Vol 8 No 5 - October 2016

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Vol. 8, No. 5
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e-ISSN: 1694-2639
p-ISSN: 1694-2620
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Vol 8, No 5 October 2016
Table of Contents
Effects of personal characteristics on susceptibility to decision bias: a 1
literature study
Alexander Toet, Anne-Marie Brouwer, Karel van den Bosch
and J.E. (Hans) Korteling
Likert Scale Development: Construction and Evaluation of Home 18

Environment Scale
Mukhtar Ahmad Wani & Aejaz Masih
Iqbals Response to Modern Western Thought: A Critical Analysis 27

Dr. Mohammad Nayamat Ullah and Abdullah Al Masud
Is more BENELUX cooperation the future for the low countries ? 37

Prof. dr. Herman Matthijs
International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences
p-ISSN: 1694-2620
e-ISSN: 1694-2639
Vol. 8 No. 5, pp. 1-17, IJHSS
Effects of personal characteristics on susceptibility to

decision bias: a literature study
Alexander Toet, Anne-Marie Brouwer, Karel van den Bosch, J.E. (Hans) Korteling
TNO
Kampweg 5, 3769 DE Soesterberg, The Netherlands
Abstract
Cognitive biases and heuristics are pervasive simplifications and distortions in judgement and
reasoning that systematically affect human decision making. Knowledge in this area may enable
us to foresee and reduce detrimental effects of biases or to influence others more effectively. We
therefore performed a literature study to assess the influence of personal characteristics
(cognitive abilities, expertise, personality, cultural background) on the occurrence of cognitive
biases. We found that each of the aforementioned factors can affect cognitive biases, though not
much is known about the effects of culture. Also, factors that appear to reduce a cognitive bias
may in fact mitigate (suppress or override) its behavioral effect rather than preventing the bias
from occurring at all. The general picture that arises is that bias susceptibility and the occurrence
of biases depend on thinking style (heuristic versus deliberate), where thinking style is associated
with an individuals personal characteristics. In general, biases are reduced when a deliberate
(analytical) thinking style is applied. However, whether a specific (heuristic or deliberate)
thinking style actually reduces or enhances a given type of bias also depends on the context.
Keywords: bias, heuristics, personal characteristics, decision making, judgement.
Introduction
People constantly make judgments and decisions, either conscious or unconscious. Most
decisions are made without knowing for sure what the effects of the decision will be and whether
the outcome will be positive or not. Making decisions in uncertainty is based upon at least two
factors: the desirability and the likelihood of the outcome. Decision theory studies the
development of algorithms that, for a given problem and likelihoods, produce the best outcome.
Decision theory can thus, in principle, provide recommendations how to best make decisions.
However, in real life people often make decisions that deviate from the best solution (Haselton,
Nettle, & Andrews, 2005).These deviations are the outcome of systematic distortions in human
judgment and reasoning.
Subjective estimations play a significant part in our daily life. Our decisions, conclusions
and explanations are based upon our beliefs about the likelihood of uncertain events but not on
their objective likelihood. For example, the decision to stay away from a particular neighborhood is
not driven by the actual likelihood of being robbed, but by our perception of the likelihood of being
robbed. The important conclusion of an immense body of research on decision making is that
1 http://aajhss.org/index.php/ijhss
people do not follow the laws of probability, but instead use relatively simple rules (heuristics).
These heuristics often perform well, but under certain conditions may lead to systematic and
serious errors. The distortion of human judgment and decision making is called cognitive bias,
or shortly bias.
The study reported here was performed to acquire further insight into biased (pre-
cognitive, automatic, heuristic) judgment and decision processes (that are influenced by
intuitions, emotions, biases, or associations) and to investigate whether biased thinking depends
on the personal characteristics of individuals. If there are indeed psychological characteristics
that predict biased thinking, this knowledge could in principle effectively be used to either
mitigate or deploy biased thinking. Knowledge of cognitive biases can for instance be used to:
develop selection procedures (to develop tests that estimate an individuals susceptibility to
biases),
reduce susceptibility to biases and ameliorate their effects (by training personnel and
institutions to recognize and cope with biases appropriately, and by developing fast and
frugal decision protocols),
effectively deploy knowledge of biases against relevant actors (both on a strategic level as part
of a doctrine and operationally in the field).
The literature study reported here contributes to this goal by identifying characteristics of
individuals (e.g., cognitive abilities, expertise, personality, cultural background) that may predict a
persons susceptibility to cognitive biases, and in particular those leading to decision and
judgment biases.
The following section discusses the literature search strategy. Next we briefly discuss the
origins of human decision biases and factors that may affect the susceptibility to these biases.
Then we present a literature review on some personal characteristics that may predict an
individuals susceptibility to judgment and decision bias. Finally, we will present the conclusions
of this study.
Literature search strategy

Electronic searches were carried out using the databases ScienceDirect, PubMed and PsycINFO.
In addition, lliterature searches were also performed with Google Scholar. As search terms we
used the names of several well-known biases (Anchoring, Anchoring bias, Attribution error, Base
rate neglect, Belief bias, Confirmation bias, Conjunction fallacy, Framing, Halo effect, Hindsight
bias, Imaginability bias, Omission bias, Negativity bias, Outcome bias, Over-confidence bias,
Sunk cost effect) as well as some general terms (Bias, Cognitive bias, Decision bias, Decision
making, Judgement, Heuristic bias, Heuristics: for definitions see Appendix A) and combined
them with (conjunction: AND) terms related to personal characteristics (cognitive abilities OR
expertise OR personality OR individual differences OR culture OR reasoning OR thinking OR
trait) factors. The searches were restricted to articles reporting empirical studies in peer reviewed
journals. The relevant papers that were found in this initial search served as a starting point for
subsequent searches, that included all later papers referring to papers from the initial set (found
by using the Cited by function in Google Scholar. We included studies found using this method
in the review only if they involved influences of personal factors on human decision making. The
literature searches were performed in the second half of 2016.
Cognitive biases and their origins
The human mind is limited in its capacity to render judgments in a way that is perfectly rational
and fully informed. While rational thinking serves well to solve decision problems that allow
comprehensive analysis, it may fail in complex real life situations, where it is often very difficult
to have access to every relevant piece of information, and where a decision often has to be made
quickly. Even if such access were possible, our brains do not operate like computer algorithms,
capable of complex and multiple calculations in order to reach logically sound conclusions not
to mention that we hardly have time to perform such rigorous analysis for every judgment that
we make. As a result, human decision making tends to rely on a variety of simple heuristic
decision rules that can be executed quickly. Oftentimes, heuristics produce judgements and
decisions that are good enough when measured against an acceptable cognitive load. However,
heuristics can also lead to irrational thinking and problem-solving in ways that produce errors or
illogical decisions, known as cognitive biases. This is most likely to occur in complex situations
(when relevant information is ignored and/or irrelevant information interferes) or in situations
that are mistakenly perceived as familiar (while they are actually unknown). Cognitive biases are
pervasive in human reasoning and have important practical implications.
Dual-process heuristic-deliberate theories postulate a distinction between fast, intuitive,

automatic, heuristic, emotionally charged and fallible (heuristic or Type 1 ) processes versus
slow, conscious, controlled, deliberate and analytic (deliberate or Type 2) processes (e.g., Evans,
2006; Kahneman, 2003; Kahneman & Frederick, 2002; Sloman, 1996). When fast responses are
required, performance is based on low-effort heuristic processes. Deliberate processes supervise
and control the output of the heuristic system. In this view biases occur when deliberate
processing either (1) fails to successfully engage (Kahneman, 2003) or (2) fails to override the
biased heuristic response (De Neys, 2012). The serial deliberate processes are slower and require
more working memory and are therefore constrained by the limited capacity of the brain.
Conversely, heuristic processes function implicitly and in parallel and do not claim executive
working memory resources (De Neys, 2006). It is generally assumed that heuristic processes
result in biased outcomes, unless the analytical system takes over (Evans, 1984, 1989). In this
study we adopt the dual-process heuristic-deliberate theory of human decision making as a
framework to unify and understand our current findings.
Intuitive (heuristic) decision-making produces quick solutions based on general heuristics

(the Fast and Frugal view: Gigerenzer & Gaissmaier, 2010) or on experience-based (pattern-
matching) evaluations (Naturalistic Decision Making: G. A. Klein, 1993; see e.g. Kahneman &
Klein, 2009; G. Klein, 2015 and Davis, Kulick, & Egner, 2005 for a discussion on the differences
and similarities between both views). Intuition can provide access to information that would not
be beliedfble through deliberate thinking (Hogarth, 2010). However, intuition cannot generate or
acquire new knowledge. Also, since intuition is bias prone, it may lead to potentially dangerous
inaccurate perceptions of reality (Dane & Pratt, 2007; Kahneman & Frederick, 2002; Amos
Tversky & Kahneman, 1974).
In contrast to intuitive decision-making, deliberation uses abstract thinking and

generalizations, and allows the acquisition of additional information in the decision-making
process (Sllner, Broeder, & Hilbig, 2013).This is a clear advantage over intuition when problem
solving requires the application of complex rules (Kahneman & Frederick, 2002). In the real
world, decision makers often have to deal with three critical constraints that limit their
opportunities for deliberation: (1) limited access to information, (2) cognitive limitations inherent
in the human mind, and (3) limited time. These constraints result in bounded rationality (H. A.
Simon, 1972). Deliberation is time consuming and requires cognitive effort. Cognitive resources
claimed by deliberation cannot be deployed for other tasks (Kurzban, Duckworth, Kable, &
Myers, 2013). Decision-makers will therefore typically use their intuition when there is no
obvious need to use deliberate reasoning to make a good decision.
From a behavioral standpoint cognitive biases may be seen as systematic errors in

rational reasoning (Amos Tversky & Kahneman, 1974). However, many cognitive biases that
appear irrational from the viewpoint of rational choice theory may in fact be quite rational from
the perspective of evolutionary biology (Santos & Rosati, 2015). They may optimize decision
making in a given environment (context) by optimally using the available information (ecological
rationality: Goldstein & Gigerenzer, 2002). However, decision rules that are completely adapted
to a given (natural) environment may of course lead to maladaptive (biased) behavior in
different settings (Fawcett et al., 2014).
Factors affecting human cognitive bias

From a practical viewpoint, it would be useful to understand the factors that predict the
occurrence of cognitive biases. This literature review addresses the question whether
characteristics of individuals affect susceptibility to cognitive biases. The dual-process heuristic-
deliberate theory of human decision making (described above) is adopted as a framework to
unify and understand our current findings. This theory states that individuals are less prone to
biases if they apply the thinking style (deliberate or heuristic) that is most appropriate for the
problem context. Furthermore, an individuals tendency to make biased judgments and decisions
may be related to personal characteristics (e.g., cognitive ability, expertise, personality).
Cognitive ability
People differ in their cognitive abilities like intelligence, training (level of expertise), and thinking
styles. Studies investigating the correlation between measures of intelligence and a wide range of
different cognitive biases have shown that cognitive ability (both fluid and crystalized
intelligence) does not predict bias-proneness in general (Stanovich & West, 2008; Teovanovic,
Knezevic, & Stankov, 2015). Intelligent people are just as prone to cognitive bias as less
intelligent ones. However, highly intelligent people are more able than less intelligent ones to
avoid cognitive bias once they have been warned about the bias in advance and are instructed
how to avoid it (Stanovich & West, 2008).
Significant negative correlations have been observed between fluid intelligence and
several biases. Fluid intelligence is an individuals capacity to think in a logical way and to find
solutions for new problems, independent of acquired knowledge (Cattell, 1987). Fluid
intelligence has been found to correlate negatively with belief bias, over-confidence bias and base
rate neglect and also with the Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT: Frederick, 2005). The CRT is a
widely used tool to assess individual differences in intuitiveanalytic cognitive styles. The CRT
has been found to correlate negatively with the sunk cost effect, belief bias and base rate neglect;
Teovanovic et al., 2015).Thus it seems that people with high reflective abilities and a high fluid
intelligence are less prone to these cognitive biases.
The literature shows mixed results on the relation between analytic intelligence and
proneness to the anchoring bias (for a review see: Furnham & Boo, 2011). While some studies
found that individuals with higher cognitive abilities are less susceptible to anchoring (Bergman,
Ellingsen, Johannesson, & Svensson, 2010), others observed no - or even the opposite - effect
(Oechssler, Roider, & Schmitz, 2009).
There is evidence that an individuals susceptibility to bias relates to structures and

