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Structural Damage Identification Using


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DOI: 10.1088/1361-665X/aa550a

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Smart Mater. Struct. 26 (2017) 043001 (14pp) doi:10.1088/1361-665X/aa550a

Topical Review

Structural damage identication using


damping: a compendium of uses and
features
M S Cao1,5, G G Sha1, Y F Gao2 and W Ostachowicz3,4
1
Department of Engineering Mechanics, College of Mechanics and Materials, Hohai University, Peoples
Republic of China
2
College of Civil and Transportation Engineering, Hohai University, Peoples Republic of China
3
Institute of Fluid-Flow Machinery, Polish Academy of Sciences, Gdansk, Poland
4
Faculty of Automotive and Construction Machinery, Warsaw University of Technology, Warsaw, Poland

E-mail: cmszhy@hhu.edu.cn

Received 2 October 2016, revised 29 November 2016


Accepted for publication 21 December 2016
Published 7 March 2017

Abstract
The vibration responses of structures under controlled or ambient excitation can be used to detect
structural damage by correlating changes in structural dynamic properties extracted from
responses with damage. Typical dynamic properties refer to modal parameters: natural
frequencies, mode shapes, and damping. Among these parameters, natural frequencies and mode
shapes have been investigated extensively for their use in damage characterization by associating
damage with reduction in local stiffness of structures. In contrast, the use of damping as a
dynamic property to represent structural damage has not been comprehensively elucidated,
primarily due to the complexities of damping measurement and analysis. With advances in
measurement technologies and analysis tools, the use of damping to identify damage is
becoming a focus of increasing attention in the damage detection community. Recently, a
number of studies have demonstrated that damping has greater sensitivity for characterizing
damage than natural frequencies and mode shapes in various applications, but damping-based
damage identication is still a research direction in progress and is not yet well resolved. This
situation calls for an overall survey of the state-of-the-art and the state-of-the-practice of using
damping to detect structural damage. To this end, this study aims to provide a comprehensive
survey of uses and features of applying damping in structural damage detection. First, we present
various methods for damping estimation in different domains including the time domain, the
frequency domain, and the time-frequency domain. Second, we investigate the features and
applications of damping-based damage detection methods on the basis of two predominant
infrastructure elements, reinforced concrete structures and ber-reinforced composites. Third, we
clarify the inuential factors that can impair the capability of damping to characterize damage.

3
Author to whom any correspondence should be addressed.
4
Present address: Nanoscale Materials Science, Empa-Swiss Federal
Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Dubendorf, Switzerland.

Original content from this work may be used under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 licence. Any
further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and
the title of the work, journal citation and DOI.

0964-1726/17/043001+14$33.00 1 2017 IOP Publishing Ltd Printed in the UK


Smart Mater. Struct. 26 (2017) 043001 Topical Review

Finally, we recommend future research directions for advancing damping-based damage


detection. This work holds the promise of (a) helping researchers identify crucial components in
damping-based damage detection theories, methods, and technologies, and (b) leading
practitioners to better implement damping-based structural damage identication.
Keywords: damping, damage identication, inuencing factors, reinforced concrete structure,
ber-reinforced composite

(Some gures may appear in colour only in the online journal)

