Sadhana Vol. 28, Parts 3 & 4, June/August 2003, pp. 453465.

Printed in India

Effect of hydrogen on mechanical properties of -titanium

alloys

H-J CHRIST, A SENEMMAR, M DECKER and K PRUNER

Institut fur Werkstofftechnik, Universitat Siegen, D-57068 Siegen, Germany

e-mail: Christ@ifwt.mb.uni-siegen.de

Abstract. Conflicting opinions exist in the literature on the manner in which

hydrogen influences the mechanical properties of -titanium alloys. This can be
attributed to the -stabilizing effect of hydrogen in these materials leading to
major changes in the microstructure as a result of hydrogen charging. The resulting
(extrinsic) effect of hydrogen on the mechanical properties can possibly cover up
the direct (intrinsic) influences.
On the basis of experimentally determined thermodynamic and kinetic data
regarding the interaction of hydrogen with -titanium alloys, hydrogen concen-
trations of up to 8 at.% were established in three commercial alloys by means of
hydrogen charging from the gas phase. In order to separate intrinsic and extrinsic
effects the charging was carried out during one step of the two-step heat treat-
ment typical of metastable -titanium alloys, while the other step was performed in
vacuum.
The results on the single-phase condition represent the intrinsic hydrogen
effect. Monotonic and cyclic strength increase at the expense of ductility with
increasing hydrogen concentration. The brittle to ductile transition temperature
shifts to higher values and the fatigue crack propagation threshold value decreases.
The microstructure of the metastable, usually two-phase -titanium alloys is
strongly affected by hydrogen, although the extent of this effect depends not
only on the hydrogen concentration but also on the temperature of charging. This
microstructural influence (extrinsic effect) changes the mechanical properties in
the opposite direction as compared to the intrinsic hydrogen effect.

Keywords. -Titanium alloys; hydrogen embrittlement; hydrogen diffusion;

hydrogen solubility; fatigue behaviour; brittle to ductile transition.

1. Introduction

-titanium alloys are very promising candidate materials for many structural applications in
aviation, marine technology and medicine, since they combine low density with high strength
and excellent corrosion resistance. The -phase, which is body-centred cubic (bcc) and exists
For correspondence

453
454 H-J Christ et al

in pure titanium at temperatures above 882 C (the so-called transus) only, is (partially)
stabilized in these alloys by alloying with -stabilizing elements.
Most of the commercial -titanium alloys are metastable with regard to the -phase. This
allows for a variable and optimized adjustment of the mechanical properties with respect to
the specific application by means of a two-step heat treatment. In a first step usually a solution
annealing above or slightly below the -transus is carried out. It is typical of this type of alloy
that the -phase is not transformed during quenching to room temperature. The final strength
of the material can be adjusted by aging at intermediate temperature (typically between 350
and 500 C) and results from the precipitation of fine needles or plates embedded in the
matrix. An UTS of up to 1800 MPa can be obtained and therefore -titanium alloys are very
attractive for many future applications in mass production, provided the material cost can
be reduced further, e.g. by using cheaper -stabilizing alloying elements or suitable element
combinations.
Different from the more common and + titanium alloys, -titanium alloys exhibit
a rather low susceptibility to hydrogen embrittlement. This is attributed to a much higher
hydrogen solubility of the bcc -phase. However, the results of earlier studies indicate that
diffusion of hydrogen is much faster in the -phase as compared to the almost close-packed
hexagonal -phase. Hence, under conditions where -titanium alloys are directly exposed to
hydrogen, critical concentrations could be reached relatively fast. A corresponding application
are the wings and the fuselage of future hydrogen-fueled aircrafts, which shall leave earths
atmosphere in order to realize a very high cruising speed.
The objective of the studies reported on was to characterize the susceptibility of -titanium
alloys to hydrogen in a quantitative manner. For this purpose, on the one hand data on kinetics
and thermodynamics of the interaction of hydrogen with these alloys is required. On the
other hand the effect of the hydrogen content on the mechanical properties needs to be
characterized.

2. Experimental methods

-titanium alloys are subdivided according to the degree of stabilization into the classes
near-, metastable and stable -titanium alloys. Since the stability of the -phase may affect
the interaction with hydrogen, one alloy of each class was selected for this article, in order
to represent typical results. The respective alloy designations and chemical compositions are
given in table 1.
An important prerequisite for an investigation of the effect of hydrogen on the mechanical
properties is that the alloys studied can be charged with hydrogen in a reproducible and well-
defined way so that reasonably predefined hydrogen concentrations can be established. In
order to develop the necessary recipes for hydrogen charging, the hydrogen uptake and

Table 1. Designations and chemical compositions of the alloys

studied.