emotional processes in the brain. Two key brain structures mediating emotional information
processing are the amygdala and the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) (e.g., Kim & Hamann, 2007;
Zald, 2003). The amygdala can be seen as a primitive structure linking immediate threat with
rapid survival responses (Sander, Grafman, & Zalla, 2003). The OFC is associated with
deliberate thinking and has the function to gather and update information and use it to predict
possible outcomes of-, and to steer, human behavior (Rolls, 2004; Rolls & Grabenhorst, 2008).
De Martino et al. (De Martino, Kumaran, Seymour, & Dolan, 2006) examined the neural
mechanisms mediating the framing effect and the ability to control it. While placed inside an
fMRI scanner their participants performed a financial decision making task. In line with the dual-
process theory (i.e., the view that choices are typically affectively loaded and involve heuristic
thinking; see Kahneman & Frederick, 2007) this study showed that framing bias during financial
decision making correlated with a higher activity in the greater amygdala. In addition, they found
that subjects who acted more rationally also exhibited stronger OFC activation. Interestingly,
they also found a strong inter-individual variability in susceptibility to framing, which did not
correlate with amygdala activity. Instead, they observed a positive correlation between the ability
to control framing bias and OFC activation: increased orbital and medial prefrontal cortex
activity correlated with a reduced susceptibility to the framing effect (De Martino et al., 2006).
Although enhanced OFC activity does not necessarily imply the inhibition of emotional
processes (Aron, 2007), this result agrees with the view that controlling decision bias depends on
engagement of deliberate, rational thinking.
People who score high on the Need for Cognition (NFC: an individuals propensity to enjoy
and engage in thought: Cacioppo & Petty, 1982) are just as likely to be framed as anyone else.
However, compared to people scoring low on NFC, they are more consistent across different
frames of a problem. In accordance with the abovementioned results from brain research, the
magnitude of the framing effect is significantly reduced when decision makers are encouraged to
reflect on the options and to motivate their choice (Miller & Fagley, 1991; Sieck & Yates, 1997;
Takemura, 1993). For people who score high on the Need for Cognition this manipulation even
eliminates the framing effect altogether (A. F. Simon, Fagley, & Halleran, 2004). NFC has also
been found to moderate hindsight bias: hindsight bias is found for persons with low and
medium NFC scores, but not for people with high NFC scores (Verplanken & Pieters, 1988).
An individuals thinking style has often been associated with proneness to bias. An
individuals preference for an analytic-rational (deliberate processing) or an intuitive-experiential
(heuristic processing) thinking style can be assessed through the Rational-Experiential Inventory
(REI: Epstein, Pacini, Denes-Raj, & Heier, 1996). The relationship between thinking style and
various biases has been investigated in several studies. Persons that dominantly use an
analytic/rational thinking style tend to be less susceptible to the base rate neglect bias than
people using an intuitive/experiental thinking style (Ohlert & Weienberger, 2015). There seems
to be no relation between thinking style and susceptibility to the conjunction fallacy (Lu, 2015).
Thinking style and belief bias appear to be linked: in contrast to people with an intuitive-
experiential thinking style, people with an analytic-rational thinking style are less susceptible to
belief bias (Svedholm-Hkkinen, 2015; Trippas, Pennycook, Verde, & Handley, 2015).
A specific cognitive ability that appears to be linked with thinking style is numeracy, or the
proficiency in basic probability and numerical concepts (Peters et al., 2006). An individuals
numeracy-competency is determined by (1) the degree of information processing (heuristic or
deep elaborative processing), (2) affective numerical intuition (e.g., framing); and (3) intuitive
understanding (e.g., gist-based representation and reasoning; see Ghazal, Cokely, & Garcia-
Retamero, 2014). Low numeracy is typically linked with intuitive (heuristic) thinking, whereas
high numeracy is typically linked with deliberate (analytical) processing (Brust-Renck, Reyna,
Corbin, Royer, & Weldon, 2014). In this view people with high numeracy are less susceptible to
biases because they show an analytical thinking style and information seeking behavior (Ghazal
et al., 2014). Numeracy has indeed been found to determine decision making quality across a
wide range of tasks (Sinayev & Peters, 2015). For instance, people with high numeracy are less
susceptible to framing bias (Gamliel, Kreiner, & Garcia-Retamero, 2015; Peters et al., 2006) and
conjunctions fallacies (Sinayev & Peters, 2015), are less over/under confident about their
decisions (Sinayev & Peters, 2015), and take less risks (Jasper, Bhattacharya, Levin, Jones, &
Bossard, 2013). People with higher numeracy are better able to extract the affective gist of a
problem and use it to determine the quality of a particular choice (Jasper et al., 2013). These
findings cannot be attributed to differences in general intelligence (Peters et al., 2006).
Somewhat in contrast, people using a combination of thinking styles (high

deliberate/high heuristic (also called complementary thinking) and low deliberate/low heuristic
(also called poor thinking) are found to be more susceptible to framing than those using a
dominant (either rational or intuitive) thinking style (Shiloh, Salton, & Sharabi, 2002). Thus, it
seems that people with a clearly dominant heuristic or deliberate thinking style are more resistant
to framing. This may be because both decision styles use strong internal guides (either logical or
experiential) to process information. In contrast, people with a more uniform thinking style
(either complementary or poor) appear to depend more on coincidental external situational cues
(e.g., the way the information is formulated) when processing information.
Individuals with high emotional intelligence (the ability to recognize and distinguish
between emotions and to identify their causes) are able to reduce (or even eliminate) the effects
of decision bias by recognizing that the emotions they experience (for instance anxiety: Yip &
Ct, 2013) are irrelevant for the decisions they have to make. For example, military officers with
high emotional intelligence make better tactical decisions under stressful condition because they
are able to maintain a higher state of attentiveness for social cues and perform a more exhaustive
(deliberate) analysis of situational cues (Fallon et al., 2014).
Summarizing, several types of cognitive ability, as well as the ability to engage in
deliberate information processing at appropriate times, seem to protect an individual from
several cognitive biases (in particular, the sunk cost bias, the base rate fallacy, the over-
confidence bias, the belief bias, and framing). For anchoring and conjunction bias the evidence is
mixed. Emotional intelligence has been found to reduce the likelihood of falling prey to decision
bias. In general it can be concluded that cognitive ability does not safeguard an individual against
bias, but it may in some cases help in deploying countering mechanisms that reduce, or prevent
subsequent behavioral effects.
Expertise
Whether people deploy a heuristic or a more deliberate decision making mode depends for a
large part on the decision-makers expertise (Fuchs, Steigenberger, & Lbcke, 2015). An expert is
an individual who has acquired special skills in a given domain (Chi, Glaser, & Farr, 1988). The
main distinction between experts and novices is the extent of their domain-specific knowledge
(Chi et al., 1988). Less experienced decision-makers increasingly use deliberative thinking to
solve subjectively complex problems while mainly following their preferred (either heuristic or
deliberate) decision style. In addition, the thoroughness of their information processing is
affected by their mood: a happy mood leads to more superficial (heuristic) processing, while a
sad mood leads to more thorough (deliberate) processing (Englich & Soder, 2009). In contrast,
more experienced decision makers use deliberation independent of their decision preferences,
subjective environmental complexity or mood (Englich & Soder, 2009; Fuchs et al., 2015).
Moreover, experts rely more on intuition than on deliberation. They can probably do so because
they have learned to match tools and strategies to problem structures (similar to chess players:
Sauter, 1999). For example, expert handball players are more intuitive than non-experts and tend
to rely on their first intuitively generated decision option (Raab & Laborde, 2011).
Expertise generally does not significantly reduce the anchoring bias effect (for a review
see: Furnham & Boo, 2011). However, expertise in a specific estimation context (task) may
reduce susceptibility to anchoring: experience in a card game was inversely correlated with
susceptibility to anchoring (Welsh, Delfabbro, Burns, & Begg, 2014). This implies that the exact
nature of the expertise should be clearly defined before being able to assess whether experts are
less affected by anchors than non-experts. Individual differences in various traits may be more
useful for predicting the rate of learning, where it is their level of expertise that indirectly reduces
susceptibility to anchoring, rather than direct susceptibility to biases (Welsh et al., 2014).
Summarizing, expertise affects sensitivity to biases since it determines thinking style and
the way that information is processed in combination with its context. Expertise can stimulate
both deliberate and heuristic thinking. When the context is not appropriate, the latter may lead to
biases. Experts are less likely to misinterpret the context than novices. They are therefore more
likely to select the thinking style appropriate for the context, and are subsequently less prone to
bias than non-experts.
Personality
Personality is often defined in terms of five main personality traits (the Big Five: John &
Srivastava, 1999): openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.
The literature shows that individuals with high conscientiousness, agreeableness and
openness to experience or with low extraversion are more susceptible to the anchoring bias
(Caputo, 2014; Eroglu & Croxton, 2010; McElroy & Dowd, 2007; Teovanovic et al., 2015). It
has been suggested that because individuals with high conscientiousness engage in more
deliberate thinking when making decisions, they are more likely to perform a confirmatory search
for anchor consistent information. Individuals with high agreeableness tend to be more affected
by anchors than less agreeable persons. This is probably because individuals with high openness
to experience easily adjust their beliefs when considering situational information.
There are some indications that introverts are more susceptible to anchoring bias than
extraverts (Eroglu & Croxton, 2010; Furnham, Boo, & McClelland, 2012), but this relation is not
robust (Furnham et al., 2012). It has been suggested that low extraversion may be associated with
negative affect (Eroglu & Croxton, 2010), which may stimulate more deliberate thinking and
thereby activate a confirmatory search for anchor consistent information (Bodenhausen, Gabriel,
& Lineberger, 2000; Englich & Soder, 2009).
People scoring high on trait optimism (people who tend to believe in a bright future)
(Scheier, Carver, & Bridges, 1994) were more likely to update their judgments in response to
desirable information than to undesirable information, particularly for judgments that apply to
themselves (Kuzmanovic, Jefferson, & Vogeley, 2015). In other words, people with high trait
optimism show a pronounced self-specific optimism bias. It has been argued that the evolution
of the healthy mind to (optimistically) mis-predict future occurrences has led to an increased
resilience, improved coping behavior and reduced anxiety, resulting in overall improvements of
both physical and mental health (Dolcos, Hu, Iordan, Moore, & Dolcos, 2015; Sharot, 2011).
Optimism bias may sometimes even lead to better outcomes than do unbiased beliefs (Sharot,
2011). Recent brain studies have identified the OFC with trait optimism: higher OFC gray
matter volume (GMV) correlates with increased optimism (Dolcos et al., 2015).
Despite the hypotheses suggested above, it is not easy to determine the mechanisms
underlying the relationships between personality traits and susceptibility to cognitive bias.
Summarizing, personality appears to relate to bias susceptibility because it determines how
people weigh and process information.
Culture
Members of different social cultures may have different ways of thinking, because they have
been socialized from birth into different world views. Some researchers hypothesize that these
cultural differences affect an individuals susceptibility for bias. For instance, East Asians are
believed to have a holistic world view, attending more to contextual factors and assigning
causality to them, while they are less inclined to categorize and use formal logic. Westerners, on
the other hand, are typically more analytic and are more inclined to use pay attention to objects
of interest, to categorize them, and to use rules and formal logic to understand their behavior
(Nisbett, Peng, Choi, & Norenzayan, 2001; Strutton & Carter, 2013). As a result, East Asians
may for instance be less susceptible to attribution errors, since they see behavior primarily as a
product of external factors and not merely of the actor's dispositions. For the same reason, they
may be more susceptible to hindsight bias because they are readily able to find some explanation
for a given event since everything is connected in their world view (Choi & Nisbett, 2000; Yama
et al., 2010). Following this line of thinking, Westerners may be better able to withstand the
hindsight bias because they have a more rule-based thinking style.
Only a few studies address the influence of culture on bias susceptibility. Studies on the
effects of culture on hindsight bias show mixed results: while some studies confirmed the
abovementioned hypotheses (Choi & Nisbett, 2000; Yama et al., 2010) others found no cultural
differences in the sensitivity to hindsight bias (Pohl, Bender, & Lachmann, 2002). One study
(Scott, Christopher, & John, 1998) found evidence for the hypothesis that self-centered
Westerners, with their personal desire to be correct and to fortify ones choices, are more
susceptible to the sunk cost bias than collectivist East Asians who are more focused on
optimizing outcomes for the group. However, other studies found opposite results (Yoder,
Mancha, & Agrawal, 2014). They propose that East Asians may also be prone to sunk cost bias
because they are more concerned about saving face, resulting in more commitment to prior
decisions.
A recent study on choice framing (Haerem, Kuvaas, Bakken, & Karlsen, 2011) compared
military decision makers with business students (difference in organizational cultures). It was
found that business students showed the classic framing bias (risk avoidance behavior in the gain
frame an risk seeking behavior in the loss frame: A. Tversky & Kahneman, 1981), while military
decision makers consistently showed a risk-seeking behavior for both (gain and loss) choice
frames. In addition, military officers showed significantly higher levels of self-efficacy than
business school students. Self-efficacy correlated with risk seeking in the military group but not
in the civil group. This result agrees with the finding that people with little confidence in their
own competence do not like to gamble (Heath & Tversky, 1991). Military decision makers, on
the other hand, are probably so self-confident (or even over-confident) that they believe that
they can beat the odds.
Summarizing, while it is possible that culture affects sensitivity to bias (e.g., as a result of
different preferred thinking styles or levels of self-efficacy), only a few studies on this topic have
been conducted and their results are mixed.
Discussion and conclusions
The objective of this literature review was to investigate to what extent individual characteristics
(cognitive abilities, expertise, personality, cultural background) affect a persons susceptibility to
judgment and decision biases. This knowledge may for instance be used to develop strategies to
mitigate biased thinking of own personnel, or to deploy strategies to evoke biased thinking in
opponent parties.
Our findings indicate that each of the reviewed aspects can affect cognitive biases under
certain conditions (though with respect to culture the evidence is scarce). Note that the factors
found to reduce cognitive bias may in fact merely mitigate the behavioral effects rather than
preventing the bias from occurring at all.
Several types of cognitive ability, as well as employing deliberate information processing

may mitigate various cognitive biases (in particular: sunk cost, base rate, over confidence, belief,
framing). For anchoring and conjunction bias, the evidence is mixed. Emotional intelligence has
been found to reduce some biases. In general, cognitive ability does, by itself, not prevent biases
from occurring, but it may help to learn how to prevent or reduce its effects on behavior.
Expertise affects sensitivity to biases, because expertise largely determines thinking style
and contextual information processing. Depending on the problem context, expertise may
stimulate both deliberate thinking as well as heuristic thinking. Experts are more likely to select
the thinking style appropriate for the context, and are subsequently less prone to bias than non-
experts.
Personality affects the way people weigh and processes information, which in turn affects
the susceptibility to certain (but not all) biases. However, the relationship between personality
and susceptibility to cognitive bias is not fully clear. Predicting the occurrence and direction of
cognitive bias based on personality traits is therefore very hard.
Limitations of the present study