1. Introduction manifesting in changes in modal parameters. Hence, changes


in structural modal parameters can be taken as signatures of
A structural health monitoring (SHM) system is designed to the existence, location, and severity of damage in a structure
reliably monitor, inspect, and test the health and performance [23, 24]. Vibration-based structural damage detection can
of structures such as buildings, bridges, dams, and tunnels, effectively avoid the limitations of local inspection methods
with the aim of helping engineers improve the safety and because it does not require that the vicinity of damage be
maintainability of critical structures [13]. The SHM system known a priori, nor that the structural portion of interest be
is essentially comprised of two major components: smart readily accessible for testing.
sensing technologies and damage detection algorithms [4]. Overall reviews of vibration-based structural damage
The smart sensing technologies, e.g., ber optic sensors [5, 6] detection can be found in the literature [2531]. Methods pro-
and piezoelectric sensors [7], are utilized to monitor various posed in the literature mostly portray damage using either nat-
physical or chemical responses of the structures under ural frequencies or mode shapes and their derivatives such as
investigation. The damage detection algorithms are employed displacement modal curvatures [3236]. It is generally
to reveal damage characteristics from the responses measured acknowledged that natural frequencies have low sensitivity to
by smart sensing sensors and to associate them with the health damage, so that they can usually be used to reect damage to a
and performance of the structures [8]. In recent years, a series moderate degree [37]. Compared to natural frequencies, mode
of smart sensing technologies have emerged, making acqui- shapes and their derivatives have greater sensitivity to damage.
sition of various responses of structures simple and con- However, the measurement of a mode shape requires numerous
venient [3]. In this situation, the development of efcient and sensors distributed on the structure [38]. That this requirement
effective methods to process responses for damage detection cannot be realized in reality creates difculties in utilizing mode
in structures is a crucial scientic and technological issue, and shapes and their derivatives to represent damage in practical
also the major focus of SHM systems [9]. applications of structural damage detection.
Damage detection is a feasible way of avoiding structural Compared to natural frequencies and mode shapes,
failure and catastrophic events induced by structural damage. damping has been less frequently applied to the identication of
Structural damage detection methods developed over the last structural damage, mostly due to the difculty involved in tra-
two decades can be categorized into two groups: local ditional measurement means and the complexity of its mech-
inspection methods [10] and global detection methods [8, 9]. anism. Noticeably, in the measurement aspect, smart sensing
Local inspection methods are commonly based on localized technologies have made the acquisition of various dynamic
inspection procedures that include ultrasonic and acoustic responses of structures feasible, providing more convenient
methods [11, 12], x-ray methods, magnetic eld methods, means of obtaining damping [39, 40]. In particular, piezo-
eddy-current methods, thermal eld methods, etc [1315]. electric sensors and ber optic sensors, surface-bonded or
Such inspection procedures require that the vicinity of embedded in the structure, can serve as both sensors and
damage be known a priori and that the portion of the structure actuators, allowing SHM to become an active monitoring sys-
under investigation be readily accessible for testing [8, 9]. tem [3], facilitating damping acquisition. In the mechanism
Unfortunately, in a large number of cases this requirement aspect, damping represents a physical mechanism that dissipates
cannot be guaranteed, such as when the structure is large and vibration energy in dynamic systems [4143]. Commonly,
complex or its operating environment is hostile. Hence, local much of this energy dissipates within the system, mostly in the
inspection methods must be limited to damage detection in form of heat, while the rest dissipates outside the system in the
certain simple structures operating under friendly conditions. form of acoustic radiation [44]. There are as many forms of
These limitations have resulted in the rapid development of damping mechanism as there are modes of converting vibration
global detection methods in the recent decade [1619]. Global energy into heat. The forms of damping mechanism include, for
detection methods usually rely on changes in structural example, atomic-molecular microstructure effects, kinetic fric-
vibration properties to characterize damage. In this group of tion between parts, transmission of kinetic energy through the
methods, the basic premise is that the dynamic properties structures foundation, viscosity in materials, and uid-structure
described by structural modal parameters (natural frequencies, interactions [45]. Combinations of different forms of damping
mode shapes, damping) are functions of structural physical mechanism result in three fundamental types of damping:
properties [2022], and damage occurring to a structure material damping, structural damping, and uid damping [45].
causes changes in structural physical properties, in turn Material damping arises from a complex atomic-molecular

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Smart Mater. Struct. 26 (2017) 043001 Topical Review

interaction within the material; structural damping is produced damping ratio can be estimated through the procedure of
from Coulomb friction between members and connections of a parameter identication from vibrational responses of a
structural system; uid damping arises from the aerodynamic structure. In this sense, damping estimation refers to damping
and hydrodynamic forces of the uid surrounding the struc- parameter identication. A series of methods can be found in
ture [46]. the literature for identifying damping ratios, and they can be
Owing to the complexity of damping mechanisms, it is in principle classied into three groups: time-domain meth-
difcult to dene a particular damping in a certain real physical ods, frequency-domain methods, and time-frequency-domain
circumstance using exact mathematical expressions. To this methods [6062].
end, researchers have proposed a number of simplied models
to represent damping, typically viscous damping [47, 48], 2.1. Damping estimation in the time domain
dened on the hypothesis of the damping force being propor-
tional to the velocity of oscillation. Viscous damping is the most Popular time-domain methods for estimating damping include
widely used damping model because of its mathematical sim- the logarithmic decrement method [6365], the Ibrahim time-
plicity. Apart from viscous damping, two other commonly used domain method [66], the random decrement method [67, 68],
damping models are hysteretic damping and Coulomb frictional and the Hilbert transform (HT) method [69, 70]. Among these
damping [49]. In real structures, different types of damping methods, the logarithmic decrement method is considered as
often act simultaneously; this in practice leads to the concept of representative due to its fundamental and straightforward
equivalent viscous damping that models the overall damped nature, and it is the most frequently used for damage detection
behavior of the system as viscous. [71]. This method uses a procedure of calculating the
Applicable damping models improve the feasibility of damping ratio with the logarithmic decrement d described by
using damping to identify structural damage. Moreover, the following expressions:
advances in vibration measurement technologies, such as laser xn 2pz
d = In = , (1 )
scanning vibrometer, and the development of damping analysis xn + 1 1 - z2
methods greatly facilitate the estimation of damping. On that
basis, the use of damping in structural damage detection has where xn and xn + 1 are two successive peaks in the free
become a research focus of increasing interest in the recent vibration response of the structure and z is the damping ratio.
decade. Representative studies are those of Curadelli et al [50], For a small damping ratio with z < 0.2 and 1 - z 2 1,
Kyriazoglou et al [51], Frizzarin et al [52], Kostka et al [53], the damping ratio z can be derived from equation (1) as
Wei et al [54]. In particular, some studies have reported that
d 1 x
damping has the potential to characterize damage with greater z = In n . (2 )
competence than natural frequencies and mode shapes in some 2p 2p x n + 1
circumstances [55, 56]. Meanwhile, the factors that inuence To improve precision, two particular peaks with m cycles
the capability of damping in characterize damage have attracted between them can be utilized to calculate the damping ratio:
much attention [57, 58]. On the whole, extant studies of the use
1 x
of damping for damage characterization are attractive, but loose z= In n . (3 )
and disperse, and this situation calls for a comprehensive review 2pm xn + m
of the state-of-the-art and the state-of-the-practice of this Equations (2) and (3) provide the basic paradigm for identi-
emerging area, that could help new researchers identify starting fying damping ratio from free vibration responses of
points for investigation in damping-based damage detection and structures.
could guide practitioners in better implementing available It should be noted that, despite the prevalence of the
damping estimation and damage detection based on damping. logarithmic decrement method, two concerns exist when
The remainder of this paper is outlined as follows. using it to estimate the damping ratio: (i) The peak values of a
Section 2 provides a survey of typical methods for damping free vibration response are identied by the sampling values,
estimation in structural damage detection. Section 3 over- and as such they are not certain to be equal to the actual
views the features and applications of damping for use in maximum values of the response, giving rise to the occur-
structural damage identication. Section 4 reveals the factors rence of measurement error. (ii) The damping ratio is deter-
that inuence the outcomes of the use of damping to identify mined by temporal information from a vibration response, but
structural damage along with possible measures to address temporally measured data is easily contaminated by noise. To
those factors. The nal section recommends potential direc- obtain a precise damping ratio, measures to improve the anti-
tions for research into the development of new theories and noise ability, precision, and stability of damping estimation
technologies of damping-based structural damage detection. are key in actual applications [72].

