EXAM POSSIBLE QUESTIONS

A car of a roller coaster has a mass of 500 kg and is released from a height of h A =18 m at the top of
the first incline (See figure). Calculate its velocity at the lowest point (point h B) and at the top of the
second incline which is 5 m below the top of the first incline (point h C).

Velocity at hB
Input: m = 500 kg, hA = 18 m, hB = 0,
v1 = 0 m/s, g = 9.8 m/s2,
Output: v2
Equation to use: PE1 + KE1 = PE2 + KE2
mghA+ ½ mv12 = mghB + ½ mv22
(500 x 9.8 x 18) + 0 = 0 + ½ x 500 x v 22
88200 = 250 x v22
v = (88200/250)1/2 = 18.78 m/s
Velocity at hC
Input: m = 500 kg, hA = 18 m,
hC = 18 – 5 = 13 m, v1 = 0 m/s,
g = 9.8 m/s2,
Output: v2
• mghA + ½ mv12 = mghC = ½ mv22
• (500 x 9.8 x 18) + 0 = (500 x 9.8 x 13) + ½ x 500 x v 22
88200 = 63700 + 250 x v22
250 x v 22 = (88200 – 63700)
v 2 = (24500/250)1/2
= 9.89 m/s
Week 1 (Maths, Units, & Measurements)
Unit Prefix’s Pythagoras
Uncertainties Trigonometry
Volumes Cosine and Sin rules
Week 2 (Motion)
Linear velocity Acceleration against Resistance Torque
Acceleration Sliding Friction Torque & Rotational Motion
Deceleration Linear and Angular Velocity
Falling (gravity) Rotational Motion
Week 3 (Work, Energy, Power, & Friction)
Work Potential Energy Work and Efficiency
Power Transformation of Energy Friction Effort
Work Done in Rotation Mechanics Machines Inclined Plane
Work and Acceleration Velocity Ratio
Week 4 (Mechanical Drives)
Mechanical Power Fan Belt Drives Equilibrium Force
Drive Efficiency Components of Force Moment of a Force
Types Of Gears Resultant of Forces
Chain Drives Current Forces
Week 6 (Sliding Friction, Inclined Planes & Screws)
Friction Screws
Angle of Repose Forces on the Incline of the Thread
Friction on an Inclined Plane
Week 7 (Conservation of Energy &Force Acceleration Method)
Conservation of Energy Force Acceleration Transformation of Energy
Transformation of Energy Pulleys Involving Springs
Week 8 (Work & Energy, Impulse & Momentum)
Work to Energy Method
Work to Energy Method Involving Springs
Week 10 (Electricity)
Ohms Law Electrical Power Internal Resistance
Resistance Fuses Direct Current Circuits
Resistivity AC Kirchhoff’s Rule
Resistance Thermometer Average Power
Week 11 (Magnetism)
Magnetic Dipole Moment Magnetic Field Due to a Current Carrying Wire
Magnetic Flux Faraday’s Law of Induction
Magnetic Fields Power
Week 12 (Light Properties of Materials)
Snells Law
Index of Refraction (n)
Total Internal Reflection
WEEK 1
Unit Prefix’s
Mass
• 1 microgram = 1 μg = 10-6 g = 10-9 kg
• 1 milligram = 1 mg = 10-3 g = 10-6 kg
• 1 gram = 1 g = 10-3 kg
Time
• 1 nanosecond = 1 ns = 10-9 s
• 1 microsecond = 1 μs = 10-6 s
• 1 millisecond = 10-3 s
Length
• 1 nanometre = 1 nm = 10-9 m
• 1 micrometre = 1 μm = 10-6 m
• 1 millimetre = 1 mm = 10-3 m
• 1 centimetre = 1 cm = 10-2 m
• 1 kilometre = 1 km = 103 m

Uncertainties
Addition and subtraction
• If c = a + b then Δc = Δa + Δb
c = a – b then Δc = Δa + Δb
Multiplication
• If a = (50 ± 2) and b = (30 ± 1)
Find x = a*b and Δx
x = a* b = 50*30 = 1500
Δx/x = Δa/a + Δb/b
= 2/50 + 1/30 = 0.07333
Δx = x * 0.07333 = (1500*)*(0.07333) = 110
Thus, we write x = 1500 ± 110

Quantities raised to powers

• z = an
• Δz/z = n ( Δa/a)

Volume of a cylinder
• The volume of a cylinder is given by
V = πr2h = π(d/2)2h = ( πd2h)/4
[Recall r = d/2]
• Write down the uncertainty ΔV/V for the cylinder
ΔV/V = 2 Δd/d + Δh/h
Volume of a cube
• The volume of a cube is given by
• V = ℓbh
• Write down the uncertainty of the volume
∆V/V
∆V/V = ∆ℓ/ℓ + ∆b/b + ∆h/h

Forces at right angles

• c2 = a2 + b2
• R2 = Fx2 + Fy2

Pythagoras theorem
c2 = a2 + b2

Trigonometry
• sin α = O/H
• cos α = A/H
• tan α = O/A

x and y components of a force

• x component of F
Fx = F cos α
• y component of F
Fy = F sin α
F2 = Fx2 + Fy2
F = √(Fx2 + Fy2)

Cosin and sin rules

• Cosine rule
c2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab cos C
• Sine rule
a/sinA = b/sinB = c/sinC
WEEK 2
Linear Velocity
• Definition: velocity = displacement/time
v = s/t
• Units: metres/second or m/s
Acceleration example
If, after traveling for some distance at a constant velocity of 18 m/s, brakes are applied to the car
producing a retardation of 2 m/s2. Determine the time taken to reduce its velocity to 10 m/s.