The results reviewed in this study have mostly been obtained in laboratory conditions involving
simplified tests that have specially been designed to induce cognitive biases. It is therefore not
clear how these results translate into real-life practice.
We used the dual-process heuristic-deliberate framework to summarize, unify and

understand our findings. However, not all reported effects fit into this framework. For instance,
effects reported on emotional priming are different from studies that demonstrate effects of
emotion, indicating a different underlying mechanism. Also, some of the effects upon judgment
and decision making seem to be working against each other. For example, people who need to
perform under pressure and time constraints are expected to apply heuristics which makes them
vulnerable for bias. However, at the same time, it is known that pressure induces a negative
mood which often elicits deliberate thinking strategies. And although deliberate thinking tends to
guard people against the risk of bias, this is not always the case. Exactly when it does, and when
not, is still difficult to quantify. This underlines the need to more fully understand the
mechanisms underlying cognitive bias.
Future research
The fact that the effects of cognitive biases on decision making are not completely fixed within
and between individuals suggests opportunities to apply this knowledge for selecting (bias free)
and training (de-biasing) personnel. Implicit association tests may be effective selection tools (De
Houwer, 2006). How these selection tests should be worked out for a given context (e.g.,
medical, financial, military, police) requires analysis of the characteristics and requirements of the
candidates, the nature of the task, and the contextual demands. The information and insights
resulting from the present study may also stimulate the development of new de-biasing
techniques to protect own personnel against (self- or externally- induced) cognitive bias in
concrete situations. Strategies that promote deeper information processing and thereby stimulate
the recruitment of the medial and lateral orbitofrontal cortex (regions associated with the
integration of affective and contextual information in decision making) may constrain decision
bias (Hughes & Zaki, 2015). Computer games that immerse the user into bias-invoking situations
that provide the experience to identify cognitive bias and to practice mitigation strategies, may
serve as effective debiasing tools. It has been shown that these types of serious games can
provide an effective method to train adults how to recognize and mitigate several cognitive
biases (confirmation, attribution and blind spot; Clegg et al., 2015; Dunbar et al., 2014;
Symborski et al., 2014). Models and decision support systems that provide tools and explicit rules
to guide decisions, may also help to counteract the adverse effects of judgement bias. This can
for instance be achieved by allowing the user to employ heuristics while warning for the likely
biases, and by anticipating the likely use of heuristics and providing information that offsets the
effects of such use (Larrick, 2004). In addition, the current findings may initiate innovative
methods to exploit biases to manipulate the behavior of opponents and other groups.
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Appendix A : Terminology
Anchoring: a tendency to make decisions biased toward previously presented information (the
"anchor").
Attribution error: the tendency to see behavior as a product of the actor's dispositions and to ignore
important situational determinants of the behavior.
Base rate neglect: a tendency to ignore statistical information (prior probabilities) and focus on
information only pertaining to a certain case.
Belief bias: a tendency to draw conclusions that agree with ones own beliefs - i.e., to evaluate the logical
strength of an argument on the basis of the believability of the conclusion.
Bias: errors in decisions that arise due to limitations of cognitive processing. Biases are often explained
using dual-process theory, which states that we have two cognitive systems, one that is fast and intuitive,
and another that is slow and deliberate. Biases occur when our fast system operates without the oversight
of the slow system.
Cognitive bias: a consistent deviation from an accurate perception or

judgmentjudgment of the world. Inferences about other people and situations may be drawn in an
illogical fashion. Individuals create their own "subjective social reality" from their perception of the input.
Cognitive reflection test: test to assess the ability or disposition to resist reporting the response that first
comes to mind.
Confirmation bias: a tendency to search for, interpret, focus on and remember information in a way that
confirms one's preconceptions.
Conjunction fallacy: a combination of conditions is considered more likely than a general condition.
Crystallized intelligence: the ability to use skills, knowledge, and experience.
Fluid intelligence: the capacity to think logically and solve problems in novel situations, independent of
acquired knowledge. It is the ability to analyze novel problems, identify patterns and relationships that
underpin these problems and the extrapolation of these using logic.
Framing: a bias in decision making depending on the way in the information is presented (e.g., whether
options are presented in terms of gains or loss).
Halo effect: a tendency to let the perceived valence of a single aspect dominate the overall judgment of a
person or situation.
Heuristics: simple decision rules (rules of thumb) that ignore part of the available information but work
well in a given environment.
Hindsight bias: the tendency to erroneously perceive events as inevitable or more likely once they have
occurred.
Imaginability bias: the tendency to use our imagination to make a subjective premonition of a future
event for which no memories of actual instances come to mind.
Need for cognition: an individuals propensity to enjoy and engage in thought.
Negativity bias: a tendency to weigh negative information more heavily than positive information.
Numeracy: the ability to process basic probability and numerical concepts.
Omission bias: the tendency to prefer harm caused by omissions over equal or lesser harm caused by
acts.
Optimism bias: the tendency to overestimate the likelihood of positive events (and to underestimate the
likelihood of negative events) happening to oneself, compared to others.
Outcome bias: a tendency to evaluate the quality of a decision based on its outcome rather than on what
factors led to the decision.
Over-confidence bias: an inclination of individuals to overestimate their own abilities to successfully

perform a particular task.
Sunk cost effect: a tendency to persist in an endeavor once an investment of money, effort, or time has
already been made.
p-ISSN: 1694-2620
e-ISSN: 1694-2639
Likert Scale Development: Construction and Evaluation of

Home Environment Scale
Mukhtar Ahmad Wani & Aejaz Masih
Department of Educational Studies
Jamia Millia Islamia (A Central University)
New Delhi, India- 110025
Abstract
The purpose of present paper is the construction and evaluation of home environment scale. An
attempt was made in this study to evaluate validity, reliability and to determine the appropriate
standards to interpret the results of home environment scale. The final form of the scale includes
ten sub-scales (dimensions) with seventy one (71) items/statements. The scale was validated for
its content by more than 20 experts from the related and allied fields. The construct validity was
calculated through factor analysis for items, and by correlating the score of each sub-scale with
the total score of the sale. t test for two independent samples was used (high group 27% and low
group27%) to find the discrimination validity for each sub-scale. The reliability for the whole
scale as well as for each sub-scale was calculated through Alpha coefficients. From the reliability
coefficients, it can be concluded that the scale is reliable as all the values are above .70. Finally,
the appropriate standards for interpretation of scores based on stanine procedures are
highlighted. However, interpreting the scores through stanine the investigator has to calculate z
values of raw scores after the data have been collected from all the sample participants. The
stanine procedure is the standardized technique for the categorization of the scores for
meaningful interpretation of Likert scale responses.
Keywords: Construction, Evaluation, Home Environment, Likert Scale, Reliability, Validity,

Stanine
Introduction
Various instruments have been developed for assessing the home environment in foreign as well
as in India. Some foreign scales are developed by Watson 1957, Williamson 1961, Moos 1974,
Bradley 1981 and some Indian scales by Prerna Mohete, Beena Shah, Reena Sharma, K. S. Mishra etc.
As we know the foreign tools are not culture fair and this makes them unsuitable for use in the
particular context. Another issue with these foreign scales (Moos) is that they lack reliability with
respect to adolescent sample (Boyd, C. P. et al, 1997). Other issue is their language of the items
in which they have been originally developed and their lack of measuring all the major
dimensions, that are universally acceptable on which home as a social institution is based.
Similarly, Indian scales measuring home environment are not without the pitfalls like that of
assessment of home environment for the age group of 20 to 50 years (Reena Sharma) and with
only five areas of home environment and others only devised for measuring home environment
for I-VIII class students (Prerna Mohete). While others for high school students (Beena Shah)
and others assessing only the psychological nature of the home (Mishra). Hence a complete tool
to assess the major parameters on which any institutions is based seems to be lacking in these
scales and this demands a new scale to be developed, which measures broad three parameters of
home environment which are interrelationship parameter, individual development parameter and
system organization parameter.
Objectives
1. To construct a Likert scale measuring the attitude of senior secondary school students
towards their home environment.
2. To evaluate the validity of home environment scale.
3. To evaluate the reliability of home environment scale.
4. To formulate appropriate standards to interpret the results of home environment scale.
Methodology
Descriptive statistical method was employed in the present study. The process of description as
employed in this research study goes beyond mere gathering and tabulation of data. It involves
an element of interpretation of the meaning or significance of what is described. Thus,
description is combined with comparison or contrast involving measurement, classification,
interpretation and evaluation.
Sample
The samples of the study is comprised of 106 senior secondary school students currently
enrolled in class 11th of different (Govt./Private) schools of South Kashmir of Jammu and
Kashmir during the year 2015. This study was delimited to students of class 11th. Secondly the
age range of the members of the population is 16-17 years.
Stages of tool construction

As with the tool construction, there is no total agreement of experts about the precise steps for
tool construction. Nevertheless, when constructing a tool, it is necessary to go through a number
of stages in order to ensure its good quality (Alderson, 1995). Although their needs a proper
procedure for tool construction. The graphical representation for the stages of tool construction
as depicts in figure 1.
Fig. 1: Stages of tool construction
Preparation of the preliminary draft
Having gone through the literature and previous tools as mentioned above in introduction, ten
dimensions based on three mentioned broad parameters were selected which are related to the
overall environment of home. Interrelation parameter includes dimension as Family integration,
Conflict, Self-expression and Social climate of the family. Individual development parameter
includes dimension as Guidance provided at home, Emotional support, Success orientation and
Independence and System organization parameter includes dimensions like Organization and
management of family and Control. Then the items associated with ten dimensions were selected
and each item was selected according to the nature of the dimension. For the selection of the
items, previous tools and studies related with home environment were consulted along with the
available literature. While selecting items, the nature of item measured the desired dimension of
home environment were taken into consideration. In this way the initial draft was prepared and
110 items (11 in each dimension) were included in the scale. Then, draft items were given to
experts from different universities who were well versed in the field and scale construction with a
request to review the statements and evaluate their content accuracy coverage, editorial quality
and suggestions for additions, deletion and modification of items. On the basis of 80% of
unanimously 30 items were deleted and 80 items were retained, which are reported below with
the number of items:
Table 1: Dimensions with number items in HES

Dimension No. of Items
A. Family integration 8
B. Social climate of the family 8
C. Guidance (Assistance) provided at home 8
D. Organization and management of the family 8
E. Conflict 8
F. Emotional Support 8
G. Success Orientation 8
H. Control 8
I. Self-expression 8
J. Independence 8
Try-out of the tool

The initial format with 80 items was administered on the sample of 106 higher secondary school
students from Kashmir (J&K). This is an attitude scale measuring the childrens attitude towards
their family environment. The scale requires pupils to tell the favorableness or unfavorableness
with which a particular behavior has been observed by them in their homes, i.e., he/she is
requested to tell whether they are Strongly Agree, Agree, Undecided, Disagree and Strongly
Disagree respectively with the items in the scale.
Scoring of the Responses to HES Items
There are five options namely, Strongly Agree, Agree, Undecided, Disagree and Strongly
Disagree, for each statement of the scale. 5 marks were assigned to 'Strongly Agree', 4 marks to
'Agree', 3 marks to 'Undecided', 2 mark to Disagree', and 1 marks to Strongly Disagree'
responses and for negative items scoring is done in reverse order like 1,2,3,4,and 5 for Strongly
Agree, Agree, Undecided, Disagree and Strongly Agree respectively. Then the marks were
counted which were assigned to A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I and J dimension statements and then
they were added to get the total composite score on the particular dimension. Ten composite
scores for ten dimensions of the scale consists the childrens attitude towards their home
environment.
Item Analysis
For assessing the item analysis bi-serial correlation was used to sharpen the scale. The responses
were collected and scored. Individual item score was correlated with the total score of the tool.
Item analysis was done for the 106 response sheets by using Item Vs Whole correlation method.
The sum of the scores on each dimension of value was calculated. Then r was calculated by
correlating the individual item and the corresponding component score. The correlation
coefficient at the 5% level of significance is 0.196 when the degree of freedom is 100 (Best, J. W.
2006). So the items having r values 0.196 and above were selected. It was found that out of the
total 80 items, there are 71 items which are having significant correlations with the total score of
the scale except 9 items which are having no significant correlation with the total score of the
tool. The correlation table is given below:
Table 2: r Values for HES

Item No. r value Item r value item r value
1 .323** 29 .298** 57 .410**
2 .510** 30 .258** 58 .302**
3 .200* 31 .219* 59 .380**
4 .590** 32 .214* 60 .543**
5 .527** 33 .349** 61 .262**
6 .574** 34 .218* 62 .431**
7 .493** 35 .106 63 .287**
8 .355** 36 .268** 64 .409**
9 .476** 37 .191* 65 .341**
10 .096 38 .289** 66 .281**
11 .372** 39 .119 67 .036
12 .559** 40 .235 *
68 .436**
13 .465** 41 .331** 69 .260**
14 .629** 42 .365** 70 .315**
15 .327** 43 .230* 71 .423**
16 .299** 44 .389** 72 .309**
17 .412** 45 .334** 73 .301**
18 .238* 46 .130 74 .262**
19 .349** 47 .332** 75 .378**
20 .028 48 .226* 76 .249**
21 .487** 49 .377** 77 .343**
22 .407** 50 .435** 78 .153
23 .329** 51 .301** 79 .357**
24 .384** 52 .209* 80 .342**
25 .214* 53 .380**
26 .212* 54 .322**
27 .245* 55 .141 Bold Italic items not selected
*
28 .181 56 .205
**
Correlation is Significant at 0.01
*
Correlation is Significant at 0.05
From the perusal of table 2 above, it is clearly reflected that some of the item (bold and
italics) were not having a significant correlation with the total scores of the scale and
hence were deleted. After the rejection of 9 unsuitable items from the scale, a total of 71
items in ten dimensions of home environment scale were selected which are shown
below in table 3 along with the possible range of scores:
Dimension No. of Items Possible range of scores

