The Impact of Classroom Environment on Language Acquisition

Caroline Myrtetus

James Madison University

Concepts of First and Second Language Acquisition (TESL 426)

Instructor: Dr. Shrewsbury

Spring 2016
The Impact of Classroom Environment on Language Acquisition 2

Abstract

This study examines the various and diverse role that the classroom/ school

environment play in the process of acquiring a foreign language. This paper focuses

specifically on the atmosphere of the classroom environment both physically and

relationally. Research of various forms was conducted as backing to claims made and

analyses presented. What is out there in literature today as well as observations of foreign

language classes in session, and interviews of professionals in the field of foreign language

learning and teaching come together to compile a comprehensive look at what is happening

in the world of ELL education today and what the future holds for improvement to what is

a complex attribute of our education system today.

Our countrys education system is lacking in its provision of resources,

accommodations, and appropriate teaching training for teachers and students involved in

ESL programs. Programs should serve not only students and teachers but the families of

ELL students as well. Family involvement and the integration of home language and

cultural diversity within the classroom are crucial to creating an effective learning

environment for those of diverse lingual backgrounds.

The Impact of Classroom Environment on Language Acquisition 3

Introduction

In my academic experience thus far, studying to be an inclusive early childhood

educator, I have spent a great deal of time in Harrisonburg City Public Elementary Schools.

Harrisonburg City Public Schools are rich in ethnic and linguistic diversity. I have realized

that some, schools as a whole, and individual teachers, are more resourceful and

accommodating than others. In making these observations I realized that there is so much

that can be done just within the classroom to support ELLs, even if the school itself lacks

resources and appropriate supports. One of the most important ways a teacher can support

their ELLs is through the learning environment that he or she creates. Both my

experiences in various elementary classrooms and class discussions sparked my interest in

learning more about how classroom environment effects language acquisition. Through my

research and content covered throughout the semester I now have a better insight on how

an individual can equip their classroom environment to best accommodate and support

ELLs. My focus was originally just on early childhood education but through this process I

have also learned how environment plays a role in adult language learning as well.

Research Question(s)

How does a preschool classroom environment: the way is set up, the activities done,

the lessons taught, and the materials used promote English language acquisition and

development for those who are learning English as a second language?

Literature Reviews
The Impact of Classroom Environment on Language Acquisition 4

A Qualitative Examination of the Challenges, Resources,and Strategies for Serving

Children Learning English in Head Start

Citation:

Worthington, E. Maude, S., Hughes, K., Luze, G., Peterson, C., Brotherson, M., Bruna, K., &

Luchtel, M. (2011). A Qualitative Examination of the Challenges, Resources, and

Strategies for Serving Children Learning English in Head Start.Early Childhood

Education Journal, 39(1), 51-60.

Summary:

There is much statistical backing that indicates the rapidly increasing Latin

American population in U.S, society and specifically in our countrys education system. This

study focused on the early childhood population of Latino children and it was conducted to

examine how Head Start teachers address the special learning needs of children learning

English as a second language in their classrooms (Emily Worthington et al,, 2011, 51).

The study recruited nine female Head Start teachers, five of which were head teachers

and four were assistant teachers. The data was collected through a series of focus groups

that occurred over the span of 4 months. Each focus group lasted approximately an hour

and a half and was audio taped, then transcribed (Worthington et al., 2011, 53).

Throughout the study three major questions were addressed, the questions included: 1)

what challenges are the teachers currently facing when working with children who are

learning English as a second language and their families? (2) What strategies for teaching

and coping are being used by the teachers? And (3) What resources are available for

Head Start teachers? (Worthington et al., 2011, 52). The article talked about many
The Impact of Classroom Environment on Language Acquisition 5

strategies that teachers could use in and out of the classroom to support their ELL

students and families in and out of the classroom. Identifying what resources are

available to these teachers was also an important part of this study. The participants

identified three different forms of resources that they could utilize (Worthington et al.,

2011, 56). One type of resource was human resources such as: family development

specialists, assistant teachers, bilingual children in the classroom, and bilingual parents.

Another type of resource would be material resource, which included dual language

books, games, and online activities. The third type of resource was educational resource,

which included professional development sessions and financial support for college

classes. The conductors of the study point out that each of the resources was used to

meet different critical needs, such as assessing children learning English, comforting a

distressed child who was learning English as a second language, and providing literacy

and learning opportunities to children and families (Worthington et al., 2011, 57). As

comprehensive as this study was the authors found it important to note that further

research is needed to not only examine teacher perceptions, but also observations of

teaching strategies and learning activities that are used and that are most effective for

children in this age group; as well as parent perceptions of how current programming and

how the programs can best serve their families also need to be examined (Worthington

et al., 2011, 59).

Reflection:

When thinking about what can be done to improve the educational experience for
The Impact of Classroom Environment on Language Acquisition 6

ELL students it is crucial to think first about the students needs and then what resources

are needed and what strategies must be done by the teacher to best accommodate to these

students. The article emphasizes how early care and education programs must provide

appropriate opportunities and compensation to qualified people (Worthington et al.,

2011, 59). There are various ways in which programs can do so, some mentioned in the

article include Providing incentives for teachers to gain bilingual skills and for pre-

service teachers to study multiple languages may be helpful, Providing training to

bilingual community members in order to equip them for classroom position,

collaboration among preschool programs, community organizations, and colleges, or

possibly recruit assistant teachers while they are still in high school and provide

incentives to them to attend community college to gain skills and work toward teacher

certification (Worthington et al., 2011, 59). So much of the problem of not being able to

accommodate most effectively to ELL students stems from teachers lack of training or

adequate resources and I think that strategies mentioned above should be further

considered and implemented in our countrys early childhood education system. The

studys findings reported that the most significant challenges the teacher participants

discussed was the inability to communicate with their students and students families in

their primary language, and a lack of bilingual staff to assist them. Not knowing the

childs primary language affected the teachers ability to assess the child learning and

understanding as well as their relationship and ability to interact with the child and their

family. Because of these findings I completely agree that bilingual staff is crucial to

providing appropriate support to both ELL students and teachers. The serious lack of, and
The Impact of Classroom Environment on Language Acquisition 7

inability to maintain this type of staff is an issue that needs to be solved immediately in

order to makes strides in bettering the education process of these young ELL students and

their families. The article gave many great examples of strategies that could be used in

and out of the classroom including: verbal and nonverbal techniques, such as gestures

visual aids and using the childs first language hen possible, family strategies, such as

translated materials, open-door classroom environment and appropriate communication.