• Input: vo=18 m/s, a = -2 m/s2, v = 10 m/s

• Output: t ?
• v = vo + at
• t = (v – vo) / a = (10 – 18) / (-2) = 4 s

Equations of linear motion

• vav = s/t
• vav = (vo + v)/2
• Combining the above equations gives
s = t(vo + v)/2 …. 1
v = vo + at …. 2
s = vot + at2/2 …. 3
v2 = vo2 + 2as …. 4
Deceleration
Example
• Find the total emergency stopping distance of a car from the point where the driver sights
danger if the driver’s reaction time before applying the brakes is 0.9 s. The initial velocity is
60 km/h and the retardation due to the breaks is 7.5 m/ 2.
• The car is 30 m when the driver sees a man lying on the road. Will he hit him?
2 stages to the problem
• 1. Motion with uniform velocity before he hits the breaks
• 2. Uniformly decelerated motion that brings the car to rest.
1. Uniform motion
• Convert 60 km/h to m/s:
v = 60*(1000/3600)= 16.67 m/s
Input: v = 16.67 m/s, t = 0.9 s
Output: s = t x v = 0.9 * 16.67 = 15 m
2. Decelerated motion
• Input: vo = 16.67 m/s, v = 0 m/s,
a = -7.5 m/s2
Output: v2 = vo2 + 2as
s = (v2 – vo2)/2a = (0 – 16.672) / (-2*7.5)
= 18.5 m
Total stopping distance = 15 + 18.5 = 33.5 m
Falling (Gravity) example
• A stone is dropped from the deck of a bridge and strikes the water below after 3.4 seconds
of free fall. Neglecting air resistance, calculate the height of the bridge above the water and
the velocity with which the stone strikes the water.
• Input: vo = 0 m/s, a = g = 9.8 m/s2, t =3.4s
• Output: s, v
s = vot + at2/2
= 0 + (9.81)*(3.4)2 *(1/2) = 56.7 m
v = vo + at = 0 + (9.81)*(3.4) = 33.4 m/s
Newtons law
F = MA
Acceleration against resistance Example
Motion is resisted by frictional forces
• ΣF = Fp – Fr
ma = Fp – Fr
• a = (Fp – Fr) / m
• If Fp = Fr then a = 0
Note: Tractive resistance, is resistance per unit mass.

Sliding Friction
• Coefficient of friction is represented by µ
• Relationship between friction force and µ is given by
f = µFn
where Fn is the normal force.
Fn = mg
Thus, f = µmg
Example:
• A block of mass 26.3 kg is sliding along a horizontal surface with an
acceleration of 1.7 m/s2 when pulled by a horizontal applied force
Fp. If the coefficient of kinetic friction between the block and the
surface is 0.35, what is the magnitude of the applied force.
• Weight of the block
Fw = mg = 26.3*9.81= 258 N
No motion in the y direction
Therefore, Fn = Fw
Fn = 258 N
Friction force Ff = µFn = 0.35*258
= 90.3 N
• The net accelerating force
ΣF = Fp – Ff = ma
Fp = ma + Ff
= (26.3*1.7) + 90.3
= 135 N
Circular motion
[ Note: 360o = 2 π radians ]

Linear and angular velocity

• S = r*θ
• Divide by t
• S/t = r*(θ/t)
• θ/t = ω is angular velocity
Hence, v = rω

Divide the above equation by t

v/t = r*(ω/t)
ω/t = α is angular acceleration
a = rα
Example
• Determine the speed of a car in kilometers per hour when its wheels, which are 650 mm in
diameter, are rotating at 440 rpm.
• Angular velocity (ω)
1 revolution = 2π radians
ω = 440*(2π/60)
= 46.08 rad/s
• radius of rotation r = d/2 = (650*10-3)/2 m
= 0.325 m
v = rω = 0.325*46.08
= 14.97 m/s
Convert to km/h
v = 14.97*(3600/1000) = 53.9 km/h

Centripetal acceleration (ac)

ac = v2/r

Rotational Motion
• Linear displacement s
• Linear velocity v
• Linear acceleration a
• Angular displacement θ
• Angular velocity ω
• Angular acceleration α
• 1 revolution = 360o = 2π radians
Torque
• Torque = Force x radius or T = F*r
• Units: N.m

Example
• Input torque Tin = 160 N.m. This produces a force between the two gears, such that the
moment of the force about the centerline of the pinion is equal to the transmitted torque.
• Force x radius = torque
F x 0.025 = 160
F = 160/0.025 = 6400 N
• But the same force or its equal and opposite reaction force, is also applied to the larger gear
at a distance of 0.1m from its centerline, producing a turning moment (M) or torque of:
• M = F x d = 6400 x 0.1 = 640 N.m
• This is transmitted as torque through the output shaft, i.e. T out = 640 N.m

TORQUE & ROTATIONAL MOTION

• Moment of inertia for a disc (flywheel) or a cylinder (shaft) is given by
I = mr2/2
where m = mass in kg and r = radius in m
Example
Calculate the moment of inertia of a flywheel in the form of a 650 mm diameter disc; 70 mm thick,
having a mass of 185 kg.
• Moment of inertia = mr2/2
= 185*(0.325) 2/2
= 9.77 kg.m 2
WEEK 3

Work
• Work = Force x displacement
• W = F*s
• Unit of work: Joule (J) or N.m
Example 1
Determine the work done by a force of 50 N moving a distance of 3 m in the direction of the force.
W = F*s
= 50*3 = 150 J
Note: The force always acts in the direction of the motion of the object.
Example 2
A flywheel makes 200 revolutions while the torque applied to it is 35 Nm. Determine the work done.
• 1 rev = 2π radians
• Angular displacement must be expressed in radians: θ = 200 x 2π = 1257 rad
• Work done: W = F*θ = 35*1257 = 43980 J

Power
• The rate of doing work is called power.
Power = Work done / time
Unit: Watt (W), J/s
P = W/t = (F*S)/t = (F)(S/t)
= Fv
Example
A train moving at 17.5 m/s requires 40 000 N of tractive effort at this speed. Determine the driving
power. P = F*v
= 40 000*17.5
= 700 000 W

Work Done in Rotation

ω = θ/t, substitution gives:
P = W/t = (T*θ)/t = (T)*(ωt)/t = Tω
[Compare: Replace F by T and S by θ in W=F*S. θ = ωt]
Example
An output shaft of an electric motor rotates at 1450 rpm and produces a torque of 81 Nm. What is
the shaft power?
• [Note: 1 rev = 2 π rad, 1 min = 60 s]
• ω = (1450*2π)/60 = 151.8 rad/s
• P = Tω = 81*151.8 = 12300 W
Work and Acceleration
• If a body of mass m is acted upon by a net accelerating force F over a distance S, the work
done is W = FS.
• At this time: S = vav*t
= [(v + v o)/2]*t
F = ma
= m(v – v o)/t