Designation Composition [wt %] Classification

Ti 1023 10V 2Fe 3Al Near- alloy

Ti 21S 15Mo 27Nb 3Al 02Si Metastable alloy
Alloy C 35V 15Cr Stable alloy
 Hydrogen in -titanium alloys 455

release from and into the gas phase must be studied, applying for instance thermogravimetry
and volumetry. Furthermore, the hydrogen diffusion coefficient must be determined as a
function of temperature and prior heat treatment, in order to assess the annealing time which is
necessary to accomplish a uniform hydrogen concentration distribution within a mechanical
test sample after charging. The main results of this required pre-study (Decker 2002) and
some details of the experimental procedures used are summarized in 31.
The main advantage of the technique applied to determine the diffusion coefficient of
hydrogen DH is that the values determined are not affected by surface condition. This is
important, since the gravimetric results illustrate that at temperatures below 600 C the uptake
of hydrogen is determined by the surface reaction. As a consequence, for the purposeful
charging of mechanical test samples the necessity emerged from these studies to prevent
surface oxidation at low charging temperatures. An effective way to do so is galvanic coating
with palladium after chemical surface activation. After the application of this method the
hydrogen pickup was found to be controlled by hydrogen diffusion in the alloy so that on
the basis of the results on thermodynamics and kinetics presented below suitable charging
conditions could be pre-defined.
The diagram shown as figure 1 illustrates the objective and the procedure followed for
the establishment of selected hydrogen concentrations. The two left branches were used
to establish a hydrogen-free reference condition. Since hydrogen is known to act as a -
stabilizing element and, therefore, an effect on the microstructure in two-phase alloys must be
expected, the hydrogen charging was done either during solution annealing or during aging.
The intrinsic effects (i.e., not related to microstructural changes) on the mechanical properties
were thus separated from the extrinsic ones (microstructure-induced). Figure 1 holds true for
both Ti 1023 and Ti 21S. In the case of alloy C the two right branches can be omitted,
because aging does not lead to precipitation of a phase in this stable -titanium alloy. In
order to keep the following description clear and comprehensible, the results reported here
are restricted to the solution-annealed condition (middle branch in figure 1) of the alloys
Ti 1023 and alloy C.

Figure 1. Schematic representation of the concept applied to hydrogen charging.

456 H-J Christ et al

In order to characterize the effect of hydrogen on the mechanical properties, tensile tests
and cyclic deformation experiments in total strain control were performed at room temper-
ature (Senemmar 2002). Furthermore, fatigue crack growth behaviour was studied in crack
propagation measurements on single edge notch bend (SENB) samples in four-point bending
and the notch impact strength was monitored as a function of temperature in Charpy impact
tests. Along with these mechanical tests microstructural investigations were carried out apply-
ing optical, scanning and transmission electron microscopy (SEM, TEM) as well as X-ray
diffraction.

3. Results

3.1 Thermodynamics and kinetics of hydrogen -titanium alloy interaction

Thermogravimetry allows the weight increase of a specimen due to the uptake of hydro-
gen from a He/H2 gas mixture to be monitored. Besides kinetic information on the pickup
rate, the equilibrium hydrogen concentration in solution results as asymptotically approached
final concentration. The values determined are in excellent agreement with the ones observed
in volumetry, where the gas consumption is monitored as a function of time. Both meth-
ods are complementary to one another, because of the better sensibility of the volume-
try at low hydrogen pressure and the closed gas volume that allows the use of hydrogen
gas of very high purity (while gravimetry is carried out in continuously flowing gas). Fig-
ure 2 shows the equilibrium hydrogen concentration as a function of the square root of
the hydrogen partial pressure for the three alloys under investigation at various temper-
atures. A high hydrogen solubility is clearly visible which can be described by Sieverts
law for low hydrogen pressure. In general, the hydrogen solubility decreases strongly with