Prior to reading this study I had never really thought about how valuable the use of

human resources in a bilingual classroom could be. The article talked about teachers

using bilingual students and parents as a means of helping struggling students and I think

that by using human resources teachers create a community where everyone, students and

families included, feel equal and valued. The strategies and resources, mentioned in this

article, intended to improve early childhood education were comprehensive yet realistic

and should be encouraged and implemented in early childhood education programs

countrywide.

Teachers, Families, and Communities Supporting English Language Learners in

Inclusive Pre-Kindergartens: An Evaluationof a Professional Development Model

Citation:

Hardin, B. J., Lower, J. K., Smallwood, G. R., Chakravarthi, S., Li, L., & Jordan, C. (2010).

Teachers, Families, and Communities Supporting English Language Learners in

Inclusive Pre-Kindergartens: An Evaluation of a Professional Development

Model.Journal Of Early Childhood Teacher Education, 31(1), 20-36.

Summary:
The Impact of Classroom Environment on Language Acquisition 8

The basis for this journal entry was to highlight the fact that early childhood

educators often lack the necessary tools and training to meet the needs of ELL children and

their families effectively and the purpose of the study, talked about in this journal entry,

was to implement and evaluate a sustainable model of high-quality professional

development focused on improving pre-Kindergarten services for culturally and

linguistically diverse children and their families (Belinda J. Hardin, Joanna K. Lower,

Gretchen Robinson Smallwood, Swetha Chakravarthi, Linlin Li, and Carol Jordan, 2009, 20).

Before getting into the actual study done the journal entry highlights theoretical

perspectives that explain why we should, and how we can create professional development

opportunities that better train early childhood educators to accommodate most effectively

to their ELL students in and out of the classroom, ultimately providing the best educational

experience possible for ELL students. This part of the article emphasizes that quality pre-

kindergarten experiences should be packed with opportunities for learning new knowledge

that is mediated by the funds of knowledge ELL children bring with them as well as the

learning environment itself (Moll, 1992) (Hardin, Lower, Smallwood, Chakravarthi, Li, and

Jordan, 2009, 21). Because of this belief a project known as the Teachers, Families, and

Communities Project was conducted. The two main components of the project included

professional development for pre-Kindergarten teachers and assistants and evaluation of

the project. The professional development program part of the project consisted off

interactive training sessions, coaching visits (from doctoral students who had extensive

experience in early childhood education and/or special education along with experience

working with children from a variety of cultural and linguistic backgrounds (Hardin,

Lower, Smallwood, Chakravarthi, Li, and Jordan, 2009, 26)), and data analysis. The
The Impact of Classroom Environment on Language Acquisition 9

evaluation portion of the project consisted of written evaluations from each participant at

the end of each training session. Action plans were developed prior to project procedure

which included goals, action steps, available and needed resources, a timeline/date

completed column, and space for evaluations/reflections and were created to assist

teachers and teacher assistants in identifying and applying training content to their

classroom setting (Hardin, Lower, Smallwood, Chakravarthi, Li, and Jordan, 2009, 26).

Teacher participants were also required to fill out self-assessment checklists and surveys

on their current practices and how they change at the end of the project. In the end the

evaluation and research results indicate teachers and teacher assistants who participated

in the TFC project were supported through the training and coaching activities provided.

This indicates that e primary objective of the project was successfully addressed

providing professional development to improve pre-kindergarten services for English

Language Learners and their families (Hardin, Lower, Smallwood, Chakravarthi, Li, and

Jordan, 2009, 32).

Reflection:

This journal entry supports my belief that improvements to early childhood

education of ELL students must start with professional development programs and

interventions for early childhood educators. This study acknowledged that as the first step

in the process to improvement as well. The teachers that participated emphasized how

they felt that the hardest part about teaching these students was feeling in adequate due to

lack of training and tools. I agree with the idea that it is crucial that teaching staff have the

knowledge and skill necessary to recognize ELL childrens cultural capital from multiple

perspectivesindividual, family, and communityand then scaffold or transform these

The Impact of Classroom Environment on Language Acquisition 10

experiences within new learning contexts (Hardin, Lower, Smallwood, Chakravarthi, Li,

and Jordan, 2009, 21) mentioned in the journal entry, and I feel that the procedures

involved in the project conducted really gave teachers the opportunity and proper

guidance on how to obtain these skills. I think one of the major strength of the project was

the interactive nature of the professional development program. Teachers were given

opportunities to communicate with other teachers in the same position as them as well as

with doctoral students who were specialists in early childhood education of diverse

cultures. Their training sessions involved interaction, discussions and networking so rather

than just listening to other professionals give them tips on how to improve their classroom

and teaching techniques teacher participants were actively putting what they were

learning into their real life practices as they learned them. The idea of having an action plan

prior to making any changes I also thought was one of the most beneficial features of the

program and the teacher participants agreed. Having an action plan and a set of goals that

the teachers intended to accomplish throughout the program allowed fro teacher to have

reference point to see how they improve from the beginning to the end of the process.

Overall I think this way of intervening and implementing a professional development plan

that allows teachers to actively put into play the lessons they are learning as the learn them

is an extremely effective way to improve early childhood education programs for ELL

students. I think this way of professional development is not only beneficial to the teacher

participants but for the students are their families as well.

Challenges and Benefits of Early Bilingualism in the United States Context

Citation:

Espinosa, L. M. (2015). Challenges and Benefits of Early Bilingualism in the U.S.

The Impact of Classroom Environment on Language Acquisition 11

Context.Global Education Review, 40-53.

