (ii)
8R G 4 G
The values of R, L, C, h G & e are:
R = Radius of curve in mm.
L = End to end length of bogie
= 21340 mm for B.G
= 19510 mm for M.G
H = Height of bogie = 4025 mm for B.G
= 3355 mm for M.G
C = Bogie centers distance
= 14785 mm for B.G
= 13715 mm for M.G
E = Super elevation in mm
G = 1676 mm for B.G
= 1000 mm for M.G

Extra clearance on Platforms

(a) For platforms situated inside of curve = E2 41 mm
(b) For platforms situated outside the curve = E1 25 mm
[Where, E1 and E2 are given by e.q (i) & (ii)]
Note: On straight track, the clearance provided between and vehicle & platform coping is 152 mm.
Gauge Widening on Curves

Due to rigidity of the wheel base, when the outer wheel of the front axle strikes against the outer
rail, a stage will reach where flanges on both axles of the bogie will begin to touch the rails and the
curve will be of minimum radius to accommodate the bogie.
A B
AB = Rigid WheelBase
Therefore gauge should be widened at curves, otherwise there is every possibilities of rails tilting
outwards. But this gauge widening should be just adequate, if it is more than required, the lateral
play of the vehicle will vigorous & may result in derailment.
Gauge widening is given by,
13(B + L)2
We = Where,
R
B = Rigid wheel base in meters
= 6 m for B.G = 4.88 m for M.G
R = Radius of curves in m
L = Lap of flange in m =0.02h2 + Dh
H = Depth of wheel flange below rails in cms
D = Diameters of wheel in cms
We = Gauge widening in cms
In the Indian railway the gauge on curves is laid an maintained to the following standards:
Gauge Radius Gauge Provided

1. BG
(a) straight 3 mm tight i.e. 1673 mm including curves of 400 m radius or more
(b) Less than up to 5 mm slack i.e. 400 mm up to 1681 mm
2. MG
(a) Straight exact i.e. 1000 mm including curves of 300 m and more
(b) 200 to 300 m radius up to 5 mm stack
(c) Less than 200 mm up to 15 mm stack
Check Rail on Curves

The pressure of the flange of the leading wheel against the outer rail leads, not only to excessive
wear but also to risk of the tyre climbing up over the rail. To minimize risk, a check rail is fixed
inside the inner rail end made parallel to it.

Check rail performs the following functions

(i) Reduce the lateral wear on outer rail
(ii) Prevent the outer wheel flange from mounting the outer rail
(iii) Prevent the vehicle from derailment
In Indian Railways, check rails are provided on curves when the radius of curve is 218 m (8) and
less on BG and 125 m (4) or less or MG.
Minimum clearance provided for check rails is 44 mm for BG and 41 mm for MG.
Gain of inner Rail over the Outer Rail on a Curve

Let the radius of outer rail = R & Gauge = G.
Radius of inner rail = R G
Circumference of outer rail =
Circumference of outer rail = 2R
Circumference of inner rail = 2(R G)
Gain of inner rail = 2R 2(R G) = 2G
Gain in length 2R = 2G.
Gain in length
2G G
L= L= L
2R R
Vertical Curve
These are two types
(a) Summit curve
(b) Sag or Valley curve
These are provided at the junction of grades as follows:
(a) Rate of change of gradient on summit curves = 0.1%
(b) Rate of change of gradient on valley curves = 0.05%

Assignment
1. The grade compensation on B.G. tracks on 8. The equilibrium superelevation to be
Indian Railway, is provided on a curve of radius R meters and
(A) 0.02% (C) 0.04% speed of vehicle V kmph is given by
(B) 0.03% (D) 0.05% GV 2 GV 2
(A) (C)
127R 147 R
2. If S is cant deficiency in centimeters and V GV 2 GV 2
(B) (D)
is maximum permissibly speed in kmph the 160 R 217 R
maximum length of transition curves, is Where G is gauge.
S. V S. V
(A) (C)
13.6 127 9. The grade compensation on a 4 curve on a
S. V S. V Broad Gauge railway track is
(B) (D)
19.8 16.8 (A) 0.20% (C) 0.12%
(B) 0.16% (D) 0.08%
3. The desirable rate of change of cant
deficiency in case of Metre Gauge is 10. Match List - I with List - II and select the
(A) 20 mm/sec (C) 55 mm/sec correct answer using the codes given below
(B) 35 mm/sec (D) 65 mm/sec the lists:
List I
4. The limiting value of cant gradient for all (a) Ruling gradient
gauges is (b) Momentum
(A) 1 in 360 (C) 1 in 1000 (c) Pusher gradient
(B) 1 in 720 (D) 1 in 1200 (d) Station yard
List II
5. Normally the limiting value of cant gradient 1. Steeper than ruling followed by a
for all falling gradient
(A) G/8 (C) G/12 2. Maximum gradient permitted on a
(B) G/10 (D) G/15 railway section
The G is gauge. 3. 1 in 1000 gradient for drainage
4. Steeper gradient involving gradient use
6. Vertical curves are provided where of additional locomotives
algebraic difference between grades is Codes:
equal to or a b c d
(A) Less than 2 mm/m (A) 1 2 3 4
(B) More than 2 mm/m (B) 2 1 4 3
(C) Less than 4 mm/m (C) 2 3 1 4
(D) More than 4 mm/m (D) 1 4 2 3
7. One degree of curve is equivalent to

(A) 1600/R (C) 1750/R
(B) 1700/R (D) 1850/R

Answers Keys & Explanation
Assignment 5. [Ans. B]
1. [Ans. C]
Grade Compensation for BG = 0.04 % 6. [Ans. D]
Grade Compensation for MG = 0.03 %
7. [Ans. C]
2. [Ans. A]
8. [Ans. A]
3. [Ans. B]
9. [Ans. B]
4. [Ans. B]
10. [Ans. B]
Airport Planning and Design
Introduction
Land, water and air have been used by mankind for developing the transport modes like roadway,
railway, water way and airway. In India railway were assigned priority of developments in the past,
chiefly because, it was one mode which helped mass transportation of goods and passenger.
The air transportation possesses a few distinct advantages as compared to other modes of
transport. These are listed below:
Rapidity
Continuous journey
Accessibility
The Air transport has few limitations as indicated below:
Operating expenses
Capacity
Weather conditions
Flight rules
Airport Site Selection

The selection of a suitable site for an airport depends upon the class of airport under consideration.
The factors listed below are for the selection of a suitable site for a major airport installation
Regional plan
Airport use
Proximity to other airports
Ground accessibility
Topography
Obstructions
Visibility
Wind
Noise nuisance