2.2. Damping estimation in the frequency domain


2. Methods of damping estimation
Prevalent frequency-domain methods for estimating damping
Damping is quantitatively represented by a damping measure, are the half-power bandwidth method [73], the peak picking
typically the damping ratio [45, 59], to indicate the magni- method [74], and the frequency-curve-tting method [75].
tude of the damping of a structure in actual applications. The Among these methods, the half-power bandwidth method is

3
Smart Mater. Struct. 26 (2017) 043001 Topical Review

the most representative and is widely used in applications due the Fourier transform of the translated-and-scaled Gabor
to the clarity of its implications and its simplicity in imple- wavelet, dened by
mentation [76]. The denition of this method is based on the
y Gaboru, s (w , s , h ) = (4ps 2s2)1 4 e-(w - h s)2 s 2s 2 2 e-iwu . (8 )
fact that the width of the frequency response amplitude of a
single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) system is proportional to If j (u ) is larger than the bandwidth of the translated-
the damping ratio of the system. Let fr be the resonant fre- and-scaled Gabor wavelet function Dw, the approximation
quency and f1 , f2 the particular frequencies at the left-hand error Er (A (t ), j (u )) can be neglected, leading the
and right-hand sides of fr , respectively, with the amplitude of approximate form of equation (7):
f1 and f2 being 1 2 times that of fr . Then, the damping ratio 1
is dened as Wx (u , s) = A (u) y Gaboru, s (j (u) , s , h ) e ij (u) . (9 )
2
f2 - f1
z= . (4 ) From equations (6), (8), (9) and using wd = w0
2fr
1 - z 2 w0 (z 1), the approximate expressions of A (u )
Despite its clear implications and easy implementation, and In(A (u )) can be derived as
the half-power bandwidth method suffers from some limita- 2 Wx (u , s (u))
tions in estimating damping in actual applications. For one A (u ) , (10)
(4ps 2s (u)2 )1 4
thing, it is applicable for small damping cases; for the other,
when the peak of a frequency response is missing, the In (A (u)) - zwd u + InA 0 , (11)
corresponding bandwidth tends to be greater than the real one, where s (u ) is the ridge of the CWT and wd the damped natural
and as such the damping ratio derived from equation (4) is frequency. Thus the damping ratio z can be estimated from
often overestimated [77]. the slope of the straight line of In(A (u )).
Besides the basic procedure of wavelet-based damping
2.3. Damping estimation in the time-frequency domain estimation, the alternatives to using CWT time-frequency
analysis to identify damping are as follows. Staszewski et al
Time-frequency-domain methods for estimating damping
[86] formulated three time-frequency methods of damping
have emerged more recently than the aforementioned time-
identication: the CWT cross-section method, the impulse
domain and frequency-domain methods. Time-frequency-
response recovery method, and the wavelet ridge method, by
domain methods usually reveal damping using the joint
using the Morlet wavelet transform to decompose the impulse
temporal and frequency characteristics of structural vibration
responses of multiple-degree-of-freedom (MDOF) systems
responses obtained by time-frequency analysis methods.
into single modes. Ruzzene et al [87] developed a CWT
Methods that can be used to perform time-frequency analysis
procedure using the Morlet wavelet to extract damping of
include the Wigner-Ville distribution [78], the short-time
MDOF systems and showed that CWT-based method repre-
Fourier transform [79], the Choi-Williams distribution [80],
sents a consistent improvement for estimating damping
and the continuous wavelet transform (CWT) [81]. Among
compared to the HT. Lamarque et al [88] presented a wavelet-
these methods, the CWT time-frequency analysis is the pre-
based formula identical to the logarithmic decrement equation
dominant technique and has been increasingly used for
developed in the frame of both a CWT and a multiresolution
damping identication in various applications, e.g., in bell
representation [89]. Their method featured decoupling of
type structures [82], in ocean engineering [83], and in rotor-
modes and estimating damping ratios simultaneously, and
bearing systems [84].
was validated experimentally using the dynamic responses of
The basic procedure of wavelet-based damping estima-
a civil engineering building subjected to both harmonic and
tion was presented in [44, 85]. Consider an asymptotic
shock excitations [90]. Lardies et al [91, 92] introduced a
sinusoidal signal of the SDOF system:
modied Morlet wavelet function for estimating damping
x (t ) = A (t ) cos j (t ) , (5 ) from free vibration responses of a structure and the use of a
modied Morlet wavelet function improved the resolution so
where j (t ) is the phase and A (t ) is the amplitude given by that close modes can be identied. The technique was vali-
A (t ) = A 0 e-zw 0 t , (6 ) dated by identifying damping of a TV tower from the ambient
vibration responses preprocessed by the conventional random
where z is the damping ratio and w0 is the undamped natural decrement technique (RDT). Le et al [93] presented a new
frequency. method that directly uses the raw ambient response with CWT
The wavelet transform of x (t ) using the Gabor wavelet as by modifying the formulation of the CWT of the ambient
the analyzing wavelet is expressed as response, thereby avoiding RDT preprocessing. Yin et al [94]
1 proposed a damping estimation method based on the wavelet
Wx (u , s) = A (u) y Gaboru, s (j (u) , s , h ) eij (u) transform of frequency response functions with the advan-
2
+ Er (A (t ) , j (u)) , (7 ) tages of simplicity and the ability to give a quick estimation.
Due to the susceptibility of the CWT to the edge effect, which
where the prime means differentiation operation, causes a non-valid identication at the start and the end of the
Er (A (t ), j (u )) is the approximation error, and y Gaboru, s is time-series, some methods have been studied that will