Summary:

The main purpose of this article is to analyze DLLs development socio-culturally,

cognitively, and academically in terms of literacy. These claims about development are

relevant, researched based and made additionally credible through the articles explanation

of the science of early bilingualism. The article explains these developmental processes in

relation to those of monolingual students. Since this article is written in terms of United

States context the author highlighted the current policies and practices for young dual

language learners in the US specifically. The author concludes that there are six standards

that should be met when educating DLLs in the US: ECE programs in the United States

should intentionally and explicitly promote both the English and home language

development, all state early learning and development standards (ELDS) should be

reviewed to determine if they are appropriate for DLLs, all ECE programs and professional

development systems need to systematically integrate the topics of meeting the

instructional, academic, social-emotional, and linguistic needs of young DLLs, explicit

policies that support bilingualism for all children whenever possible, early childhood

programs should adopt family engagement practices, and finally young DLLs should be

assessed in each of their languages

Reflection:

This article was very encouraging in its emphasis on how our country is expanding

scientific basis for designing responsive and appropriate early learning environments

better suited for ELLs. Much if this article is just stating facts. We now know the socio-

cultural factors that affect many bilingual students schooling: economic adversity, parents
The Impact of Classroom Environment on Language Acquisition 12

that are not highly educated and do not speak English and an overall cultural context

different from mainstream America. Even though there are adversities that come with

being a DLL, there are also some advanced linguistic and cognitive skills that come with

being bilingual and it is important for ECE providers to have a good understanding of the

unique contexts that shape the development of dual language learners and in which ways

they differ from those of monolingual children (Espinosa, 2015, 42) so that they can run

the most effective classroom. As someone studying to be an inclusive early educator I

strongly agree with what the article emphasized in regards to recognizing the unique

developmental contexts and characteristics of young DLLs without concluding that these

differences are deficits (Espinosa, 2015, 43). I think often times teachers either dont care

enough or are not properly educated on how to accommodate to these students in their

classroom so they associate them as being low or less capable of learning then their

monolingual peers, when in reality that is not the case at all. We know that these children

are not less capable because of scientific evidence that indicates how bilingualism advances

certain brain functions, and cognitive abilities at very young age. Teachers need to design

instructional and assessment approaches that are responsive to the needs and emerging

potentials of young children from linguistically and culturally diverse backgrounds

(Espinosa, 2015, 43). The article spends time talking about the effects of DLLs learning

environments both at home and in the ECE programs. It is important to know as an early

childhood educator, which I will be someday, to know what your students early language

opportunities are from all interactions at home in their non-English language and

incidental English exposure in the community to English exposure at home form older

siblings and dual language instruction in a formal ECE program (Espinosa, 2015, 45).
The Impact of Classroom Environment on Language Acquisition 13

With all of this background knowledge on the students, the difference in development

between monolingual and bilingual students, and the scientific research done on the brain

function of DLLs have assisted in providing a scientific basis for designing expectations,

program approaches, and assessment procedures that support the development of young

DLLs as well as an emerging knowledge base about effective instructional design and

assessment approaches for DLLs (Espinosa, 2015, 45). Support must be available to

young DLLs in a wide variety of ways: first language support, family involvement and

support, as well as state and federal financial support. Now that we have all of this great

research on how we can adjust early childhood education programs to better accommodate

to DLLs, it now our countries job to actually start putting this research into practice.

Navigating Hybridized Language Learning Spaces Through Translanguaging

Pedagogy: Dual Language Preschool Teachers Languaging Practices in Support of

Emergent Bilingual Childrens Performance of Academic Discourse

Citation:

Gort, M., & Sembiante, S. F. (2015). Navigating Hybridized Language Learning Spaces

Through Translanguaging Pedagogy: Dual Language Preschool Teachers

Languaging Practices in Support of Emergent Bilingual Childrens Performance of

Academic Discourse. International Multilingual Research Journal.

Summary:

This article is all about how and why a team of preschool teachers adjusted their

bilingual classroom to accommodate to what was expected of them by the school, which

was instruction in both English and Spanish separately, as well as including their own
The Impact of Classroom Environment on Language Acquisition 14

knowledge and beliefs on teaching strategies and practices that are most effective for dual

language learners at this particular age level. They used a variety of linguistic strategies in

their communication with each other and with their bilingual students as well as specific

lessons that they know would enhance their students understanding of both languages and

promote academic success. Teamwork, flexibility and intentional language use very of

utmost importance in the way this group of teachers executed their classroom.

Reflection:

This ethnographic article was vary dense and very detailed in the explanation of

they theoretical framework behind why these teachers were teaching they way they were.

The term translanguaging that the teachers use can be defined as the dynamic discursive

exchanges in which teachers and students engage as they draw on and choose from

multiple languages and language varieties (Gort and Sembiante, 2015, 9). Through the

practice of translanguaging in the classroom teachers model authentic bilingual behaviors

and create spaces where multiple languages are treated as resources for learning, thus

promoting bilingualism and a bilingual language repertoire as normal, natural, and

valuable (Gort and Sembiante, 2015, 9). This emphasized much of what I have learned so

far in regards to treating a dual language learner as a valuable resource, acknowledging

their extensive capabilities, and providing the most appropriate environment in which they

can thrive academically, cognitively, and socially. In the study done on Sunnyvale preschool

researchers found that teachers translanguaging practices of code-switching, translation,

bilingual recasting, and language brokering drew on childrens linguistic and cultural funds

of knowledge, scaffolded childrens formalized language performances and

experimentation with academic discourse and new language forms, and integrated the
The Impact of Classroom Environment on Language Acquisition 15

languages and language varieties of the community, while recognizing, validating, and

expressing the teachers and childrens shared bilingual identities (Gort and Sembiante,

2015, 15). With these practices in place the teachers created a dynamic, collaborative, and

meaningful environment full of rich linguistic resources that provoke language

development as well as cognitive growth, which, in my opinion, is what every early

childhood educator of DLLs, should aim for.

Immersion Education in the Early Years: a Special Issue

Citation:

Tina M. Hickey & Anne-Marie de Meja (2014) Immersion education in the early years: a

special issue, International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 17:2,

131-143, DOI: 10.1080/13670050.2013.866624

Summary:

This article talks about early childhood immersion programs; the various ways they can be

executed, the benefits and implications to these various forms, key issues and policy

concerns, pre-service and in-service training for early education immersion program

teachers, as well as familial views and involvement with these programs. The article looked

at a variety of different geographic locations pointing out implications and benefits of the

programs that apply to certain countries specifically as well as commonalities in benefits

across all locations and in high-quality early childhood programs in general.

Reflection:

This article resonated with me on a deeper level in its explanation of how effective

language intervention can be provided in a dual- language immersion setting, by classroom

teachers who are offered training in the intervention program (Hickey and Mejia, 2014,
The Impact of Classroom Environment on Language Acquisition 16

138) as I am studying to be an inclusive early childhood educator. This idea highlights the

belief that all children should have equal opportunity at success in a dual-language

program, and that these opportunities for success are made possible by teachers who have

experienced a broad range of professional development activities both pre-service and in-

service. When teachers are adequately trained, dual-language programs are most effective.

