Vol 1 No 1 - January 2015

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Vol 1, No 1 January 2015
Table of Contents
Cognitive and behavioural frequencies of justice and care on moral 1
dilemmas between males and females
Dr George Varvatsoulias
Viewing the influences of the global on education in Ghana from the 10

lens of Human Rights Approach
Moses Ackah Anlimachie
Senso-Math Mathematical Facilitators in Preschools: Training, 27

Integration and Professional Contribution
Dina Hassidov
Television program format preferences and aggression of 38

football fans
Vehbi Gorgulu, Yonca Aslanbay, Gul Bursa and Ayse Gul Yucel
The Effectiveness of Vocabulary Learning Strategies on English language 47

Acquisition of the Saudi Learners
Dalal A. Bahanshal
Sources and Means of obtaining Psychoactive Substances among 57

Adolescents in Public Secondary Schools in Uganda: A Qualitative
Approach.
Aloysius Rukundo and Dr. Grace Kibanja
International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences
p-ISSN: 1694-2620
e-ISSN: 1694-2639
Volume 1, No 1, pp. 1-9, IJHSS
Cognitive and behavioural frequencies of justice and care

on moral dilemmas between males and females
Dr George Varvatsoulias
Newham College University Centre,
Stratford Campus, London, UK
Abstract
Moral reasoning refers to individuals' cognitive, emotional and behavioural understandings
regarding everyday practices and relationships with others. Moral reasoning touches upon
personal beliefs of human interaction the way these are cultivated through mores, principles and
values in given societies. The objective of this empirical research was to question males' and
females' moral orientations on justice and care. To this aim, participants were distributed
dilemmas in a form of stories in which they were asked to offer their personal consideration. It
was found that male participants have responded in relation to a justice-based orientation, while
females to a care-based one. The interpretation of the findings showed that males tend to reply
on moral dilemmas in association with the moral reasoning of justice, whereas females in
association with care.
Keywords: moral reasoning, dilemmas, justice, care.
Introduction
According to Tangney & Dearing (2004), the idea of moral reasoning is concerned with the
appearance of dilemmas in everyday life. Researchers are interested in discussing moral reasoning
by focusing on how people think, feel or react on moral dilemmas (Paxton et al., 2012). They
argue (Piaget, 1952; Ford & Lowery, 1986; Gilligan & Attanucci 1988; Kagan & Lamb, 1990;
Killen & Hart, 1995; Crandall et al., 1999; Nunner-Winkler, 2008) that people are guided by self-
regarded aspects about how they should behave on given circumstances. The issues claimed, not
only refer to why people decide to do things of moral content in their lives, but also how they
decide to do it. Among the more sophisticated moral developmentalists, Arnold (1989) and Blasi
(1980) consider that it is a link between moral thinking and moral action (Petrovich, 2011).
Although, as it is understood, there are various appreciations about moral reasoning, they
nonetheless converge at similar points, such as the connection between moral reasoning and
behavioural choices (Blasi, 1980; Bazerman & Gino, 2012), as well as moral reasoning and
altruistic behaviour in relation to evolutionary explanations of group selection in human societies
(Varvatsoulias, 2013; 2014).
Kohlbergs cognitive-developmental theory on moral reasoning (1969, 1984) was

presented with research on male participants. According to his estimate, there are three stages
concerned with the development of moral reasoning. He named (1984) the first as pre-
conventional (0-9yrs), based on avoidance of punishment and reward gaining. He called (1984)
1 http://aajhss.org/index.php/ijhss
the second conventional (9-20+yrs), referring to gaining or avoiding approval, as well as to the
dipole of duty and guilt. The third stage was called from him (1984) post-conventional (20-
yrs), in relation to how one understands the right or wrong along with personal moral
foundations, whether these refer to social or cultural criteria. Kohlbergs account on moral
reasoning is acknowledged that laid the foundations of an understanding of moral orientation as
mature and non-mature, regarding the forms they are associated with (Gibbs, 2014).
Following Kohlberg, Gilligan (1982) pointed out a different understanding on moral

reasoning which was referred to both genders. She considered that males tend to understand
moral reasoning in relation to justice, whilst females in relation to care (Skoe, 2010). Although
the understanding on the ethic of justice was first referred by Kohlberg (1969), Gilligan was
basically influenced by Walker (1984), who thought of gender differences in moral reasoning as
modest as inexistent; for, according to his research (1984), little evidence was found to support
the opposite as true (Walker, 2013). To Kohlbergs ethic of justice, Gilligan (1982) introduced
the ethic of care. She could not bear the male theorists of male moral reasoning, which
included women as well. Gilligan (1982) revolted against the idea that females are deficient in
moral development, contending that in previous experiments, participants were only or mainly
males (Rummery & Fine, 2012).
Although, at first sight, there seems to be a different methodological as well as theoretical

background, both, Kohlberg and Gilligan, launch their research from similar starting points. The
difference is that Gilligans one is presumably concerned with differing gender frameworks in
tendencies of moral directions (Crandall et al., 1999; Proios, 2014). According to Tagney &
Dearing (2004), Gilligans description of the ethic of care, implies that her discernment can be
called theory of moral reasoning, in contrast to Kohlbergs consideration of feelings of
sympathy and concern appreciation, for she construes the cognitive-behavioural elements as
interpreting different developmental orientations in moral reasoning (Graham et al., 2012).
Gilligan & Attanucci (1988) revised the method set by Kohlberg (1984) and proposed a follow-
up orientation between male and female moral reasoning, the main argument of which was that
both men and women use justice and care in their everyday practices when dealing with issues of
morality in their social interactions (Cam et al., 2012).
The rational of this study is that Kohlberg raised the issue of moral reasoning by using
standardized dilemmas on only males, whilst Gilligan & Attanucci raised the same issue on both
genders without the use of standardized dilemmas. The hypothesis for this study is that gender
differences, in response to moral dilemmas, are found to exhibiting a moral orientation towards
justice-based reasoning for men, whereas towards care for women.
Method
Participants
Three hundred and twenty-seven participants were recruited for this type of study. Participants
came from a relevant demographic background similar to the researchers (Greeks living in
London). Their responses collected to form the analysis. Participants' age range was 17 to 58
years.
Design
The current study was designed to examine the two categorical variables of gender and moral
orientation. A 2x2 Chi-Square () analysis was employed for the reason to compare an actual
observation following the occurrence and/or distribution of an event (in this case that event was
the 'distribution of dilemmas') (McQueen & Knussen, 2006). The design was an association
between moral reasoning and gender. It was a within-participants design. The IV (independent
variable) was 'gender' and the DV (dependent variable) was 'frequencies on justice and care'.
Materials
Three moral dilemmas were presented to participants each one containing four standard
questions to be answered (Appendix 1).
Procedure
Participants were interviewed at home. It was explained to them that the experimenter was
interested in what people consider, when they face moral dilemmas. The dilemmas were
presented to them one at a time and in random order. After participants have read each dilemma,
were asked if they had any query; if they understood them clearly, whilst also, asked to answer
each dilemma one by one, by responding in every question of it, whether briefly or in full.
Participants were also encouraged not to answer Yes or No or I dont know, so their answers
not to have a limited value. They were asked to answer honestly and that there was no right or
wrong answer. According to ethical considerations, they were told their responses will be
recorded and the reason for that is the experimenter to be able to recall what participants have
said. They were also told that their responses will be treated anonymously and they can withdraw
from the interview at any time. After completion of the interview participants were thanked for
their time, they have been debriefed about the study and asked if there were any questions left
unanswered.
When the interviews were completed, were transcribed in detail, so to be ready for
content analysis. Content analysis of both interviews consisted of highlighting any statement in
the participants answer that seemed to be indicative with the understanding of moral
orientation. The highlighted statements were coded as Justice (J) or Care (C), according to the
criteria provided by Lyons (1983) (Appendix 2).
The highlighted statements measured through using inter-rater reliability to ensure that
the data have not been influenced by personal interpretation or knowledge of the hypothesis. In
inter-rater reliability there was kept blind the gender of each participant and were rated as
agree or disagree by another fellow student researcher. After the inter-rater reliability measures,
the responses of each dilemma were coded whether as indicative of justice (justice predominant
in coding) or care (care predominant in coding) or both (justice-care), i.e. neither predominant.
After the responses were coded, were put in the SPSS, in order to be edited for chi-square
analysis.
Results
The overall frequency of dilemmas coded as justice, care or justice-care mixtures for both
genders were collated and put to the SPSS.
Descriptive statistics
Table 1
Justice-based orientation Care-based orientation
Males 103 41
Females 68 115
Total number of participants was 327. Males have scored 103 for justice and 41 for
care, whilst females scored 68 for justice and 115 for care.
Table 2
120
100
80
60
REASONIN
40
care
Count
20 justice
male f emale
GENDER
In relation to both tables, the scores as they appear in both genders support the
hypothesis tested. Males tend to score higher in justice, whereas females higher in care.
Inferential statistics
There was employed a 2X2 chi-square () analysis to discover whether there was a
significant association between gender and moral reasoning.
Table 3
Value Degrees of Freedom Cramers V
Chi-square 38.158 1 .342
This suggested (df(1), n=327)=38.158 (38.16), p<.001, Cramers V=.342.