A Family integration 8 8-40
B Social climate of the family 7 7-35
C Guidance (Assistance) provided at home 7 7-35
D Organization and management of the family 7 7-35
E Conflict 6 6-30
F Emotional Support 7 7-35
G Success Orientation 7 7-35
H Control 7 7-35
I Self-expression 8 8-40
J Independence 7 7-35
Total 71 1-355
Table 3: No. of items and range of scores in each dimension of HES

Evaluation of tool validity
When a test measures what it has been suposed to measure, is said to be valid. To determine the
validity of the test, the researchers tested face validity, construct validity and discrimination
validity.
Face validity or content validity
The content validity of the Home Environment Scale was tested by more than 20 experts. It is
evident from the assessment of experts that items of the test are directly related to the different
dimensions of Home Environment.
Construct validity
In order to find out the construct validity, the researcher calculated correlation between each
sub-scales score and total score of the scale.
Table 4: Correlation between Each Dimension and Total Score
Dimension r values Dimension r values
A 0.712** F 0.519**
B 0.684** G 0.513**
C 0.609** H 0.616**
D 0.379** I 0.550**
E 0.431** J 0.515**
From the perusal of the table 4 above, it can be concluded that the correlation
coefficient of all dimensions (.712, .684, .609, .379, .431, .519, .513, .616, .550, and .515
respectively) are significant at .01. This indicates that all dimensions are related to
home environment and the tool has good construct validity.
Factor Analysis
However the scale was also subjected to exploratory factor analysis as the minimum
number of cases required for factor analysis is 100 (Kline, 1986). All the ten
components were retained as the eigenvalues are above 1. From the exploratory factor
analysis items loading .4 were selected and items below .4 were dropped from the scale.
From the factor analysis it can be concluded that all the items are measuring the same
construct.
Discrimination validity
To find out the discrimination validity of the items the researchers used item analysis
(difficulty level value and discrimination value). For knowing the level of discrimination
validity for each dimension of the scale, t test for two independent samples was used
(high group 27% and low group 27%). Finally the discrimination validity of whole test
was also determined by using t test. Discrimination validity for each domain and whole
test is given in the table below. It indicates that all t values are significant at level 0.01
and the means of high group are also higher than low group which support the high
validity of home environment scale.
Table 5: t values for each dimension of the HES
Dimensions Group N Mean Std. D Df t value
A High 28 28.32 1.44 54 36.03**
Low 28 14.71 1.38
B High 28 24.17 1.94 54 31.00**
Low 28 11.57 0.92
C High 28 24.17 1.18 54 32.58**
Low 28 12.50 1.47
D High 28 24.46 2.31 54 23.69**
Low 28 12.46 1.34
E High 28 19.85 2.64 54 18.41**
Low 28 9.32 1.46
F High 28 24.39 1.49 54 31.64**
Low 28 12.57 1.28
G High 28 24.32 1.46 54 28.25**
Low 28 13.21 1.47
H High 28 27.03 1.66 54 32.60**
Low 28 14.39 1.19
I High 28 24.85 1.64 54 24.27**
Low 28 13.53 1.83
J High 28 23.78 1.37 54 32.40**
Low 28 12.67 1.18
TOTAL High 28 245.39 16.60 54 29.70**
Low 28 126.64 12.93
**
Significant at 0.01 level
Reliability of the Home Environment Scale

The degree of consistency among test scores is called reliability. The values of reliability
coefficients (Cronbach alpha) for each sub-scale and for the whole scale are shown below:
Table 6: Reliability coefficients of HES
Dimensions Alpha Dimensions Alpha
A .753 G .747
B .774 H .736
C .708 I .706
D .729 J .725
E .781 Total Reliability
F .719 of the Scale .895
Final form
The final form of the scale along with serial no. of items for affirmative and negative statements
is presented in the below table 7.
Table 7: Item Presentation in the final form of HES:

Dimension Affirmative items Negative items
A Family integration 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 6, 7, 8
B Social climate of the family 10, 11, 12, 14, 15 9, 13
C Guidance (Assistance) provided at home 16, 18, 20, 21, 22 17, 18
D Organization and management of the family 23, 24, 26, 26, 29 27, 28
E Conflict 30, 31, 32 33, 34, 35
F Emotional Support 36, 37, 38, 39, 40 41, 42
G Success Orientation 43, 44, 46, 46, 47 48, 49
H Control 50, 51, 52, 54, 55 53, 56,
I Self-expression 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 63, 64

62
J Independence 65, 66, 67, 69, 71 68, 70
Table 8: Scoring table for all dimensions of HES

Dimensions A B C D E F G H I J
Score
Mean
Stanine
The table 8 above represents the scoring for each dimension of the scale. The table is blank,
because the raw scores, mean and stanines will differ from sample to sample. The table is to be
filled after the data have been collected. The interpretation of the scores is done separately for
each dimension based on the Z value. Then the nine levels based on Z values ranging from -1.75
to +1.75 are to be divided. The stanine procedure is the standardized technique for the
categorization of the scores for meaningful interpretation.
Results
After following these steps to construct the scale and after analyzing the data from the first and
the last application by using adequate statistical methods, it has been concluded that:
The study has produced a scale measuring the attitude of senior secondary school
students towards their home environment. This scale includes 71 items which measures
ten dimensions of home environment viz, Family integration, Social climate of the
family, Guidance (Assistance) provided at home, Organization and management of the
family, Conflict, Emotional Support, Success Orientation, Control, Self-expression and
Independence.
The scale has been validated through content, construct and discrimination validity. The
content validity has been evaluated by experts, construct validity has been calculated by
Pearsons correlation. The correlation coefficients of all dimensions are (.712, .684, .609,
.379, .431, .519, .513, .616, .550, and .515 respectively) which are significant at .01 level.
This indicates that all dimensions are related to home environment and the scale has
good construct validity. The discrimination validity has been evaluated through t test
between high group 27% and low group 27%. All t values are significant at level 0.01
and the means of high group are also higher than low group which support the high
validity of HES.
The reliability of the scale was evaluated by calculating Alpha Cronbach Coefficient. All
reliability coefficient values are above .70. Thus home environment scale is a reliable
scale whose reliability is 0.89 and the reliability for each dimension of HES is .75, .77, .70,
.72, .78, .71, .74, .73, .70, & .72 respectively.
To categorize the students into different categories with respect to their attitude towards
home environment, the researchers used the stanine procedures.
References
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Quarterly, 3(4), 2-9.
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Technologies in Education (pp. 334-342). New Delhi: Excel India Publishers.
p-ISSN: 1694-2620
e-ISSN: 1694-2639
Iqbals Response to Modern Western Thought: A Critical

Analysis
Dr. Mohammad Nayamat Ullah
Associate Professor
Department of Arabic
University of Chittagong, Bangladesh
Abdullah Al Masud
PhD Researcher
Dept. of Usuluddin and Comparative Religion
International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM)
ABSTRACT
Muhammad Iqbal (1873-1938) is a prominent philosopher and great thinker in Indian Sub-
continent as well as a dominant figure in the literary history of the East. His thought and
literature are not simply for his countrymen or for the Muslim Ummah alone but for the whole
of humanity. He explores his distinctive thoughts on several issues related to Western concepts
and ideologies. Iqbal had made precious contribution to the reconstruction of political thoughts.
The main purpose of the study is to present Iqbals distinctive thoughts and to evaluate the
merits and demerits of modern political thoughts. The analytical, descriptive and criticism
methods have been applied in conducting the research through comprehensive study of his
writings both in the form of prose and poetry in various books, articles, and conferences. It is
expected that the study would identify distinctive political thought by Iqbal. It also demonstrates
differences between modern thoughts and Iqbalic thoughts of politics.
Keywords: Iqbal, western thoughts, democracy, nationalism, secularism
1. INTRODUCTION
Iqbal was not only a great poet-philosopher of the East but was also among the profound,
renowned scholars and a brilliant political thinker in the twentieth century of the world. The
contemporary scholars acknowledge his influence in modern movement. His literature was a
source of inspiration for the hopeless Muslims who had subtle ability, potential and intellectual
capability. He endeavoured substantially for the sake of mankind. He can be best described as
the embodiment of being a beacon of light in the dark night of the wilderness (Khalil,
2000:182), a characteristic most needed for the Muslim Ummah. Iqbal was a warner who made a
clarion call to the oppressed of the world to rediscover the infinite sources of their creative
power and develops their faith. His message was not simply for his countrymen, nor for the
Muslim Ummah alone but for the whole of humanity (Munawwar: 1982). This is study
investigates modern western thoughts of Iqbal from Islamic perspective. It also attempts to
clarify Iqbals position on the modern Western political philosophy. In particular, his views on
democracy, nationalism, secularism, capitalism, socialism and Liberalism are analyzed.
2. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF IQBAL AND HIS WORKS
Iqbal was born at Sialkot in the Punjab province of present Pakistan on 9 November, 1877. He
hailed from a family descended from Kashmiri Brahmins of Supra-caste1, who had embraced
Islam in 17th Century (Mustansir: 2006). Iqbal refers to his Brahmin ancestry in several writings.
His father Shaikh Noor Mohammad was a skilled and enterprising businessman but a pious Sufi
saint and a God loving man (Munawwar: 1982). His mother Imam Bibi was a generous and kind
but also a deeply religious woman.
Iqbal completed his early education in Sialkot and migrated to Lahore, Pakistan in 1895. He
studied under a teacher named Maulvi Mir Hasan (1844-1929), who was a renowned scholar of
Islamic Studies, Persian and Arabic. His teacher was impressed by the inborn poetic talent of
Iqbal and encouraged him to continue his writing (Munawwar: 1982). On May 5, 1893, Iqbal was
admitted to the Scotch Mission College2 in Sialkot and successfully passed his intermediate
examination in1895. At the same year he got enrolled at B.A. in the Lahore Government College.
In 1897 he graduated and got admit in the same collage for Masters Program in the Department
of Philosophy. Iqbals academic performance was excellent and continued brilliant record result
at all level and won many gold medals (Mir, 2006).
At Lahore Iqbal came under the influence of Sir Thomas Arnold, who was a profound professor
in Philosophy and had a echoing insight in Arabic and Islamic Studies. Thomass role influenced
him to study the Western thoughts and instigated him into the modern methods of criticism. In
1899, he obtained the Masters degree and was appointed as a Macleod Reader in the Oriental
College, Lahore, whereas in March 1904, he joined as an assistance Professor in the Department
of Philosophy and English at the Government College, Lahore (Hafeez: 1971). As Iqbal was
advised by Thomas Arnold, he intended to go Europe for higher education in 1905. Iqbal
studied both in England and Germany. He studied in England at the Lincolns Inn qualifying for
Bar (Hilal: 1995) as a barrister and at the Trinity College of Cambridge, where he studied with R.
A. Nicolson, a renowned orientalist and John M. E. McTaggart, idealist Metaphysician. At the
same time he went to Germany and got admitted in the University of Munich, where he was
awarded his PhD degree on his dissertation entitled The Development of Metaphysics in
Persia on November 4, 1907 (Hilal: 1995).
Iqbal returned from Europe to Lahore in August 1908 (Vahid: 1948) and began his professional
career as Professor, lawyer and poet. During his study in Europe, he developed his ideas and
thoughts, where he was vivacious, gregarious, eager to engage himself in scholarly discussion
with his juniors and superiors and politely self-assertive (Hilal: 1995:36). His stay in Europe
provided him with the opportunity to observe carefully the realities of Western societies. At his
time, the modern methods of criticism in true sense had not been developed in India. As Iqbal
employed the method of comparison between Islamic thoughts and Western ones, critical
analysis of then several philosophical aspects and so on, he was regarded as one of the pioneers
of the modern methods of criticism. He realized the shortcomings and dark aspects of modern
Western civilization, where chaos and crisis are visible in human life more than ever. That is why,
1
According to Vanina, in mediaeval Indian regions there existed big supra-caste bound by status, corporate
interests and common socio-ethical and moral values (2012: 139) which oversaws the political, economic and
juridical spheres of everyday existence (Gadgil & Guha, 1993: 113). This supra-caste presupposed a certain
hierarchy, and contradictions and conflicts within each of them (Vanina, 2012: 134). There are various castes;
however, in Indian societies who are peculiar in terms of beliefs, culture and social phenomenon which
explanation is not relevant to this article. As long time ago, Iqbals ancestors embraced Islam, generation after
generation the influence and traditions of castes gradually disappeared
2
This college was later renamed Murray Collage, which exists under that name.
he highly criticized Western political thoughts and civilization as well. Although, Iqbal spent his
time in law practice, cultural activities and literary works, he later took part in politics and
became an elected Legislative Council of the Punjab in 1926. In 1930, he was appointed
president of the annual session of the Muslim League and delivered a remarkable address which
led to a new idea of a separate Muslim state in Indian subcontinent. (Mujahid: 1986). He also
represented India at the Round Table Conference in London in 1931 and 1932 (Vahid: 1948).
Iqbal was a creative author in both poetry and prose a he left prolific intellectual works for the
next generation. He wrote 17 books in Persian, Urdu and English. Among his 12,000 verses of
poetry, about 7,000 verses are in Persian3. Asrar-e-Khudi (Secrets of the Self) was the first
work of Iqbal in Persian composed in 1919, which deals with human personality or individual
self. Bang-i Dara (The Call of the Caravan Bell) was the first work in Urdu which was written in
1924 (Hilal: 1995). Iqbal also composed two books in English on the topic of The Department of
Metaphysics in Persia, which is a valuable contribution in the history of Muslim Philosophy, and
The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam, where he attempted to restructure the history of
Islamic thought. Besides these, he wrote hundreds of articles, short essays, and letters as well as
issued several statements. All these publications would help researchers to understand the real
perception of Iqbal in various subjects. It is stated by Ali (1978:17) that, a leading exponent
of recent interpretations of Islam, Iqbal was in correspondence with people from all walks of life.
Religious leaders, journalists, politicians and scholars were his life-long correspondents with
whom he exchanged views on various subjects. William O. Douglas, justice of the Supreme
Court of USA says: that (Iqbal's) simple tomb is a place of pilgrimage for me. For Iqbal was a
man who belonged to all races; his concepts had universal appeal. He spoke to the conscience of
men of goodwill whatever their tongue, whatever their creed (Hafeez, 1971).
Among the Muslim scholars of South Asia, Iqbal was the first who defined the concept of state
in Islam. In 1930, Iqbal delivered a famous presidential speech at Allahabad where he pointed
out a way for the political deadlock in the Indian subcontinent. He also stated: I would like to
see the Punjab, North West Frontier Province, Sindh and Baluchistan amalgamated into a single
state of self- government within the British Empire or without the British Empire...I therefore,
demand the formation of a consolidated Muslim state in the best interests of India and Islam
(Sing & Roy, 2011: 174). This statement proves that Iqbal wanted a Muslim state for the Muslims
in North- West of India where Muslim could develop and nurture their culture, religion,
language, literature besides other religious communities of India. For long time of the past, two
religions (Muslims and Hindus) were dominating. To the great extent peace, social security and
justice in India were dependent on their mutual understanding. Islamic ideologies of unity,
equity, humanity and justice played an important role through ages all over the globe in
alleviating any differences among human beings. Indeed, Iqbal emphasized this fact. Thus, he
also believed that the peace and prosperity of India would depend upon Muslims and Hindus
when the spirit of mutual understanding, love and unity in diversity will be maintained. However,
he sought a separate state for Muslim; to maintain the spiritual life of Muslim community; to
protect the Muslim culture from harmful influences4 and rapid invasion of un-Islamic elements.
In the beginning of 1938, Iqbals health sharply declined and it took a serious turn for the worse
on March 25, 1938. Finally, he passed away at 5:15 in the morning on April 21, 1938.
Rabindronath Tagore sent a condolence message as soon as he heard the demise news of Allama
Iqbal that, The death of Sir Mohammad Iqbal has created a void in literature which like a deep wound, will
3
2 http://www.poemhunter.com/allama-muhammad-iqbal/biography/ Retrieved on 20-07-2016, and
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal Retrieved on 07-10-2016
4
Harmful influences or behaviours that are not allowed in Islam like polytheism, injustice and any unethical
behaviour such as free mixing, drug addiction, illegal sexual relation and so on.
take a long time to heal. India which occupies but a limited place in the world can ill afford to lose a poet whose
poetry has such appeal (Maire, 1981: 4).
3. IQBAL ON MODERN WESTERN THOUGHTS