This chapter highlights the importance of adaptation in dual-language programs noting

teachers cannot apply a one size fits all approach to this task, but must be flexible in work

planning in order to adapt to different language proficiency levels, as well as differences in

general ability in different classrooms (Hickey and Mejia, 2014, 139). Language learning

activities will be of greatest value only when appropriately adapted to accommodate to a

specific group of students. Learning though authentic and naturalistic measures such are

conversations with peers and adults, as well as play and hands-on learning experiences are

extremely beneficial to early childhood dual-language learners. It is extremely important

that early childhood educators in dual-language immersion programs provide the most

appropriate materials and support for their young students. The most significant

challenge for the future of this sector centers on training and retaining effective and

experienced educators with qualifications in early years education as well as access to

effective ongoing training in immersion methodology, accompanied by fluency in the target

language and the empathy and personal qualities required for working successfully with

very young children (Hickey and Mejia, 2014, 140) with the new knowledge I feel better

informed on what is expected of my as a future early childhood educator of dual-language

students. I feel that I know have a better understanding of what it takes to run a successful

dual language classroom.

The Impact of Classroom Environment on Language Acquisition 17

Language Immersion Programs for Young Children? Yes . . . But Proceed with

Caution

Citaion:

Soderman, A. K. (2010). Language Immersion Programs for Young Children?: Yes... But

Proceed with Caution. Phi Delta Kappan, 91(8), 54-61.

Summary:

This article describes a dynamic early childhood immersion program in Beijing that uses a

Western approach to teach Mandarin and English. It is called 3e which stands for explore,

experiment, and express which are all fundamental values encouraged and executed

thoroughly by the young students in the program. The program follows an extremely

naturalistic and authentic curriculum model in which textbooks are not used, and there is

an appropriate balance of teach-centered and student-centered learning with

differentiation as the programs hallmark. The curriculum addresses standards that

encompass the development of the whole child meaning they surpass just focusing on

literacy developments. Standers addressed in the curriculum model include cognitive

development, creative arts, global, cultural, and social studies, English and Mandarin

language arts, intrapersonal and interpersonal knowledge as well as physical development.

The creators of this model believe that effective dual-immersion programs need

administrators, teachers, parents, and students who consider bilingualism a positive

attribute rather than a linguistic, cognitive, and academic liability, which is why the

curriculum addresses such a vast variety of standards. Because of the programs high-

quality and successful instruction, the different components of this program curriculum
The Impact of Classroom Environment on Language Acquisition 18

and can by just as successful when applied to any number of other dual immersion

combinations.

Reflection:

In my opinion the great success of this program can be attributed to the creators view that

an immersion model provides the best opportunity for children to attain high levels of

proficiency in a target language, but only if childrens everyday experiences are well

constructed, engaging, and developmentally appropriate. This program correlates

prevalently with the guidelines outlined but the United States NAEYC which are grounded

in research based developmentally appropriate practices. I appreciated the authers

discussion of benefits, of being part of an early childhood immersion program, that go

beyond just language acquisition. The author talks about the various cognitive and social

advantages that come with being bilingual at such a young age. The programs fundamental

values of allowing children to explore, experiment, and express lead children to make

sense of the culturally diverse world around them, which further increases their

multilingual capabilities. Learning new languages in a setting such as this one is a Its a

problem-solving, knowledge-assembly task in which children are required to pay greater

attention to the context, interact flexibly with others, and decide over and over what is

relevant and what is not (Kappan, 2010, 57). This article emphasizes the crucial role

teachers play in the success of this program through their execution of instruction that

elicit peer interaction and are related carefully to childrens previous knowledge,

experiences, skills, and concepts. (Kappan, 2010, 59). The classroom climate and dynamic

of students specific to their classroom is extremely important in their planning of

curriculum. Activities should be carefully sequenced, playful, heavily concrete to begin

The Impact of Classroom Environment on Language Acquisition 19

with, and structured to include planned simplification for the inexperienced child or

extensions for those with strong language skills (Kappan, 2010, 57). Continual assessment

of the students, both formally and informally, is extremely important in analyzing students

progress in order to plan further instruction. Teacher of programs such as these must be

flexible in their planning so that instruction can best accommodate to a unique group of

students. I agree with this articles belief that bilingual education benefits children in more

ways than just one. Bilingual children should be viewed as gifted, just as the article points

out because they are equipped with a skill thats considered an integral and necessary

component in a truly educated persons portfolio and more importantly these children

have the ability to think and express themselves in more than one language, respect for

differences in others, and the confidence to move fluidly from one culture to another

(Kappan, 2010, 61).

Method

My questions sought to gain knowledge in how the physical learning environment

effects student language acquisition. I wanted to know what works well, what doesnt

work, what is happening in schools today, and how that is different from the past and what

we plan to implement in the future. I conducted observations bot of adult ELLs as well as

young children. I conducted multiple reviews of literature that spoke of my topic, and other

topics related. I finally spoke with professionals in the field of language learning and

teaching to see how their personal beliefs correlated with my own knowledge and what is

out their in literature about my topic.

Data Collection:
The Impact of Classroom Environment on Language Acquisition 20

Observations

Observation Report #1
I attended the intermediate class session with Mrs. Ely on Thursday from 11:15-

1:15. The class was very small, less than ten people, and varied greatly in age and first

language. In my time observing the class it was very obvious which students enjoyed

participating and who did not. A select few commented on every activity and asked a lot of

questions whereas others kept to themselves and worked independently. It was obvious

though that every student in the class was proficient enough for that level of class. My

teacher informed me at the end of class that although they are all intermediates some strive

in oral speaking but struggle with reading and writing and vice versa, so although they are

all intermediately proficient they vary in strengths and weaknesses

The class started with a warm up worksheet entitled Daily Language Review of

grammar. Mrs. Ely informed me that this was something they do at the beginning of every

class. The first part of the warm up consisted of two sentences, full of grammatical errors

that the students were supposed to rewrite with the appropriate grammatical corrections.

The second part of the warm up consisted of two sentences in which the students were

suppose to give a pronoun that could replace the underlined noun in the sentence. In the

final part of the warm up the students had to look at a sentence and say whether it was

declarative, interrogative, exclamatory, or a command. After the students finished the

warm-up Ms. Ely had the worksheet displayed on an overheard projector and did all of the

corrections herself, so that the students could see her writing. I thought this was way more

effective then just verbally going over what corrections that should have been made.