• Substituting into the work equation

W = FS = [m(v - vo) / t]*[(v + vo)/2*t]
= m/2(v – v o)(v + vo)
= mv2/2 – mvo2/2
The quantity (mv2/2) is called the kinetic energy (KE). KE is energy due to motion.
Example
Determine the force, work and average power required to accelerate a car of mass 1200 kg from rest
to 20 m/s in 16s.
• Acceleration: a = (v-vo)/t = (20 – 0)/16
= 1.25 m/s 2
Force required: F = ma = 1200*1.25
= 1500 N
• Work required
W = (m/2)(v2 – vo2)
= (1200/2)(202 – 0)
= 240 000 J
Average Power P = W/t = (240 0000 / 16
= 15 000 W

Strain Energy
• Work done in deforming a coil spring from its free length is
W = kx2/2
Potential Energy
 PE = mgh
This is energy due to position.

Transformation of Energy
The initial (potential + kinetic energy) = final (potential + kinetic energy)
PE1 + KE1 = PE2 + KE2
RECALL: PE = mgh
KE = (mv2)/2

Example
An object of mass 3 kg is dropped from a height of 12 m. Using the conservation of energy principle,
calculate the velocity with which it strikes the ground.
• PE1 = mgh, KE1 = 0
• PE2 = 0, KE2 = mv2/2
• PE1 + KE1 = PE2 + KE2
• mgh + 0 = 0 + mv2/2
3*9.81*12 = (3*v2)/2
353.2 = 1.5*v2
v2 = 353.2/1.5
v = 15.3 m/s

Mechanics of Machines
A simple machine is a mechanical device that can be used to reduce the force required to lift or
move an object of large mass. The force exerted on the input side of the machine is called the
effort, FE and the force exerted at the output side of the machine is called the load FL.
• Mechanical Advantage
MA = FL/FE - where FL = load and FE = effort
Velocity ratio
• VR = dist moved by effort/dist moved by load
• For an ideal machine MA = VR
Example
A simple machine is represented in the figure. The load is 450 N and the effort
is 50 N. The distances moved by the load and the effort are 100 mm and 1200
mm respectively. Calculate the mechanical advantage and the velocity ratio.
• MA = FL/FE = 450 N / 50 N =9
• VR = SE/SL = 1200 mm/100 mm = 12
Note: Both MA and VR have no units.

Work and Efficiency

Input side of machine: Work done by the effort is given by - WE = FE*SE
Output side of machine: Work done in moving load is given by - WL = FL*SL
• Efficiency = (work done in moving load) / (work done by the effort) η = WL/ WE = FL*SL/FE*SE
Since MA = FL/FE and VR = SE/SL we get - η = MA / VR
For an ideal machine efficiency = 1
Efficiency is usually expressed as a percentage. No machine is 100% efficient.
Example
In a simple machine a load of 450 N moved 100 mm. The effort applied to move the load was 50 N
and it moved 1200 mm. Calculate the input and output work and efficiency.

• Input work: WE = FE*SE = 50*1200*10-3 = 60 J

• Output work:
 WL = FL*SL = 450*100*10-3
= 45 J
Efficiency = WL/WE = 45/60 = 0.75 = 75 %
Efficiency = MA/VR = [FL/FE]/[SE/SL]
= [450/50]/[1200/100] = 9/12 =0.75 =75 %

Friction Effort
The effort required to move a given load FL if the machine is 100 % efficient is called the theoretical
effort, FTh. Substituting into MA = VR we have
FL/FTh = VR
FTh = FL/ VR
The difference between the actual effort F E and the theoretical effort FTh is the effort wasted in
overcoming friction and is known as the frictional effort, F F
FF = FE - FTh
Velocity Ratio
= distance moved by effort / distance moved by load
Inclined Plane
• VR = dE/dL
Let θ be the angle of inclination.
• sin θ = dL/dE
• dE/dL = 1/sin θ
Thus, the inclined plane is a machine with
• VR = 1/sin θ
WEEK 4
Mechanical Power
Mechanical power associated with continuous rotation is given by:
P = Tω = 2πNT/60
Where P is power in W,
T is torque in N.m,
ω is the rotational speed in rad/s,
N is the speed in rpm

Drive efficiency
Drive efficiency is defined as the ratio of the out power (P out) to input power (Pin).
η = Pout/Pin
Example
The input shaft of a gearbox rotates at 1450 rpm and transmits a torque of 65.9 N.m. The output
shaft rotates at 500 rpm and transmits a torque of 143.3 N.m. Determine the input and output
power, and the efficiency of the drive.
Input power:
Pin = 2πNT/60 =(2 x π x 1450 x 65.9)/(60)
= 10 kW.
Outpower:
Pout = 2πNT/60 = 2 x π x 500 x 143.3/60
= 7.5 kW
Efficiency: = Pout/Pin = 7.5/10 = 75%

Types of Gears
Four types of gears
• Spur gear: has tooth elements that are straight and parallel to its axis. Used to
connect parallel shafts.
• Helical gears: have higher load-carrying capacity than spur gears when connecting
parallel shafts.
• Bevel gears: used for transmitting rotary motion and torque around corners.
• Worm gear: has a high reduction ratio.
• Velocity Ratio (VR) of a gear drive = ratio of the revolutions of the driver wheel (the
input) to the revolutions of the driven wheel (the output) in the same time.
VR = no. of teeth in driven wheel
no. of teeth in driver wheel