Grading, drainage and soil characteristics

Future development
Availability of utilities from town
Economic considerations
Aircraft Characteristics
The following characteristics need to be studied
Type of Propulsion
Size Of Aircraft
Minimum Turning Radius
Minimum Circling Radius
Speed of Aircraft
Capacity of Air Craft
Aircraft Weight And Wheel Configuration
Jet Blast
Fuel Spillage
Noise
Size of Aircraft
The size of air craft involves following important dimensions: (i) Wing span (ii) Fuselage length
(iii) Height (iv) Distance between main gears , i.e., gear tread (v) Wheel base and (vi) Tail width.
These are shown in figure. The wing span decides the width of taxiway, separation clearance
between two parallel traffic ways, size of aprons and hangars, width of hangar gate etc. The length of
aircraft decides the widening of taxiways on curves width of exit taxiway, sizes of aprons and
hangars etc. The height of aircraft, also called empennage height, decides the height of hanger gate
and as miscellaneous installations inside the hangar. The gear tread and the wheel base affect the
minimum turning radius of the aircraft.
Minimum Turning Radius

In order to decide the radius of taxiway, the position of aircraft in loading aprons and hangars and to
establish the path of the movement of aircraft, it is very essential to study the geometry of the
turning movement of Aircrafts. The turning radius of an aircraft is illustrated in figure. To
determine the minimum turning radius, a line is drawn through the axis of the nose gear when it is
at its maximum angel of rotation. The point where this line intersects another line drawn through
the axis of the two main gears, is called the center of rotation. The distance of the farther wing tip
from the center of rotation represents the minimum turning radius. Theoretically, the maximum
angel of rotation is 90. Corresponding to this, turning radius would be absolute minimum, the
condition which cause skidding of one of the main gears thereby producing excessive tire wear. To
keep the tire-wear of the main gears within reasonable limits, the maximum angel of rotation of the
nose gear has been limited by the manufacturers. For example, for a large turbo jet this angel is
between 50o to 60o .

Angle of Turing
Path of of Nose Gear
Main Gear
r
ea
G
No se
Pat h of
Turning Radius of Aircraft
Minimum Circling Radius

There is certain minimum radius with which the aircraft can take turn in space. This radius depends
upon the type of aircraft, air traffic volume and weather condition. The radii recommended for
different types of aircrafts are as follows
Small general aviation aircraft under UFR conditions = 1.6 km (1 mile)
Bigger aircraft, say two piston engine under VFR condition = 3.2 km (2 mile)
Piston engine aircraft under IFR condition. = 13 km (8 mile)
Jet engine aircrafts under IFR conditions. 80 km (50 mile)
The two nearby airports should be separated from each other by an adequate distance so that the
aircrafts simultaneously landing on them do not interface with each other. If the desirable spacing
between the airports cannot be provided, the landing and takeoff aircrafts in each airport will have
to be timed so as to avoid collision. This will obviously reduce the capacity of each airport.
Airport Site Selection

The selection of a suitable site for an airport depends upon the class of airport under consideration.
The factor listed below Are for the selection of a suitable site for a major airport Installation:
Regional plan
Airport use
Proximity to other airports
Ground accessibility
Topography
Obstructions
Visibility
Wind

Noise nuisance
Grading, drainage and soil characteristics
Future development
Availability of utilities from town
Economic considerations
Runway Design
Runway Orientation
Runway is a usually oriented in the direction of prevailing winds. The head wind .i.e., the direction of
wind opposite to the direction of landing and take-off, provides greater lift on the wings of the
aircraft when it is taking off. As such the aircraft rises above the ground much earlier and in a
shorter length of runway. During landing the head wind provides a braking effect and the aircraft
comes to a stop in a smaller length of runway.
Cross Wind Component and Wind Coverage

It is not possible to obtain the direction of wind along the direction of the center line of runway
throughout the year. On some day of the year or hour of the day, the wind may blow making certain
angle with the center line of runway. If the direction of wind is at an angle to the runway center line,
its component along the direction of runway will be V cos and that normal to the runway center
line will be V sin where V is the wind velocity. The normal component of the wind is called
cross wind component and may interrupt the safe landing and take-off the aircraft.
Wind Rose
The wind data, .i.e., direction, duration and intensity are graphically represented by a diagram called
wind rose.
N
NNW
72% of
Total Time NW
NE
1
22
2
WNW
W E
1
22 ESE
2
SE
SW 71% of
Total Time
S SSE
Angle Showing the Wing Coverage

Wind rose diagrams can be plotted in two types as follows:

Type I : Showing direction and duration of wind
Type II: Showing direction, duration and intensity of wind
Basic Runway Length

It is the length of runway under the following assumed conditions at the airport
Airport altitude is at sea level
Temperature at the airport is standard (15)
Runway is leveled in the longitudinal direction
No wind is blowing on runway
Aircraft is loaded to its full loading capacity
There is no wind blowing enroute to the destination
Enroute temperature is standard
The basic runway length is determined from the performance characteristics of the aircrafts using
the airport. The following cases are usually considered
Normall landing case
Normal take off case; Engine failure case
Corrections for Elevation, Temperature and Gradient

Correction of elevation
As the elevation increases, the air density reduces. This in turn reduces the lift on the wings of the
aircraft and the aircraft requires greater ground speed before it can rise into the air. To achieve
greater speed, longer length of runway is required. ICAO recommends that the basic runway length
should be increased at the rate of 7 percent per 300 m (1000 ft) rise in elevation above the mean
sea level.
Correction for Temperature

The rise in airport reference temperature has the same effect as that of the increase in elevation.
Airport reference temperature is defined as the monthly mean of average daily temperature (Ta ) for
the hottest month of the year plus one third the difference of this temperature (Ta ) and the monthly
mean of the maximum daily temperature (Tm ) for the same of the year. Thus airport reference
Tm Ta
temperature = (Ta ) + 3
ICAO recommended that the basic runway length after having been
corrected for elevation, should be further increased at the rate of 1 percent for every 10 C rise of
airport reference temperature above the standard atmospheric temperature at that elevation. The
temperature gradient of the standard atmosphere mean sea level to the altitude at which the
temperature becomes 15.6 is 0.0065 per meter. The temperature gradient become zero at
the elevations above the altitude at which the temperature is 15.5.
Check for the Total Correction for Elevation Plus Temperature

ICAO further recommends that, if the total correction for elevation plus temperature exceeds 35
percent of the basic runway length, these corrections should than be further checked up by
conducting specific studies at the site by model tests.