Students were able to look at Mrs. Elys work and compare what they had and what they
The Impact of Classroom Environment on Language Acquisition 21

were missing. For the next portion of the class Mrs. Ely conducted a lesson on how to use

for and since in conversation. She had a time line displayed on the board as a visual to

back her explanation. There was a colored arrow that started one year and extended across

the time line without an end point, which she explained, represented since because you

use since to describe something that started in the past and still continues today. On the

time line there was also an arrow with end points on two years, which Mrs. Ely said,

represented for because for is used to represent and specific chunk of time. She gave

many examples of each following their explanation. One student pointed out that they were

a little confused because they had never heard the word chunk before and many students

agreed so Mrs. Ely defined the word to give them a better understanding. They did a

worksheet following the discussion about since and for. They went over the worksheet

orally as a class after everyone completed it. The next portion of the lesson involved

looking at different types of context clues within sentences including: synonyms, antonyms,

explanation, and example. Ms. Ely explained to them that these context clues, in various

forms, could help them figure out what a word means just by what the sentence says

without using a translator. She went over examples of the various types and followed the

discussion with a worksheet that the students were to work on to figure out what kind of

context clues each sentence contained. They were not allowed to use their translators for

this activity. The last part of the lesson involved pronunciation unit 3 which was short e.

The last section they worked on last week was short I so this lesson started off with

pointing out the difference between those two sounds. Mrs. Ely put in a recording that went

along with a set of pictures with compared words. For example a picture of a pin and a pen

was displayed on the overheard projector while the recording said pin and pen. The
The Impact of Classroom Environment on Language Acquisition 22

class said them out loud together with the recording. Then there was a test yourself

portion where the audio recording would say a word without a picture display and the

students were to write down what they thought they heard. Mrs. Ely let them just listen to

it first and then listen to it a second time while writing their answers. They went over what

the answers should be and then Mrs. Ely assigned their homework. The final activity of the

class time was for students to find a partner and quiz each other orally on the short e and

short I words.

My research focus involves the preschool classroom environment: the way is set up,

the activities done, the lessons taught, and how the materials used promote English

language acquisition and development for those who are learning English as a second

language. Going into this observation I thought that it would be impossible to make

connections between a preschool and adult classroom, but I was pleasantly surprised to

find that my assumptions were false. Just as it is in a preschool classroom the environment

of the adult classroom contributed to their learning as well. On the walls were different

words and lessons that the students have learned or are currently studying. Something I

also noticed as being similar in both a preschool and adult classroom is the way students

called out and interrupted the teacher. The interruptions were not intended to be rude or

disruptive but rather thoughts and questions that students wanted answered immediately.

I also think the activities and way of informally assessing her students was very

appropriate for the language proficiency and dynamic of the class. Students were

encouraged to participate both through interactions with the teacher and with each other

which is something that should also be encouraged in a preschool classroom with English

language learners. One of the most important lessons I will take away from this experience
The Impact of Classroom Environment on Language Acquisition 23

is not to underestimate students capabilities whether they are a preschool student, adult,

or anything in between. With proper motivation from the teacher and lessons tailored to

individuals capabilities English language learners will succeed.

Observation Report #2

I observed Professor Elys intermediate class session on Tuesday from 11:15-12:05

(the actual duration of the class extends to 1:15). My first observation was also done in

Professor Elys intermediate class at this time, but since my first observation a new session

has started. When I arrived I noticed that there were a few familiar faces as well as a few

new ones. Before class started I asked Professor Ely if the class dynamic as noticeably

different this session in comparison to the last. She told me that the only noticeable

difference is that the class size is slightly smaller this session. A few students moved up to

the advanced level and a few new students joined her intermediate level class. On this

particular day a lot of people (in relation to how small the class is) were absent; there were

only seven students total. Out of those seven students I recognized four of them from my

last observation. When I walked in to the class I noticed that the agenda written on the

chalkboard was structured exactly the same as it was in my first observation. I think

routine is extremely important in a foreign language classroom. I think when students

know what to expect coming into the class they are more prepared and capable of fully

embracing the content. Establishing a set routing is beneficial to all ages of students just in

general but especially for those learning a new language. The process of acquiring another

language is challenging and overwhelming; providing routine gives these students a sense

of consistency. In this particular observation I was able to see how routine benefits adult

learners and was able to find similarities to how it benefits learners in early childhood
The Impact of Classroom Environment on Language Acquisition 24

education as well. The agenda consisted of: a warm-up, quick quiz on possessives, context

clues lesson, and finally a pronunciation unit. I was surprised to see context clues as one of

the objectives for the day since it was something the class had worked on during my

previous observation multiple weeks prior. My teacher explained to me that the students

really struggled to understand context clues when she first introduced them so it is

something she has returned too and plans on teaching the material differently in hopes that

her students will get a better understating of the content this time around.

In my time spent in the classroom I only observed the warm-up portion of the class.

Todays Daily Language Review warm-up consisted of two sentences that needed to be

grammatically corrected, two questions involving the different tenses, and a final question

that involves contractions. The corrections in the first two sentences consisted of

punctuation mistakes, capitalization mistakes, and most importantly how to make a

complex sentence flow properly. The corrections involving the flow of the sentence

sparked a review discussion of clauses, which was something the class worked on last

week. Professor Ely uses a lot of codes in her instruction. The code for an independent

clause is IC and DC for dependent clause. She explained that there are two ways to

organize a complex sentence: ICDC and DC, IC. I think codes are very helpful when

explaining complex information such as this. The next sentence correction involved similar

punctuation and capitalization corrections but additionally sparked a discussion of the

various ways to handle a compound sentence. One of the options is to add a comma a

conjunction. Professor Ely has a code for remembering conjunctions as well: FANBOYS

(for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so). This was another great example of simplifying a literary

lesson into something that can be easily remembered an applied. Using codes or
The Impact of Classroom Environment on Language Acquisition 25

simplified/quick ways of remembering content is something I have seen to be beneficial in

early childhood ESL environments as well. In her explanation of compound sentences

Professor Ely made a connection between compound words and compound sentences.

Compound words are something the students had already studied so she explained to them

that just like compound words are two complete words put together to make one; a

compound sentence is two independent clauses (or complete sentences) put together to

make one. I noticed students faces perk up in understanding after this explanation was

given.