Figure 2. Equilibrium hydrogen con-

centrations (dissolved) as a function of
hydrogen partial pressure in the gas
phase plotted in a Sievert-type repre-
sentation.
 Hydrogen in -titanium alloys 457

increasing temperature manifesting the exothermic nature of the uptake reaction. While
the alloys Ti 21S and Ti 1023 show similar behaviour, the soluble hydrogen concen-
tration in alloy C is significantly lower. Depending on temperature, the hydride formation
was found to set in at less than 10 at.% for this alloy (Decker & Christ 1998; Christ et al
1999).
The diffusion coefficients of hydrogen were determined by charging one side of long and
thin rods of the materials by means of an electrochemical technique, while the other half of
each rod was insulated prior to charging. By this procedure a hydrogen concentration step
profile is established as seen in figure 3a. During a subsequent diffusion anneal a characteristic
concentration profile develops (figure 3b) which is only determined by the hydrogen diffusion
coefficient at given temperature and annealing time. The concentration profiles were measured
by analyzing thin discs cut from the rods and the diffusion coefficient was determined by
adapting its value in such a way that a numerical two-dimensional diffusion simulation yields
the experimentally determined profile.
In figure 4 the measured diffusion coefficients are compiled in an Arrhenius plot and
compared with the data reported in the literature. The interested reader is referred to Christ
et al (2000), for a more detailed description. The alloy Ti 1023 was studied in different
microstructural conditions in order to determine the influence of prior heat treatment. In
addition to the -titanium alloys, the near- alloy IMI 834 was considered. Strong increase of
the hydrogen diffusion coefficient DH was observed with increasing stability. The difference
in DH decreases with increasing temperature. At room temperature this difference is almost
three orders of magnitude.

Figure 3. Hydrogen concentration profile

observed after electrochemical charging of
one half of a thin rod (a) and after subse-
quent annealing (b). The concentration in
figure 3b is normalized to the maximum
concentration.
458 H-J Christ et al

Figure 4. Comparison of measured

hydrogen diffusion coefficients with
those from the literature. Literature
data except for Ti 13113 (after Hol-
man et al 1965) are shown without
data points and represent pure -
titanium (solid lines) and pure -
titanium (dashed lines).

3.2 Direct (intrinsic) hydrogen effect on mechanical properties

The results obtained on alloy C can be understood easily, since they correspond widely to
the expectations. alloy C, which is a relatively new alloy (Peters & Winkler 1992) and is
predominantly used in jet engines because of its high resistance to the so-called titanium fire
(Broderick et al 1996), can be considered as single-phase material, though fine precipitates
exist in the matrix, which can purposefully be affected by heat treatment (Hansen et al
1996). Hence, the following results on alloy C document in principle the direct (intrinsic)
effect of hydrogen on the mechanical properties, since major microstructural changes can be
excluded.
Stressstrain diagrams obtained in tensile tests for three hydrogen concentrations are shown
in figure 5. The smallest concentration of 008 at.% represents the condition after solution
annealing of the as-received material in vacuum. Increased hydrogen contents lead to a tremen-
dous reduction of the fracture strain at simultaneously increased strength. A closer consid-
eration of the elastic range at the beginning shows a slight decrease of the Youngs modulus
with increasing hydrogen concentration. This is in accord with the idea of hydrogen-induced
lattice dilatation (Costa et al 1984).
Behaviour under cyclic loading conditions is very similar to that observed in monotonic
loading. After initial cyclic softening a pronounced cyclic saturation is established. The satura-
tion stress amplitude increases with increasing hydrogen concentration. Furthermore, hydro-
gen reduces the fatigue life in total strain control, which was applied in this study. The reason
for the decrease of the number of cycles to fracture is directly detectable by SEM of the frac-
 Hydrogen in -titanium alloys 459

Figure 5. Stress-strain diagram from tensile

tests on alloy C at different hydrogen con-
centrations.

ture surfaces. At low hydrogen concentrations a more ductile fracture appearance with clear
traces of plastic deformation in the form of dimples prevails, while at high concentrations a
brittle fracture surface with even and intergranular areas exists.
Exemplary results from the fatigue crack growth measurements on notched four point
bend specimens are shown in figure 6 for a stress ratio R of 01. The crack propagation rate
da/dN is plotted versus the range of the stress intensity factor 1K. The slopes of the curves
represented are relatively high indicating that the material is rather brittle and susceptible to
fatigue crack propagation. The most striking effect of hydrogen is a shift of the curves to
lower 1K values in combination with a significant reduction of the fatigue crack threshold
as indicated by the arrow in figure 6.
-Titanium alloys show a brittle to ductile transition (BDT) with increasing temperature
(Lederich et al 1993). This phenomenon is usually characterized by means of the value of
the BDT temperature. In order to determine the effect of hydrogen on this transition, notched
bar impact tests were carried out at various temperatures. It should be noted that each sample

Figure 6. Fatigue crack propagation data for alloy C with different hydrogen concentrations at
R = 01.
460 H-J Christ et al

Figure 7. Effect of temperature and hydrogen concentration on notched bar impact strength of alloy C.