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Smart Mater. Struct. 26 (2017) 043001 Topical Review

minimize the edge effect of the CWT [95, 96]. Lardies et al 3.1. Effects of damage on damping
[97] employed cross-sections, ridges, and skeletons of the
When characterizing damage using damping, above all the
CWT to identify and quantify damping in a nonlinear oscil-
effect of damage on damping should be revealed. Theoreti-
lator using its free decay response, with the effectiveness of
cally, damage causes changes in structural dynamic properties
the methods veried. The attempts to identify nonlinear
including natural frequencies, mode shapes, and damping,
damping using wavelet transform were also reported by and therefore a change in damping can be utilized to reect
Staszewski [98], Ta et al [99], and Chandra et al [100]. The damage. Notably, studies of the effect of damage on damping
synchrosqueezed wavelet transform (SWT) has also been are promising but not as extensive as investigations of natural
used for damping identication [101, 102], and it was found frequencies and mode shapes.
that although the SWT produces sharper representations, For RC structures and FR composites, various studies
when identifying damping, it is less stable than the CWT- have investigated the effect of damage on damping, with
based approach. some interesting ndings [112118]. Here, representative
Unlike the methods for estimating damping in the time studies are summarized. Dieterle et al [119] experimentally
only or frequency only domains, damping estimation in the and numerically investigated the damping behavior of
time-frequency domain, especially using wavelet-based time- cracked RC beams. They found that cracks could induce a
frequency analysis methods, enjoys the following distinct considerable increase in damping. Daneshjoo et al [120]
advantages: (i) It inherits the merits of wavelets in being self- examined variation in the damping of cracked RC beams,
adaptive to noise so that it can accurately estimate damping with the phenomenon of damping increasing along with the
from actually measured vibration responses contaminated by observed development of cracks. Bovsunovsky et al [121]
noise. This feature enables the method to overcome the utilized a nite element model to predict changes in the
typical deciency in time-domain methods of proneness to damping of cracked beams. They found that the damping of
noise during damping estimation. (ii) It can estimate the the cracked specimens was greater than that of intact speci-
instantaneous damping of structures [103], which makes it mens. Panteliou et al [122] calculated the damping of a bar
feasible for characterizing nonlinear damage that induces both analytically and experimentally. The results showed that
changes in structural dynamic properties in a nonlinear the change in damping correlated well with the crack depth.
manner. This function cannot be realized in either time- Consuegra et al [123] conducted quasi-static testing on a
domain or frequency-domain methods. (iii) It has the cap- structure which experienced three different drift levels and
ability of decoupling MDOF systems into multiple single found that the damping ratio increased with the perceived
modes and analyzing damping simultaneously on this set of drift level. Savage et al [124] observed that unstressed beams
single modes. One concern regarding the use of the wavelet- had a signicantly higher damping ratio than prestressed
based time-frequency method to estimate damping is proper beams. This phenomenon could be explained by the fact that
micro-cracking along the length of the beam caused friction
selection of the analyzing wavelet [104]. Different analyzing
within solid concrete, and this friction could increase the
wavelets probably lead to slightly inconsistent damping
damping ratio. In the prestressed beam, microcracks were
estimation results. Therefore, selection of the optimal ana-
effectively closed up by the post-load, so that the friction
lyzing wavelet is an issue worthy of exploration.
motion was reduced, resulting in a lower damping ratio,
whereas this phenomenon could not occur in the unstressed
beam, without a reduction in the damping ratio. Nelson et al
[125] reported that the increase in damping due to ber
3. Damage identication using damping
matrix interfacial slip was signicant, with the possibility of
quantifying bermatrix interface damage from dynamic
The accurate estimation of damping paves the way to
hysteresis measurements. Li et al [126] explained that damage
employing damping to characterize damage in structures.
was a mechanism that causes increased damping in composite
Several investigators have demonstrated the considerable
materials. Kral et al [127] presented the effect of impact
potential of damping in acting as a viable damage signature failure on the natural frequency and damping ratio of a
[105109]. The use of damping to portray damage has been composite beam. Their results showed that the change in the
reported for a wide spectrum of applications in various natural frequency due to damage was not considerable and
structures [5054, 110, 111], with the most representative had irregular behavior, whereas the damping ratio increased at
applications being reinforced concrete (RC) structures and a measurable level as the damage level increased and the
ber-reinforced (FR) composites. Dramatically, the methods increase in the damping ratio was related to the friction due to
of damping-based damage identication in these two struc- the matrix cracks and broken bers. Zhang et al [128] studied
tural types can cover almost all the methods available in the the damage process caused by fatigue in unidirectional ber
area of structural damage detection relying on damping. For composites by using damping measurements. Damping
this reason, this section surveys the use of damping in showed an increasing trend with the fatigue cycles and a
detecting damage in both RC structures and FR composites, damping plateau was detected that could be due to the
with the aim of presenting a prole of damping-based damage balance between fatigue input energy and amount of energy
identication in structures. dissipation of the microcracks. They also reported that