Although my research focuses on how the classroom environment effects ELLs in

early childhood education classrooms, it is now clear to me that environment plays a

significant role in adult English language learning as well. Professor Ely has displays on the

walls of her classroom that incorporate lessons that the students have learned in the past

allowing them to make connections to what they are presently learning. Something I would

like to see more of in her classroom is items labeled not only in English but in her students

home languages as well. I have found in my research of what works best for young ELLs,

that having various translations listed helps student better comprehend vocabulary rather

than just memorize it and I think this could also apply to adult learners.

Something that I noticed as being different in this observation from my last was the

amount of examples and further explanations Professor Ely provided. I think she did a

great job of providing various examples of what the students were learning to make sure

they really understood what they were doing. She physically wrote further explanations

and examples on the board for the whole class to see, and also went to each student

individually to assist them one-on-one with anything they were struggling with. I even
The Impact of Classroom Environment on Language Acquisition 26

heard her tell one of the students that she was going to print off worksheets that would

serve as extra practice in what the student was struggling with. That one-on-one intention

is extremely important for all ages of students. I have found in my research of young ELLs

how great of an impact teachers attitude has on student learning and I now realize that a

positive teacher-student relationship plays a significant role in adult learning as well.

International Teacher Report

Informational Section

This experience was very unique, eye opening, and one I very much appreciated. It is not

often that a group of average, generally speaking, American college-age students get to interact

with group of such highly intelligent and successful professionals from such a wide-range of

diverse origins. I gained something valuable from every interaction and every individual I

encountered in my brief time spent with these individuals. One individual, in particular that stood

out to me was a woman from Ukraine named Svitlana. Her accent was very thick, but she was

very vocal, charismatic and excited to be there. She was engaging, participatory, and genuinely

interested in what everyone else had to say; taking a lot of notes and always asking questions to

delve deeper into peoples ideals and explanations. Through our discussion of her teaching

history it was very obvious that she has a lot of experience from a wide range of educational

settings. Her teaching experiences range from early childhood education to adult education of

English language learners. Given her background in early childhood education, I enjoyed

explaining to her my plans to be an inclusive early childhood educator with the some background

in ESL. I was able to talk to her about my current and past Practicum experiences, giving her a

general idea of what the public schools in Harrisonburg are like allowing her to compare and

contrast them to her past experiences working with young children. In addition to being a teacher
The Impact of Classroom Environment on Language Acquisition 27

of English, she is also a mother and a government employee. Her son attends university here in

America. She takes pride in her sons accomplishments and ability to speak English fluently and

with barley any noticeable accent, since she was the one that taught him as a young child. Her

current occupation as a government employee requires her to organize conventions and

workshops for other teachers of English across all of Ukraine.

Language Acquisition: Intercultural Orientation

In our group discussion of whether our respective school systems took a more

assimilationist or intercultural approach to learning and teaching English, Svitlana said that

currently in Ukraine, schools practice a more intercultural way of teaching. She explained that

although that is what is being practiced now that is not the way the school system has always

been. Just ten years ago, she said, the Russian language use to dominate Ukraine. She explained

that the reason for this dominance was that the people of Ukraine viewed knowing Russian, in

addition to Ukrainian, as prestigious. In recent years the acquisition of English as another foreign

language has increased in popularity. Her hope is that eventually English will replace Russian

and she says that the school systems of Ukraine are on the right track. It was obvious that she

supports the intercultural approach of learning a foreign language more than the assimilationist

approach. She supports the idea of using ELLs first language, as a resource meaning individuals

should take part in dual language enrichment bilingual education. She thinks it is important to be

fully developed in your mother tongue in order to acquire other foreign languages. In her lifetime

thus far she has learned Russian, German, and English in addition to her mother tongue

Ukrainian. She accredits her success in doing so to her fully developed first language. One of my

favorite anecdotes of hers was her brief explanation of how she taught her son English. She

wanted him to experience the language more than just in an academic setting so she labeled
The Impact of Classroom Environment on Language Acquisition 28

different objects and areas of her home with cards that had both Ukrainian and English

vocabulary. She talked about how through that process she learned a lot about second language

acquisition in general. She noticed that her son, rather than actually learning the meaning behind

the labels, he was just memorizing the vocabulary words. After making this realization she

started rearranging all of the cards and putting them in the wrong places and having her son put

them back in their correct locations. She noticed a drastic increase in understanding and

meaningful acquisition of the language. The acquisition of vocabulary as the first step to learning

a second language is something Svitlana believes to be an effective strategy when taught

appropriately and assessed appropriately. This way of educating in a relatable and natural

environment using practical objects and activities is something we have discussed in class as

being an effective strategy to second language acquisition. I appreciate her strong belief in

second language learning not stopping when you leave the academic environment in which it is

being taught. Her philosophy is that second language learning should take place in every aspect

of your life and that you should take any opportunity that presents itself to you to fully immerse

yourself in the foreign language and cultural aspects that come with it.

Interview Instrument and Response Paper

Setting and Participant:

I chose Concepcion Myrtetus (my mother) to be my interviewee for various reasons. She

grew up in Miami, Florida with parents who both emigrated from Cuba just a few years before

she was born. She spoke only Spanish until the age of four when she started formal schooling.

She grew up in Miami but has lived in Richmond, Virginia since her mid-twenties. When she

first moved to Virginia she spent many years as a general education elementary school teacher

and taught various grades. For the last ten years she has been a part-time Spanish teacher at an
The Impact of Classroom Environment on Language Acquisition 29

elementary school in the city of Richmond. It is an immersion style program, of which she

thoroughly enjoys. Although she is my mother, prior to this interview I was unaware of anything

involving her English acquisition process. In our interview we talked about her own personal

English learning experience, as well as that of the students she teaches and how those

experiences are similar and different. We talked briefly about English language learning in

general as well as her own personal beliefs on what she feels is most effective and best practice.

Questions and Responses:

1. Q: What do you recall from your English language learning experience? Was your

elementary school accommodating? What helped your learning and what hindered your

learning?