had to be hydrogen charged individually. So the number of tests is limited and a statistical
check is hardly possible. Figure 7 represents the results in a plot of the notch impact strength
versus the temperature. The relatively brittle behaviour is confirmed by low values of impact
strength found in the entire temperature range under investigation.An increase of the hydrogen
concentration in Alloy C shifts the curves to lower values of the impact strength and the
BDT temperature increases. Hence, the ductile temperature range, which is important from
the point of view of technical application, is restricted to higher temperatures. Furthermore,
hydrogen causes a broadening of the BDT range.
To summarize these observations it can be stated that all the performed tests show a deteri-
oration of the mechanical properties of alloy C. An increase of hydrogen concentration causes
an embrittlement manifesting itself in a decrease of fracture strain, fatigue life and fatigue
crack propagation threshold and leading to a shift of the BDT temperature to higher temper-
atures. It will be shown in the following section using results obtained on the alloy Ti 1023
that this negative intrinsic hydrogen effect can even be out-weighed under certain conditions
by hydrogen-induced microstructural changes.

3.3 Indirect (extrinsic) effects of hydrogen on mechanical properties

Ti 1023 is the most commonly used -titanium alloy (Boyer 1993) often applied for forged
parts in aeronautics (e.g. as landing gears). Optimum properties for service conditions are
adjusted by a heat treatment following strong deformation. Mostly solution annealing is per-
formed in the + region, i.e. below the transus (Kuhlman 1993; Terlinde & Schwalbe
1987).
The behaviour of Ti 1023 in tensile tests is shown in figure 8 for selected heat treat-
ments. Surprisingly enough, the highest strength was observed in the (almost) hydrogen-free
solution-annealed condition. Subsequent aging improves fracture strain, but the strength is
only slightly affected. Conversely, the material is rather soft after hydrogen charging dur-
ing solution annealing to approximately 6 at.%. The origin of the very different strength
levels becomes evident by TEM investigation. Figure 9 depicts a TEM micrograph of the
(almost) hydrogen-free solution-annealed condition. Obviously fine needle-shaped pre-
cipitates already formed during cooling to room temperature in the matrix. If dissolved
hydrogen is present, this transformation during cooling is suppressed in agreement with the
reduction of the transus by hydrogen (Costa et al 1987).
 Hydrogen in -titanium alloys 461

Figure 8. Stressstrain dia-

gram from tensile tests on
Ti 1023 in different condi-
tions.

Hydrogen-induced inhibition of the a precipitation, the extent of which is determined by

the hydrogen concentration, leads to a change in the deformation mechanism during cyclic
loading. In the precipitate-free condition, an additional contribution to plastic deformation
results from the formation of martensite (Isaac & Hammond 1984). This process leads to very
unusual stress-strain hysteresis loops in combination with relatively low stress amplitudes.
Tendentiously the stress amplitude decreases and the number of cycles to fracture increases
with increased hydrogen level.
Results of fatigue crack propagation tests are summarized for five different hydrogen con-
centrations at R = 01 in figure 10. In contrast to the behaviour of alloy C (figure 6), the

Figure 9. TEM micrograph of solution-

annealed Ti 1023 (without hydrogen).
462 H-J Christ et al

Figure 10. Effect of hydrogen on the fatigue crack propagation rate of Ti 1023.

threshold value increases with the hydrogen content. This can be attributed to a reduction of
the local stress amplitude at the crack tip as a consequence of the lowered yield strength in
the condition where the precipitation is (partially) suppressed. The behaviour in notched
bar impact tests is shown in figure 11. In principle, Ti 1023 also exhibits BDT. As opposed
to the observations on alloy C, hydrogen shifts the transition range to lower temperatures and
only slightly affects the horizontal position of the curves.

4. Discussion

The results presented above document that a superposition of various simultaneously act-
ing mechanisms is responsible for the effect of hydrogen on the mechanical properties of

Figure 11. Charpy notch impact strength of Ti 1023 as a function of temperature and hydrogen
concentration.
 Hydrogen in -titanium alloys 463