This means that there is a significant relationship between moral reasoning and gender.
The hypothesis is two-tailed. Cramers V analysis (.342) has showed that the strength of the
effect size for is medium. Although 12% is a relatively small chance, the relationship between
moral orientation and men and women is significant, meaning that the hypothesis is supported.
Discussion
The results support the hypothesis predicted. Males tend to react on moral dilemmas through
justice-based orientations, while females through care-based ones (Jujrvi et al., 2010). The
hypothesis is two tailed and its direction medium. The strength of it implies that there is a
significant association between moral reasoning and gender. The results show that the hypothesis
examined fits with the theory of moral reasoning in relation to genders. Males exhibit justice on
moral dilemmas, whereas females exhibit care. Gilligans and Attanuccis (1988) revision on
Kohlbergs male-oriented moral reasoning is maintained.
An alternative explanation of the results, in connection with Kaufmans argument (1989),

shows that females are influenced by the way they respond on moral dilemmas, i.e. in view to
emotions and moral ethics; whilst males tend to behave according to demand characteristics,
such as the social balance, the social understanding of fairness and justification and the idea of
social upheaval if common-sense rules are not obeyed.
A possible weakness of the results is the looseness of using qualitative data to subjective
opinions. In other words, as Gilligan (1977) argues, a precarious relationship between
subjectivity and data is in use, when these are collected from friends or an environment which is
of a similar background with the experimenters, i.e. people of similar beliefs, people of similar
understanding of morality, people of similar demonstration of knowledge on academic issues or
moral dilemmas (Abramson, 2012).
An improvement, according to Kaufman (1989), could be to be examined in such a study

wider ranges of ages divided by different decades, ethnic backgrounds, different cultural
understandings, in relation to the moral orientation or reasoning, as well as different family and
demographic backgrounds, such as upbringing in urban or rural areas, different educational
status, single mothers, people whom the parents have passed away during their childhood, or
divorced couples. According to Hogg & Vaughan (2005), there could also be examined different
classifications on the aspect of moral dilemma, focused on differing social statuses, on
considerations of prejudice and discrimination, along with the social framework, within which
the individual lives, plus taking into account the factor of a low to moderate income of a familys
earnings (Sinno et al., 2014).
Eisenberg (1986) claims that, future studies should ask to revise the understanding of
moral orientation on the ethics of justice and care. Although, Eisenberg et al., (1989) argue that
Gilligans assertion that women are inclined to rely more heavily on an ethic of care, implies
some consideration of feelings of sympathy and concern, she nevertheless does not take into
account the aspect of moral decision which is related to behaviour, as well as to the emotions of
a person. Tangney & Dearing (2004) consider the latter as an integral part to understanding
moral reasoning. Otherwise, Gilligans theory, Tangney & Dearing posit, seems to be a general
interpretation of how males and females feel about moral dilemmas with no appreciation of
reasons, such as why the individuals are emotionally directed to weigh across either of justice or
care (Rynes et al., 2012).
In relation to that, Baumrind (1986) and Walker (1986) have argued that a mere
understanding on moral reasoning should not only be focused on gender differences of justice
and care, but also in the nature and the substantive content of the prerequisites that preface
them, such as attributes for and/or against pro-social/anti-social behaviour. In explaining the
latter, Walker (1984) contends that there is actually little evidence about gender differences in the
level of moral reasoning. According to Walkers account, that little evidence lacks any systematic
consideration about moral emotion (Malti & Krettenauer, 2013).
Tangney and Dearing (2004), by expanding Walkers consideration on moral emotion,

argue that there are two main issues which should be included in the discussion on moral
reasoning among genders. The first is the issue of motivation, which they claim it has been
ignored up today (p. 133). The other issue relates to the critical loss of information about
potentially competing motives operative in a given situation (pp. 133-134). The latter questions
whether there is a potential weight of empathy associated with shame, when moral dilemmas
appear and people are called to form or justify an opinion.
In order to have a theory on moral reasoning which will examine and also interpret the
aspect of emotional involvement in a moral dilemma, Blasi (1980) points out that such an
orientation should be considered in relation to an individuals moral decisions and behaviour.
According to Blasi (1980) there are three broad factors which include the understanding of
emotional involvement in a moral dilemma: the moral standards, the moral background and the
moral orientation of an individual. Moral standards, Blasi argues, refer to moral norms and
conventions. Moral background discusses, for Blasi, the acquisition and expression of accepted
rules and ethical directions in an environment. Moral orientation represents, according to Blasis
account, an individuals knowledge on the culturally defined social information(Kang &
Glassman, 2010). According to Skoe & Gooden (1993), the research on moral reasoning has
been largely processed today. Tavris (1992) postulates that, the understanding of Kohlberg and
particularly the understanding of Gilligan and Attanuccis expands the knowledge about the
ethics of justice and care.
Conclusion
The research, replicated in this study, gives weight to the methodological criticism, both Gilligan
and Attanucci have addressed, in respect to gender differences, i.e. males exhibit a justice
orientation on moral dilemmas, while females a care-based one. However, according to White &
Manolis (1997), there is an immediate need today these ethics to be expanded towards a
systematic integration of how people tend to reason at higher levels of moral thought through a
range of moral cognitive and moral emotional factors. In such a direction, a study on moral
behaviour should not only be examined as an understanding of morality, but fervently more as a
universal aspect of the human behaviour within given societies and intercultural settings.
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Appendix 1
A.
Betty, in her late thirties, has been married to Erik for several years. They have two children, 8
and 10 years old. Throughout the marriage Betty has been at home, looking after the house and
the children. For the last few years Betty has felt increasingly unhappy in the marriage
relationship. She finds her husband demanding, self-centred and insensitive as well as
uninterested in her needs and feelings. Betty has several times tried to communicate her
unhappiness and frustration to her husband, but he continually ignores and rejects her attempts.
Betty has become very attracted to another man, Steven, a single teacher. Recently, Steven has
asked Betty for a more intimate, committed relationship. Imagine you are Betty:
What are the conflicts for you in this situation?
What would you do?
Do you think that is the right thing to do?
How do you know?
B.
William, a 26 year old man, had decided to live on his own after having shared an apartment with
a flatmate for the last three years. He finds that he is much happier living alone as he now has
more privacy and independence and gets more work and studying done. One day his father,
whom he has not seen for a long while as they do not get along too well, arrives at the doorstep
with two large suitcases, saying that he is lonely and wants to live with William. Imagine you are
William:
What would you do?
How do you know?
C.
Sartre [1957] tells of a student whose brother had been killed in the German offensive of 1940.
The student wanted to avenge his brother and to fight forces that he regarded as evil. But the
student's mother was living with him, and he was her one consolation in life. Imagine you are
that student:
What would you do?
How do you know?
Appendix 2
Justice-Based Criteria for identifying moral reasoning

1. REASON and LOGIC
2. EXPLICIT PRINCIPLES
3. IMPARTIALITY
4. FAIRNESS
5. AUTONOMY
6. RIGHTS/OBLIGATIONS
7. GOVERNS RELATIONS AMONG EQUALS
8. COMPETITION (CONFLICTING INTERESTS)
9. SELF-RELIANCE
Care-Based Criteria for identifying moral reasoning
1. EMOTIONS
2. RESPONSIVENESS TO SITUATIONS
3. PARTIALITY
4. COMPASSION, SYMPATHY OR EMPATHY
5. INTER-CONNECTEDNESS
6. RESPONSIBILITIES
7. GOVERNS RELATIONS AMONG UNEQUALS
8. COOPERATION (COMMON INTERESTS)
9. TRUST
p-ISSN: 1694-2620
e-ISSN: 1694-2639
Viewing the influences of the global on education in Ghana