Muhammad Iqbal was not only a prominent scholar, writer, poet and philosopher but also he
was a political and social reformer of the Indian subcontinent. He was the first personality who
generated a unique idea of an independent Muslim state in Indian subcontinent. Through His
scholarly writings he more detailed his philosophical thoughts and ideas, especially his political
ideas. His political thoughts are deeply rooted in Islamic values which are derived from the Holy
Quran and the Sunnah. According to Iqbal, Islam believes in a universal polity- a politico-
religious system or social polity- based on fundamentals that were revealed to the Prophet (Sh.
Muhammad Ashraf, 1952:238) His attention was to protect the Muslim Ummah from the attack
of Western thought and to encourage and preserve their own cultural heritage and thoughts.
3.1 DEMOCRACY
Democracy is a political system of a state and government where sovereignty and power belong
5to the majority people and the government is elected by peoples opinion through election.
That is why democracy as a political ideal was defined by Abraham Lincoln as Democracy is a
government of the people, for the people, by the people, while Alex Woolf (2007:4) described it
as a system in which people decide matters together, or collectively. Haneef Nadvi (1973:205)
explains that, Democracy is composed of two Greek components; one means the people and
the other means government and law. Technically, democracy is applied to a system of
government for the majority.
Iqbal was a democrat, who was actively involved with the politics of Indian subcontinent. In
1926, Iqbal participated in the election, where he was elected to the Punjab Legislative council.
L.S. May (1974:179) states that Iqbal was an active member of this Council, speaking often on
land revenue and taxation, demanding greater justice in land assessment and even land revenue
deductions in hardship cases. Although Iqbal preferred democracy, he has pointed out some
demerits in this regard. Iqbal 1opposed the Western democracy as it is a methodology rather
than an ideology or philosophy (Qureshi, 1983). He had his own observations and he suggested a
new term known as spiritual democracy5 (Iqbal, 2011a:180), which is based on the Quranic
teaching. This spiritual democracy means, A democracy where laws of God Almighty are
observed and enforced (Munawwar, 2001:142). In Western democracy, sovereignty belongs to
the people. As opposed to this, sovereignty in Iqbals spiritual democracy belongs to God
alone, which is an inseparable part in the Islamic world-view.
Iqbal was a lover of innovations. Thats why when democracy evolved as a system of
government; he welcomed it as thought that the new system might be helpful in alleviating the
sufferings of the exploited and oppressed people (Abbas, 1997: xxiii). But he soon realized its
serious drawbacks and became a strong critic of the Western democratic form of government
where persons are counted, not weighted; it is a material fact but not of personality, which is a
spiritual fact. He says that, Democracy is a form of government in which People are counted but
their worth is not assessed (Iqbal, 1941:150). According to him, humanity needs three things
today a spiritual interpretation of the universe, spiritual emancipation of mankind and basic
5
The Spiritual democracy is based on the principle of Tawhid, which speaks bout unity of thoughts, action and
value across humanity (Begum, 2001: 21). In case of spiritual democracy the Quran, Prophets Tradition, Ijma
and Qiyas are the Sources of the Islamic law, which would be interpreted according to the demand of ages. This
kind of democracy distinguishes man with significance that is sacred kind. This democracy also recognizes
value of individual and rejects blood relationship as a basis of human unity (Iqbal, 2011a:116).
principles of a universal import directing the evolution of human society on a spiritual basis
(Iqbal, 1983: 179).
Iqbal opposes the concept of Western democracy and promotes that of spiritual democracy. In
fact, spiritual democracy is a form of government which is related to the ideological State of
Iqbal. He therefore, explains Let the Muslim of today appreciate his position, reconstruct his
social life in the light of ultimate principles, and evolve out of the hitherto partially revealed
purpose of Islam, that spiritual democracy is the ultimate aim of Islam (Iqbal, 1983: 180).
He carried out democracy on the position that it gives the individual a maximum of freedom
and a fair play to his potentialities and capabilities (Qureshi, 1983: 216). According to Iqbals
thought, modern democracy in the West is covered by old instrument and it is a destructive,
unjust and a dangerous weapon in the hands of imperialism and capitalism (Matthews, 1993).
Iqbal indicated the reasons of moral and cultural decay of the people of the East and the West
who cannot see realities unveiled (Matthews, 1993). He says that the origin of our diseases is
slavery and imitation, the root of disease in the West is its democratic organization. He criticized
the democratic organizations of the West and points out those western democratic institutions
are old wines in new bottles. (Khan, 1992:54). He discarded the concept of European democracy
is divorced from religion or belief, which is not only irreligious and faithless but also formed by
the capitalists for their own sinister designs (Maruf, 1977: 77). Iqbals criticism, however, was not
against democracy but towards its demerits only. He accepted some of the principles of
democracy which was guided by the Muslim concept of democracy; it was somewhat alternative
from modern western democracy. Iqbal opposed the secular and material orientation of the
philosophy of democracy. It can be said that, he accepted only those principles of democracy
which are compatible with Islamic philosophy but rejected those principles which he thought
incompatible with Islamic Philosophy of life and Islamic polity.
3.2 NATIONALISM
Nationalism is a modern thought of politics in contemporary world. It is stated by Louis L.
Snyder that, it is a condition of mind or sentiments of a group of people living in a geographic
area; speaking a common language, possessing a literature in which their aspirations are
expressed, attached to common traditions and customs, venerating their own heroes, and in
some cases having the same religion (Subba, 1999: 5). In the past, mans trustworthiness was
related in different forms of political organization, social authority, and ideology based on tribe
or clan, dynastic or city state, the Church or religious community instead of present forms of
nation-state. During the last decades of the 18th Century, we first find the concept of
nationalism in England, which influenced public and private life (Hilal, 1995). Western
nationalism is based on geography, language, race, customs, traditions, common ideals etc. It is
materialistic and earth-bound which demands loyalty to racial, linguistic and territorial gods, not
to divine spirits. Iqbal states that, Western nations are based on territory and race, whereas the
strength of your community rests on the might of your religion (Munawwar, 1982:130).
Iqbal was a keen nationalist during his student life but he became a Universalist at the end of his
career (Dar, 1981). According to Iqbal, Nationalism has many demerits and disadvantages that
cause the hostility, conflict and aggression in the world which results in war. It leads to a narrow
and racial discrimination and political conflict which usually opposes the relationship of
humanity at large. However, he criticized nationalism as it is against the spirit of Islam. Islam and
nationalism cannot go together. Iqbal (1979:159) states: Islam is neither Nationalism nor
Imperialism but a League of Nations which recognizes artificial boundaries and racial
distinctions for facility of reference only, and not for restricting the social horizon of its
members. Nationalism is the main obstacle towards establishing Muslim Ummah or
Universalism based on Islam. Iqbal wrote a letter to professor R. A. Nichlson in which he said:
Nationalism is a belief based on race and colour, which is hostile to the world and humanity. The
people, who love the humanity, should start a war against the innovation of Satan (Afzal,
1978:54). On the other hand, the migration of the Prophet from Makkah to Madinah is a symbol
of Muslims freedom from local attachments. Iqbal says that, China and Arabia are ours; India
is also ours. We are Muslims; whole world is homeland of ours (Iqbal, 1997:243). It signifies
that Islam is not territory-bound. It does not depend upon a particular land but it belongs to all
lands.
Iqbal also opposed the concept of territorial nationalism, which is the root of social and political
discord. He says: the basic scheme of Western Imperialism was to dismember the unity of
Muslim World by popularizing territorial nationalism among its various components (Muini,
1963: 222). In his views, imperialism arises through territorial nationalism, which results in too
much suffering for humanity. People lose their lives and billions of dollars in money is spent in
the wars; which could be utilized for the welfare of humanity. (Khan, 1982:65). He also says
that, I am opposed to it because I see in it the germs of atheistic materialism which I look upon
as the greatest danger to modern humanity (Hilal: 1995:247).
However, Iqbal clearly differentiates modern nationalism in a political sense with patriotism as a
virtue. He never does not confuse between nationalism and patriotism and draws a clear line
between the two concepts. He rejects nationalism while respects patriotism. Patriotism is ones
love to ones country, is a part of Muslim faith (Iqbal, 1948). Actually, Iqbal's rejection of
nationalism is not a rejection of love for the homeland. It is a condemnation of the modern
concept of a nation. His concept of nationalism not only contains both universalism and
patriotism, as we have seen, but also Islamic humanitarianism. His concept gives us a message of
Islamic brotherhood. It may be conclude with his speech that, "Only one unity is dependable,
and that unity is the brotherhood of man, which is above race, nationality, colour or language
(Iqbal, 1948: 203).
3.3 SECULARISM
In the west, along with nationalism, a new political thought arose which was known as
secularism, came about at the cost of a bitter struggle against a dominant religion; the Catholic
Church (Maclure and Taylor, 2011: 14). Secularism is opposed to religion and is to hostile to
religion (Heng, Siam-Heng and Liew, 2010: 7) while at the same time, it guarantees religious
freedom and equality of all citizens (Javid, 2003: 297) by the state. Sometimes secularism
means the separation of religious spiritual life from politics, the separation of life- hereafter from
the worldly life where morals, state and worldly matter should remain independent of religion.
However, in the comments of Rizvi, the basic of secularism is based on two principles (Ali,
2015:119-120):
1. Separation of religion from politics
2. Acceptance of religion as purely and strictly private affairs of individuals having nothing
to do with the state.
In Iqbals views, secularism does not mean aloofness from the spiritual values, it means
acceptance of universal spiritual values coupled with a respect for the right of each religious
group to indoctrinate its followers and to care for their spiritual needs (Hilal, 1995: 255). He
took secularism from the spiritual sense rather than material sense as pictured in the west. Iqbal
was influenced by environment in India, where secularism is considered different from the
western concept, where there is no anti-religious bias and equal respect to all religions is shown
(Hilal, 1995).
On the other hand, Iqbal criticized politics, where religion is considered as independent and
private entity, is a defective one and it is shame for humanity (Khan, 1982:55). In this point
Iqbal comments that Satan as saying: There is no need for my presence in the world as there
are enough devils in the shape of politicians in western democracy (Malik, 1998: 336).
According to Iqbal, Western politics is irreligious and faithless (Iqbal: 1979) which is a cause of
many ills and has evolved as a free monster and separated from church (Iqbal, 1983).
Iqbal advised the Muslim Ummah to reject this irreligious and faithless political thought of the
West. On the other hand, he perceives that religion offers the feelings of love with each other,
sacrifice for others and welfare for humanity. He tried to attach great importance to religion in
the private as well as social life of man. He also advises to follow religion, instead of western
secular thought. Therefore, Iqbal invited Muslim Ummah to follow this straight way leaving the
negative Western politics.
According to Iqbal, the idea of State is more familiar than other ideas existing in Islam. He
rejected the differences between spiritual and temporal domains: In Islam the spiritual and the
temporal are not two distinct domains, and the nature of an act, however secular in its import, is
determined by the attitude of mind with which the agent does it (Iqbal, 2011a: 154). He also
rejects the dualism of Church and State which he says is not supported by Islam. He said: In
Islam, it is the same reality which appears as Church looked at from one point of view and State
from another. It is not true to say that the Church and the State are two sides or facets of the
same thing (Iqbal, 2011a: 154). He further says that The Islamic idea of the State must not be
confounded with the European idea of separation of church and State. The former is only a
division of functions as is clear from the gradual creation in the Muslim state of the office of
Shaikh-ul-Islam and Ministers; the latter is based on the metaphysical dualism of spirit and
matter (Saeed, 1972:373). He did not like the dualistic views of Turkish Nationalists, who
assimilated that,
the idea of separation of the Church and the State from the history of European
political ideas...when the State became Christian, State and Church confronted each other as
distinct powers with interminable boundary disputes between them, such a thing could never
happen in Islam (Iqbal, 2011a: 155).
Iqbal believes in theocratic state which is ruled by God. He advocates three fundamental, which
are: (1) human solidarity; (2) equality; and, (3) freedom. These three principles represent the
essence of Tawhd (Unity of God). As he said:
The essence of Tauhd as a working idea is equality, solidarity, and freedom. The state,
from the Islamic standpoint, is an endeavour to transform these ideal principles into space-time
forces, an aspiration to realize them in a definite human organization. In this sense the state in
Islam is a theocracy, not in the sense that it is headed by a representative of God on earth who
can always screen his despotic will behind his supposed infallibilityThe state according to
Islam, is only an effort to realize the spiritual in human organization [and] in this sense all state,
not based on mere domination and aiming at the realization of ideal principles, is theocratic
(Iqbal, 2011a: 154-155).
The ideological state of Iqbal affords equal opportunities to the people where every citizen of the
state is encouraged to perform the best in the service of God and humanity (Saeed, 1972). He
also states that, In an ideological State of Islam the supreme power of the sovereignty enjoyed
by the head of the State is limited by the sovereignty of God (Saeed, 1972: 376). Iqbal declared
his stance against all forms of state-worship and aligns with those who regard the state as an
agency whose main purpose is to create the conditions necessary for the development of human
individuality (Siddiqi, 1983). Islam aims to establish a state based on the principles of Unity of
God which is not opposed to national preservation, and this is the ultimate goal of Islamic
ideology. According to Iqbal, the Muslim national state is essentially an ideological State and not
one based merely on racial of geographical factors(Saeed, 1972: 378).
Iqbal praised the system of Caliphate, because it was republican system formed by election.
Through the election the collective will of the Ummah operated through the elected individuals.
According to Islamic political thought, the Muslim Ummah is based on the equality among
Muslims where there are no issue of caste, no priesthood and class. A person is free to nurture
himself and can enrich his talents for society prescribed by state. The leader and worker, ruler
and ruled, king and citizen are equally treated in the eye of law. From a legal standpoint, the
Caliph does not occupy any privileged position. In theory, he is like other members of the
common-wealth. He can be directly sued in an ordinary law court(Grover, 1993: 532). Iqbal
also mentions two propositions (Hilal, 1995) for the Muslim political constitution. Firstly, The
Law of God is absolutely supreme. Secondly, there is absolute equality of all the members of the
community.
3.4 SOCIALISM AND CAPITALISM