Example
The figure shows a gear driven in a certain machine. If the input shaft rotates at 660 rpm
and transmits a torque of 12 N.m, and the efficiency (η) is 80%, determine output speed,
torque and power.
• Given: Tin = 12 N.m, Nin = 660 rpm,
η = 80% = 0.8
• Gear A rotates at 660 rpm
• Gear B rotates at
660 rpm x 45/90 = 330 rpm
 Gear C rotates at 330 rpm.
 Gear D rotates at 330 rpm x 20/55 = 120 rpm
Therefore, the output speed is Nout =120 rpm.
 Input power: Pin = (2πNinTin) /60
= (2π x 660 x12) / 60
= 829.4 W
With an efficiency of 80%, output power is Pout = ηxPin = 0.8 x 829.4 = 663.5 W
• Output torque can be calculated from:
Pout = 2πNoutTout/60
Tout = (60 xPout) / 2πNout
= (60 x 663.5)/(2π x 120)
= 52.8 N.m

Chain Drives
VR = no. of teeth in driven sprocket
no. of teeth in driver sprocket
The torque on each sprocket is equal to the force in the chain multiplied by the radius of the
sprocket. Efficiency of chain drives is assumed to be 100%.
Example
A chain drive transmits 20 kW of power from an 80 mm diameter driver sprocket with 18 teeth to a
200 mm diameter driven sprocket with 45 teeth. If the speed of the driver is 500 rpm, calculate the
input and output torque and the force in the chain.
• From P = 2πNT/60, the input torque is:
T = 60P/2πN = (60 x 20000)/(2π x 500)
= 382 N.m
The velocity ratio is: Velocity of the driven sprocket is
VR = 45/18 = 2.5 500 / 2.5 = 200 rpm
If the efficiency is 100 %, the output power is undiminished, i.e. it is equal to equal to 20 kW. Hence,
the output torque is: Tout = 60P/2πN
= (60 x 20000)/(2π x 200) = 955 N.m
• The force of tension in the chain is found from T = F t x r, where T is the torque and r is the
corresponding radius:
Ft = T/r
= 382 N.m / 0.04 = 9550 N
Flat Belt Drives
Example
Determine the maximum torque that can b transmitted by a flat belt if the maximum tension is 500
N, the coefficient of friction is 0.25, the angle of contact is 150 oand diameter of pulley is 300 mm.
• Given: µ = 0.25, Ft = 500 N
θ = 150o = (150o x π) /180o = 2.618 radians [Note: π radians = 180o]
We can find the slack side tension from Ft / Fs = eµθ
500/Fs = e(0.25 x 2.618) = e0.6545 = 1.924
Fs = 500/1.924
Fs = 260 N
Therefore, the torque is
T = r(F t – Fs)
= 0.15 x (500 – 260)
= 36 N.m

Components of Force
Example
A force of 5 kN is acting up and to the right at 30 o to the horizontal. Determine its horizontal and
vertical components.
• Horizontal component cos 30o = Fx/5
Fx = 5 kN x cos 30o
= 4.33 kN
 Vertical component Sin 30 = Fy/5
o

Fy = 5 kN x sin 30o
= 2.5 kN
cos θ = Fx/F - Fx = F cos θ
sin θ = Fy /F - Fy = F sin θ
Resultant of Forces
Example
If the components of the force acting on a gear tooth are 54.6 N in
radial direction and 150N in the tangential direction, determine the
total force and angle between the force and tangential direction.
 Total force: F = √ (Fx2 + Fy2)
= √(1502 + 54.62)= 159.6 N
 Angle: tan θ = Fy/Fx = 54.6/150
= 0.364 θ = 20o
Current Forces
Example
• The problem can be solved graphically or mathematically.
• Solve it mathematically.
• Need to set up a x-axis and y-axis and find the sum of the x components and y components.
If they are each equal to zero, then the system is in equilibrium.
• Set up the table shown on the next page.
 Force Magnitude kN x-component y-component

F1 3.0 0 - 3.0

F2 3.5 - 3.03 - 1.75

F3 3.0 - 2.60 1.50

F4 6.5 5.63 3.25

ΣFx = 0 ΣFy = 0

Equilibrium Force
Example
Determine the equilibrant force (F e) for the system of forces shown in the figure. Solve the problem
mathematically.

Force Magnitude x-component y-component

F1 258.0 -223.4 129.0

F2 110.3 78.0 78.0
F3 145.4 145.4 0
Equilibrant Fe Fx Fy

• ΣFx = - 223.4 + 78.0 + 145.4 + Fx = 0 ΣFx = 0

• Fy = 129.0 + 78.0 + 0 + Fy = 0 Fy = - 207 N
The magnitude of the equilibrant is: Fe = √(Fx + Fy ) = √(0 + 2072)= 207 N
2 2

Moment of a Force
If a force of 65 N is applied to the lever shown in the figure (Fig 6.1 in textbook), and the length of
the moment arm is 0.75 m, determine the moment of force about the pivot point.
• M = Fd = 65 x 0.75 = 48.75 N.m clockwise.
• Note: Care needs to be taken in using correct perpendicular distance with each force.
Determine the magnitude and sense of the moments of forces F 1, F2 and F3 about the point A. (See
Fig 6.2 in textbook).
• Moment of force F1: M1 = F1d1
= 10 x 1 = 10 kN.m clockwise
• Moment of force F2: M2 = F2d2
= 5 x 0.6 = 3 kN.m anticlockwise
• Moment of force F3: M3 = F3d3 = 2 x 0 = 0 kN.m
WEEK 6 Surfaces Typical values
Friction Metal on metal (dry) 0.2
Values of static friction
Wood on wood 0.35
Metal on stone 0.4
Wood on stone 0.4