Correction of Gradient
Steeper gradient result in greater consumption of energy and as such longer length of runway is
required to attain the desired ground speed. ICAO does not recommend any specific correction for
the gradient. FAA recommends that the runway length after having been corrected for elevation and
temperature should be further increased at the rate of 20% for every 1% of effective gradient.
Effective gradient is defined as the maximum difference in elevation between the highest and lowest
points of runway divided by the total length of runway.
Example: The following data refers to the proposed longitudinal section of runway.
End to End of Runway Gradient
0.0 to 5.0 Chains +1.0%
5.0 to 15.0 Chains 1.0%
15.0 to 30.0 Chains +0.8%
30.0 to 40.0 Chains ... +0.2%
If one matric chain is of 20 metre length. Determine the effective gradient of runway.
Solution:
Chainage 0 5 15 30 40
Elevation 100.0 101.0 99.0 101.4 101.8
Maximum difference in elevation = 101.8 99.0 = 2.8 m
Total runway length = 40 20 = 800 m
2.8
Therefore, effective gradient of runway = 100 percent = 0.35 percent
800
Example: The length of runway under standard conditions is 1620 m. The airport site has an
elevation of 270 m. its reference temperature is 32.94. If the runway is to be
constructed with an effective gradient of 0.20 percent, determine the corrected runway
length.
Solution:
7 270
(i) Correction of Elevation = 1620 = 102 m
100 300
Corrected length= 1620+102=1722 m
(ii) Determination of standard atmospheric temperature at the given elevation;
= 15 0.0065 270 = 13.18
(iii) Correction for temperature:
Rise of temperature = 32.90 13.18 = 19.72
1722
Correction length = 19.72 = 340 m
100
Corrected length = 1722 + 340 = 2062 ms
(iv) Check for the total correction for elevation plus temperature:
2060 1620
Total correction is percentage = 100
1620
= 27.20 percent
According to ICAO, this should not exceed 35 percent.

(v) Correction for gradient:

20
2062 0.20 = 82.48 m
100
Corrected length = 2062 + 82.48 = 2144.48 m
Rounding the above value to the nearest 10 m, the corrected runway length is 2150 m.
Taxiway Design
Factor Controlling Taxiway Layout
The main function of taxiway is to provide access to the aircraft from the runways to the loading
apron or service hangar and back. The following considerations decide the layout of taxiway.
Taxiway should be so arranged that the aircraft which have just landed and are taxing toward the
apron, do not interface with the aircrafts taxing are take-off.
At busy airports, taxiways should be located at various points along the runway so that the
Landing aircraft leaves the runway as early as possible and keeps it clear for use by other
aircrafts. Such taxiways are called exit taxiways.
The route for taxiway should be so selected that it provides the shortest practicable distance
from the apron to the runway end.
Geometric Design Standards

The speed of an aircraft on taxiway is much lower than its speed on a runway during the landing or
take-off. Thus the design standards for a taxiway are not as rigid as they are for runway and can be
listed as:
Length of taxiway
Width of taxiway
Width of safety area
Longitudinal gradient
Transverse gradient
Rate of change of longitudinal gradient
Sight distance
Turning radius
The detailed Standard for Different types of Airports Are given in table:
Taxiway Geometric* (ICAO)
Maximum rate of
Taxiway Width Maximum
Minimum Change of
Classification Longitudinal Safety Area
Transverse Longitudinal
By ICAO Gradient Width
Gradient Gradient Per 30 m
M ft Percent
(100ft),percent
A 22.5 75 1.5 1.5 1.0 Turfed or paved
B 22.5 75 1.5 1.5 1.0 Shoulder
C 15.0 50 3.0 1.5 1.0 Are mandatory
D 9.9 33 3.0 2.0 1.2 But are suggested
E 7.5 25 3.0 2.0 1.2 If need exists

Turning Radius
Whenever there is a change in the direction of a taxiway a horizontal curve is provided. The curve is
so designed that the aircraft can negotiate it without significantly reducing the speed. Circular curve
of large radius is suitable for this purpose. The radius can be obtained from the following formula.
V2
R=
125 f
Here R is the radius in Metre V is the speed in kmph. And F is the coefficient of friction between the
tire and pavement surface. The value of F may be assumed as 0.13
The relationship between the radius of taxiway, wheel base of aircraft and the specified distance of
the main gear from the edge of the pavement is given by the following equation as suggested by
horonjeff
T1
Path of Point Midway

CL
Between Main Gear
Centre of Nose Gear

Following Taxiway
Centreling
Supersonic Transport Aircrafts on a Taxiway Curve
0.388 W 2
R=
T
S
2
R = Radius of taxiway in metre
W = Wheel base of aircraft in metre
T = Width of taxiway pavement in metre
And
S= Distance between midway point of the main gears and the edge of the taxiway pavement in
metre

L C of Unwidened Taxiway
R1
Path of Inner
R1 Main Gear
R2
Taxiway Widening
Example: A taxiway is to be designed for operating Boeing 707-320 which has the following
characteristics. Determine the turning radius of the taxiway.
Wheel base 17.70 m
Tread of main loading gear 6.62 m
Turning Speed 40 kmph
Coefficient of friction between tire and pavement surface 0.13
Solution:
(i) Turning Radius
V2 (40)2
R= = = 98.5 m
125f 125 0.13
(ii) From horonjeff s equation,
0.388 W 2
R= Here W = 17.70 m
T
( S)
2
T= 22.5 m
6.62
S6+ = 9.31 m
2
Substituting in the above equation,
0.388 (17.70)2
Turning radius, R = = 62.9 m
11.25 9.31
(iii) The absolute minimum turning radius for subsonic aircrafts regardless of any speed
= 120 m
Selecting the maximum value amongst the three cases discussed above, the turning
radius to be actually provided = 120 m

Exit Taxiways
Location of Exit Taxiways
This depends upon several factors. The important ones are as follows
Number of exit taxiways
Exit speed
Type of aircrafts
Weather conditions
Topographical features
Pilot variability
Design of Exit Taxiway Connecting Runway and Parallel Taxiway

The following principles govern the design of taxiway.
The most significant factor effecting the turning radius is the exit speed of aircraft.
Slightly widened entrance of 30 m gradually tapering to the normal width of taxiway is preferred.
The widened entrance gives to the pilot more latitude in using the exit taxiway.
Total angel of turn of 30to 45 can be negotiated satisfactorily. The smaller angle seems to be
preferable because the length of curved path is reduced.
For smooth and comfortable turn, the turning radius should be determined from the equation 8.1
A high turn-off speeds of 65 to 95 kmph (40 to 60 mph) a compound curved is neccessery to
minimize the tire wear on the nose gear. Therefore the main curve radius R 2 should be preceded
by a larger radius curve R 1 as shown in figure below. Aircraft path approximates a spiral. But
still a compound curve is preferred as it is relatively easier to establish it in the field and its shape
is similar to that of a spiral.
Speed Radius
kmph mph m ft
65 40 517 1724
80 50 731 2436
95 60 941 3138
Exit Taxiway
L2
R2
L1
R1
Run Way
Radius of Curvature for Exit Taxiway
The length of larger radius curve can be roughly obtained from the following relation
(0.28 V)3 V3
L1 = =
CR 2 45.5 C R 2
The Value of C is 0.39