R: She started her response by acknowledging that she honestly does not remember much about

the very beginning of her English language learning experiences since it happened when she was

only four and five years old. At the time the cut-off date to enroll in Kindergarten was in

December and her birthday is December 13th. My grandmother (Concepcions mother) expressed

some concern about her not only being young for her grade but also going into the school year

not knowing any English. She sought out advice from the school in which Concepcion was going

to enroll in. The school was a small Catholic private school that did not have any sort of ESL

program implemented. Concepcion said that every teacher in the school was an Irish nun or

American; the only adults that spoke Spanish in the school were the Spanish teachers. Because of

this demographic of teachers and lack of ESL program, the school administration was also

concerned that Concepcion would struggle if she came to Kindergarten as soon as possible, so

they suggested she enroll in a pre-school program and star Kindergarten a year later. Concepcion

explained to me that attending a pre-school program was not very common back then, especially
The Impact of Classroom Environment on Language Acquisition 30

for Cuban families like hers. It was in that year in the pre-school program that Concepcion

acquired most of her English language comprehension, continued to learn more in Kindergarten

and was fully fluent before first grade. Without any formal ESL program, Concepcion accredits

her English language learning success to the social interactions that took place in the school

setting among children her age and through interactions with English speaking adults. Although

her elementary school did not have ESL accommodations she said that one thing that helped her

English language learning was the fact that she was born in America, so although English was

not her first language she was already somewhat culturally Americanized. She believes that

made her English language learning experience easier than it is for those who are immigrants.

She said one thing that hindered her English language acquisition was the fact that English was

not my parents first language, and while they could speak it they did not have a proficient

understanding in its academic use, so as I got older I started to struggle with spelling and

grammar and I could not seek support from them because they were not proficient in that way.

2. Q: How does the elementary school in which you work, accommodate to its ELL

population? What resources do they have and what do you think they are lacking?

R: Concepcion explained to me that her school only has one ESL teacher that accommodates to

the entire ESL population of three different schools. One teacher for so many students is just

not enough! The ESL teacher comes to her school once or twice a week and pulls students in

groups by grade level to work with her for short periods of time. Since she is only one person

with so many obligations involving so many different schools there are often weeks where she

does not make it to the elementary school at all, leaving the ESL students with no ESL support or

instruction that week. Because of this huge lack of ESL support the general education teachers

are left to accommodate to these students without any training in teaching ELLs; so thats
The Impact of Classroom Environment on Language Acquisition 31

where I come in. Teachers will approach Concepcion, very overwhelmed and clueless of how to

best accommodate to these students. While Concepcion is also not trained in ESL she does have

experience being a full-time general education teacher and since she is fluent in Spanish she can

work one on one with the struggling Spanish speaking students to help them get where they need

to be to better keep up with their class. Not only does Concepcion assist general education

teachers by tutoring their struggling students, she also assists general education teachers and

administrators with parent-teacher conferences and other aspects of school-family

communication. The city of Richmond claims that they provide translators and family liaison

support but since the school in which Concepcion teaches does not have as high of an ESL

population as some of the others in the district, it is very hard for them to get the support that

they need. Concepcion has taken on many roles in her school that are not technically in her job

description. She is more than happy to help in anyway that she can but sometimes struggles to

find the time wile managing her actual job requirements. She made sure to mention that Spanish

is not the only foreign language spoken in her school. The Spanish-speaking students and

families are the ones best accommodated too, and they are seriously lacking in support. The

school in which she works also has a small Chinese and Arabic population and those families

really have no support at all. In regard to communicating with school personnel, these families

often bring translators with them since they have no means of support otherwise. In

Concepcions ten years of being in the school, the ESL population has dramatically increased

and will continue to increase every year. Concepcion says that drastic changes in ESL support

need to be made as soon as possible.

3. Q: How do you think family involvement and students home life affect their

language learning?
The Impact of Classroom Environment on Language Acquisition 32

R: Concepcion explained that she has noticed, through her own personal experience and in

working with foreign families at her school, that parental education and socio-economic status

greatly affect young students English language learning. Concepcions mother attended a

bilingual school growing up in Cuba, and her father attended classes to learn English when she

was very young so by the time she was in school both of her parents were fluent in English. Her

parents, and those of other Cuban families that she attended school with, were educated, working

middle-class adults. They were able to provide extra support for Concepcion that made it easier

to learn English at a young age. For many of the Hispanic students that Concepcion works,

English language exposure only happens at school. The majority of the Hispanic parents of these

students do not speak English, are not highly educated, and work blue-collar jobs. Because of

this many students are not even proficient in their first language, which makes it even harder to

learn an additional language. Concepcion did emphasize however that socio-economic status,

while it may affect a childs first language proficiency and ability to get support outside of

school, it does not affect parents attitude towards English language learning and academic

success. She pointed out that every foreign family that she works with wants whats best for their

children and are willing to do everything in their power to provide the necessary supports for

them.

4. Q: What is your take on immersion as a means of learning a second language? Do

you think it is the best way?

R: I definitely think that immersion is the best way to learn a second language because it is the

most natural way. Concepcion believes that students should learn a second language in as

similar of a way possible as they learned their first language. Through immersion as a way of

learning a second language, students develop comprehension before they are able to actually
The Impact of Classroom Environment on Language Acquisition 33

speak the language, which is exactly how they learned their mother tongue. Concepcion feels

that there is so much power in children listening to the foreign language and watching it being

used fluently. When they are able to see and hear the language used fluently without interruption

from their first language they begin to associate what they are hearing with what they are seeing

and give meaning to what they are learning rather than just memorizing terminology. The

curriculum she uses today is one she developed many years ago. She worked with a group of

other Spanish teachers in the city to adapt a published Spanish series to accommodate to their

unique school environment and personal beliefs. They are realizing now that the methodological

basis of their current curriculum is not up to date with research regarding most effective practices

in teaching a second language. They are in the process of trying to get a new curriculum that is

completely different in methodology. Right now Concepcion teaches categories of vocabulary

that she feels students at each respective grade level should know in hopes that as they get older

they will make connections between the vocabulary and be able to use the terminology fluently.

The curriculum that they are trying to implement is called Symtalk and it is a lot more

immersion natural. The curriculum is designed in a way so that teachers introduce full sentences

and phrases that combine various categories of vocabulary stating at the very beginning.

Concepcion feels that this way of exposing children to all different kinds of vocabulary from the

beginning will be a lot more effective then just teaching them sets of vocabulary that is

developmentally appropriate for their age level.

5. Q: In your experience working with the various different grades within early

childhood education, is there any significant difference in Spanish language acquisition and

learning between your younger and older students?