Rubber tyre on concrete 0.8

• At the moment of impending motion, the smallest force (F p) required to overcome static
friction and to start motion is: Fp = Ff = µFn
• The limiting value of static friction is given by: F f = µFn
Example
A body of mass 5 kg rests on a horizontal surface and coefficient of friction between the
two surfaces is 0.33. What horizontal force will be required to start the body moving?
• Weight of body: Fw = mg = 5 x 9.81 = 49.05 N
• Normal force: Fn = Fw = 49.05 N
• Limiting friction: Ff = µFn = 0.33 x 49.05 = 16.2 N
• Therefore, force required to just start the body moving. F p = Ff = 16.2 N
Example
A horizontal force of 50 N is required to start a 10 kg block moving on a horizontal surface. What is
the value of the coefficient of friction?
• Fn = Fw = mg = 10 x 9.81 = 98.1 N
• Ff = Fp = 50 N
• µ = Ff / Fn = 50/98.1 = 0.51
Example
A 100 kg block rests on a plate as shown in the figure. The coefficient of friction between
all surfaces is 0.2. Determine the force required to pull the plate from under the block.
Normal force: Fn = Fw = mg
=100 x 9.81 = 981 N
• Friction: Ff = µFn = 0.2 x 981 = 196.2 N
• The applied force Fp must overcome friction between two pairs of surfaces in contact. F p =
2Ff = 2 x 196.2 = 392.4 N
Angle of Repose
• Take an object and place it on an inclined plane as shown in the
figure. Tilt the plane slowly through a small angle θ.
Example
What is the steepest ramp on which a car can stand without slipping down
if the coefficient between the tyres and the ramp surface is 0.8?
• µ = tanθ
• 0.8 = tan θ
θ = tan-1 (0.8) = 38.7o
 Friction on an Inclined Plane
Motion up and down

Example
A 200 kg block rests on a 25o incline as shown in the figure. The coefficient of friction
between the block and the plane is 0.2
• (Fw)x = Fw sin25o
= 200 x 9.81 x sin 25 o = 829.2 N
(Fw)y = Fw cos 25o
= 200 x 9.81 x cos 25o = 1778 N
Figure moving down
Example
• ΣFy = 0 Therefore, Fn = 1778 N
• Ff = µFn: Therefore, Ff = 0.2 x 1778 = 355.6 N
The summation of forces in the direction parallel to the plane has friction acting with the applied
force, i.e. up the plane, to balance the component of weight acting along the plane.
• ΣFx = 0
• Fp + Ff = Fw sin 25o
• Fp + 355.6 = 829.2
Therefore, Fp = 473.5 N
- It will be seen from part (a) and part (b) that there is a range of magnitudes of force F p between
473.5 N and 1184.8 N within which the block remains stationary on the plane.
- However, if the force is 1184.8 N or greater, the block will move up the plane. On the other hand,
if the force is equal to or less than 473.5 N, the block will slip down the plane.
Screws
The helix angle (θ) is the same as the angle of the inclination of the
equivalent inclined plane. It can be seen from the figure that: tan θ = L / πD
Example
What is the helix angle of a screw thread which has a lead of 10 mm and a
mean diameter of 35 mm.
• tanθ = L / πD = (10) / ( π x 35) = 0.09095
θ = tan-1 (0.09095) = 5.2o
Hence, the helix angle is 5.2 o
Forces on the incline of the thread
• Fp = FL tan (φ +θ)
Since force Fp is acting at a radial distance D/2 from the axis of the screw, the turning moment M
which must be applied is: M = (FpD)/2
And so the formula for the applied moment is: M = (F LD/2) tan (φ + θ)
where φ is the angle of friction for the thread θ is the helix angle of the screw
Example
• Mean diameter D = 0.035 m
• Substitute into the formula for applied moment:
• M = (FLD/2) tan(φ + θ)
= (540 x 0.035/2) tan (11.31o + 5.2o)
= 2.8 N
Hence, the required moment is 2.8 N.m
WEEK 7
Conservation of energy
Examples
Kinetic energy
Calculate the kinetic energy of a car of mass 1720 kg, moving with a velocity of 22.2 m/s.
Input: m = 1720 kg, v = 22.2 m/s
Output: KE
• KE = (½)mv2 = 0.5 x 1720 x (22.2)2 = 423 842 J
Potential energy
Calculate the potential energy of a hammer head which has a mass of 1000 kg and is raised 2 m
above the pile head before being allowed to drop freely in order to drive it into the ground.
• Input: m = 1000 kg, h = 2m, g = 9.8 m/s 2
• Output: PE
• PE = mgh = 1000 x 2 x 9.8 = 19600 J
Transformation of Energy
Another way of saying this is that energy is transformed from one energy form to another.
A stationary object held at a height h has PE = mgh. When you drop it, it’s PE is transformed to KE as
it falls to the ground.
• At height h: PE = mgh, KE = 0
• Just before hitting the ground: PE=0, KE = ½ mv2
Example
An object of mass 5 kg is dropped from a height of 10 m. Use the principle of conservation of energy
to calculate the velocity with which it strikes the ground.
• Input: v1 = 0 m/s, m = 5 kg, h1 = 10 m,
h2 = 0, g = 9.8 m/s2
• Output: v2
Equation to use:
PE1 + KE1 = PE2 + KE2
mgh1 + ½ mv12 = mgh2 + ½ mv22
Solution
(5 x 10 x 9.8) + 0 = 0 + ½ x 5 x v22
2.5v22 = 490
v2 = (490/2.5)1/2 = 14 m/s
Transformation of energy involving springs
Example
A train of mass 25,000 kg is to be brought to rest in 125 mm from a velocity of 0.5 m/s by two buffer
springs (See figure). What must the spring modulus be for each of the two springs? Assume that the
engine is disengaged.
• Input: m = 25,000 kg, v1 = 0.5 m/s,
v2 = 0 m/s, x = 125 mm = 0.125 m
 Output: k
Equation to use: PE1 + KE1 + SE1 = PE2 + KE2 + SE2
Recall: SE = ½ kx2
 • PE1 = mgh1 = 0 J [h1 = 0 m]
• KE1 = ½ mv12 = ½ x 25000 x 0.52= 3125 J
SE1 = ½ kx2 = 0 [x = 0]
PE2 = mgh2 = 0 J [h2 = 0 m],
KE2 = ½ mv22 = 0 [v2 = 0 m/s]
SE2 = ½ kx2 = (2 sprins) x ½ x 0.1252 x k
= 0.01563 k