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Smart Mater. Struct. 26 (2017) 043001 Topical Review

damping was more sensitive than stiffness in the evaluation of RC structures is described in terms of linear and nonlinear
damage process. Birman et al [129] presented an analytical features of damping.
solution capable of predicting the effect of matrix cracking in
ceramic matrix composites on damping. Damping increased 3.2.1. Linear features of damping. The damping ratio dened
with a higher density of matrix cracks and the increase in by equations (1)(3) is a linear feature of damping,
damping associated with matrix cracking was mostly due to representing the extent of energy dissipation within the
frictional energy dissipation along the damaged bermatrix system. The presence of damage causes energy to dissipate
interfaces adjacent to the bridging cracks whose plane of through the defects, thereby increasing the damping ratio.
propagation intersected the ber axis. This relation explains the principle of using changes in
The foregoing studies imply a rule that damping is damping ratio to characterize damage in structures.
positively correlated with the degree of damage, specically Shahzad et al [71] examined the feasibility of detecting
that damping increases with an increase in the degree of corrosion damage in RC beams based on changes in damping
damage, with emphasis on the sensitivity to damage reected ratio. The damping ratio was identied by the logarithmic
in damping being greater than that in natural frequencies and decrement method as well as the curve tting method. The
mode shapes. This rule provides a basic guide for using authors presented the ndings shown in gure 1: (i) the
damping as an efcient dynamic feature to detect, locate, and damping ratio increased with the increase in corrosion
quantify damage. damage, and (ii) the damping ratio was more sensitive than
Aside from this general deduction, a few studies have natural frequencies to corrosion damage in RC beams. Razak
displayed observations of anomalous trends in damping et al [76] experimentally investigated the effect of corrosion
changes with damage. Casas et al [130] performed tests on on damping as well as on other modal parameters of RC
partially cracked concrete beams. Their results indicated no beams. The estimated damping ratios for the second and third
clear relation between crack growth and increase in damping. modes reected a trend of positive correlation with the
Williams et al [57] conducted tests of damping before and severity of corrosion damage, but this relation did not exist
after structural repairs to a RC bridge, with no clear trend for the rst mode. The inconsistency with the rst mode could
found in damping variation. Salane et al [131] reported that be attributed to the enhanced bond at the steelconcrete
damping ratios decreased after damage was induced in a interface due to the accumulation of rust products, in
single-span bridge, whereas damping initially increased and comparison with the uncorroded beam. This occurrence is
subsequently decreased when damage was induced in the full- probably a unique characteristic of corroded structural
scale bridge model. Hearn et al [20] conducted tests on a steel elements.
frame subjected to sine wave load cycles while they mon-
itored its damping. They noted that after damage, the damping 3.2.2. Nonlinear features of damping
might not remain at an increased level and could decline after 3.2.2.1. Instantaneous damping coefficient. The instantaneous
continued deterioration of a member. damping coefcient is an extension of the damping ratio, suited
These observations can be interpreted to demonstrate that to describing the variation of damping with evolution over time.
there are some uncertainties in characterizing damage using Curadelli et al [50] presented a new scheme of using the
damping. The uncertainties can be attributed to the multiple instantaneous damping coefcient to detect structural damage,
factors inuencing damping to represent damage (see where the instantaneous damping coefcient is obtained by
section 4). Moreover, the denition of damage is also a factor employing the CWT to process the vibration response. The
that affects damping to portray damage. For instance, in complex behavior of RC beams can be modeled by a Takeda-
laboratory tests an articially manufactured crack or slot is type model [132], and an oscillator with such behavior can be
usually utilized to dene damage in a specimen, but from the modeled by second-order systems with nonlinear restoring force
point of view of damping inducing energy dissipation, those k (x ) x and nonlinear damping force h 0 (x ) x and represented by
articial phenomena are not related to damping since they the equation x + 2h 0 (x ) x + k (x ) x = 0, leading to a free
cannot dissipate any energy. response in the form:
x (t ) = A (t ) cos (j (t )) , (12)
3.2. Damping-based damage detection in RC structures
where A (t ) and j (t ) are the instantaneous amplitude and the
RC structures provide a relatively inexpensive and durable instantaneous phase. The instantaneous undamped natural
material with extensive applications in various infrastructure. frequency and the instantaneous damping coefcient can be
However, the deterioration of in-service RC structures is a calculated according to the formulae [133]:
serious problem that impairs their performance and even
2A A w
2
threatens the safety of the infrastructure. Deterioration of RC A
w 20 (t ) = w 2 - + 2 + , (13)
structures can result from insufcient reinforcement, large A A Aw
deection, poor concrete quality, and steel corrosion linked to
A w
environmental conditions. Damage caused by deterioration in h 0 (t ) = - - , (14)
RC structures has a signicant inuence on damping, pro- A 2w
viding the opportunity to use damping to detect damage in where w0 (t ) is the instantaneous undamped natural frequency,
RC structures. The use of damping to characterize damage in h 0 (t ) the instantaneous damping coefcient, A the instantaneous