The Impact of Classroom Environment on Language Acquisition 34

R: It is definitely easier for the kids that start young! Concepcion explained that in the lower

grades teachers naturally move slower in the way that they teach, and leave a lot more time for

review. Teachers are more willing to give extensive explanations of content in the lower grades

than those of higher academic level. While it is a struggle for all ELLs to be in a general

education classroom where they are expected to perform at the same level as their English

language-speaking peers, the stakes seem to be higher in the higher elementary grades than in the

lower. The social expectations are very different in the upper elementary grades than in the

lower. Students are not as excepting of those who are different from them and teachers, generally

speaking, are not as understanding or accommodating. Concepcion did point out that across the

board her foreign students that are not Hispanic seem to thrive in Spanish. She always very

impressed with how quickly these ELL students pick Spanish since they are also in the process

of learning English. She thinks that reason behind their success is the slower pace at which

Spanish is taught, in comparison to the other subjects taught by the general education teacher.

Foreign students seem to feel like they are at a similar competency level as their English-

speaking peers when it comes to Spanish, which is generally not the case with the other subjects.

Reflection:

We have spent some time in class talking about the various advantages and disadvantages among

different styles of language learning programs so I thoroughly enjoyed learning about

Concepcions belief on what best practice and why she feels an immersion style program is most

effective. I agreed with her description of how individuals should learn their second language as

similarly as possible in structure as they did their first language, and I agree that immersion is the
The Impact of Classroom Environment on Language Acquisition 35

best way to do that. I do however thing that immersion does have its disadvantages and must be

done appropriately in order to be effective. As we have discussed in class immersion must be

done intentionally and in a way that is developmentally appropriate for the students that are

being taught. The impact of family relations and socio-economic status is also something we

have discussed this semester so I also found Concepcions views on those matters very

interesting. I like how she emphasized that parental lack of bilingualism did not affect their

views on their own childrens academic success and well being. Just because a parent does not

speak English does not mean that they dont value their childs education. In my research of

second language acquisition in early childhood education many people talk about the stigma our

society places on parents that do not speak English. People tend to assume that these parents

dont care and dont want to be involved with the school when really they do and just dont know

how or are not provided the necessary means to do so. In all of my research I have found that

with the continuously increasing population of ESL students the lack of ESL support in our

countrys public education system needs to drastically change immediately. One of the biggest

hindrances on ELLs is their teachers lack of training in ESL. Concepcion voiced this concern

on various occasions as well. With the most effective research based curriculum implementation,

proper resources and sufficient trained personal ESL students can be appropriately

accommodated too. Our country is aware of what needs to be done and seem to be moving in the

right direction, from what I have gathered in my research thus far. But while great strides have

been made there is still so much more that can be done to ensure the most effective education

experiences for our countries ESL students.

Data Analysis
The Impact of Classroom Environment on Language Acquisition 36

In creating the most effective and accommodating ELL conducive classroom,

appropriate resources and training are the keys to success. The importance of these factors

was prevalent in all aspects of this study. It is important for our countrys school system to

know what challenges teacher of ELLs face, what strategies they are using, and what

resources are available. Resources of many different types- material, educational, and

human resources- are essential to ELL present learning environments.

Conclusion

In my study of how the classroom environment affects language learning and

acquisition, I found that there are many factors that make up the classroom environment is

addition to visual appearance and tangible resources. Various individuals greatly influence

the effectiveness of a multi-lingual conducive classroom including: the teacher/teachers,

students, administration, parents, and community members. I found that the roles each of

these individuals play, in and out of the classroom, were explained in similar ways across

all of the literature that I analyzed. With the constant increase of immigrant and ELLs

entering our countries education system, it is crucial that all parties involved are equipped

with the appropriate supports and resources. Strides have been made but there is still

much that needs to be done. In response to the research that has already been conducted,

our country is becoming more aware of how to run our education system in the most

effective manner to accommodate to our ELL population. Research and effective

adaptations must continue to be done in order to keep up with the rapid increase in the

ELL population and the progressive change it what strategies and implementations of

language learning and teaching are most appropriate and effective

Limitations
The Impact of Classroom Environment on Language Acquisition 37

I was unable to observe a bilingual or foreign language classroom for the specific

purpose of this study. In my research I was able to include my thoughts and knowledge

about foreign language classrooms from past experiences and what I have learned from the

content of this course, but given the extensive process that one must go through in order to

observe an elementary school class, I was unable to do so.

Implications for Future Research

In continuing research on this topic it is crucial that we hold our government

accountable for providing the means necessary to best accommodate to our ELL

population. Specifically in providing the professional development necessary for educators

of ELL students. It is important to keep track of and analyze legislation regarding ESL

support. It is also extremely important to keep up to date with what strategies are proven

to be most developmentally appropriate and effective to diverse language learning

environments. Research is constantly being conducted and better strategies are constantly

being exposed and it is our responsibility as educators and community members to make

sure that these best practices are being used appropriately.

The Impact of Classroom Environment on Language Acquisition 38

References

Concepcion Myrtetus: Interview Instrument Participant

Espinosa, L. M. (2015). Challenges and Benefits of Early Bilingualism in the U.S.

Context.Global Education Review, 40-53.

Gort, M., & Sembiante, S. F. (2015). Navigating Hybridized Language Learning Spaces
Through Translanguaging Pedagogy: Dual Language Preschool Teachers
Languaging Practices in Support of Emergent Bilingual Childrens
Performance of Academic Discourse. International Multilingual Research Journal.

Hardin, B. J., Lower, J. K., Smallwood, G. R., Chakravarthi, S., Li, L., & Jordan, C. (2010).
Teachers, Families, and Communities Supporting English Language Learners
Inclusive Pre-Kindergartens: An Evaluation of a Professional Development
Model.Journal Of Early Childhood Teacher Education, 31(1), 20-36.

Soderman, A. K. (2010). Language Immersion Programs for Young Children?: Yes...

But Proceed with Caution. Phi Delta Kappan, 91(8), 54-61.

Svitlana: Teacher Exchange Report Interviewee

Tina M. Hickey & Anne-Marie de Meja (2014) Immersion education in the early
years: a special issue, International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism,
17:2, 131-143, DOI: 10.1080/13670050.2013.866624

Worthington, E. Maude, S., Hughes, K., Luze, G., Peterson, C., Brotherson, M., Bruna, K., &
Luchtel, M. (2011). A Qualitative Examination of the Challenges, Resources, and
Strategies for Serving Children Learning English in Head Start.Early Childhood
Education Journal, 39(1), 51-60.