Socialism and Capitalism are both the modern political economic thoughts of the West.
Socialism is a system where the means of production, such as money and other forms of capital
are owned by the state or public (https://www.thebalance.com/the-characteristics-of-
capitalism-and-socialism-393509) while Capitalism is a means of production which are owned by
individuals or the explicit recognition of private property (Hoppe, 2007: 10). Under a socialist
system, each and every one efforts for wealth that is managed through government where there
is no market. Government is responsible to look after health care as well as all system of a
state; the equal distributions of wealth among the people are emphasized. On the other hand,
under capitalism, one works for his own wealth. An individual can operate his own private
companies. All wealth is owned by individual where he is independent earning money and
property.
Iqbal has briefly expressed his opinions on capitalism and socialism, mainly on its merits and
demerits. He opposed to the materialistic view of the world which is why he didnt accept the
irreligiousness and materialistic interpretation of modern socialism and capitalism. As Iqbal
(2011b:57) said:
Both (System) have an impatient and intolerant soul, neither knows God and both
deceive manSocialism brings the rout of science, religion and art, capitalism detaches the soul
from the body and from the arm takes bread. Both systems bring me at last to water and clay,
both has a bright body and a dark heart.
Iqbal was sympathetic to the spiritual socialism related with Islam. According to Iqbal socialism
was identical with Quranic teaching. Islam and socialism have same purpose to do work for
safeguard the economic condition of all people. Iqbal emphasized on social justice which is
directed by Islam. On the other hand, capitalism is associated with imperialism in Iqbals
experience. He didnt support capitalism where wealth is owned by capitalists, because Islam
protests social and economic evils which stem from capitalism. (Iqbal, 1998). He also presents
the real picture of capitalist society in his poems, where he manifests the real scenario of
wretched condition of workers and labours labourers and arises a question that, O! God, you
are just and all powerful; then why? The life of workers is extremely miserable (Iqbal review,
1992: 87). He wished to see the end of the greed of the capitalists and industrialists and was
interested for the betterment of the workers.
3.5 LIBERALISM
Liberalism is a political doctrine that enhances the freedom of individual thoughts and equality.
This Western ideology is based on two principles: Individualism and liberty. According to Iqbal,
liberalism guides a man to destruction, unethical and inhuman acts. An individual, who has
boundless freedom of thoughts and liberty, could be risky for the nation. God has given liberty
of thought which is limited while unlimited liberty of thought is a devils innovation (Iqbal,
1983). Iqbal clearly pictured out the Western World (Iqbal, 2011b), which cannot be safeguard
for Muslim Ummah. It neither can save them from their own created problems nor can show
them solution for prosperous life.
However, Iqbal warns Muslim Ummah about the adverse effects of the Western thought of
liberalism. It can destroy the unity and stability of Muslim brotherhood and would spread the
seeds of conflicts, discord and hate among Muslims. And it destroys the Muslim unity, which is
the most essential principle of Islamic ideology. Iqbal disclosed his opinions in one of his
lecture that,
We heartily welcome the liberal movement in Modern Islam; but it must also be
admitted that the appearance of liberal ideas in Islam constitutes also the most critical moment in
the history of Islam. Liberalism has a tendency to act as a free of disintegrationFurther our
religious and political reforms in their zeal for liberalism may over step the proper limit of
reform in the absence of a check on their youthful fervour (Iqbal, 2011a:162-163).
4. CONCLUSION
Iqbals thoughts are deeply embedded in the Holy Quran and the Sunnah as well as rooted from
traditional Islamic point of view. According to him, it is ridiculous to recognize any of the
Western concept or ideology without any critical analysis as it is also irrational to refuse any
Western concept and ideology only because it originated in the Western societies. He promoted
and concentrated on the distinct Islamic terms and terminologies on the proper directions of the
Quran and Sunnah as well as on the history of the Muslim civilization. However, it is clear that
Iqbal accepted some principles of Western thoughts that are compatible with Islamic Shari`ah
which does not mean that Iqbal has totally accepted Western thoughts. The secular principles of
Western thought are far away from the Islamic Shari`ah and inconsistent Islam, and is therefore
rejected by Iqbal.
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p-ISSN: 1694-2620
e-ISSN: 1694-2639
Is more BENELUX cooperation the future for

the low countries ?
Prof. dr. Herman Matthijs
Senior Lecturer
Public Finances at the Vrije Universiteit Brussel &
Universiteit Gent :Belgium
ABSTRACT
The article examines the possibility of greater cooperation within the Benelux structure. What
might the opportunities and consequences of maximizing the synergies of cooperation between
Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands be ? In particular the article examines closer Benelux
cooperation between the numerous European and international institutions. In addition the
possibility of a single Benelux diplomatic service and a joint army is discussed. Finally the future
position of the Benelux institutions are the topic of this study. Seeing the present problems with
the working of the European Union, more integration of the three Benelux countries can be a
solution in a divided Europe. Can more Benelux integration gives an upgrade of political power
for the low countries ?
Keywords: Benelux, European integration.
Introduction
In the case of this three countries there is already an institution concerning the integration.
The intention of this study is to calculate the possibilities for more Benelux integration. Indeed ,
if the EU integration has no possibilities anymore and knows a present standstill and knowing
the fact that this three countries are surrounded by greater European states ( Germany, France
and the UK on the other side of the North sea ); a new attempt for more Benelux cooperation
and integration is the only possibility for the lower countries. Also this three countries have
already a history of integration and are comparable on the level of welfare. Therefore the most
important European- and international institutions are taken. This study is mostly based on
budget figures from the treated institutions. There is no other study known, which already
calculated the political value of a Benelux integration concerning this institutions. In most of the
cases in this study the Benelux figures are comparing with the greater EU member states.
1. History
On 5 September 1944 Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands reached agreement in London
about a customs union between the three countries.
In reality this was an agreement between the Netherlands and the Belgian-Luxembourg
Economic Union (BLEU). The agreement between Belgium and Luxembourg dates from July
1921 and established a customs and currency union between the two countries. This BLEU
convention was agreed for a period of 50 years and was renewed for periods of ten years in 1972,
1982 and 1992. In 2002 the two countries joined the Euro monetary zone.
The war and the delay in liberating the Netherlands meant that the customs union only came
into effect on 1 January 1948. As a result the levying of import duties on commerce between the
three countries came to an end and that a joint external tariff was imposed on trade with third
party countries.( Benelux, 1994 ).
On 3 February 1958 the three countries signed a new treaty entailing the establishment of an
economic Union. This treaty came into effect on 1 November 1960.
With the treaty the three countries agreed to allow the free trade of services, goods, capital and
persons among themselves.
This Benelux treaty came into effect in 1960 for a period of 50 years and came to an end in 2010.
For this reason Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands signed a new treaty in The Hague on
17 June 2008 establishing the Benelux Union. The new treaty runs indefinitely and is no longer
limited to economic affairs.
An inter parliamentary Council was established by a treaty signed on 5 November 1955, which
came into effect on 7 September 1959. This treaty was replaced by a new treaty on 20 January
2015, which gives this Parliament new powers. For example the Parliament now has a right of
interpellation, although it remains an advisory body. The Parliament is composed of 49 elected
members from the three Parliaments of the member states. Account is taken of the federal
structure of the Belgian state. Indeed these 49 Benelux MP members are divided over the
Netherlands with 21 delegates ( 9 from the Eerste Kamer : the Dutch Senate and 12 from the
Tweede Kamer: the Dutch Lower House ) ; Belgium with 21 delegates ( 10 from the Kamer
van Volksvertegenwoordigers : the Belgian House of representatives, 5 from the Vlaams
Parlement : Flemish Parliament, 2 from the Parlement Wallon: Walloon Parliament, 2 from the
Parlement federation Wallonie-Bruxelles: Parliament Wallonia-Brussels federation, 1 member
from the Brussel Parlement Parlement Bruxellois: Parliament of the Brussels region, 1
member from the Parlement Deutsche Gemeinschaft: German speaking community ) and
seven members of the Luxembourg Chambre des deputes ).Knowing that six of the ten Belgian
members are dutch speaking and the five Flemish members with the 21 MPs coming from the
Netherlands gives a total of 32 dutch speaking members in this Benelux Parliament. The Benelux
Parliament meets diversified in the Belgian and Dutch Senate.
2. The Traditional Parameters

We shall start by giving a brief description of the Benelux in terms of the traditional parameters
such as total area, population, and a few common economic indicators. These figures will then
be compared with the relevant figures for the European Union (EU).
The land area of the EU comes to 4,482,000 km. Of the Benelux countries the Netherlands are
the largest with an area of 41,500 km, followed by Belgium (30,500 km ) and the much smaller
Luxembourg (2,600 km ). All together this gives 74,600 km for the Benelux or 1.7 % of the
entire area of the European Union. The combined Benelux states still remain a small area,
particularly when compared with the member states with the largest areas, namely France (14.6
%), Spain (11.3 %), Sweden (10 %), Germany (8 %) and Finland (7.5 %).
The 1.7% of the total surface area of the EU occupied by the Benelux (The Netherlands 0.9 %,
Belgium 0.7 % and Luxembourg 0.1 %) makes it the 16th largest in geographical terms, lying
between the Czech Republic (1.8 %) and Ireland (1.6 %).
On their own though the Benelux countries come even further down the rankings. Indeed after
the Netherlands (0.9 %) comes only Belgium (0.7 %) Slovenia (0.5 %), Cyprus, Luxembourg and
Malta.
The geographical reality thus shows us that the purely territorial benefits of the Benelux are fairly
limited. On the other hand the area occupies, in economic terms, a prime site on the North Sea
coast. This is illustrated by the importance of the ports in the area (Amsterdam, Antwerp,
Rotterdam and Zeebrugge). The location of these ports are a major source of employment and
make them a vital link in the route to the German hinterland.
Secondly, whats the position population of the Benelux compared to the total population of the
EU?
The population of the EU is roughly 510 million (Eurostat estimate, 1 January 2016). Belgium
has a population of 11.3 million (2.21 % of the EU total), the Netherlands have 16.9 million
(3.31 %) and Luxembourg has 576 thousand inhabitants (0.11 %). Counted together this means
that the total Benelux population is 28.8 million or 5.64 % of the EU total. Here we may note
that the Benelux with the exception of Malta (with 1305 residents per km) is the most densely
populated part of the EU (with 375 inhabitants per km), ahead of the United Kingdom
(251/km), whereas the EU average is significantly lower (116/km).
Several EU countries have larger populations than the Benelux, namely Germany (82.1 million),
France (66.6), the United Kingdom (64.3), Italy (60.7), Spain (46.4) and Poland (38.5). Counted
in this way the Benelux occupies 7th place in the population rankings, but if the Benelux states
are counted individually, Romania comes in higher (19.7 million) than the Netherlands. All the
other member states come after Belgium, which comes in ninth after the Netherlands which is
eighth. Aggregating the populations moves the Benelux up one place, although we should not
forget that this is a population of 28.8 million prosperous citizens.
In political terms, however, speaking on behalf of 28 instead of 17 or 11 million people does
make a difference.
Thirdly, the GDP (Gross Domestic Product) is a useful indicator of national prosperity and
more particularly the economic output of a country. In 2015 the combined GDP of the Union
could be estimated at 14.635 billion euros (Eurostat estimate figures ) with member countries
contributing as follows.
TABLE: I GDP Benelux states in European perspective