Sufficient distance must be provided to comfortably decelerate an aircraft after it leaves the
runway. This distance may be based on an average deceleration rate of 1 m/sec 2 (3.3 ft/sec 2).
The stopping distance may be obtained from the following equation
(0.28 V 2 ) V2
S. D = =
2d 25 5d
Where d is the deceleration in m/sec 2 The stopping distance should be measured from the edge
of the runway pavement along the exit taxiway.
Example: Design an exit taxiway joining a runway and a parallel main taxiway. The total angle of
turn is 30 degrees and the turn off speed is 80 kmph. Draw a neat sketch and show there
in all the design element.
Solution: The various design elements are shown in figure.
Main Taxiway 22.5 m

Fillet Fillet
Central Curve S.D
R 2 , 2 , L2
Entrance
Curve 30 m 22.5 m
R1 , 1 , L1
Fillet
30 Runway 45 m
Inside Fillet Curve

R 3 , 3 , L3
Plan of 80 kmph Exit Taxiway
The radius of the central curve

V2 (80)2
Ra = = = 391 m
125f 125 0.13
The radius of the entrance curve R 1 is obtained from the following table
Speed(kmph) 65 80 95
Radius (R 1), m 517 731 941
Provide R 1 = 731 m
Length of the entrabce curve us given by
V13 (80)3
L1 = = = 73.5 m
45.5 CR 2 45.5 0.39 391
Deflection angle of the entrance curve
180 L1 180 73.5
1 = = = 5.75 = 545
R 1 3.14 731
Deflection angle of the central curve
2 = 30 545 = 2415
Length of the central curve
R 2 2 3.14 391 24.23
L2 = = = 165.5 m
180 180
Stopping Distance
V2
S. D =
25.50 d
Assuming the deceleration rate as 1 m/sec 2
(80)2
S. D = = 251.0 m
25.50 1
Channelization
Unchannelized Intersections
The intersection area is paved and there is absolutely no restriction to vehicle to use any part of
intersection area. Hence the unchannelized (all-paved) intersections are the lowest class of
intersection, easiest in the design. When no additional pavement width for turning movement is
provided, it is called plain intersection. But when the pavement is widened at the intersection area,
by a traffic lane or more, t is known as flared intersection. The arrows indicate the path of traffic
flow, turning crossing and through movements. It may be seen that the conflict area is quite large as
path of turning vehicles are not restricted or controlled. One of the crossing vehicles will have to
stop while the other proceeds.
Channelized Intersections
Channelized Intersection is achieved by introducing islands into the intersectional area, thus
reducing the total conflict area available in the unchannelized intersection. The radius of the
entrance and exit curves and the area are suitably designed to accommodate the channelizing
islands of proper size and shape. Channelization may be either partial or complete with divisional
and directional islands and medians. From traffic operation point of view there is a better control on
the traffic entering and leaving the intersection and hence channelized intersections are considered
superior to the all-paved types.
Tee (Plain) Tee (Flared)
Cross (Plain) Cross (Flared on One End)
Skew (Plain)
Un-channelized Intersections

Tee (Partial Channelization) Tee (Complete Channelization)
Cross (Partial Channelization)
Cross (Complete Channelization)

Channelized Intersections

Geomatics Engineering
Total Station
Introduction
Total station is an instrument in which electronic theodolite, electronic distance meter,
microprocessor electronic data collector and storage systems are integrate. The instrument can be
used to measure vertical and horizontal angle as well as to measure distance. Data collected is
processed with microprocessor to compute
1. Average of multiple angle measurement
2. Average of multiple distances measured
3. Slope corrections
4. Distance between any two points elevations of objects
5. Coordinates of points
Data recorded and processed may be downloaded to computers for further processing.
Fundamental Quantities Measured

Total station is used to measure the following three fundamental quantities in the field
1. Horizontal Angle
2. Vertical Angle
3. Sloping Distance
Measurement of Horizontal Angle

For measuring horizontal direction any convenient direction may be taken as reference direction.
Usually the direction to a prominent object from first station is taken as reference direction. This
direction is called instrument north also. In most of the instruments angular measurements are to
the accuracy of 2 to 6 seconds.
Vertical Angle
The vertical angles are measured taking vertical upward (zenith) direction as reference. To get
vertical angles correctly the instrument should be leveled properly. However the provision has been
made in the instrument by providing a sensor that can detect small deviations of the instrument and
compensate the verticality. If the deviation is large, the tilt error is indicated which means the
instrument should be leveled properly
Slope Distance
Major part of total station is Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM). The instrument always
measures the sloping distance from the instrument station to the object. The range of slope distance
that can be measure with a total station varies from 1.8 km to 4.2 km

Parts of a Total Station

Top Handle
Collimator
Latch Button
On-Board Battery
Focusing Knob
Eyepiece Lens Objective Lines
Telescope Tangent Screw Data Out Connector

Telescope Clamp Screw
Plate Vail
Plate Vail Optical Plummet
Display Panel
Power Supply Switch
Keyboard
Clamp Screw
Data Out Connector Tangent Screw
External Battery
Connector Leveling Screw Leveling Screw
Bottom
Circular Vial Bottom Plate Plate
Accessories
The following accessories are provided with a total station
1. Retro reflector
2. Track light or Lumiguide
3. Getronics Unicom
On Board Calculations
The three fundamental qunatities measured by total station are vertical angle from zenith ZA
horizontal angle HRA and sloping distance s as shown figure below denoting ZA as z
HAR as , we get
Horizontal distance H = s sin z
Vertical distance V = s cos z
RL of target point = RL of station point +h + V R
Where h is the height of instrument axis and R is height of target from its base.
x coordinate of target point = x coordinate of instrument station + H sin h
y coordinate of target point = y coordinate of instrument station + H cos h
The values of h and R are to be given as input after measuring them so that the processor
calculates RL of target point.
Example: To find the level difference between station A and target point B, the following
observations were recorded with a total station
Slope distance = 486.228 m
Zenith angle = 862842
Height of instrument = 1.602 m
Height or reflector at B = 1.836 m.
If RL of A is 100 m; find RL of B

Solution: s = 486.228 m, z = 8628 42 , h = 1.602 m, R = 1.836 m.