from the lens of Human Rights Approach
Moses Ackah Anlimachie

Department for Educational Research, Faculty of Educational Sciences
University of Oslo, Norway
Abstract
The impact of globalisation on education at the national level in Ghana has been remarkable. In
view of this, researchers and scholars have tried to understand its features and influences from
various academic lenses. This is because the term, the global and its impact on the local, especially,
as regarding educational evolution and development tend to defile a single theoretical basis for its
understanding. This in turn gives its dynamic nature. This paper however attempts to explain the
features and influences of the global on national educational policies and programmes in Ghana. By
so doing, the paper situates Ghanas educational evolution and orientation in the human rights
approach as it uncovers the features and influences of the global on her educational policies and
programmes. The explanation the paper gives seeks to deepen the understanding of the workings of
the global. Importantly, its dialectic with the local to provide clue as to how the local will be
better informed and positioned in order to maximise the gains that accrue from globalization. The
paper concludes by suggesting how Ghana and Africa can maximise the positives of globalisation.
Keywords: globalisation, education, human rights, evolution, policies, programmes, Ghana, Africa.
Introduction
The impact of globalisation on education at the national level in Ghana has been remarkable. In
view of this, researchers and scholars have tried to understand its features and influences from
various academic lenses. This is because the term, the global and its impact on the local, especially,
as regarding educational evolution and development tend to defile a single theoretical basis for its
understanding. This in turn gives its dynamic nature. This paper however attempts to explain the
features and influences of the global on national educational policies and programmes in Ghana. By
so doing, the paper situates Ghanas educational evolution and orientation in the human rights
approach as it uncovers the features and influences of the global on her educational policies and
programmes.
Notwithstanding, the huge literature that exist on education and globalization discourse, specific
examples on the Ghanaian context is limited, especially, when view the dialectic between the global
and the local from the lens of human rights. The paper, therefore, narrows down to the Ghanaian
context as it seeks find answers to the following questions; to what extent has the global educational
paradigm shape educational evolution in Ghana? In what ways does Ghana educational trajectory
mimic that of the global in the rights approach to education? And in what ways can Africa and
Ghana, in particularly, maximize the positives of globalization in education. As a methodological
approach the paper uses a theoretical analysis of existing literature on the subject to answer the
thesis of the paper. The choice of Ghana as the context for this paper is very significance for the
following reasons; First, there are geographical and gender dichotomy in educational opportunities
and experiences in Ghana. There is inequity in access and quality in education between the rural the
urban areas of Ghana. Furthermore, gender inequity in access, attendance, completion rate, and
achievement at all levels of education in Ghana is glaring. And also, the recent global educational
policy dissemination and Ghana educational policy orientation are very much ingrained in human
rights perspective. Hence the choice of Ghana, therefore, elicits explanations which deepens the
understanding of the workings of the global and its dialectic with the local to provide clue as to
how the local will be better informed and positioned in order to maximise the gains that accrue
from globalization.
The paper is structured into five sections. The first section espouses the concept of globalization
and its dialectic with the local. The second discusses the theoretical framework which views
education as human rights issue. The third briefly highlights on Ghanas economic, educational
challenges and the inequalities that exist in her education. The fourth section situates the emergence
of Ghanas education in the perspective of human rights and points out some of the influences of
the global.The fifth section juxtaposes Ghanas educational policies on the global MDGs and EFA
goals to see the interplay between the global and the national in policy making. In the final leg, the
rights/ justice approach was further used to discuss two key specific educational programmes in
Ghana in the as it further unfold the impact of the global on the local. This paper concludes by
suggesting how Ghana and Africa can maximise the positives of globalisation.
Concept of globalization and its dialectic with the local

According to Arnove (2013), in Arnove et al. (2013) globalization is the intensification of
worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happening are shaped
by events occurring many miles away (p. 2.). It is a borderless phenomenon and its tentacles
transcend through distance and time. It diffuses and spreads vertically and horizontally. This means
it breeds both equal and unequal relationships or positive and negative relationships Educational
globalisation can thus be defined as the spread of knowledge, ideas, paradigms and theories
programmes, polices practices, personnel and funding cross borders through policy borrowing,
hybridization, replacement, reinforcement, convergence, diffusion and adoption with the view of
improving educational systems locally (Meyer, Boli, Thomas and Ramirez (1997); Silova,
2012).There is, therefore, reciprocal relationship between education and globalization. Education
functions as a fuel for globalization and globalization also dictates the pace of education (Lauder et
al. 2006).
The dialectic of the global and the local has been well debated in literature by several schools of
thought. They are the hyper globalists, transformationalists and skeptists. According to the hyper
globalist school of taught, the nation/state has been rendered powerless by the global. For the
skeptists they hold the stance that the nation/state is untouched and still remains the driving force.
However, the transformationalists hold a middle view. For them, globalization has transformed the
nation-state (Lauder et al. 2006; Crossly & Watson, 2003).Whatever the perspective may be, the
effect of globalization on the nation -state is very real, especially, when it comes to educational
policies and funding in Africa and Ghana.
Theoretical/Analytical Framework
The paper used the social justice/human rights conceptual framework. According to the theory
every human being, no matter the race, socio-economic background has the right to education of
reasonable standard. It is premises on the goal that education should prepare the individual for
social, economic and political participation. It should enhance cohesion and socialise the young that
rights are naturally and sacredly inherent in the individual and that the rights to education is the
individual greatest assets independent of any other person (Tomasevski, 2003; 2005).
The justice approach to education and development emerged as a remedial reaction to the failure of
the economic growth theory and its counterparts in the human capital and capability theories. They
fail to achieve the much touted trickledown effect. But rather widened the gap between the rich and
the poor (World Bank, 2000; 2001). The global focus on education and development fromthe1950s
therefore shifted towards making more direct interventions in the socio-economic lives of the poor
in the periphery areas. Conditional cash transfer programmes became fashionable and Africa and
South America became the experimental sites of these programmes (Arnove et al., 2007)
The rights approach to educational discourse was formalised following the UN General Assembly
proclamation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in the year 1948. On the specific
provisions on education, Article 26 of the declaration states among other things that:
Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental
stages Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening
of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms...(UN,1948 Article 26,)
The rights/justice approach to education was further reinforced by the 1959 Declaration of Rights
of the Child. It declared that every child is entitled to receive free compulsory elementary education.
This was on the basis of equal opportunity without any discrimination. Significantly, it advocated for
a special provision for children with special needs in order for them to fully participate. . Another
relevant impetus which is also ingrain in the social justice theory is the Economic Cooperation of
West Africa States (ECOWAS) protocol on Education and Training which Ghana is a signatory to.
The protocol seeks to eliminate all forms of discriminatory acts against females. This is aimed at
ensuring equity and full access to education at all levels. The rights approach to education was
further invigorated by the World Declaration on Educational for All, Jomtiem (1990) & Daker
(2000). It aims at ensuring that every child has access to and complete free compulsory primary
education by the year 2015. It also aims at eliminating gender disparities and improving all aspect of
the quality of education for all. These sum up into the MDGs 2- Education as an anti-poverty tool:
targeting the poor (UNESCO, 2014).
In Ghana, the rights approach, especially girls education, has been championed by local NGOs like
the 31st December Womens Movement and Federation of International Women Lawyer (FIDA) -
Ghana chapter. Through seminars, workshops, fora, discussions, and lectures these organizations
rallied support from all sectors of the society including professionals, politicians, NGO's trade
unions, churches, women's groups, traders, autonomous indigenous groups, traditional rulers for the
rights approach to education( FIDA-Ghana, 2014). These activities culminated into the 1992
Constitution granting Free Compulsory Basic Education for all.
The Contrasting Views and Criticisms of the Rights Theory

The rights approach, from the ensuing literature, tend to place more priority on the intrinsic value
of education as it sees human rights as ends in themselves. This view contrasts that of the human
capital approach which is more tilted towards the maximisation of economic returns (materialistic
outcomes) in education as it sees human beings as input factor for economic production and
growth. This means that people such as the disable whose economic productivity may be seen as
unlikely to bring the needed return in education may be relegated to the background (Robeyens,
2006).To the human rights theorists, the dignity of every individual is paramount and must be
attained and preserved through education no matter the perceived returns. The right to education
for every child also implies that the government must mobilise the needed resources to offer a
reasonably quality education for every child at all cost (UNICEF, 2003). This view also goes beyond
the human capability theory as it makes it mandatory for the government to find the needed
investment into education; it is not an option like the case of the capability theory, but a must.
Robeyens (2006) criticises the justice theory as being overtly rhetorical. Many governments from
developing countries have pay a lip service of largely granted every child a right to education, but
still many children in their countries are out of school. He posits further that the justice theory is
obsessed and fixated with the issue of enrolment, at the expense of completion rate.
Notwithstanding , the justice theory was used by this paper because it sees human beings as the
ultimate ends of educational goals (Tomasevski, 2003) and it addresses the issue of inequity and
inequality in education like those dichotomy that has been highlighted in the case of access to and
quality of education in Ghana.
In view of the above, the paper examines Ghanaian educational evolution in terms of policy and
programme from the justice approach. This is done by reviewing some previous studies in line with
international policies and programmes in education. The paper does not intend to play down the
credibility of these studies but, seeks, to draw attention on issues in the context of Ghana that
have not be given the needed attention; especially as far as how Ghana should be positioned to
maximise the gains on globalisation.
Educational Challenges in Ghana and its dichotomy