Germany (3.032 billion ),
United Kingdom (2.575 billion ),
France (2.181 billion),
Italy (1.636 billion),
Spain (1.081 billion),
the Netherlands (676 billion ),
Sweden (444 billion),
Poland ( 427 billion ),
Belgium (409 trillion).
The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg comes much further down the rankings with a GDP of only
52 billion euro. Although per capital this tiny Benelux country comes out top (see below)!
Belgium and the Netherland currently occupy ninth and sixth place respectively in the GDP list.
The large GDP of Sweden is striking, as is the fact that of the countries that joined the EU in the
most recent round of expansion (after 1995) only one Poland - has risen in the rankings.
Another element is that the UK economy is bigger than that of France, although the German
economy, which contributes 20 % of the GDP of the EU continues to be far and away the
biggest.
When we count the GDPs of the three Benelux countries together, we arrive at a total of 1.137
billion or a share of 7,44% in the EUs GDP. This puts the Benelux ahead of Spain and makes it
the fifth largest economy in terms of GDP.
Indeed, individually neither Belgium nor the Netherlands are likely to break the 1.000 billion
euro barrier in the coming decades.
Nor can it be ruled out that in view of the greater economic efficiency of the Benelux, its GDP
could exceed that of a faltering Italy.
When prosperity is linked to per capita GDP (PPS/KKE figures of Eurostat), all three Benelux
countries come out above the EU average (100 ):
TABLE: II PROSPERITY
- Luxembourg: 271
- the Netherlands: 129
- Belgium: 117
Source: Eurostat
This table clearly illustrates the prosperous position of the Benelux within the EU and in
particular the remarkable prosperity of the Grand Duchy. The EU member states with a greater
GDP per capita then Belgium , in 2015, are: Austria ( 127 ),Denmark ( 124 ),Germany ( 125) ,
Ireland (145) ,Sweden ( 123 ) and of course Luxembourg and Holland.
Furthermore the Benelux can also show that it is major economic player, as can be seen from the
third table.
TABLE: III GOODS TRANSPORT IN 2014 AS A SHARE OF THE EU TOTAL

- Roads: 6.7 %
- Rail: 3.1 %
- Inland navigation: 38.5 %
- Shipping: 25.7 %
- Aviation 23.6 %
Source: Benelux ( key figures and trends, secretary general Benelux 2014 )
This table shows that the Benelux accounts for a very large share of the EUs maritime and
airborne goods transport operations, and statistical proof of the importance of the sea ports and
airports of Belgium and the Netherlands.
The above analysis of the traditional parameters makes it clear that the Benelux is economically a
very important area within the EU, relatively restricted in size but occupying a strategic position.
In population terms the Benelux is no match for the larger EU countries, but the region as a
whole can be regarded as extremely prosperous.
3. The EU budget
When we examine the contribution that the Benelux countries make to the financing of the
budget of the European Union, we may make the following observations.
Like other states Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands must pay contributions to the
budget in accordance with the Own Resources Decision. Council decisions 2007/346 and
2014/335 )
Since the new 2014 decision the EU member states must pay 80 % of the TOR (Traditional
Own Resources) they collect, a part of their VAT receipts and levy on their own GNI.
The T.O.R. relate to the levy on the sugar industry and more importantly to customs duties. The
latter account for 99% of the total T.O.R. revenues of the EU budget.
The Benelux countries are paying in the 2016 budget a total of 4 billion of TOR. ( Belgium :
1,7 billion euros, Luxembourg: 15 million and the Netherlands 2,2 billion). This means that
the Benelux accounts for 21.5 % of all taxation on imports from third countries outside the
Union. Once again this demonstrates the importance of the ports mentioned above and the
cargo-handling airports (Schiphol, Zaventem and others) to the EU economy. In consequence
the Benelux is the largest contributor of customs duties to the EU budget, contributing even
more than the Federal Republic. ( 2016: 3,6 billion euro )
Concerning the global contributions ( EU budget 2016 ): TOR, the VAT and the GNI, the three
countries pay 13,8 billion euro or 9,7% of the total invoice.( Belgium: 5,5 billion euro,
Luxembourg: 311 million, Holland: 7,9 billion euros ).
TABLE: IV Benelux and EU budget contributions 2016 ( in billions of euro )

Germany: 30,1
France: 21,8
UK: 19,8
Italy: 15,9
Benelux: 13,8
Spain: 11,2
The global Benelux contribution to the EU budget is more than Spain ( 11,2 billion ) and comes
around the Italian figures.
The importance of the Benelux in the EU context is well illustrated by the meetings of
government leaders at EU summits. The Benelux is well represented at the top of the current
crop of senior EU appointments, with the President of the Commission being from
Luxembourg and the President of the Eurogroup from the Netherlands. One Vice-President of
the Commission is a Dutchman, and another EU Commissioner is a Belgian. A concerted
Benelux policy could most certainly deliver considerable political power in the EU. Nor should
we forget that in the future there is a possibility that not every country will have a member in the
Commission. Such a development would be an added incentive for the three countries to work
more closely together in order to defend their interests. Their prosperity means that the three
countries are far from the largest recipients of financial support from the EUs Structural Funds.
However joint political action could help to win EU resources for border-crossing projects
within the Benelux, and similar.
4. Europe
Apart from the EU budget there are a number of other European institutions that manage
significant resources. What possibilities are there for developing a joint Benelux policy for ESA,
the BIB, EIB and the ERBD?
4.1. ESA
Since 1975 the ESA (European Space Agency) has worked to direct policy on civil space flight.
With an annual budget of 5,2 billion . ( ESA budget 2016 ) During several years Belgium is (
189 million euro ) is the largest Benelux player, followed by the Netherlands (103 million ) and
Luxembourg ( 22 million ). Jointly this represents a Benelux share of 314 million or 6.1 % in
ESA budget of 5.2 billion . This is important for the development of a domestic space flight
industry because the industrial return comes to about 90 % of the national contribution.
Only Italy, Germany, the UK , France and the EU ( 1.5 billion ) play a bigger financial role
within the space agency. In view of the likely continued technological importance of space flight
in the years to come and the high financial cost of such investments, a joint Benelux approach
would appear to be desirable.
4.2. BIS
The BIS (Bank for International Settlements) in Basle is effectively the banker of the central
banks. In recent years this bank has been primarily concerned with harmonizing the supervision
the central banks exercise over national private financial institutions. The historical development
of the BIS means that Belgium is a permanent member of its Board of Directors, with the
USA, the UK, France , Italy an d the Federal Republic of Germany. Belgium could therefore
assume the task of representing the policy of all of the Benelux. The BIS also provides back
office functions for the G 10, of which both Belgium and the Netherlands are members. In
1962 they agreed to give each other loans and possibly provide loans to other countries should
the resources of the IMF fall short. There is in consequence a most definite indirect link between
the BIS and the two main Benelux countries. As for Luxembourg it should be pointed out that
this smallest of the Benelux countries is an important player in the banking sector in Europe.
4.3. EIB
In third place there is the EIB (European Investment Bank) in Luxembourg City. This bank
finances projects in the EUs less developed regions as well as trans-European infrastructure.
Both Belgium and the Netherlands have contributed 10,800 million to the banks capital of
243,000 million. With Luxembourgs contribution the Beneluxs contribution comes to 22,000
million. In total then this makes the Benelux the sixth largest contributor to the EIB, well after
Germany, France, Italy and the United Kingdom, who contribute 39,200 million each, and just
behind Spain, which contributes 23,500 million. The Beneluxs activities within this bank must
be seen in the political context of the greater cooperation within the EU institutions of these
three countries.
4.4. EBRD
Finally we may mention the EBRD (European Bank for Reconstruction and Development) in
London. Established in 1991 to help the former Iron Curtain countries in their transition from a
collectivist economy to a free market one. Belgium has contributed 684 million to the banks
total capital of roughly 30,000 million, while the Netherlands have paid in 744 million and
Luxembourg 60 million, making a total of close to 1,500 million. This is markedly less than
the largest shareholders, which are the United States with 3,000 million, and the U.K., France,
Italy, Germany and Japan with 2,500 million each. United, however, the Benelux comes
immediately after these leaders and makes a greater contribution than the EIB, the EU, Canada
and Spain. At present Belgium ( with Luxembourg and Slovenia ) and the Netherlands ( with
Armenia, Macedonia and Mongolia ) both individually head a different group in this bank. A
joint approach to the administration of the bank could only bring benefits to the three countries.
5. The European Central Bank

Since 2002 various EU member states have surrendered their monetary sovereignty to the
European Central Bank (ECB). The countries that use the euro own 70.39% of the ECBs
working capital. The latter has been set at 10,825 million and has been at this level since 1
January 2014. The most remarkable aspect of the ECBs capital is that non-euro countries within
the EU have contributed to it, and hold a 29.61% share in it.
The ECBs capital comes from the national central banks.
TABLE: V ECB capital

Germany: 17,9%
France: 14,17%
UK: 13,67%
Italy: 12,31%
Spain: 8,84%
Benelux: 6,68%
Source: ECB
Of course Germany, represented by the Bundesbank is the largest single shareholder with
17.9%. Germany is followed by France (14.17 %), Italy (12.31 %) and Spain (8.84 %). After these
countries come the Netherlands (4 %) and Belgium (2.48 %). Together with Luxembourg (0.20
%) the three Benelux countries contribute a 6.68 % share to the ECBs total capital, putting it
nearly on a par with Spain.
Of the contributing non-euro countries we may mention the large shares contributed by the
Bank of England (13.67 %) followed by Poland (5.12 %).
The Benelux share in the ECBs working capital puts the region ahead of Poland and would also
increases its power to influence ECB policy and claim administrative positions in the bank. The
ECB bank is of course politically more sensitive because of the link to national sovereignty. On
the other hand the three countries surrendered their monetary sovereignty to the ECB in 2002,
this should make a joint Benelux approach much less of a political hot potato, particularly as it
would guarantee the Benelux a permanent seat in the six-man administrative committee of the
ECB. For practical purposes a permanent consultative body could be established within the
Benelux framework which could be chaired by each of the three national banks in turn.
6. International
Moving now to the international arena, we may note that the Benelux countries are all members
of the United Nations and the associated specialized agencies.
At the UN the Benelux countries are ordinary members, who become members of the Security
Council every now and then. Nonetheless the Benelux plays an important role in the specialized
agencies with a more or less economic mission such as the IMF, the World Bank and the WTO.
6.1. IMF
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is a specialized agency of the United Nations whose
mission is the preservation of monetary stability. The organization is also the lender of last resort
for countries who are unable to borrow funds elsewhere.
All member states must pay subscription quotas when they become members of the agency. The
quota is largely based on the size of the countrys GDP and its current account transactions. The
higher the quota payment, the greater the number of voting rights allocated to the member
country.
Since 1 November 2012 the three Benelux countries have formed a single group in the daily
administration of the IMF. Every four years Belgium and the Netherlands supply a leader and a
deputy leader for this group.
Apart from the three Benelux countries, Armenia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia,
Cyprus, Georgia, Israel, Macedonia, Moldavia, Montenegro, Romania and Ukraine are members
of this same group of 15 members.
All together this Benelux countries holds 3,47% ( Belgium: 1,35% , Holland: 1,84%,
Luxembourg: 0,28% ) of the quotas and 3,36% ( Belgium: 1,3%, Netherlands: 1,77%,
Luxembourg: 0,29% ) of the total votes. This IMF group, which is headed by Belgium and the
Netherlands, has 5,43% of the votes. Because of that this group Benelux group of 15 IMF
members is the fourth largest vote after the United States (16.54 %), Japan and China. But
before the federal republic of Germany ( 5,33%).
This cooperation of the Benelux within the IMF and its expansion to include other countries has
meant that the Low Countries have become an important shareholder in this important
international economic institution. It is this that justifies the claiming of administrative mandates
in the IMF and influencing policy. The IMF is tangible proof that a common Benelux approach
can bear fruit.
6.2. WORLDBANK
The World Bank too is a specialized agency of the United Nations, and has the task of helping
the social and economic development of poorer countries. Here too member states pay
subscription quotas that are related to their prosperity. In contrast with the IMF
Belgium/Luxembourg and the Netherlands have not established Benelux cooperation in the
shape of the leadership of a group.
At present Belgium heads a group that controls 5.03 % of the shares of the World Bank. The
members of the Belgian group are Austria, Belarus, Czech republic, Hungary, Kosovo, Slovakia,
Slovenia, Turkey and Luxembourg ).The Netherlands does the same with a group that controls
3.98 % of the shares. This group which is headed by the Netherlands contains Armenia, Bosnia,
Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Georgia, Israel, Macedonia, Moldavia, Montenegro, Romania and
Ukraine.
In the current situation the Belgian group is the 7th largest after the United States (16.19 %),
Japan (7.5 %), China (4.84 %), Germany (4.39 %), France and the United Kingdom (3.94 %
each). The Netherlands and its group comes in eleventh in the rankings.
Should the three Benelux countries pool their votes in the World Bank in the same way as they
do in the IMF, they would control 81,525 votes (The Netherlands: 42,352, Belgium: 36,467 and
Luxembourg: 2,306).
That total is slightly less than France or the United Kingdom, who control 87,425 votes each.
If the Benelux were to form a group in the World Bank analogous to that in the IMF (which in
this case would be the Dutch group plus Belgium and Luxembourg) the control of no fewer than
117,213 votes would be possible. This would make the group the third largest player in the
World Bank, following after the United States (358,502) and Japan (166,098).
Here again we see that Benelux cooperation could yield significant advantages.
The same situation arises with the two sub-organizations of the World Bank, namely the
International Finance Corporation (IFC), which provides help to the private sector and the
International Development Association (IDA), which provides support to the worlds poorest
countries.
6.3. WTO
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the UN agency that works to promote free trade. For
the purposes of this study we need to know on what basis WTO members are required to
finance the WTO budget. The parameter used is the share in world trade. The Netherlands and
Belgium with their respective share of 3.2 % and 2.2 % are mid-ranking players. Together with
Luxembourg we see that they come out at a financing share of 5.55 %, which might not seem
much, but in fact is the fourth largest share after the United States (12.2 %), China (9.9 %
including Hong Kong) and Germany (8.8 %) and before Japan (4.8 %), the UK (4.6 %) and
France (4.4 %).
If the three Benelux countries were to join forces in the same way as they do in the IMF, they
could significantly strengthen their political clout within the organizations considered above.
7. Diplomacy and Armed Forces