V = 486.228 cos z = 486.228 cos 8628 42 = 29.867 m
RL of B = RL of A + h + V R
= 100.000 + 1.602 + 29.867 1.836 = 129.633
Example: In the observation of B from A given in above example if horizontal angle is 581028
and coordinates of station A are (500, 600), determine the coordinates of station B.
Solution: s = 486.228 m, h = 5810 28 , z = 862842
Horizontal distance from A to B
H = s cos z
= 486.228 sin(8628 42 ) = 485.310 m
x coordinate of B = x coordinate of A + H sin h
= 500 + 485.310 sin(5810 28 )
= 912.347 m
y coordinate of B = y coordinate of B + H cos h
= 600 + 485.310 cos(5810 28 )
= 855.921 m
Note: On board microprocessor can carry out such calculations in a total station
Errors in Total Station Survey

The following are the two main sources of errors
1. Errors in the equipment
2. Atmospheric effects
Advantage of using Total Station

The following are some of the advantages of using total stations over conventional surveying
instruments
1. Surveying is carried out very fast
2. Accuracy of measurement is high
3. Human errors in recording observation are eliminated
4. Calculation of elevations and coordinates are accurate and fast. Even the corrections for
temperature and pressures are made automatically
5. Data can be directly transferred to computers for further processing like plotting contours
However the instrument should not be used blindly. It is the responsibility of the surveyor to
check the instrument regularly and calibrate
Triangulation
Introduction
Precise method of establishing horizontal control to prepare a plan or a map of an area is by
triangulation. Triangulation means dividing the area into a number of triangles, measuring one line,
called base line, very accurately and building other sides of survey triangles by measurement of
angle. It may be noted that, if a line and all angles of a triangle are known, all sides of triangle can be
found by applying sine rule. Triangle can be built by measuring all the three sides. The survey in

which all the side are measured to plot a triangle is known as trilateration. In actual practice, the
combination of triangulation and trilateration are used, if the survey is for an important purpose
Objects of Triangulation Survey

1. To establish accurate control for plane and geodetic surveys of large area.
2. To establish accurate control points for photogrammetric surveys of large areas.
3. To determine the size and shape of the earth by making observation of latitude, longitude and
gravity
4. To establish horizontal control for various engineering projects such as
Fixing the centre line, terminal points and shafts point in tunneling
Fixing location of centre lines of long bridges
To locate rivers and coasts
To study the movement of clouds, earth crustal movements and seismic activities
To study ranges and accuracy of defense equipment
Classification of Triangulation
Based on the extent and purpose, the accuracy required for triangulation is decided. Then on the
basis of accuracy of triangulation, the triangulation systems are classified as
1. First order or Primary Triangulation
2. Second order or Secondary Triangulation
3. Third order or Tertiary Triangulation
Triangulation Survey Work

Triangulation survey work consists of the following
1. Reconnaissance survey
2. Erection of signal and tower
3. Measurement of base line
4. Measurement of horizontal angle
5. Astronomical observation
6. Computation
Each one of these are explained in this chapter
Remote Sensing
Remote sensing may be defined as an art and science of collecting information about objects, area or
phenomena from a distance without physical contact with it. In surveying we use the term remote
sensing for collecting information about objects on the earth from aircraft and satellite station using
electromagnetic energy.
When electromagnetic energy is made to fall on the object (surface of earth in surveying), it is partly
1. Absorbed
2. Scattered
3. Transmitted
4. Reflector

Remote Sensing Observation Platforms

First remote sensing platform used was cameras carried by balloons. Then aircraft were used as
platforms. Now satellites are being used as platform. Since satellite platform are convenient and
economical in the long run, they have replaced all earlier platform. There are two types of satellites
used for remote sensing
1. Geostationary
2. Near Earth
Geostationary: These satellites rotate around the earth at the same speed as that of earth. Hence,
they appear stationary when observed from earth. These satellites are at an altitude of about 3600
km above the point on the equator. As they are geostationary, they can be used for remote sensing of
particular area on the earth. For example, Indian satellites are useful for remote sensing areas in
India or near India.
Near Earth Satellites: These satellites have speed different from that of earth. Hence, they appear as
if rotating about the earth with the relative velocity. The path may close up on itself if the orbital
parameters are suitably chosen. In such cases, the satellite revisits a given location at regular
intervals. By adjusting the speed these satellites are set so that they revisit the site at desired
integral number of days
Types of Remote Sensing

Based on the source of electromagnetic energy used remote sensing is classified as:
1. Passive remote sensing
2. Active remote sensing
Sensors
1. Special Resolution
2. Spectral Resolution
3. Temporal Resolution
4. Radiometric Resolution
1. Special Resolution
It may be defined as the smallest object that can be detected and distinguished. Its measure is
the instantaneous field of view (IFOV) which is the area of the surface which is viewed by a
sensor at a given time. Spatial resolution 72.5 m 72.5 m indicates that an area of is 72.5 m
72.5 m represented by a pixel of the image. IRS IC and ID can provide much finer details since
the have station resolution of 5.8 m 5.8 m. Spatial resolution plays an important role in
identifying various features on the earths surface
2. Spectral Resolution
It is the width of the spectral band in which image is taken. There can be more number of bands
(multiband) to cover wider area. Narrower the spectral resolution more is the required number
of bands to cover the required area. The use of narrower band width allow better identification
and classification of the objects. It is important to select the correct spectral resolution for the
type of information to be obtained from the image
3. Temporal Resolution
Temporal resolution refers to observing the same object on different dates. This is also called
multistage observation. Obviously, more frequent remote sensing captures changes in
environmental phenomena. High temporal resolution helps in studying condition of crops,
deforestation, etc. They are useful to identify fires and volcanoes also.
4. Radiometric Resolution
Radiometric resolution is the smallest difference in radiant energy that can be detected by a
sensor. It is applicable to both photographs and digital images. Higher contract films can resolve
smaller differences for digital images radiometric resolution refers to the number of discrete
levels into which the digital signal may be divided during the analog to digital conversion
Type of Sensors
The sensor systems can be classified as
1. Multispectral Imaging Sensor System
2. Thermal Remote Sensing Systems
3. Microwave Radar Sensing System
1. Multispectral Imaging Sensor System

They use cameras along with filters to capture photos in the visible band. This way
electromagnetic energy can be recorded by scanning ground. They need sunlight to operate and
hence may be grouped under passive system. Television cameras are also passive system. Image
of TV cameras are formed as pattern of electrical charges in an image plate which is scanned by
an electron beam and converted to electrical signal.
2. Thermal Remote Sensing Systems

These detectors also use passive energy, i.e., energy of sunlight; the temperature of air reduces
as we go away from the earths surface. Hence, by using thermal scanners it is possible to
identify at what distance from the earth surface electromagnetic energy is reflected. It is very
useful to find the clouds and trace cloud movement. These systems operate in either 3 to 5 m
or 8 to 14 m range of wavelength
3. Microwave Radar Sensing System
These are the remote sensing systems which rely on the microwaves generated, beamed to
earth and recorded on their return. Hence, they may be called as active systems. They work on
microwave length of electromagnetic energy. Radar and antenna are used in this system. Micro-
waves beamed from satellites penetrate atmosphere without getting distorted but return with
depleted energy due to absorption and transmittance. The reflected energy is measured by these
sensors and used to identify the objects that reflect the energy.
Advantages of Remote Sensing

The major advantage of the remote sensing over other methods of ground investigations are
1. Accessibility: Some areas may not be accessible for ground survey whereas by remote sensing all
regions on the earth can be accessed
2. Time saving: Remote sensing can produce information about land use, natural hazards, etc. in
very short time. This is not possible by land survey.
3. Multidisciplinary: Remote sensing data is used by workers in different departments like civil
engineers, geologists, forest department, and revenue department.
Hence, though initial cost of remote sensing is more, overall benefit to cost ratio is better.
Applications of Remote Sensing