-titanium alloys. The relative relevance of each mechanism depends on the material con-
sidered and the loading conditions applied. Basically it must be stated that in the complex
technical microstructures, which are optimized with respect to in-service properties, a strong
effect results from the stabilization caused by hydrogen. The corresponding thermodynamic
and kinetic changes in the precipitation reaction of the -phase in the matrix can give rise
to changes in the microstructure as compared to the hydrogen-free reference condition which
may even influence the mechanical properties stronger than the intrinsic hydrogen effects. In
fundamental studies on hydrogen embrittlement, mostly pure metals or single-phase condi-
tions are considered so that this extrinsic effect does not become evident except for the shift
of transformation temperatures.
If extrinsic effects are excluded, which was done in this study by using the stable -titanium
alloy alloy C, only the direct or intrinsic effect of hydrogen remains for which different
possible mechanisms are proposed in the literature for titanium. The classical decohesion
theory assumes that dissolved hydrogen decreases the cohesive energy of the metal lattice.
Since hydrogen is supposed to enrich at locations of high tensile stress, a local reduction of
the fracture stress below the flow stress as origin for brittle fracture is in principle conceivable.
Teter (Teter 1996) applied this concept to explain the abrupt ductile to brittle transition with
increasing hydrogen concentration observed in his study of the solution-annealed -titanium
alloy Ti 21S. This transition was measured as a change of the fracture strain in tensile tests
and takes place at relatively high hydrogen concentrations far beyond the concentration range
used in the present work. Furthermore, the ductility loss of alloy C was connected with an
increase in strength, which can hardly be explained solely on the basis of the decohesion
mechanism.
It has been shown for a number of metals by means of direct experimental observation
that hydrogen accelerates and localizes dislocation movement. This mechanism which is
commonly called HELP (hydrogen enhanced local plasticity) is based on the shielding of
the elastic stress fields of the dislocations by dissolved hydrogen so that dislocation obsta-
cles partially lose their effectiveness. In in situ TEM studies the increase of the dislocation
velocity can directly be observed, when hydrogen is added into the specimen cell, and pro-
vides evidence of the HELP theory. The dislocation glide takes place localized ahead of the
crack tip, since the repulsive interaction of neighbouring dislocations decreases. Macroscop-
ically, a brittle and even fracture surface forms which can be attributed to the local con-
centration of plastic deformation. HELP was also observed for Ti 21S (Alvarez 1999) and
gives a possible explanation for the cleavage fracture surface found in hydrogen charged
conditions of alloy C. The enhanced stress values of both the tensile tests and the fatigue
tests would then be a consequence of slip localization. A change to a planar slip character
in combination with a dislocation pile-up mechanism at grain boundaries can give rise to
strengthening.
The formation of hydrides is a third possible hydrogen embrittlement mechanism. In the
presence of tensile stress, hydrides can form in titanium alloys already at hydrogen concentra-
tions clearly below the equilibrium solubility. This is, because the specific volume of hydrides
is larger than the one of the matrix and hence Gibbs free energy of hydride formation is
lowered by tensile stress. Hydrides can form localized, if a crack exists, since large tensile
stresses are expected at the crack tip. Because of the low fracture toughness of hydrides, the
crack propagates through the hydride or along the hydride/metal interface and stops at the
end of the hydride precipitate until new hydride is formed ahead of the new crack tip. Behind
the crack front, the hydride may dissolve again so that a direct evidence of this mechanism is
very difficult. Hydrides were found in -needles ahead of the crack in the metastable titanium
464 H-J Christ et al

alloy -C (Alvarez 1999). Corresponding observations of stress-induced hydride formation

in the -phase are lacking. However, the relatively low hydrogen solubility of alloy C as
compared to the other two alloys studied (see figure 2) indicates that the hydride formation
mechanism might possibly contribute to the hydrogen embrittlement of this alloy.

5. Conclusions

The main results of the studies performed on the interaction of hydrogen with -titanium
alloys lead to the following conclusions.

(1) -titanium alloys can solve high concentrations of hydrogen without forming hydrides.
The solubility decreases with increasing temperature and depends strongly on alloy com-
position.
(2) The hydrogen diffusion coefficient in -titanium alloys is much higher as compared to -
titanium and -alloys at low and moderate temperatures. With increasing temperature this
difference ceases and similar values exist at the transus temperature of pure titanium.
(3) Hydrogen deteriorates the mechanical properties of the single-phase and stable -titanium
alloy alloy C. Fracture strain decreases, cyclic life is reduced, the brittle to ductile transition
temperature increases and the fatigue crack growth threshold decrease.
(4) In the metastable alloy Ti 1023 the -phase already precipitates during cooling from
the solution-annealing temperature.
(5) Depending on hydrogen concentration this transformation can partially or completely be
suppressed. Hence, even a more ductile material results leading to extrinsic hydrogen
effects which cover or outweigh the embrittlement.

The authors are grateful to Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft for financial support of this
study under Grant No. Ch92/6-1/2 and Ch92/12-1/2.

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