For some years now the Benelux countries have been occupying the same buildings for their
embassies and consulates in a number of countries.
In particular this means that these countries use the same location for their diplomatic services.
This allows considerable savings in logistics and security, as well as offering other benefit.
An added advantage to this is the enhanced reputation in respect of third countries. As the three
countries are sovereign in their international relations, the foregoing is the only possible course.
On the other hand there is nothing to stop the Benelux countries agreeing among themselves to
represent each other in different countries. In fact the project mimics similar initiatives by the
Nordic Council, the association of the five Scandinavian countries.
In recent years the Benelux countries have also participated in joint military operations both in
an EU and NATO context.
Belgium and the Netherlands have organized successful naval cooperation in the past few years.
In view of the current budgetary strictures and the growing international threat, a joint Benelux
army would certainly be worth giving political consideration.
In 2015 though the Netherlands had a budget for defence of 8,000 million while Belgium only
allowed 2,400 million for defence during the same period. The contribution of the Grand
Duchy is of course only small and comes to about 250 million. Nonetheless when we compare
national defence spending per capita we observe the following:
TABLE: VI MILITARY SPENDING (IN EUROS)
- The Netherlands: 493

- Luxembourg: 454
- Belgium: 218
Source: own calculations
This table shows that Belgium in particular has a structural problem in connection with its
excessively low defence spending. Belgium would have to be prepared to put up more money if
it was to start a joint army with the other two Benelux countries.
A Benelux army has to be a realistic option, particularly as the vision of a European defence
apparatus appears to be illusory, which is the result of the highly divided views of the member
states on defence and the very significant political fact that both France and the United Kingdom
wish to stay in control of their own defence. These two countries have the highest defence
budgets in Europe with the UK spending about 50,000 million a year and France spending
roughly 40,000 million a year.
Joint Benelux policies on defence would give the partner countries much more weight when it
comes to making decisions about defence and synergies might be expected if the Benelux armed
forces were to attend to protecting the airspace, ports and substantial commercial shipping of the
Benelux.
Finally a Benelux-wide defence organization would make budgetary sense as purchasing power
could be concentrated and commensurate savings made. Financial benefits might also be
expected for joint training and maintenance too. Nowadays the Luxembourg army is trained in
Belgium and the two navies share their training. The joint administration of the military colleges
is a possibility that could be realistically explored as well.
8. Towards a Benelux Union?

The new Benelux treaty of 2010 speaks from now on of a Union and that has to do with the
fact that the powers of the Benelux now cover more than the traditional economic matters of the
past. Further to the political analysis of potentially greater Benelux cooperation this article
concentrates on the role of the Council, the Parliament and new powers and the relationship
with existing institutions.
8.1. Council of Ministers

At present the Benelux is administered by a Council of Ministers. This is its supreme decision-
making body and when constituted in its completest form it includes the three heads of
government. Ways of enhancing cooperation could include a permanent presidency, which could
for example be rotated among the member countries every two years. The Council will of course
continue to be assisted by the Benelux Secretariat. The latter could then be given much greater
significance by allowing it to carry out the routine coordination of cooperation between the
institutions concerned. Closer cooperation of this kind should also be given a political face via
the Presidency. Language use in the Benelux is limited to the three official national languages
(German, French and Dutch) and this has proved to be practicable. Here we might recall that far
fewer languages are involved than within the EU or NATO.
8.2. The Benelux Parliament
Apart from the Council there is also the Benelux Parliament, which admittedly is indirectly
constituted by the various representative organs of the three member states. In this respect there
is undoubtedly a certain democratic deficit. The new treaty of 20 January 2015 does in fact
extend the powers of this Parliament but they remain limited compared to a real Parliament.
This of course has to do with indirect composition, and that there is no policy expenditure in the
context of the Benelux and that this Parliament thus cannot approve a budget. To take an
example the European Parliament had to fight for years to with the right to have a say on the
EU budget. At present the Benelux budget stands at about 8 million, which comes from grants
from the three national budgets to cover the operating costs of the Secretariat and also those of
the Parliament. It is not necessarily a disadvantage that the Parliament is indirectly elected. The
advantage is that there continues to be a link to the sensibilities of the national Parliaments. The
composition of Belgiums delegation is also linked to the federal structure of the kingdom. The
political factions sitting in the Parliament are relatively similar in each of the three countries. As a
result the ideological differences in the electoral landscape are still present, but the existing
parties are usually the same. This would definitely facilitate the political administration of the
Benelux.
8.3. New Powers

At present there are a number of typical Benelux powers relating to the Benelux Court, the
Office of Intellectual Property Rights and police cooperation, etc. As already mentioned above
defence seems to be one of the most obvious candidates for Benelux level administration. The
Benelux Parliament would then be able to express its opinion on a budget of over 10,000
million, subject of course to Belgium making a much greater financial effort in this respect.
Naturally the defence interests and diplomatic policies of the three countries are not the same.
Placing these under the Benelux flag could have an integrating effect in this respect. In practice
there would be a single general staff for the armed forces. The needs and objectives of the latter
would then be translated into policy objectives by a Benelux Minister of defence. The latter post
could also be complemented by a Benelux Minister for Diplomacy, the political institutions
referred to above and for finance. The latter person would then represent the Benelux and
administer the votes in the aforementioned financial institutions. Furthermore this Benelux
Minister of Finance would have to manage the relevant budget and be the figure representing the
Benelux in the Eurogroup. As a result there would also be several appointments as Benelux
minister to be shared among the three countries.
Are there other powers that it would be better to implement at Benelux level? The first that
springs to mind is the customs service, an important service in a region with so many external
borders. Others too are definitely worth considering, such as the railways, and finally there is the
old dream of a single large Benelux aviation company, which would certainly yield economic
advantages in view of the complementarity between the airports at Schiphol and Zaventem.
8.4. Existing Institutions

Pushing Benelux cooperation forwards would create a new element on the political and
diplomatic landscape and the question arises of whether this would cause problems in
connection with existing institutions. The three Benelux countries all belong to the Schengen
Area, the eurozone, as well as to the EU, the EER and NATO. As a result no significant
problems should be forthcoming. The only difference will be that within the political space of
the EU, three countries will start a programme of intense cooperation. With respect to NATO,
three of the countries who already cooperate in military matters would go about establishing a
joint army.
9. Conclusion
This article has tried to determine the value of joint Benelux action both within Europe and
internationally.
Joint Benelux initiatives have already had some success with respect to shared diplomatic
missions, naval cooperation and within the IMF.
In the above we have shown that such cooperation could also have a positive effect in many
other European and international bodies. Cooperation would give the Benelux countries greater
weight in the formation of policy and would allow the region to claim more senior positions
within European and international institutions.
The economic strength of the Benelux is confirmed by its significant share in the financing of
the EU budget from customs duties and its position in the WTO.
The GDP and particularly the GDP per capita underlines the prosperity and economic
significance of the Benelux countries. In view of the tense strategic situation in and around
Europe, the Benelux structure offers both a politically and budgetary attractive alternative in the
form of a joint military apparatus.
The United Kingdom of the Netherlands came into being two hundred years ago (1815) as a
result of the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte at Waterloo. On 21 September 1815, Willem I was
able to declare himself the first king of this decentralized state with the monarch retaining very
significant powers.
Today, the Benelux offers a viable alternative for bettering the situation of the three countries in
a landscape marked by a globalized economy, political strains on Europes borders and a
European Union that is unable to progress, offering only harmonization project after
harmonization project, all of which lead only to a lamentable levelling down.
An advantage of the Benelux is also the fact that this institution can produce faster results then
the present standstill of the European Union.
References
Benelux , 50 jaar samenwerking / Rgards sur le Benelux, Tielt:Lannoo, 1994.

Benelux , Werkprograam 2013-2016.
Budgets of all the treated institutions
EU budget 2016, official Journal L edition nr. 48, 24 febr. 2016.
MATTHIJS, H. ( 2015). De toekomst van de Belgische defensie: een Benelux leger ? Verslag experten
toekomst Belgische defensie. Brussel. P. 145-160.
MATTHIJS, H. ( 2016). Internationale Economische Instellingen: Benelux ( hoofdstuk / chapter 13 ).
Gent university : acco editions, p. 107-111.
ROOD, J. ( 2011). Benelux samenwerking: hopen tegen beter weten in ? Internationale spectator, 65 (5),
260-263.

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Likert Scale Development: Construction and Evaluation of Home 18

Iqbals Response to Modern Western Thought: A Critical Analysis 27

Is more BENELUX cooperation the future for the low countries ? 37

Effects of personal characteristics on susceptibility to

Keywords: bias, heuristics, personal characteristics, decision making, judgement.

Literature search strategy

Dual-process heuristic-deliberate theories postulate a distinction between fast, intuitive,

Intuitive (heuristic) decision-making produces quick solutions based on general heuristics

In contrast to intuitive decision-making, deliberation uses abstract thinking and

From a behavioral standpoint cognitive biases may be seen as systematic errors in

Factors affecting human cognitive bias

There is evidence that an individuals susceptibility to bias relates to structures and

Somewhat in contrast, people using a combination of thinking styles (high

Several types of cognitive ability, as well as employing deliberate information processing

Limitations of the present study

We used the dual-process heuristic-deliberate framework to summarize, unify and

anchoring. Judgment and Decision Making, 4(1), 41-50.

Cognitive bias: a consistent deviation from an accurate perception or

Crystallized intelligence: the ability to use skills, knowledge, and experience.

Need for cognition: an individuals propensity to enjoy and engage in thought.

Numeracy: the ability to process basic probability and numerical concepts.

Over-confidence bias: an inclination of individuals to overestimate their own abilities to successfully

Likert Scale Development: Construction and Evaluation of

Keywords: Construction, Evaluation, Home Environment, Likert Scale, Reliability, Validity,

Stages of tool construction

Fig. 1: Stages of tool construction

Table 1: Dimensions with number items in HES

Try-out of the tool

Table 2: r Values for HES

Dimension No. of Items Possible range of scores

Table 3: No. of items and range of scores in each dimension of HES

Reliability of the Home Environment Scale

Table 7: Item Presentation in the final form of HES:

E Conflict 30, 31, 32 33, 34, 35

F Emotional Support 36, 37, 38, 39, 40 41, 42

G Success Orientation 43, 44, 46, 46, 47 48, 49

H Control 50, 51, 52, 54, 55 53, 56,

I Self-expression 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 63, 64

Table 8: Scoring table for all dimensions of HES

Iqbals Response to Modern Western Thought: A Critical

Keywords: Iqbal, western thoughts, democracy, nationalism, secularism

3. IQBAL ON MODERN WESTERN THOUGHTS

3.4 SOCIALISM AND CAPITALISM

Is more BENELUX cooperation the future for

Keywords: Benelux, European integration.

2. The Traditional Parameters

TABLE: I GDP Benelux states in European perspective

TABLE: III GOODS TRANSPORT IN 2014 AS A SHARE OF THE EU TOTAL

TABLE: IV Benelux and EU budget contributions 2016 ( in billions of euro )

5. The European Central Bank

TABLE: V ECB capital

7. Diplomacy and Armed Forces

- The Netherlands: 493

Source: own calculations

8. Towards a Benelux Union?

8.1. Council of Ministers

8.2. The Benelux Parliament

8.3. New Powers

8.4. Existing Institutions

Benelux , 50 jaar samenwerking / Rgards sur le Benelux, Tielt:Lannoo, 1994.

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