Various agencies are applying remote sensing in their field of interest. They may be grouped into the
following:
1. Resource Exploration
2. Environmental Study
3. Land Use
4. Site Investigation
5. Archaeological Investigation
6. Natural Hazard Study
Geographic Information System

We know geography mean the arrangement of various places and regions on the earth, and study of
the physical features and human activities related to them. Usually, the arrangement of objects (e.g.,
reservoir) places (a city) and regions (a taluk, district, etc.) on the earth are represented by scaled
maps and they are referred with respect to latitudes and longitudes. Data required for locating and
calculating the extent of an object/place/region are called spatial data.
Physical features and human activities related to place and region are stored in the form of
consuming. Updating and managing the data is difficult.
Geographic Information System (GIS) may be defined as the science and art of obtaining, storing,
updating and managing geographical information of the objects, place and regions on the earth
using computers.
Subsystems of GIS (Components of GIS)

GIS has the following subsystems
(i) Data input
(ii) Data management
(iii) Data processing
(iv) Reporting subsystem
Hardware Components of GIS

For the effective GIS operations the following elements of hardware are required:
1. Central processing unit (CPU) with sufficient power to run the software
2. Sufficient memory for the storage of data
3. Mass storage units like hard disc drives and tape drives
4. Visual display unit (VDU)
5. Peripherals like digitizer or scanner, plotter and printer
Data for GIS

In GIS the following two types of data are to be stored in computers and inter-linked
1. Spatial Data

2. Attribute Data
The data should be properly modeled and stored
Errors in GIS
Mainly, there are two sources of errors in GIS
1. Errors Associated with Data
2. Errors Associated with Processing
Errors Associated with Data

There are many sources of errors which affect the quality of GIS database. It is users responsibility
to prevent or minimize them. The error associated with data is
1. Age of Data: Data should be kept updated regularly. Reliability of GIS decreases if it depends
upon old data.
2. Density of Observation: If dataset is sparsely distributed its reliability is less.
3. Data inaccuracy: Spatial and attribute data should be stored accurately. The inaccuracies in data
lead to unreliable with proper scale.
4. Map Scale: Data should be available with proper scale.
5. Data entry and Output Faults: Should be carefully checked and such errors eliminated.
Errors Associated with Processing

The following errors are associated with processing:
1. Numerical error (round off errors) in computation
2. Faults due to topological approximation
3. Errors due to interpolation of results
4. Problems associated with overlaying
5. Misuse of logics
GIS and Remote Sensing

Developments in GIS and remote sensing are closely associated with each other. GIS depends upon
the data collected from remote sensing to a great extent. Remote sense data is in the form of
photographs or digital. Using this data and processing it is to be made by GIS to develop decision
support system. Although raw satellite data are not plan metrically correct preprocessing can often
bring data to acceptable levels with modest efforts. Both GIS and digital remote sensing (satellite
observations) use similar equipment and computer programs for analysis and display. Hence,
expertise in one field forms the foundation for work in the other field. Hence, remote sensing and
GIS which have natural and mutually supporting relation can contribute a great deal to our study of
patterns and processes on the surface of earth and support decision system
Application of GIS
GIS and remote sensing always go hand in hand. Hence, for the application of GIS see Art 31.10

Assignment
1. A parabolic vertical curve is to be set out 3. What ratios do the versines of a circular
connecting two uniform grades of + 0.6% curve when measured at the quarter point
and +1.0%. The rate of change of grade is of a full chord and, when measured at the
to be 0.06% per 30 m. The length of curve same point on half chord bear?
will be (A) 100:1 (C) 3:1
2 (C) 200 m (B) 60:1 (D) 1:1
(A) 66 m
2 2
1 (D) 266 m 4. Which one of the following linear methods
(B) 133 m 3
3 of setting out a circular curve needs
reference of the centre of the curve?
2. If g1 and g2 are the two gradients, r is the (A) Offset from chord produced
rate of change of grade (%) per chain the (B) Radial offset
length of the vertical curve will be (C) Perpendicular offset
g +g g g2
(A) ( 1 2 2 ) (C) ( 1 ) (D) Successive bisection of arcs
r r
g1 g 2 g1 + g 2
(B) ( ) (D)
r r3
Answer Keys and Explanations

Assignment
1. [Ans. C] L2
Versine of full chord, V =
Change of grade = 1 0.6 = 0.4% 8R
0.4 Versine quarter point
Length of the cuve = 30 = 200 m
0.06 L 2
= ( ) + (R V)2 = (R V12 )
4
2. [Ans. C] 3L2
V1 = (neglecting V 2 and V12 )
32
3. [Ans. C] Versine for half chord,
Half Chord L
V2 Full Chord L2 =
2
L22 L2
V2 = =
8R 32R
V2 3
=
V1 1
R R
4. [Ans. B]

Circular Curves
Whenever the direction of a road or railway line is to be changed, curves are provided between the
intersecting straights. This is necessary for smooth and safe movement of the vehicles. Accordingly
the curves are classified as horizontal curves and vertical curves. Horizontal curves are further
classified as circular curves and transition curves.
V V
T
T1
T2
T1 T2 R1
O1 R
R 2
R
O2
O
(a) (b)
T1
O2
R2
T
R1
O1 v
T2
(c)
Circular Curves
The Circular curves are of three types
1. Simple circular curve
2. Compound curve
3. Reverse curve
A Simple Circular Curve is a circular arc between two intersecting straights. At the point of
intersection it is tangential to straight above figure (a). Two or more circular curves of different
radii turning in the same direction, join together to make a single curve between the two
intersecting straights, form a compound curve. At common points the curves and straights are
tangential to each other above figure (b). Two simple circular curves of equal or different radii,
having curvatures in opposite direction, join together to form a reverse curve above figure (c). At
the point joining straights and at common point of circular curve common tangents exist.
Figure shown below a transition curve which is usually introduced between a straight and simple
curve or between two simple curves in this curve radius varies from infinite to finite value or from
one value to other values to give smooth transition. It is also known as easement curve

T Circular Curve
T
T1 T2
Transition
Transition Curve
Curve R
R
O
Transition Curve
Definitions and Notations:

The following terminology and notations are made clear below referring to figure below
V
V

T1 90 90 T2
D
R R
A
B
O
1. Right-hand Curve: It is the curve which deflects to the right of the direction of the progress of
route. Since route is progressing from A to B in the above figure, it is a right-hand curve
2. Left-hand Curve: it is the curve which deflects to the left of the direction of the process of route.
If the progress of route in figure shown above had been from B to A, The curve would have been
left-hand curve.
3. Back Tangent: The tangent AT1 , which is before the commencement of the curve is called back
tangent/rear tangent/first tangent
4. Forward Tangent: The tangent T2 B which is after the end of the curve is called forward
tangent/second tangent.