There are many challenges confronting the education sector in Ghana. Some are lack of funds, poor
infrastructure, lack of teaching and learning materials, ill-equipped laboratory, lack of quality
teachers, poor motivation, poor professional development, and poor monitoring and evaluation.
These challenges are microcosm of Ghanas current economic predicaments. According to the
International Monitory Fund (2014), Ghana continues to face significant domestic and external
vulnerabilities. It cited large fiscal deficit, slow growth, rising inflation, weak revenue performance,
rising cost of debt servicing, large depreciation of the local currency, and weak export performance
as some of the evidence. These have serious implications on funding of equitable quality education
in Ghana.
More worryingly, there is a dichotomy in access of educational opportunities in Ghana between the
privileged and the less privileged. First, there is north and south divide in access to educational
opportunities. The northern regions of Ghana, which constitute the largest geographical area is very
deprived as compare to the regions in the south. Most of the active economic activities and
educational institutions, especially the tertiary ones are mostly concentrated in the southern part.
The southerners are therefore more able to access education than the northerners. There is also a
gender dichotomy as men dominate women in enrolment; completion rate and pursuing of
technology base programmes. Lastly, there is a rural and urban dichotomy. The urban centers have
more schools which are relatively better equipped in terms of infrastructure and teachers than the
rural areas. For example, the proportion of the population which has never attended school in the
rural areas (33.1%) is more than two times that of the urban area (14.2%). There is also a marked
difference between males (9.1%) and females (14.3%) who have never attended school.
Evolution of education in Ghana and the global
Colonization and its impact on education and development in Ghana
Formal education was introduced in Ghana in the 16th Century by two main groups, Merchants and
Christian Churches from Europe mostly Dutch, French and English who came into Africa for the
purpose of trading and evangelism. The Merchants aimed at training mulato children for
employment as administrative assistants or soldiers whilst the Christian Missionaries was aiming to
create an independent native church with a staff of well-educated local assistants, which was finance
by Charity Groups Abroad (Foster, 1963). Hence the type of education placed more emphasis on
literacy and numeracy at the expense of vocational and technical training (Adu Boahen, 1975).
Ghana became British colony following a British proclamation of the existence of the Gold Coast
Colony on July 24, 1874. Between 1821 and 1840 the British Crown authorities took control of the
education system by financing a number of government schools, including one for girls. Both
government and church-funded schools existed side-by-side and were based on the public
monitorial schools system then in England (Foster, 1963:49). Education became the privilege of a
small minority, largely elite, male and urban and residing in the South of the country. In general, the
social demand for education remained low. However, between the period 1911 and 1937, the
enrolment of pupils in government and aided schools increased from around 18,000 to 44,000
(Foster, 1963).
Like that of the pre-colonial education system, the colonial educational system also placed much
emphasis on literacy and numeracy acquisition. The aim then was to train people in arithmetic and
communicative skills to facilitate trade. There was no attempt on industrialization hence vocational
training was not given much attention. This colonial legacy in education still persists in 21st century
Ghana as evident in the poor vocational and technical education in Ghana (Adu Boahen, 1975). The
effect is that the country continues to be a mere exporter of primary products even after
independence (Adu Boahen, 1975; Kay & Hymer). Colonialism - the genesis of globalization in
Africa has fiercely been blamed as the bean of not only Ghana but Africans socio-economic
systemic failure as it laid a very week foundation upon which the development trajectory of Ghana
and Africa has been erected. This position was further reechoed in the recent 23rd Ordinary Session
of the African Union Assembly of Heads of State and Government held in Malabo, on 26 June 2014
by the president of Equatorial Guinea, Teodoro Mbasogo. He argues that the neo-colonial
domination of Africa had impeded development and has now metamorphosed into unfair pricing
and western-imposed barriers to trade (Guardian Africa Network, 2014). However, in sharp rebuttal
Barack Obama has told African leaders to stop making excuses for ongoing economic problems in
their countries, and to look for solutions within rather than blaming the past. This position seems to
be supported by the example of the South Africa who got independence very late yet have recorded
significant successes, especially in education.
Post- colonial era and education