• PE1 + KE1 + SE1 = PE2 + KE2 + SE2

• 0 + 3125 + 0 = 0 + 0 + 0.01563 k
k = 3125/0.01563
= 199, 936 N/m
≈ 200 000 N/m
Force Acceleration
Two bodies of mass m1 = 10 kg and m2 = 5 kg are connected as
shown in the figure. Find the acceleration (a) with which the masses
move and the tension (Ft) in the string.
Input: m1 = 10 kg, m2 = 5 kg
Output: a, Ft
Equation to use: ΣF = ma
Note: Since the two masses are connected by a continuous string
which passes over a pulley they will move with the same acceleration. [m 1 moves horizontally and m2
moves vertically.]
• The tension in the string will also be the same.
• We use Newton’s 2nd law ΣF = ma
For mass m1 = 10 kg
Ft = ma
= 10 x a
For mass m2 = 5 kg
mg – Ft = ma
5 x 9.8 – 10a = 5a
15a = 49
a = 49/15 = 3.26 m/s 2
Ft = ma = 10 x 3.26 = 32.6 N
Pulleys
Determine the acceleration of bodies A and B, and the force
of tension in the cord, for the system shown in the figure.
Input: mA = 5 kg, mB = 2 kg, g = 9.81 m/s2
Output: aA, aB, Ft
To find out which way the system moves we need to see
which body has a greater mass per fall of cord supporting it.
Body A is supported by two falls of cord and has a mass of 5 kg, i.e. 2.5 kg per fall. Body B has 2 kg
per fall. Therefore, body A will accelerate downwards and body B upwards.
Note that the displacement of body A will be one-half that of body B. Acceleration will be in the
same ratio: aA = aB/2
Consider the free body diagrams.
For body A:
Ft – FwB = mB x aB
Ft – (2 x 9.81) = 2 x aB Eq. 1
For body B:
FwA – 2Ft = mA x aA
(5 x 9.81) – 2F t = 5 x aA
Substitute aA = aB/2
(5 x 9.81) – 2Ft = (5 x aB)/2 Eq. 2
Simplify Equations 1 and 2 gives
Ft – 19.62 = 2aB Eq. 3
49.05 – 2F t = 2.5aB Eq. 4

Multiply Eq. 3 by 2 gives

2Ft – 39.4 = 4aB Eq 5
Add Equations 4 and 5 gives
9.81 = 6.5 a B
aB = 9.81/6.5 = 1.51 m/s2
aA = aB/2 = 1.51/2 = 0.755 m/s2

From Equation 1
Ft = 2aB + 19.62
= (2 x 1.51) + 19.62
= 22.6 N
WEEK 8
Work to Energy Method
• (PE1 + KE2) = initial total energy of the body
• (PE2 + KE2) = final total energy of the body
• ±W = net work done on the body
• (PE1 + KE1) ± W = (PE2 + KE2)
- Final energy is equal to initial energy increased by the amount of net work done on the body.
- The net work is the difference between positive work done on the body by forces acting in the
direction of motion, and negative work done by forces, such as friction which are opposing the
motion.
• KE = ½ mv2, PE = mgh, W = F x s
Use this equation - mgh1 + ½ mv12 + (F x s) = mgh2 + ½ mv22
Example 1
A 180 000 kg train climbs an incline of 1.5 o for 2000 m. Its initial velocity before the climb is 90 km/h
(25 m/s). The effort exerted by the engine is 53 200 N, and the resistance is 0.095 N.
Determine the final speed after the climb.
Initial potential energy
PE = mgh1 = 0 (since h1 =0)
Final elevation h2 = 2000 x sin 1.5o
= 52.35 m
Final potential energy = mgh2
= 180 000 x 9.81 x 52.35
= 92.45 MJ
Positive work: Effort x distance = 53 200 x 2000
= 106.4 MJ
Resistance = 0.095 x 180 000 =17 100 N
Negative work: Resistance x distance = 17 1000 x 2000 m
= 34.2 MJ
Net work:
W = positive work – negative work
= 106.4 – 34.2
= 72.2 MJ
Initial velocity: v1 = 25 m/s
• Initial kinetic energy:
KE1 = ½ mv12 = (180 000 x 252)/2
= 26.25 MJ
Substitute into: PE1 + KE1 + W = PE2 + KE2
0 + 56.25 + 72.20 = 92.45 + KE2
• KE2 = 56.25 + 72.20 – 92.45 = 36 MJ
• Final velocity:
KE2 = ½ mv22 = 36 MJ
v 2 = [2 X (36 x 106)] / m
v = √[2 x 36 x10 6)/180 000]
= 20 m/s
Work to Energy Method Involving Springs
A railway truck of mass 8000 kg rolls 20.5 m down a 3 o incline, starting with an initial velocity of 4.2
m/s, and continues on a level track for 63 m before striking a spring buffer. The total resistance
force is 1320 N. What is the spring stiffness if the spring is compressed 400 mm?
• The energy levels of the truck and spring system in its initial condition are:
• PE1 = mgh = 8000 x 9.81 x (20.5 sin3o)
• = 84 200 J
• KE1 = ½ mv12 = (8000 x 4.22)/2
• = 70 560 J
• SE1 = 0 J (the spring is not compressed at this stage)
• The final energies, when the truck is brought to rest
• PE2 = 0
• KE2 = 0
• SE2 = ½ kx2 = k x (0.42)/2 = 0.08k where k is the spring constant
The work done against the resistance force is
W = force x distance
= 1320 x (20.5 + 63.0 + 0.4)
= 110 750 J
The work is negative, as it is done against frictional resistance and represents the amount of
mechanical energy lost from the system.
We can now write the energy balance
PE1 + KE1 +SE1 ± W = PE2 + KE2 + SE2
Substitution gives
84200 + 70560 + 0 – 110750 = 0 + 0 + 0.08k
k = 550 125 N/m
= 550.125 N/mm
WEEK 10
Ohms Law
• V = RI
• Where V = voltage
• R = resistance
• I = current
• Units of voltage: Volt (V)
• Units of resistance: Ohm (Ω)
• Units of current: Ampere (A)
Resistance
• R(T) = Ro[1 + α(T-To)]
• α = temperature coefficient of resistance
Example
- A small torch bulb draws 300 mA from its 1.5 V battery.What is the resistance of the bulb?
300 mA = 300 x 10-3 = 0.30 A
V = RI
R = V/I = 1.5/0.3 = 5.0 Ω
- If the battery becomes weak and the voltage drops to 1.2 V, what will be the magnitude of
the current? Assume the resistance remains the same.
I = V/R = 1.2/5 = 0.24 A = 240 mA
Material Resistivity
Decrease of current: 300 – 240 = 60 mA
Resistivity Silver 1.59 x 10-8
• R = ρL/A Copper 1.68 x 10-8
ρ = resistivity
Aluminium 2.65 x 10-8
Units: Ohm.metre (Ω.m)
Example
Suppose you want to connect your stereo to remote speakers. If each wire must be 20 m long, what
diameter copper wire should you use to keep the resistance less than 0.10 Ω per wire? For copper
ρ = 1.68 x 10-8 Ω.m.
• A = ρL/R = (1.68 x 10-8) x 20/(0.10)
= 3.4 x 10 -6 m2.
A = πr2
R = √(A/ π) = √[3.4 x 10-6 / 3.142] = 1.04 x 10-3 m
= 1.04 mm
The diameter is twice the radius and so must be at least 2r = (2 x 1.04 ) = 2.1 mm.
• If the current to each speaker is 4.0 A, what is the potential difference or voltage drop,
across each wire?
The voltage drop across each wire is
V = IR = 4.0 x 0.1 = 0.40 V
Note: The voltage drop across the wires reduces the voltage that reaches the speakers from the
stereo amplifier, thus reducing the sound level a bit.
Resistance Thermometer
The variation in electrical resistance with temperature can be used to make precise temperature
measurements.
Suppose at 20oC the resistance of a platinum resistance thermometer is 164.2 Ω. When placed in a
particular solution, the resistance is 187.4 Ω. What is the temperature of this solution?
α = 3.927 x 10-3 (Co)-1
ρ = ρo [1 + α(T – To)]
• Multiply both sides by (L/A)
Thus, [ρL/A] = [ρoL/A] [1 + α(T – To)]
R = [ρL/A] and Ro = [ρoL/A]
R = Ro [1 + α(T – To)]
R = Ro + Roα (T – To)
Roα(T – To) = R - Ro