5. Point of Intersection: The point V where the back and forward tangents
(AT1 and BT2 respectively) when produced intersect is called point of intersection (P.I). It is also
know as vertex.
6. Intersection Angle: The V VB which is the angle of deflection between back and forward
tangent is called intersection angle () or the external deflection angle.
7. Central Angle: The angle T1 OT2 subtended at the centre of the curve is known as central angle
and is obviously equal to intersection angle .
8. Point of Curve (PC): The point T1 , where the curve begins is called point of curve. The notation
for it is PC.
9. Point of Tangency: The point T2 , where the curve ends is called point of tangency and is
denoted as PT.
10. Apex or summit of Curve: The mid-point C of the curve is known as apex or summit of the curve
and it lies on the bisector of the central angle.
11. Long chord (L): The chord of the circular curve T1 T2 is known as long chord and is denoted by L.
12. Length of Curve(I): The curved length T1 CT2 is called the length of curve
13. Tangent Distance (T): The tangent distance is the distance of tangent point T1 or T2 from vertex
V. Thus,
T = T1 V = VT2
14. Mid Ordinate: It is the distance between the mid-point of the long chord (D) and mid-point of
the curve (C). i.e.,
Mid ordinate = DC
15. External Distance (E): It is the distance between the middle of the curve to the vertex. Thus,
E = CV
Elements of Simple Curves:
Referring to above figure in which R is radius of the curve and is deflection angle, the
formulae for finding various elements of curve can be derived as under:
1. Length of Curve (I):
I = R, where is in radians

= R if is in degree
180
2. Tangent length (T):

T = T1 V = VT2

= R tan
2
3. Length of Long Cord (L):

L = 2 R sin
2
4. Mid-ordinate (M):
M = CD = CO DO

= R R cos
2

= R (1 cos ) = R Versin
2 2
5. External Distance (E):

E = VC = VO CO

= R sec R
2

= R (sec 1) = R exsec
2 2
Linear Methods of Setting out Simple Circular Curves

The following are some of the linear methods used for setting out simple circular curves
(i) Offset from long chord
(ii) Successive bisection of chord
(iii) Offsets from the tangents-perpendicular or radial
(iv) Offsets from the chords produced
(i) Offset from Long Chord

In this method, long chord is divided into an even number of equal parts. Taking centre of long
chord as origin, for various values of x, the perpendicular offset are calculated to the curve and
the curve is set in the field by driving pegs at those offsets.
V
C
E
E
O0
T1 Ox T2
F x D
L/2 L/2
R
R R
O
R = Radius of the curve
L = Length of long chord
O0 = Mid-ordinate
Ox = Ordinate at distance x from the mid-point of long chord
Ordinate at distance x = Ox = E O DO
= R2 x 2 R2 (L2)2
The above expression holds good for x-values on either side of D, since CD is symmetric axis.
(ii) Successive Bisection of Chord

In this method, point on a curve are located by bisecting the chords and erecting the
perpendiculars at the mid-point

C2 C C2
C1 C1
D2 D2 C2
C2
D1 D1
D2 D2
T1 T2
D
R R
O
Perpendicular offset at middle of long chord (D) is

CD = R R cos = R (1 cos )
2 2
Let D1 be the middle of T1 C. Then Perpendicular offset

C1 D1 = R (1 cost )
4

Similarly, C2 D2 = R (1 cos )
8
Using symmetry points on either side may be set.
(iii) Offsets from the Tangents-Perpendicular or Radial

The offsets from tangents may be calculated and set to get the required curve. The offset be
either radial or perpendicular to tangents
(a) Radial Offsets: In below figure, if the centre of curve O is accessible from the point on
tangent, this method of curve setting is possible
D
Ox C
x E
T1
R
R

Let D be a point at distance x from T1 . Now it is required to find radial ordinate Ox = DE, so
that the point C on the curve is located.
From OT1 D, we get
OD2 = OT12 + T1 D2
(R + Ox )2 = R2 + x 2
i. e. , Ox + R = R2 + x 2 or Ox = R2 + x 2 R
An approximate expression may be obtained as explained below:
Ox = R2 + x 2 R
x 2 x2 x2
= R1 + ( ) R R (1 + 2 4 + ) R
R 2R 8R
Neglecting small quantities of higher order,
x2 x2
Ox = R (1 + 2 ) R = 2 (approx)
2R 2R
(b) Perpendicular Offsets: If the centre of a circle is not visible, perpendicular offsets from
tangent can be set to locate the points on the curve
V
D
Ox C
x E
T1
E1
The perpendicular offset Ox can be calculated as given below

Drop perpendicular EE1 to OT1 . Then,
Ox = DE = T1 E1
= OT1 OE1
= R R2 x 2 (Exact)
2 4
x x
= R R (1 2
4.)
2R 8R
x2
= (approx)
2R

Angular Method (Instrumental Method)

The following are the angular methods which can be used for setting circular curves:
1. Rankine method of tangential (deflection) angles.
2. Two-theodolite method
3. Tacheometric method
In these methods linear as well as angular measurements are used. Hence, the surveyor needs
chain/tape and instruments to measure angles. Theodolite is the commonly used instrument.
Example: A circular curve has 300 m radius and 60 deflection angle. Calculate (i) length of curve,
(ii) tangent length, (iii) length of long chord, (iv) mid-ordinate and (v) apex distance.
Solution:
(i) Length of the curve

I = R = 300 60 = 314.16 m
180 180
(ii) Tangent length:
60
T = R tan = 300 tan = 173 .21 m
2 2
(iii) Length of long chord
60
L = 2 R sin = 2 300 sin = 300 m
2 2
(iv) Mid-ordinate
60
M = R (1 cos ) = 300 (1 cos ) = 40.19 m
2 2
(v) Apex distance
60
E = R (sec 1) = 300 (sec 1) = 46.41 m
2 2
The various methods used for setting curves may be broadly classified as
(i) Linear methods
(ii) Angular methods
Example: Two roads having a deviation angle of 45 at apex point V are to be joined by a 200 m
radius circular curve. If the chain age of apex point is 1839.2 m, calculate necessary data
to set the curve by
(a) Ordinates from long chord at 10 m interval
(b) Method of bisection to get very eighth point on curve
(c) Radial and perpendicular offsets from every full station of 30 m along tangent.
Solution: R = 200 m = 45
45
Length pf tangent = 200 tan = 82.84 m.
2
Chainage of T1 = 1839.2 82.84 = 1756.36 m

Length of curve = R 45 = 157.08 m
180
Chainage of forward tangent T2
= 1756.36 + 157.08 = 1913.44 m

(a) By offsets from long chord:
V
45
T1 D T2
65 4 3 2 1 1 23 4 5 6
45 45
2 2
O
L 45
Distance of DT = = R sin = 200 sin
2 2 2
= 76.54
Measuring x from D,
L 2
y = R2 x 2 R2 ( )
2
At x = 0
O0 = 200 2002 76.542 = 200 184.78
= 15.22 m
O1 = 2002 102 184.78 = 14.97 m
O2 = 2002 202 184.78 = 14.22 m
O3 = 2002 302 184.78 = 12.96 m
O4 = 2002 402 184.78 = 11.18 m
O5 = 2002 502 184.78 = 8.87 m
O6 = 2002 602 184.78 = 6.01 m
O7 = 2002 702 184.78 = 2.57 m
At T1 , O = 0.00