After independence in 1957 the focused was on making Ghana an industrialized country. A robust
programme dubbed The Accelerated Development Plan for Education was therefore set into
motion in the mid- 1950s by the first president of Ghana-Dr. Kwame Nkrumah (Little, 2010). The
aim was to provide rapid development of education at all levels. University of Science and
Technology, and Polytechnics were established to trained high technically skilled manpower for
industry. At the secondary school level several model Senior Secondary Schools were established
across the nation, and they were fairly distributed. Also in order to bridge north-south divide the
government introduced the northern scholarship as part of the program to increase access of the
poor communities in the northern regions of Ghana to Secondary School .This scholarship covers
boarding and feeding fees of students that hail from the three northern regions of Ghana. At the
basic level, education was made compulsory and free and it was geared towards access. There was
also an introduction of free text books at the primary and secondary levels. Many teachers training
colleges were established to produce qualified teachers for the basic schools. The Teacher Trainee
Allowance, a cash transfer policy, was also introduced in the mid 60s to attract more academically
brilliant students into teaching. The Ghana education trust fund and the Cocoa Marketing Board
were established in the 60s to provide funding for education in Ghana (Kay & Hymner, 1992). The
results were positive as there were increases not only in infrastructure, but also in enrolment and
access at all levels. For example, the enrolment at basic level increased by approximately 150% by
1965 (Kay & Hymner, 1992). Also, many middle level personnel as well as teachers were turn out to
fill gap in education and industries that were created by the exit of the British. The Accelerated
Development Plan for Education and the Education Act of 1960 were birthed out of relatively
wider consultations with stakeholders and with support from foreign experts. This may account for
the success story. However, a number of challenges emerged. First, there were inadequate numbers
of teachers to cope with the rapid increase in enrolment in the basic schools and the enrolment also
outpaced infrastructure expansion. These affected the quality of education (Pimpong, 2006).
Therefore, before 1970s Ghana educational policies had an orientation that seemed to be consistent
with human capital approach of investing in people in order to produce a knowledgeable and skillful
manpower to drive the wheel of socio-economic development. This in a way created inequality in
development as well as in educational experiences between the rural and the urban milieu as most of
the major infrastructures, school, teachers and factories were cited in the core centres of Accra,
Tema,Takrodi and Kumasi. However, latter remedial programs like the introduction of the Teacher
Trainee Allowance and the policy of equitable distribution of model senior secondary schools
countrywide, the northern scholarship and free basic school education are good examples of the
justice approach to education as it expanded access in education. Another significant feature of the
early post-colonial education system was that the nation has sufficient autonomy on the choice and
the direction of policies and programmes as compare to recent times. This was due to the fact that
education was mostly funded internally with little foreign support.
In 1966, the first military government (NLC) instituted the Kwapong Educational Review
Committee which brought into the middle school system a two-year pre-vocational continuation
classes (continuation schools) based on the industrial and farming needs of the country (Poku,
Aawaar , Worae, 2013). This was envisaged to prepare the middle school graduates for the world of
work. The academic track system was still based on the British system. However, this policy failed
woefully as the students in those schools were keen to enter into secondary schools rather than
vocational schools. The reason for the failure may be attributed to lack of sufficient consultation
with stakeholders, including students and teacher before the rolling out of the policy. The, total
expenditure in education during the NLC regime declined and there was also marked drop both in
the school aged children in schools and trained teachers (Poku, Aawaar & Worae, 2013). This may
be attributed to the unstable political, and the fact that the government refused to cooperate with
the international players.
In 1978, Ghana introduced full structural adjustment policies supported by the Bretton Woods
institutions. Public funding to education was massively cut and there was an increasing burden on
parents to fund education. The effects include a further drop in enrolment and trained teachers. For
examples, the high score of 75% of school enrolment for 6-14 years old and the 90.8% of trained
teachers in schools recorded in 1965 dropped to 69.9% and 72% respectively in 1979. Ghanas GNP
per capita fell by 23% between 1975 and 1983 (Poku, Aawaar & Worae, 2013). Severe economic
hardships and harsh revolutionary zeal of the military regime in 1981 caused many trained teachers
in both primary and secondary schools to leave the country.
Another reform occurred in 1986/87 that shaped the structure of basic education in Ghana even up
to today. The reform changed the basic and secondary education system from 17 to 12 years, with
six (6) years of primary school, three (3) years of junior secondary school (JSS), and three years of
senior secondary school (SSS). Basic education was reduced from eleven (11) to nine (9) years, but
still in tandem with the British educational system (Poku, Aawaar & Worae, 2013). The reforms was
intended to prepare the products from the JSS for further education, skill training, and to pursue
self- determined paths of interest to enable them play a functional role in the society as informed,
participatory citizens, and economic producers to improve the quality of their lives, the reforms was
not successful for want of sufficient resources for practical work at the JSS level (Ministry of
Education, 1996).
In recent times, the governments commitment towards achieving her educational goals line with the
global (MGDs and the EFA strategies) has been expressed in several policy frameworks documents,
text and reports including:
Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy ( GPRS I) 2002 2004 & ( GPRS II) 2006 -2009
The Governments White Paper on the report 2004
Meeting the Challenges of Education in the 21st Century. (The report of the Presidents
Commission on Review of Education Reforms in Ghana, ERRC, October 2002).
Education for All (EFA, UNESCO, Dakar, 2000) international paper
The Education Strategic Plan (ESP) covering 2003-2015 & 2010-2020
One of the three main thematic areas of the Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy (GPRS I & II ) is
the development of the nations human resources base through the creation of competent
manpower for development of the country whereby education is seen as an obvious impetus of
meeting the MDGs by aligning its educational policies to the EFA strategies (Ministry of Education,
2005).
In 2004 the Government of Ghana White Paper on Education Reform outlines a new portfolio of
major reforms and objectives aims to link schooling to the job market through alliances with private
and public sector agencies. The innovation of the Reform is the inclusion of Kindergarten
Education to the main stream of basic education in Ghana in line of the EFA strategy of improving
early childhood education. The Reform also proposes that the medium of instructions in
Kindergarten and Lower Primary were to be Ghanaian language complimented by English, where
necessary (Ministry of Education, 2005). This is also in line with the EFA action plan and the 2008
Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous people which advocate for the rights of indigenous people
and children to be taught in their mother tongue at least in the early stages of their education. The
implementation of the reform objectives culminated in the Ghana Education Strategic Plan (ESP).
From this historical accounts, Ghana educational evolution has been continually shaped by a
number of policy makers (mostly motivated by change in governments) and donors working
together and compromising their original intentions in order to develop policies and programmes
that are compatible to the Ghanaian context. Her history points to the fact that there were greater
successes in policies and programmes that were based on wider consultations and inclusion of all
global partners. Another feature found is that Ghana educational evolution is ingrained in the
human rights approach as most of her policies seek to widen the frontier of education by hooking
every child anywhere in the country, especially the marginalized, into at least basic formal education.
The Accelerated Education Plan of the 60s and the FCUBE show that even before Jomtiem (2000),
Ghana had committed herself to universal access to basic education. However, it must be noted
that the issue of quality which is also pertinent to the rights approach to education has not been
sufficiently addressed for want of sufficient resources.
The Interplay between Ghana and the global in policy making strategies
The major stakeholders that shape educational policies at the national level according to Dale
(2007), include public consultations, parliamentary debates, governing parties, commissions and
councils, trade union representatives, employer organizations, professional associations, sectors of
civil society, bilateral cooperation and international organizations. At the international level the
major players are the UN and its specialized agencies, The World Trade organization(WTO), The
World Bank and the International Monitory Fund, multinational corporations/organizations,
regional and professional, organizations, International NGOs, bilateral cooperation, national
governments, research institutions, and individuals (Crossley & Watsson, 2003). Comparisons of the
two suggest that there is a reciprocal relationship between the national and the global as each has a
stake and interest in the other. However, the global seems to have the upper hands as it can amass
resources more than the local. For example, being the first UN agency, UNESCO through its long
standing in championing the course of universal basic education and functional literacy, has had a
profound influence on global educational policies and thinking, especially as a right issue (Crossley
and Watsson 2003). According to Crossly & Watsson (2013), there is a strong collaboration among
donor organizations and national government with respect to educational development. For
example the association for the Development of Education in Africa (ADEA), which was founded
as Donors to Africa Education, brings together national, international and private donor agencies to
formulate policies and these policy directions are then disseminated through several publications.
Globalization, therefore, plays important role in national level policy making in term of funding and
technical expertise as nations response to the global changes in order to become competitive and
also ( in the case of developing countries) to attract more funding from donor agencies (Jacobi 2012;
Carnoy, 1999).
Dale (2007), suggests that the national education policy makers and planners interact with the global
through two main general policy mechanisms. These are the traditional approach to policy making
and planning which includes: Policy borrowing and Policy learning. The second one is externally
induced mechanisms such as Policy Harmonization as evident in the EU- Bologna declaration;
Policy Dissemination as seen in the OECD indicators- PISA; Policy Standardization as exemplifies
in the UNESCO EFA goals; Policy Interdependence as evident in the global commitment in
fighting climate change, global warming and terrorism. The last one is Policy Imposition as seen in
the IMF and the World Banks structural adjustment policies such as cost sharing, full cost recovery
and privatization in education. The mechanisms of influence of the global on the local come in
the form of policy advice, technical assistant, common policies and architecture for educational
system, indicators, ranking, declarations, recommendations, guidelines, conventions, regional
agreements, loans linked to programmes and policies and conditioned aid (Jacobi 2012; Dale, 2007).
In terms of Policy Option and target setting, Ghana educational policy and reform goals are greatly
influenced by international and sub-regional policy frameworks and declarations. Ghanas
participation in, and endorsement of, international agreements like the EFA, the Declaration on the
Rights of the Child, the Beijing Declaration on Womens Rights, the Lome Convention; the African
Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights and; the Convention on the Rights of the Child have greatly
inform her educational policy strategies and goals. This means that the government tries to draw a
balance between local interests and the bilateral and multilateral negotiations it had taken part in, as a
guide to her policy making. The broad policy goals of Ghana Education Strategy Plan (ESP) lay
strong emphasis on increasing access, equity and quality in education in consonance with the MDGs
2 and the EFA frammwork. The specific strategic goals relating to basic education are: to provide
equitable access to good-quality child-friendly universal basic education, by improving opportunities
for all children in the first cycle of education, that is, kindergarten, primary and junior high school
levels (Government of Ghana, 2010). The specific targets stated in the ESP 2003-2015 are that:
children everywhere, boys and girls alike will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling
by 2015; to eliminate gender inequalities by 2015; and to eliminate gender disparities in primary and
secondary education by 2005(Government of Ghana, 2003). From the above, we can say that
education is viewed by both the global and local policy makers as welfare and right issues as they are
premises on access, equity and quality.
In term of strategies the Ghanas ESP is greatly shaped by the global goals. The UN seeks to achieve
the MDG2 & EFA targets by promoting EFA policies within a sustainable and well integrated
sector framework clearly linked to poverty elimination and development through: ensuring the
engagement and participation of civil society in the formulation, implementation and monitoring of
strategies for educational development; developing responsive, participatory and accountable
systems of educational governance and management; implementing an integrated strategies for
gender equality in education and; enhancing the status, morale and professionalism of teachers in
order to achieve the MDGs (UNESCO, 2000). Further, Johannesburg, 1999 also identified good
practices and successful policies that are more appropriate to the African context to include: policies
that seeks to accelerated access, with particular reference to policies of equity and female enrolment,
including affirmative action; community involvement in school decision-making and administration;
employment of teachers in their own community of origin; curriculum reform toward locally
relevant subjects; the use of mother tongue as the language of instruction; evaluation based on an
action-research paradigm and; management/statistical information systems in planning among
others(UNESCO, 2000). Similarly, in the Ghana the guiding participles and strategies on basic
education ,for example, is to eliminate gender and other disparities that arises from exclusion and
poverty; cater for excluded children in mainstream schools whenever possible; improve the quality
of learning and teaching, and to promote the culture of lifelong learning at all levels and for all ages ;
develop an effective, efficient and properly rewarded teaching service; devolve delivery and fiscal
systems of 1st and 2nd cycle of education to District Assemblies; ensure periodic review of
education grants and allowances; and to strengthen monitoring , accountability management and
planning in the education sector (Government of Ghana, 2010).
Furthermore, the principle of consensus building in decision making at the global level has
influenced Ghana policy making process in recent times. According to Verger (2014), policy making
in education is a complex process that seeks to include regional interests and views of all major
stakeholders in international education, including businesses and private institutions. It involves
several underground preparation and consultations. As evident by the deliberations of the Secretary-
Generals High-Level Panel of Eminent Persons on the Post-2015 Development Agenda:
The deliberations of the Panel were informed by the broad consultative process This
includes national and global thematic consultations under the aegis of the United Nations
Development Group (UNDG), regional consultations undertaken by the Regional
Commissions, consultations with businesses around the world under the guidance of the UN
Global Compact, and the views of the scientific and academic community as conveyed
through the Sustainable Development Solutions Network more than 5000 civil society
organizations and 250 chief executive officers of major corporations who shared their
valuable ideas and views during a series of consultations, both in person and online (UN,
2013)
Likewise, the Dakar Framework of Action (2000) was birth out of amalgam of ideas and
reaffirmation of international stakeholders to commit themselves to the ten (10) EFA goals. Also, in
the Johannesburg 1999 Regional Conference on EFA for Su-Saharan Africa, governments and
representative of civil societies as well as the international development partners and agencies came
together to reaffirm the EFA goals for Su-Saharan that education is a basic rights and a basic need
for all African children hence the need of stakeholders to play their respective role in achieving the
MDGs and EFA goals. Ghanas policy making process has also been greatly influenced by the high
level of consultations and consensus building that occurs at the global level. For example, the 2006
educational reform process started with initiation of policy by Government (Ministry of
Education). This was followed by District and Regional consultation meetings to gather inputs from
the local people. This was followed by national forum where all stakeholders including international
players converge to discuss and make inputs. An improved draft was then approved by cabinet. This
was laid in parliament for the representatives of the people to make some inputs. Here Parliament
Special Committee on Education was very active. The document went to cabinet for final
considerations and the presidency issued a white paper on it to become the final policy document.
As a follow up to the recommendation of the 2006 reform Ghana Education Strategic Plan was
drawn to cover the period 2003 to 2015, According to Government of Ghana (2010), the two
volumes of the Ghana ESP are the outcome of year-long discussions and consultations between
numerous stakeholders in the education sector, particularly those in District education offices, those
in NGOs and our development partners. This interaction has provided assurance and confidence in
the plan. Also, as a further followed up of the ESP, Ghana has set up Education Sector Annual
Review (ESAR), which provide the opportunity for all stakeholders in the sector to work together
and participate in the review of the education sector performance annually. This is to ensure the
involvement of all stakeholders in the review and pool of resources to ensure harmonisation of
programs and activities for the realization of the goals and objectives of the education sector. This is
also to enhance accountability and transparency with the education sector (Government of Ghana,
2010). Therefore, as Haddad (1995) observes education policy making process in Ghana like that of
the international level take into account the interests and inputs of the various stakeholders in
education both at the national and international level. Hence the policies tend to enjoy high level of
popular support which is key to its successful implementation.
In term of the policy implementation process the influence of the global on Ghana is very evident.
UN ant its specialized agencies and donor countries, have supported decision-makers in Ghana to
develop solid and relevant education policies and strategies (such the GPRS, ESP the School
Feeding Programme among others) and in managing their effective implementation. These supports
come in the form of technical assistance in education policy analysis, the design of education sector
development plans, and donor mobilization in support of educational priorities. The support also
come in the form of institutional capacity-building in policy formulation, sector analysis, educational
planning, policy simulation and dialogue, resource projections, sector management, programme
monitoring and evaluation, and development cooperation (UNESCO, 2014). In Ghana, the
implementations of educational policies are, therefore, highly supported and dependent on aid and
loans from the global, hence they have a say in the direction of education in Ghana. The Ministry of
Education (MOE) is responsible for the formulation and implementation of educational policies in
Ghana. The Ministry ensures that the national policies on education harmonise with the overall
national development goals taking into cognizance the international paradigm on education. A
minister of State of Cabinet Status heads the Ministry. The MOE is followed by the Ghana
Education Service (GES) on the management structure which is the main agency for implementing
approved pre-tertiary education policies and programmes under the GES Council, in accordance
with the GES Act 1995 (ACT 506) (Republic of Ghana, 2002). The feature of Ghana educational
policy evolution is, therefore, greatly influenced by the global through policy imposition, borrowing,
harmonization and dissemination.
Discussion of some specific educational programmes in Ghana