T – To = (R – Ro) / (Roα)
T = T o + (R – Ro) / (Roα)
T = 20 + (187.4 – 164.2) / (164.2 x 3.927 x 10 -3)
= 56.0 oC
Electrical Power
• Power = Voltage x Current
• P = IV (Apply to any device)
• Unit of Power: Watt (W)
• V = RI or I = V/R
• P = IV = I(RI) = I2 R (Apply to resistors)
• P = IV = (V/R)V = V2/R (Apply to resistors)
Example
Calculate the resistance of a 40 W car headlight designed for 12 V.
• Input: P = 40 W, V = 12 V
• P = V2 R
• R = V2/P = (12)2/40 = 3.6 Ω
Example 2 (Lightening Bolt)
A typical lightning bolt can transfer 10 9 J of energy across a potential difference of perhaps 5 x 10 7 V
during an interval of about 0.2 s. The charge transferred between the cloud and the ground in this
event is 20 coulombs. Calculate the current in the lightning bolt.
I = q/t = 20/0.2 = 100 A
• Calculate the average power delivered over the 0.2 s.
• P = IV = 100 x 5 x 107 = 5 x 109 W
= 5 GW
Fuses
• A power company supplies 120 V of electricity to a house. The following appliances are used
in the house at the same time : Lightbulb 100W, Electric heater 1800 W, Stereo receiver 350
W, Hair dryer 1200 W.
The fuse is designed to carry only 20 A. Will the fuse blow?
• The circuit will draw the following currents
In the appliances.
Lightbulb: I = P/V = 100/120 = 0.8 A
Electric heater: I = P/V = 1800/120 = 15 A
Stereo receiver: I = P/V = 350/120 = 2.9 A
Hair dryer: I = P/V = 1200/120 = 10 A
Total current = 0.8 + 15 + 2.9 + 10 = 28.7 A
The fuse will blow.
AC
The voltage produced by an AC generator is sinusoidal. We can write the voltage as a function of
time as:
V = Vo sin 2πft = Vo sin ωt
The potential V oscillates between +V o and – Vo and is referred to as peak voltage.
In Australia f is 50 Hz while in the US it is 60 Hz.
Average Power
• The rms values of V and I are sometimes called effective values. They are useful because
they can be substituted directly into the power formulas (P = IV, P = I 2R and P = V2/R) to get
the average power:
• Pav = Irms Vrms
• Pav = ½ Io2R = Irms2R
• Pav = ½ Vo2/R = Vrms2/R
Internal Resistance
• The terminal voltage with a source with a internal resistance
• Vab = ε - Ir
• Ɛ - Ir = IR
• I = Ɛ / (R + r)
Example 1
What are the readings on the voltmeter and ammeter? The battery has an
emf of 12 V and internal resistance of 2 ohm.
• Voltmeter: Vab = 12 V
• Ammeter: I = 0 no connection
Example 2
What are the readings on the voltmeter and ammeter? The battery has
an emf of 12 V and internal resistance of 2 ohm
• External resistance R = 4 ohm
• I = ε / (R + r) = 12/(4 + 2) = 2 A
• Va’b’ = IR = 2 x 4 = 8 V
• Vab = ε – Ir = 12 – (2 x 2) = 8 V
Direct Current Circuits

• Resistors in series
• R = R1 + R2 + R3
 • Resistors in parallel
• 1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
• For two resistors R1 and R2
• Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2
• = (R1 + R2)/R1R2
• Req = R1R2/ R1+R2
Example
Find the equivalent resistance of the network and find the
current in each resistor. The source of emf has negligible
resistance.
• Rcb = 6x3/(6 + 3) = 2 ohm