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Smart Mater. Struct. 26 (2017) 043001 Topical Review

Figure 1. Variations in modal damping and natural frequency with


increased severity of corrosion damage [71]. U0, U1, U2 denote
damage states 0 (undamaged), 1, and 2, respectively.

amplitude, w the instantaneous damped angular frequency, A


and A the rst- and second-order derivatives of A, and w the
rst-order derivative of w. The instantaneous amplitude A (t ) and
the instantaneous phase j (t ) can be extracted using the CWT to
analyze the vibration signals [50]. Then the instantaneous
undamped natural frequency and the instantaneous damping
coefcient can be determined using equations (13) and (14).
Experimental and simulated examples in [50] conrmed that
damage caused important variations of the instantaneous
damping coefcient that proved to be a damage-sensitive
feature. Figure 2 illustrates the instantaneous damping
coefcient and instantaneous undamped natural frequ-
ency along the amplitude of vibration between the undamaged
state and the damaged state of a RC beam. Clearly, the change in
the instantaneous damping coefcient is greater than that in
the instantaneous undamped natural frequency, implying that the
instantaneous damping coefcient is a more effective signature Figure 2. Instantaneous undamped natural frequency (a) and
for portraying damage. instantaneous damping coefcient h0(t) (b) along the amplitude of
vibration [50].

3.2.2.2. Nonlinear damping parameter. It is acknowledged


that tiny cracks cause little change in natural frequencies, to
damage level appeared to cause growth in internal micro-
the extent that higher mode shapes are usually required to
cracks or concretesteel debonds, resulting in increasing
detect such cracks. In some circumstances, small cracks cause
nonlinearity, and the authors proposed a quadratic damping
larger changes in damping, as reported in [134], a
model by a combination of viscous damping and a
phenomenon that presents a new path for detecting slight
damage using damping. polynomial damping with the aim of describing the damping
Zonta et al [134] conducted vibration tests on prestressed behavior of cracked RC structures. It was observed that the
RC (PRC) hollow panels and observed that cracks in the PRC quadratic damping effectively represented the actual energy
caused a non-viscous dissipative mechanism, making damp- dissipation mechanism in PRC members associated with the
ing more sensitive to damage. They recognized the need for different levels of damage. The quadratic damping factor is
further research using damping for damage detection because much more sensitive to the presence of damage than the
additional effects such as other non-classical dissipative viscous damping ratio, and thus can be effectively used for
mechanisms must be considered. It is noted that the damage identication purposes. The technique described in
difculties in accurate estimation of damping caused a this article is based on the analysis of a free vibration signal
scattering higher than the frequency. Franchetti et al [135] that limits applications because of the difculty in obtaining a
presented a damage detection method for PRC elements on free vibration response of a structure.
the basis of free vibration tests of three precast PRC beams A baseline-free damage detection method for RC
and nonlinear damping identication. The increase in the structures based on nonlinear damping analysis of ambient

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Smart Mater. Struct. 26 (2017) 043001 Topical Review

Figure 3. Cracked bending element (a) and corresponding model (b) [52].

vibration data was developed in [52]. For a RC structure, concrete structures is more reliable because of its strong
gure 3 shows that the most signicant dissipation mech- nonlinearity.
anism in the cracked zone is friction damping, whereas in the
compression zone it can be assumed that only viscous 3.3. Damping-based damage detection in FR composites
damping is present. The authors proposed a viscousfriction
combined damping model and obtained the envelope of the In parallel with RC structures, FR composites have been
free vibration response of a structure: widely used in a variety of infrastructure because of their high
specic strength, specic stiffness, and tailorable properties
g [136]. FR composites have their particular failure modes,
(
a (t ) = x 0 1 +
g
z )e
-zwt - z , (15)
which may be in the form of matrix cracking, ber breakage,
delamination, etc [137]. Various investigations [125129] of
where x 0 is the initial amplitude, w the natural frequency, z the effect of damage on damping of FR composites have
the viscous damping ratio, and g the friction damping ratio. demonstrated the considerable potential of damping to char-
With application of the random decrement signature techni- acterize damage. Damping itself can be used to indicate the
que, the proposed method successfully identied, from its presence of damage, while the combination of damping with
ambient vibration responses, nonlinear damping of a bridge some other traditional parameters such as modal strain
associated with seismic damage. As the seismic damage energy, plane shape function (PSF), and natural frequencies,
became more severe, the viscous damping ratio z decreased can be used to predict both the presence and the location of
while the frictional damping ratio g increased, providing damage.
information about the percentage of the total energy
dissipated by each damping mechanism. It can be concluded 3.3.1. Damping with modal strain energy. Damping in
that, with the evolution of damage, there is a shift of composite ber-reinforced plastic (CFRP) was found to be
dissipated energy from a viscous mechanism to a friction induced mostly by interfacial slip across the delamination and
mechanism. The nonlinear damping parameter g can serve as the tendency for mutual penetration between upper and lower
a damage index. A signicant advantage of this damage index surfaces in the delamination region [56]. In [56], a practical
is its baseline-free feature. The authors also compared the method was proposed for the location of delamination in
damage detection results with those obtained by stiffness- CFRP plates by means of a combination of the change in
based methods, demonstrating a strong correlation between modal damping and the distribution of modal strain energy,
the increase in nonlinear damping and the decrease in on the premise that modal damping only increases when the
structural stiffness associated with the increase in damage delaminated region is in the high region of the modal strain
severity. energy. The change in modal damping was calculated from
In general, there are several reasons to believe that the frequency response function produced by using the
damping is a possible damage indicator that is more sensitive piezoelectric actuator and sensor to interrogate the intact and
to natural frequencies in RC structures. WT-based damping delaminated composite plates.
identication has the advantage of instantaneous damping
estimation that can be used in damping-based damage 3.3.2. Damping with PSF. Montalvo et al [138] used modal
detection. Unusually high damping would suggest the damping factors as the main feature for localization of
existence of more energy dissipation mechanisms than delamination damage in a CFRP plate. To indicate damage
expected, indicating the possibility of damage in the structure. they proposed the damping damage indicator (DaDI) that
The use of nonlinear damping to indicate damage in RC could provide a geometrical probability indication of the