The Directive Principles of State policy in Ghana envisages that basic education should be free,
compulsory and universal and higher education should be made progressively free (Ministry of
Education, 2008). This principle is rooted firmly in the rights approach and it is influenced by the
numerous international declarations on education as a rights. Although there is no tuition fees at all
level of public education, however, other fees, including hidden ones, made the issue of affordability
the main blockage to access. Due to the dichotomy in the Ghanaian society as highlighted earlier,
the Ghanaian educational programmes tend to focus more on the problem of access and equity.
Two major examples of educational progrmmes that have been introduced to address the issue of
access and equity in basic level are discussed below:
The Free Compulsory Universal Education Policy (FCUBE)

The 1992 Republican Constitution of Ghana promulgated free compulsory universal basic
education. According the specific provision (Article 38 (2) ), states that the government shall
within two years after Parliament first meets after the coming into force of this Constitution, draw
up a programme for implementation within the following ten years, for the provision of free,
compulsory and universal basic education (Constitution of the Fourth Republic of Ghana, 1992).
This provision added new impetus to the human rights approach to education Ghana.
The main objective was to improve access to basic education, especially of girls, improve the
teaching process, learning outcomes and school management through better planning, monitoring
and evaluation (Pimpong, 2006). The five strategic and integrated elements designed to remedy these
four deficiencies of access, equity quality and relevance were infrastructure development,
management reform, curriculum change, community participation and improvement of quality of
personnel who support basic education at all levels ( Little, 2010).
The successes of the programs are that gross enrolment ratio (GER) in primary education has
improved steadily. Prior to the FCUBE, between 1987 and 1991, the GER in primary education was
averaging 77% and it fell to 73% in 1995. By 2001 it had increased to 80%, but however, decline
again to 78% in 2003 (Little, 2010). An evaluation of educational progress undertaken by the World
Bank suggests that between 1988 and 2003 there was a ten per cent (10%) increase in enrolment at
the basic level, a reduction in dropouts and an increase in girls enrolment. Primary school graduate
rates of illiteracy in English also declined from 66% to less than 20% while school infrastructure and
the availability of textbooks and other learning materials increased remarkably over the same period
(World Bank, 2004). Notwithstanding, many children were still not in school since the FCUBE only
covers tuition. The schools were permitted to charge other fees up to a ceiling amount approved by
the District Assemblies [Local Governments in Ghana] (Little, 2010). The abuse of this arrangement
led to the proliferation of all kinds of fees. In order to eliminate that government in early 2000s
introduced the capitation grant policy. This grant was to pay for all the other fees. The capitation
grant r pushed the enrolment figure further up. The programme was mainly founded by donor
support.
The FCUBE unfortunately, does not seem to have produced the overall expected outcome so far.
One of its important goals of making educational planning and management more effective has not
been achieved. Poor monitoring and evaluation persists and this has been blamed on the poor
performance of public Junior High Schools (JHS) in the Basic Certificate Examinations (BECE) as
compared to the well monitored private schools. Generally, the achievement level of pupils at the
JHS level, especially, in public schools has been abysmal and the trend keeps deteriorating. For
example only 46.93 per cent of out of the 375,280 candidates who sat for the 2011 BECE met the
criteria for placement into SHSs and Vocational Institutions in Ghana. Also, between 2001 to 2011
the performance of pupils who sat for the BECE dropped from 60.40% to 46.93% (Government of
Ghana 2013). There is also a problem of supply of qualified teachers to cater for the increasing
number of students. The student to trained teacher ratio in primary school worsen from 43: 1 to
63:1 and that of the Junior Secondary School 23:1 to 26: 1 between 1997 to 2006 (Little, 2010).
The dropout rate remains high as only few students end up at the SHS level.
Increase in access seems to have compromised the quality of education in Ghana. This has brought
about increasing in the number of private basic schools across the nation. From the human capital
point of view it may be argued that privatization of basic education in Ghana seem to be a better
remedial strategy to the low quality of basic education in Ghana as it is yielding a positive results in
term of pupils educational achievements express in examination scores, hence may give Ghana the
highest returns in terms achievement and possibly increase the completion and progression rates
among students than public education as evidenced by the far better performances of private basic
schools than the public ones in the BECE every year. However, as argued by Tomasevski (2003)
human beings are the ultimate ends of educational goals and not the returns. Privatization may deny
many people the rights to education and the cost of that will be unbearable in the future. What the
government and stakeholders need to do is to expand infrastructure, teaching and learning materials,
and motivate teachers to accept postings into deprived areas. There must also be an establishment of
special monitoring and evaluation units within Ghana Education Service (GES). These will improve
the quality. Privatization may not be the answer for quality given the inequalities that exists in the
access to educational opportunities in Ghana.
The Ghana School Feeding Programme (GSFP)

The Ghana School Feeding Programme (GSFP) was birthed through the New Partnership for
Africa Development/Hunger Task Force Initiative (NEPAD/HTFI) with the support from Dutch
government. The School feeding programme was introduced in 2005 as a follow up to the FCUBE
(MOE, 2012). It was basically targeted at the poor communities, especially, the rural areas and urban
slums. It aims at not only increasing enrolment, but more importantly attendance and retention. The
programme can be describe as a success as it has not only increase the enrolment and retention
levels, but it has also expanded from an initial number of 69,000 beneficiary students in 2005 to
697, 496 by the end of the first phase of the programme in 2010 (Lynch, 2013). At the beginning of
the 2013/14 academic year the coverage rate figure stood at 1,600, 000 pupils from 49,920 public
schools (Modern Ghana, 2013). However, the programme is now bedeviling with funding problems
following the withdrawal of the Dutch government support in 2011 (Modern Ghana, 2013). From
the justice perspective government has an obligation to her people to provide the means to
education no matter the cost. The government must therefore look for more innovative ways of
raising funds to sustain the programme as its impact has been very positive.
Funding, Aid Dependency and Vested Interest in Ghanas Education