(b) Method of Bisection:
C2 C C2
C1 C1
D2 D2 C2
C2
D1 D1
D2 D2
T1 T2
D
R R
O
45
Central ordinate at D = R (1 cos ) = 200 (1 cos ) = 15.22 m
2 2
45
Ordinate at D1 = R (1 cos ) = 200 (1 cos ) = 3.84 m
4 4
45
Ordinate at D2 = R (1 cos 8 ) = 200 (1 cos ) = 0.96 m
8
(c) Offsets from Tangents
Radial offsets:
D
Ox C
x
E
T1
R
R
O
Ox = R2 + x 2 R
Chainage of T1 = 1756.36 m
For 30 m chain, it is at
= 58 chains + 16.36 m
x1 = 30 16.36 = 13.64
x2 = 43.64 m
x3 = 73.64 m

And the last is at x4 = tangent length = 82.84 m

O1 = 2002 + 13.642 200 = 0.46 m
O2 = 2002 + 43.642 200 = 4.71 m
O3 = 2002 + 73.642 200 = 13.13 m
O4 = 2002 + 82.842 200 = 16.48 m
Vertical Curves
When a highway or a railway line passes through a ridge or a valley there is a need to change the
gradient. The change of gradient should not be sudden, since that causes discomfort to the
passengers. The change of grade is made smooth by introducing curves in vertical plane between
the two gradient lines.
Types of Vertical Curves

The vertical curves are classified as
(i) Summit or crest curves and
(ii) Sag or valley curves
Summit Curves
A curve with its convexity upwards is called a summit curve. A summit curve may be formed by
(i) An upgrade followed by a downgrade (a)
(ii) An upgrade followed by a flattened curve (b)
(iii) A downgrade followed by a steeper downgrade (c)
(a) (b) (c)
Sags or Valley Curves

A curve with its convexity downward (concave upward) is called a sag or valley curve. A valley
curve may be formed by
(i) A downgrade followed by an upgrade (a)
(ii) A downgrade followed by a flatter downgrade(b)
(iii) A upgrade followed by a steeper upgrade (c)
(a) (b) (c)

Sag or Valley Curve
Length of the Vertical Curve

If the grade g1 and g 2 are known and the rate of change of the grade is fixed, length of the curve may
be obtained by
g1 g 2
L=
r
It should be noted that the upward grade in take as +ve and the downward grade as negative. Thus,
if the vertical curve connects a 1% upgrade with 1.4% downgrade and the rate of change of grade is
to be 0.06% per 20 m stations,
g1 = 0.01 and g 2 = 0.0147 r = 0.0006
0.01 (0.014) 0.024
Then, L = = = 40 chains
0.0006 0.0006
= 40 20 = 800 m

Latest Addition To Gate Topics PDF

Diunggah oleh

Informasi Dokumen

Judul Asli

Hak Cipta

Format Tersedia

Bagikan dokumen Ini

Bagikan atau Tanam Dokumen

Opsi Berbagi

Apakah menurut Anda dokumen ini bermanfaat?

Apakah konten ini tidak pantas?

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

Latest Addition To Gate Topics PDF

Diunggah oleh

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

Addendum Material

Changes in Syllabus of GATE-2016

Subjects Page No.

Construction Materials & Management

:080-617 66 222, info@thegateacademy.com Copyright reserved. Web:www.thegateacademy.com i

Geometric Design of Railway Track

Basic Requirements of an Ideal Alignment

Factors in Selection of Good Alignment

Survey for Track Alignment

: 080-617 66 222, info@thegateacademy.com Copyright reserved. Web:www.thegateacademy.com 1

Geometric Design of Track

Elements of Geometric Design

Gradient & Grade Compensation

Grades in station yards:

: 080-617 66 222, info@thegateacademy.com Copyright reserved. Web:www.thegateacademy.com 2

Grade Compensation on Curves

Therefore, the degree of curve varies inversely as its Radius.

: 080-617 66 222, info@thegateacademy.com Copyright reserved. Web:www.thegateacademy.com 4

Relation between chord, Radius and Versine of a Curve

If relationship is to be found out with D the degree of curve then

Super Elevation or cant for Railway Track

: 080-617 66 222, info@thegateacademy.com Copyright reserved. Web:www.thegateacademy.com 6

By equating forces in horizontal and vertical direction, we get,

Equilibrium or Average Speed is given by

: 080-617 66 222, info@thegateacademy.com Copyright reserved. Web:www.thegateacademy.com 7

: 080-617 66 222, info@thegateacademy.com Copyright reserved. Web:www.thegateacademy.com 8

Safe Speed Based on Martins Formulae

Safe speed based on superelevation

: 080-617 66 222, info@thegateacademy.com Copyright reserved. Web:www.thegateacademy.com 9

Speed from the Length of Transition Curve

: 080-617 66 222, info@thegateacademy.com Copyright reserved. Web:www.thegateacademy.com 10

Types of Transition Curve

45o Spiral Curve

Transition Curve for Railways

: 080-617 66 222, info@thegateacademy.com Copyright reserved. Web:www.thegateacademy.com 12

Length of Transition Curve

Criteria for Realignment of a Curve

String Line Operation for Realignment of Curves

Extra Lateral Clearance on Curves

Extra lateral clearance is desired because

: 080-617 66 222, info@thegateacademy.com Copyright reserved. Web:www.thegateacademy.com 14

2. End Throw or extra clearance needed at end

: 080-617 66 222, info@thegateacademy.com Copyright reserved. Web:www.thegateacademy.com 15

Extra clearance on Platforms

Gauge Widening on Curves

Gauge Radius Gauge Provided

Check Rail on Curves

: 080-617 66 222, info@thegateacademy.com Copyright reserved. Web:www.thegateacademy.com 16

Check rail performs the following functions

Gain of inner Rail over the Outer Rail on a Curve

: 080-617 66 222, info@thegateacademy.com Copyright reserved. Web:www.thegateacademy.com 17

7. One degree of curve is equivalent to

: 080-617 66 222, info@thegateacademy.com Copyright reserved. Web:www.thegateacademy.com 18

Answers Keys & Explanation

Airport Planning and Design

Airport Site Selection

: 080-617 66 222, info@thegateacademy.com Copyright reserved. Web:www.thegateacademy.com 19

Grading, drainage and soil characteristics

Minimum Turning Radius

: 080-617 66 222, info@thegateacademy.com Copyright reserved. Web:www.thegateacademy.com 20

Turning Radius of Aircraft

Minimum Circling Radius

Airport Site Selection