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Smart Mater. Struct. 26 (2017) 043001 Topical Review

damage location. The parameter DaDI is dened as: change in natural frequencies or exural modulus may be
used as a damage indicator in glass-ber-reinforced plastic
r= 1 (PSFijrDh Dr ) ,
N
(GFRP) laminates, but the SDC is more sensitive to damage
DaDIij = (16)
in CFRPs. Keye et al [141] developed a localization method
r= 1 PSFijr
N
of delamination in CFRPs based on damage-caused modal
where (i, j) denote coordinates, r the mode, and the damping variations. They built a correlation of experimental
superscript D stands for damage. Dh rD represents the modal and numerical damping factors acquired from measured
damping factor variation between the undamaged and frequency response data and a numerical damping model
damaged states of the structure, and can be obtained by respectively through a modied modal assurance criterion.
The numerical model that best tted the experimental data
h rD - hr yielded information as to the most probable damage location
Dh rD = . (17)
hr in the test structure. Because in practice the damage location
is unknown, a whole set of damage locations must be
Because modal damping factors are global properties of a simulated in the numerical model. The effectiveness of the
structure, providing no coordinate information, a generalized method depends on the quality of the experimental data as
PSF is dened for mode r at a discretization node with well as the numerical simulations of damage. Kostka et al
coordinates (i, j) as a function of the geometry of the structure [53] identied in situ structural integrity of a smart structure
to relate this global variation to the local coordinates of the carbon FR epoxy composite plate based on revealing damage-
structure: dependent damping with an integrated actuating/sensing
system. They conducted dynamic tests on intact and damaged
x eijr y eijr specimens for characterization of damping changes caused by
PSFijr = + , (18)
max x eijr max y eijr impact events and then developed a nite element model of
the structure to determine the damping ratios for different
where x e and y e are the strains in the x- and y-directions. sizes and locations of damaged regions. The deterministic
This method has the advantage that measurements can be decision trees describing the relation between online-
taken with a reduced number of conventional sensors measured damping and damage condition were determined.
(theoretically, only one force and one response transducer Kawiecki [142] presented the use of arrays of surface-bonded
are needed). However, the damping factors for both the piezotransducers to determine damping characteristics of a
damaged and the undamaged structures are required and the tested structure for structural damage detection. Any array
method is highly dependent on the amount and type of mode element could be utilized as an actuator, to generate an
shapes used. excitation signal sweeping the frequency scope of interest,
and the vibration responses could be picked up either by the
3.3.3. Damping with natural frequencies. A vibration-based actuator, or by another transducer. The excitation and the
technique that combined modal damping factors with natural response gave rise to the frequency transfer function, from
frequencies as damage-sensitive features for locating impact which the modal damping was calculated. Structural damage
damage in carbon FR laminates was developed by Montalvo was detected in terms of the relation that damage caused
et al [139, 140]. They established a damage index, the multi- changes in damping, The ease of use and the repeatability of
parameter damage indicator (MuDI), formed by the weighted results obtained using piezotransducers outweighs traditional
combination of two other indexes, the DaDI [138] and the methods relying on accelerometers and impact hammers or
frequency damage indicator, based on the assumption that a shakers.
delamination in a composite laminate can lead to changes These studies reect a new trend of using damping to
both in the natural frequencies and in the modal damping characterize damage in FR composites, different from the
factors. The most likely zones of damage were found by traditional method of depicting damage relying on stiffness
MuDI, providing the possibility of subsequent inspection. It reduction of a structure. Notably, failure modes and damage
was observed that both an increase and a decrease in damping patterns must be taken into account when using damping to
may depend on the damage type, a potential that poses some characterize damage in FR composites because the damping
problems in application of the method, along with the mechanism in FR composites varies with different failure
uncertainty associated with damping identication. modes and damage patterns.
In addition to the above studies that combined damping
with traditional dynamic characteristics, Kyriazoglou et al
[51] explored the use of the specic damping capacity (SDC) 4. Factors inuencing damping to characterize
for damage detection and localization in composite laminates. damage
The SDC is dened as
DU Despite the efciency and merits reported in various studies,
SDC = , (19) the use of damping to characterize damage is still a topic
U
under active development, an issue that is in progress but not
where DU is the energy dissipated in one cycle and U is the yet as well resolved as natural frequencies and mode shapes.
total energy stored in that cycle. The authors observed that the When addressing the positive aspects of damping in damage