• V = RI
• I = V/R = 18/6 = 3 A
• 3 amps flows through Rac and Rcb
• They are in series
• Vab = 4 x 3 = 12
• Therefore, Vcb = 18 – 12 = 6 V
Current through 6 ohm: I = V/R = 6/6 = 1 A
Current through 3 ohm: I = V/R = 6/3 = 2 A
Kirchhoff’s Rule
Junction rule
The algebraic sum of the currents into any junction is
zero. ∑I = 0
Loop rule
The algebraic sum of the potential differences in any
loop must equal zero. ∑V = 0
WEEK 11
Magnetic Dipole Moment
• A compass needle has two poles. We can describe it with a magnetic dipole moment, μ.
• When placed in a magnetic field the torque is
• T = μB sin θ
Magnetic Flux
• Define magnetic flux ΔΦ - through a small element of surface as the product of the
magnitude of the magnetic field B, the magnitude of surface area ΔA and the cosine of the
angle between the direction of the and normal to the surface:
ΔΦ = B ΔA cos θ
Unit: T.m2 or weber (Wb)
Example 1
A torque of 4 x10-3 N.m is needed to hold a certain compass needle at right angles to the earth’s
magnetic field, B = 5 x 10-5 T. What is the magnetic moment of the compass needle?
• T = μB sin θ
The angle θ = 90o.
μ = T/B = (4.3 x 10-3 )/(5 x 10-5)
= 86 A.m2
Example 2
A rectangular sheet of paper 21.5 cm by 28 cm rests on a flat horizontal tabletop. Calculate the
magnetic flux through the sheet of paper due to the earth’s magnetic field at a location where the
field has a magnitude of 5.31 x 10-5 T and is directed downward at an angle of 37 o from the
horizontal.
• Angle between direction of B and the normal to the paper surface is 53 o.
• Magnetic flux ΔΦ = B ΔA cos θ
The total flux through the paper is
• Φ = BA cos θ
• = (5.31 x 10-5) x (0.215 x 0.28) x cos53o
• = 1.92 x 10-6 T.m2

Magnetic fields
A straight wire is placed between the poles of a laboratory magnet that produces a uniform field of
1.0 T over a region that is 0.25 m wide. The wire is perpendicular to the direction of the field and,
when connected to a source of electricity, carries a current. What must the current be if the field
exerts a force of 9.81 N on the wire?
• F = BIL sin θ
I = F / (LBsin θ)
Given: F = 9.81, B = 1,
L = 0.25, θ = 90o, sin 90o = 1 ss
F = 9.81 / (0.25 x 1 x 1)
= 39.2 A
Magnetic field due to a current-carrying wire
• What is the magnitude of the magnetic field at a distance of 3.0 m from a long straight wire
that carries a direct current of 15 A?
Given: I = 15 A, d = 3 m, k’=10 -7 N/m2
B = k’2I/d = (10-7x 2 x 15) / 3 = 1 x 10-6 T

Faraday’s Law of Induction

We can write Faraday’s law of induction mathematically:
Ɛ = - NΔɸ /Δt
Ɛ is the induced emf, Δɸ = change in magnetic flux, Δt = time interval over which the change takes
place. The minus sign indicates direction of emf is in agreement with Lenz’s law. N = turns of wire

Example
A square coil 10 cm on a side has 20 turns of wire. Initially, it is at rest between the poles of a
magnet whose field is 0.25 T, with the plane of the coil perpendicular to the field.
• What average voltage (emf) is produced on the coil if it is withdrawn completely from the
field in 0.1 s?
• Area of coil = L2
• The field is perpendicular to the plane of the coil, so cos θ = cos 0o = 1.
• Initial flux ɸ1 = BL2
After the coil is withdrawn from the magnet, ɸ = 0. Thus, Δɸ = 0 - ɸ1 = - ɸ1
The induced emf is Ɛ = -NΔɸ / Δt = -N(- ɸ1) / Δt
= NBL2/ Δt = (20 x 0.25 x 0.12)/0.1
= 0.5 V
Power
Since power is the rate of change of energy, this is equivalent to saying that the input and output
powers are equal. The power is P = IV, so we can express the conservation rule as I 1 V1 = I2 V2
Example
A 20-W high-intensity bulb in a desk lamp has a resistance of 7.2 ohms when burning. The lamp’s
power comes from the secondary of a small transformer, the primary of which is connected to a 120
V circuit.
• What is the ratio of the number of turns on the primary winding to the number of turns on
the secondary winding?
• The secondary voltage V2 is found from
P2 = I2V2 = V22/R2
V2 = √P2R2 = √20 x 7.2 = 12 V
N1/N2 = V1/V2
= 120/12 = 10
• What is the minimum current through the primary when the lamp is on?
I1V1 = I2V2 = 20
I1 = 20/V1 = 20/120 = 0.17 A
WEEK 12
Snells Law
• n1sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2
n1 depends on the optical properties of medium 1 and n 2 depends on the optical properties of
medium 2.
The constant n is called the index of refraction of the medium.

Index of Refraction (n)

• We define the index of refraction n of a medium to be the ratio of the speed of light in a
vacuum c to the speed of light in that medium v,
n = c/v
For air n = 1, glass n = 1.5, water n = 1.33, etc
Example
The side of a fish tank is made of a thick parallel sided piece of glass
with an index of refraction of 1.5. A beam of light strikes the
surface of the glass at an angle of 46 o with respect to the normal.
• What is the direction of the beam in the water?
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2
sin θ2 = (n1/n2) sin θ1
= (1/1.5) sin 46 o
sin θ2 = 0.480
θ2 = 28.7o
• What is the direction of the beam in the water?
At the second interface, we use Snell’s law again to get
n4sinθ4 = n3sinθ3
sinθ4 =(n3/n4)sinθ3

Sine the faces of the glass are parallel,

θ3 = θ2 and sinθ3 = sinθ2.
The index of refraction of the glass is n 3 = n2 = 1.5
and of the water is n4 = 1.33.
sinθ4 = (n3 /n4) = (1.5/1.33) = 0.541
θ4 = 32.7o
Total Internal Reflection
Show that a 45o-45o-90o glass prism can deflect a light beam 90 o by
total internal reflection. The index of refraction of the glass is 1.52.
• To calculate θc, we use sin θc = n2/n1 with n1 = 1.52 for glass
and n2 = 1.0 for air. The critical angle is
c = sin-1(n2/n1) = sin-1(1.0/1.52)
c = 41.1o
The angle of incidence of 45o exceeds the critical angle.
Thus, the light striking I2 is totally reflected.