9
Smart Mater. Struct. 26 (2017) 043001 Topical Review

detection, one should note the factors that inhibit the cap- understanding of the mechanism of damping for a particular
ability of damping to characterize damage. The major factors physical situation.
include the uncertainty in the estimation of damping and
certain operational factors. These inuencing factors need to
be claried to expand the space for using damping in damage 5. Recommended research directions
identication.
This study has overviewed the state-of-the-art and the state-
of-the-practice of using damping to identify damage in a
4.1. Uncertainty in damping estimation variety of infrastructure, with particular emphasis on RC
Uncertainty in measured damping values from laboratory structures and FR composites. The potential, feasibility,
efcacy, and inuential factors of employing damping to
tests has been observed in several studies, especially when the
characterize damage have been surveyed comprehensively,
damping is of low magnitude [143145]. That uncertainty can
and the mechanism of utilizing damping to characterize
be attributed to three aspects: (i) complexity in the damping
damage was elucidated thoroughly. Recognizing that the use
mechanism usually creates uncertainty as to how to char-
of damping to identify structural damage is a research topic as
acterize the damping completely and accurately. Contributing
yet unresolved, recommended research directions to advance
to this effect is the fact that the damping estimate possibly
this topic are summarized here.
accounts for only some components of damping, leaving one
or two aspects of the real damping unconsidered. (ii) The
absence of universal mathematical models makes it difcult to (i) Damping is somewhat more sensitive than natural
represent damping appropriately [58], especially in the frequencies and mode shapes to damage in
situation in which the damping varies with the evolution of certain situations. The distinctions of damping in
damage. (iii) Damping estimation methods can affect the portraying damage, different from natural frequencies
quality of damping estimation. In the logarithmic decrement and mode shapes, need to be further claried.
method, the sampling peak values used to estimate the (ii) When damping is used to characterize damage,
damping ratio are not exactly the actual maximum values of a clarifying the mechanism of damping and creating a
free vibration response, a factor that induces estimation error. valid damping model are key components to obtain
In the half-power bandwidth method, the unclear peak of a reliable results, but existing investigations into these
frequency response usually elongates the bandwidth, as a components are inadequate.
result of which the damping ratio is often overestimated. In (iii) As an extension of damping ratio, the instantaneous
the wavelet-based time-frequency method, analyzing wave- damping coefcient is a distinctive feature of nonlinear
lets can affect the values of the estimated damping. To reduce damping, suited to portraying the evaluation of non-
uncertainty in damping estimation calls for further studies in linear structural damage. More viable analysis methods
revelation of the damping mechanism, development of a are highly desired for extracting the instantaneous
damping model, and the creation of robust damping estima- damping coefcient.
tion methods. (iv) Damping aided by some other vibration features can
provide a means of damage location. Strategies for
combining damping with vibration features to produce
4.2. Interference of operational factors more effective damage location methods are worthy of
exploration.
Operational factors other than damage can induce changes in
(v) The uncertainty of damping estimation and the inter-
damping. Operational factors inuencing the damping of
ference of operational factors are the most signicant
unreinforced concrete include water and cement contents of
components that hinder the use of damping to
the concrete, age of the concrete, and level of stress [119]. Lu
characterize damage. It is crucial to develop sophisti-
et al [146] observed that damping was inuenced by the
cated methods that can estimate damping by effectively
displacement ductility of RC frames. Lazans [49] research
eliminating these obstructing factors.
showed that damping was affected not only by material (vi) Wavelet-based time-frequency methods for damping
quality but also by stress distribution. Newmark et al [147]
estimation have primarily exhibited the merits of
found that damping varied signicantly with differences in
robustness to noise and feasibility in estimating
working stress. Audenino et al [148] presented the theoretical
nonlinear damping. A key step to advance such
relation between temperature increment and damping in
methods rests on resolving the outstanding issue of
metals. Littler [149] showed that an increase in wind speed
selecting optimal analyzing wavelets.
caused an increase in damping. Damping is more likely than
natural frequencies and mode shapes to change in response to
noise. Otani et al [150] noted changes in damping with an
increase in excitation level, despite low response amplitudes. Acknowledgments
To enhance the accuracy of damping estimation, a crucial
measure should be taken to nd ways of avoiding the inu- This work received partial support from the Key Natural
ence of these operational factors. This requires full Science Foundation of China (No.11132003), the Natural

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Smart Mater. Struct. 26 (2017) 043001 Topical Review

Science Foundations of China (No. 11172091), Qing Lan [21] Bayissa W L, Haritos N and Thelandersson S 2008
Project, and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Vibration-based structural damage identication using
Universities (Grant Nos. 2014B03914 and 2012B05814). wavelet transform Mech. Syst. Signal Process. 22
1194215
[22] Sohn H et al 2001 Structural health monitoring using
statistical pattern recognition techniques J. Dyn. Syst. Meas.
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