Educational policies and programmes in Ghana are largely donor funded. Perhaps one of the
positive impacts of Globalization on education in Ghana has been the inflows of funds and
technical assistant into the education sector. However, there seem to be overreliance on external
support at the expense of raising and prudent use of resources. The evidence is that any time there
is a delay or a withdrawal of such funds it triggers a stunt in the implementation of educational
programmes in Ghana. As noted by Samoff (2013), perhaps there is an internalisation within Africa
countries, including Ghana that improvement and change can only flourish on external support.
The donor organizations and countries have vested interest and expectations. For example, the over
liberalization of the Ghanaian economy through Structural Adjustment Programmes(SAPs) was as a
result of conditionality attached to grants and aid accessed by the country (Pimpong, 2006). This
has led to the influx of foreign goods and the gradual the collapse of local industries due to unfair
competition from the West, as well as privatization of key state- own industries most of whom are
now controlled by foreign and multinational companies. One of the effects is the current problem
of graduate unemployment in Ghana. Bonal, X. (2014, September 15) in a Globed lecture at the
University of Oslo summarizes the negative effects of the global as evident in the impact of
SAPs on Africa countries to include decrease in educational funding at the expense of debt
servicing, increase in the opportunities cost of education, increase in dropout rates as a result of
increase user-fees, decrease in staff recruitment and salaries which further worsens the teacher-
student ratio, and even more alarmingly, the emergence of a new retreat towards the economic
function of education. Another concern observed by Pimpong (2006) is that most often Ghana
must use the funds from aids and loans to fulfill goals set by the loaning agency. These goals may
not be aligned with the goals of the nation. Although being aware of these hidden agenda most
often government accept, and even request for them as they want to be seen doing something
having the next elections in mind. The impact of the global on the education is therefore very real
when it comes to funding of education in Ghana in recent times, even to the extent that donor
partners have to make inputs into the national budget of the country. As observed by Meyer, J. W. et
al. (1997), the local is indeed gradually ceding its power and sovereignty to the global. From the
rights perspective loans and aids into educational programmes is good only when it seeks to broaden
the frontier of access and quality. However, it must be resisted if it comes with strings that seek to
espouse neoliberal agenda such as privatization, cost sharing and full cost recovery in education.
The Current State of Affairs in Ghana: Success and Challenges

After many years of educational trajectory in Ghana masterminded by the global, the nation has
chalked some modest gain, especially, in access and equity in education at all levels. The Gross
Enrolment Rate (GER) for primary school has improved from 76% in 1987/88 to 80% in 2002,
88% in 2005, 95% in 2008 (Ghana Statistical Service, 2010). The GER gender gap in favour of boys
decreased from 10% in 1996/97 to 7% in 2012 (UNICEF, 2013). The literacy rate has increase from
54% in 2000 to about 72% in 2010 (Ghana Statistical Service, 2010). The number of out-of-school
children (aged 6 to 11) fell by 46% from 513,000 in 2006 to 278,000 in 2011 and the completion
rates increased at both Primary and JHS, now at 112.4 and 70.1 respectively. Gender parity is almost
achieved at the Primary level, with a GPI of 0.99(Government of Ghana, 2013). Overall Ghana has
attained the EFA on gender parity in primary education and is on the verge of attaining that of the
access by the end of 2015. These improvements are attributed to the strategies adopted in line with
the global such as the EFA and MDG goals and the inflow of support from donor countries and
the UN specialized agencies.
However, there is a still serious challenge which further needs attention. Ghana is still far a way in
achieving parity at the secondary and higher educational levels. For example, at the Junior High
School (JHS) the GPI is 0.93(Government of Ghana, 2013). Also, the country has not been able to
achieve her specific targets on equity in access, quality and outcome. For example, many more
children (about 23%) [of the population aged three (3) years and older have never been to school
(Ghana Statistical Service, 2010). The inequality between the rural and the urban; and male and
female in terms of access still persists. According to 2010 Census report, the proportion of the
population which has never attended school in the rural areas (33.1%) is more than two times that
of the urban area (14.2%). There is also a marked difference between males (9.1%) and females
(14.3%) who have never attended school. Also the quality of education is low. The quality in
education is very low due to lack of adequate infrastructure, resources and personnel. For example,
the number of core textbooks per pupil stands at 1.2 and 0.9 for Primary and JHS public schools
respectively which is still some way off the target of 3 (Government of Ghana, 2013). Also
achievement level has been very low as evident in the dwindling performance of pupils in the Basic
Certification Examination (BECE). For example, the performance of pupils who sat for the BECE
dropped from 60% to 47% for the period 2001 to 2011(Government of Ghana, 2013) and many of
the schools who are in rural areas are among the poorly performed schools. Given the above
challenges and the inequities, the human rights approach to education will continue to be
appropriate in the Ghanaian context as she revamp her strategies in addressing the trends of the new
challenges.
Discussion of the research findings

Our discussions so far show that Ghana educational evolution, policies and programmes are dictated
by the global educational paradigm as evident in the MGD2 and EFA goals which approach is tilted
toward the justice approach to education. Our discussions further show that the quest of achieving
access, equity and quality have been the cardinal principles of Ghanas quest to meet global targets
of EFA. Funding of education in Ghana has been on major challenge in achieving access, equity and
quality although this is the area where the impact of global partners has been felt. Notwithstanding,
the fact that the country seem to be donor dependent, the role of global partners in supporting
education in Ghana is still crucial. However, for Ghana to maximise the positives of globalisation
requires a new approach to cooperation. The first of this should be t a deliberate effort of forming
stronger equal partnerships. This should first start with rallying support for stronger sub-regional
and regional integration and cooperation in education. Educational standardization and unification
across Africa will induce efficiency and massification of education and knowledge production. This
will create the needed wealth to fund education in Africa. A united and stronger Africa will be able
to strike a better and fair deal for the individual states in Africa in the global competition, than the
individual countries within Africa. However, there is the need for further studies as how a
borderless Africa can be achieved, given it diversity and history of colonial history and its current
neo-colonial nature which is hindering educational cooperation and integration in Africa.
Conclusion
Education programmes and policies in Ghana have largely been shaped by global issues especially,
the worlds paradigms shift to education as human rights as espouse in the Educational for All
goals. The dichotomy between the relatively privileged and the less privileged in the Ghanaian
society as regards access to educational opportunities tend to give credence to this approach. The
policies and programmes in Ghana are mostly geared towards achieving at least universal access to
basic education. The genesis of the global influence on the Ghanas education is traced to
colonization and latter to global cooperation and internationalisation and its several declarations on
education as a rights. In recent times, funding of education in Ghana has been the arena in which
the impact of the global is being felt most. Ghana educational evolution in the past was greatly
influenced by global stakeholders through policy imposition and borrowing. However, in recent
times, policy dissemination base on wide sectorial approach seems to be the main driver. The
discussions so far further widens the thesis of this paper: thus, having identified the features and
influences of globalisation on national educational policies how should Ghana or Africa position
herself within the global community in order to minimize the negatives and maximize the positives
of this intricate relationships and dialectics between the global and the local? Given the
characteristics of globalization that have been highlighted in this paper, especially, it borderless
nature; suggests that it is difficult for a country to thrive individually in this globalised world. As
postulated by Lauder et al. (2006), the nation state must reinvent itself, but a new global framework.
The way forward for Ghana and for that matter Africa is therefore the need to push for more
economic and educational cooperation within Africa. A united Africa, where all social, economic
and political boarders are nonexistent such that member states have access to a wider and even
market as well as educational opportunities will ensure that globalization breeds a new form of
relationships where there will be no losers but all winners.
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p-ISSN: 1694-2620
e-ISSN: 1694-2639
Senso-Math Mathematical Facilitators in Preschools:

Training, Integration and Professional Contribution
Dina Hassidov
Western Galilee College,
Akko, Israel
Abstract
The Senso-Math program promotes early childhood mathematical knowledge in preschools.
This paper reports on the rationale behind the development of the program, gives a description
of the activities and process of the program, and describes the training of special facilitators who
visit preschools to present the program to the children and foster a love and knowledge of basic
mathematical concepts. This paper then gives a report of a five-year study that followed 500
Senso-Math facilitators during their training and subsequent teaching experience in the
preschool alongside the regular preschool teachers. The facilitators activated 10,000 three-to-six-
year-old children in various demographic sectors (Jewish Orthodox, Jewish immigrants from the
Caucasus, and Druze). Forty-nine of the facilitators were interviewed in depth to examine their
professional development, including their change in attitude to mathematical education in
preschool, and to assess the contribution the program has had to preschool mathematics
education. The results of the study indicate that, overall, the program effected a positive trend in
their attitude regarding preschool mathematics education, although there were significant
differences in attitude among the various demographic sectors studied.
Keywords: mathematics, pre-school, training, integration.
1. Introduction
The global trend today is to favor access to mathematics at increasingly younger ages. In
essence, children are daily engaged in mathematics from birth (Early Childhood Mathematics, 2002),
and the modern approach is that preschool math practice should develop that early awareness so
as to cultivate mathematical thinking at an early age. Studies have shown that preschool children
have the ability to build concrete, sometimes even abstract, mathematical processes, and that the
earlier that children are exposed to the experience, the greater the childs later mathematical
development (Curriculum, 2009). Indeed, preschool math practice helps in shaping the childs
future cognition, mathematical thinking, general thinking, and cognitive abilities (Baroody, 2000).
Studies have also shown that the volume and quality of math practice during preschool predict a
childs success in math in elementary school (Clements & Sarama, 2006). New teaching
principles for mathematics include developing quantitative, critical and creative understanding,
directing towards thinking and understanding, and encouraging mathematical discourse and
metacognitive processes (NCTM, 2000).
Neuroscience research also demonstrates the importance of preschool math activity. Clements
(2001) showed that the structure and organization of the brain of developing preschoolers is
affected by their learning experience, and complex activities lead to increased brain development.
Another factor affecting preschool learning is the learning environment, which has changed
from the traditional one, where the teacher transmits knowledge, to the modern one, where
learning is active and constructivist (Cobb, 1996). In this new environment, the teacher serves
more as a facilitator or mediator who encourages learning by enabling opportunities and
interesting activities for the students to engage in, and the student takes on the responsibility for
building their learning experience from the knowledge available. This change has led to a
transformation in the teachers role and responsibilities, with its attendant difficulties.
It is therefore clear that preschool professionals must be equipped with knowledge regarding
teaching mathematics to preschoolers.
1.1 The preschool teacher as a teacher of preschool mathematics

The argument arises whether specially trained facilitators to promote mathematics education
are necessary and whether the regular preschool teacher is not able to fulfill the task. Studies
conducted in recent years indicate that teachers assigned to teaching mathematics in the
preschool find themselves incapable for the job. While this may stem from negative personal
experiences vis--vis mathematics, it may certainly be based on a lack of professional knowledge
due to the absence of appropriate mathematics-for-preschool training in colleges (Tirosh, &
Graeber, 1990; Ben Yehuda & Ilany, 2008; Guo, Justice, Sawyer, & Tompkins, 2011).
Regular preschool teachers are, in effect, director-administrators of an educational

organization and pedagogical leaders promoting learning, which in itself is a complex process.
They spend much time directing and coordinating the activities of their teams, which include
teachers aides, substitute teachers, teachers on call, and teachers who offer special help to new
immigrant and children with special education requirements, auxiliary manpower, such as
psychological services, social workers, and more. Being administrators, they also have to deal
with such things as budget planning and coordinating between the various teaching auxiliaries
that visit the school.
Pedagogically, preschool teachers are responsible for translating the educational policies of
their district and local inspector and organizing the educational environment according to the
policies of the Ministry of Education, keeping in mind their own specific clients and their
personal pedagogical beliefs. In this framework, they must allocate long- and short-term goals,
plan an annual curriculum and devise lesson plans, and organize meeting with staff, parents and
other stakeholders throughout the year. They determine the educational content that will be used
throughout the year and how the assistant teachers aides will divide the many and various tasks.
It can be seen that merely being a preschool teacher and facilitator of learning entails much
effort and responsibility, and it can be assumed that a substantial proportion of preschool
teachers would have difficulty being a quality teacher of mathematics alongside their role as
educational administrator of a very active organization.
Furthermore, despite extensive training in preschool pedagogy, the preschool teacher does not
necessarily possess a deep understanding of mathematical education by the preschool teacher. In
fact, teaching mathematics is a specialized job that requires skills and knowledge that the regular
preschool teacher does not have: In order to encourage mathematics learning in the preschool,
teachers must know how to encourage free play to foster mathematics learning and to plan an
environment that will encourage mathematical investigation with illustrative and investigative
tools and accessories. The childrens interaction with these items form a large part of the basis
that learning the required pre-math concepts require, and teachers must be able to observe this
interaction and know whether mathematical thinking is developing or not, and whether
intervention is necessary to guide the learning. They must also invest much time and energy in
furnishing the classroom with appropriate materials and devising lesson plans (Klein, 1996(.
Since teachers attitudes influence childrens attitudes towards mathematics (Philippou &
Christou, 1998; Plucker, 1996), it seems clear that overburdening preschool teachers with the
additional task of creating and enabling positive experiences in foundation mathematics for
young learners is counter-effective to the goals in question.
2. The development of the Senso-Math program

Educators realized the need to develop appropriate assistance programs not only to
strengthen the preschool teachers sense of competence regarding teaching mathematics in
preschool, but to improve the math experience for preschoolers in general. The Senso-Math
program was developed to fit this need. Alongside developing the pedagogical materials, one of
the main goals was to train special facilitators who would supplement mathematics teaching in
preschool. These facilitators would then be integrated into preschools or other areas of
education.
The Senso-Math program recognizes that a childs mathematical development is generated

early in life. In fact, even before children set foot in elementary school, they have already
acquired a wide, informal knowledge base of mathematical concepts, and everyday activities can
instill in them mathematical ideas. Early childhood mathematical training is based on this
concept: developing childrens intrinsic thinking skills and intuitive learning, thus helping them
to develop more complex ones on a meaningful level, by creating an interesting, focused learning
environment to foster mathematical development. When small groups of children are guided by
specially trained adults whose role it is to mediate the surroundings and create a representational
mathematical world, the childrens mathematical development can be supported and encouraged,
especially if they are allowed to work in a stimulating social situation that allows them individual
attention while encouraging them to think, relate to others, develop language skills and face
intellectual challenges.
The Senso-Math Preschool Mathematics program was designed for children aged 3-6 years of
age. Its unique program familiarizes preschool children with the mathematical aspects of the
world around them in fascinating and enjoyable ways. A trained facilitator visits the preschool
once a week to encourage natural learning through experiential activities with specialized
pedagogic materials that engage the different sensestouch, sight, hearing, etc. Using
interesting, engaging objects from the childs immediate surroundings combined with focused
mathematical content, the program provides a comprehensive learning experience that develops
the childs curiosity and mathematical intuition in an enjoyable, unthreatening manner. The
sessions also include motoric activities to allow the acquisition of knowledge through movement.
Through the varied, challenging activities in the Senso-Math program, children receive a
positive, successful experience in the world of mathematics and acquire a solid foundation in the
basic mathematical concepts required for formal learning, allowing them to continue in their
formal studies with the confidence necessary for future success in learning mathematics (Klein,
2008).
The Senso-Math program was developed by D. Hassidov, M. Klugman, and J. Oberman

(article submitted to the Department of education, in publication) based on this understanding
that a change was needed in teacher-training methods, and realizing the need for a
comprehensive preschool mathematics program that takes into account the unique character of
preschool learning and provides an enrichment program beyond the regular instruction formally
offered in the preschool.
The members of this professional-scientific group are senior members of the educational
profession with widespread, extensive experience in all stages of educationmathematics
education in particular. They have years of experience in training educators in the countrys
universities, teachers colleges, and development centers under the auspices of the Ministry of
Education or other administrative bodies and integrating new educators pedagogically into
various educational frameworks. They have many years of experience in promoting programs
and projects connected to various educational systems, including teaching mathematics in all
grades and to all ages of children in formal and informal classes in Israel; developing
mathematical programs and instructional materials; and managing and promoting formal and
informal educational systems.
2.2. Program curriculum and contents

The Senso-Math program is based upon the definition of the Israel Ministry of Educations
new curriculum for mathematics in early childhood (Curriculum, 2009), and aims to give
preschoolers the chance to experience math as it occurs in their daily world. It includes diverse
and dynamic graded exercises and unique, specially developed learning materials that combine
sensory and motoric activities. The activities develop sequentially throughout the years until
kindergarten, preparing children with the mathematical topics required for first grade.
Thirty teaching-learning sets were developed covering three learning styles (creative,
structured, and daily environment) for coordinated with the ten topics in the curriculum of the
Israel Ministry of Education. The program aims to cover three years of schooling (pre-nursery,
nursery, and kindergarten), preparing the children for first-grade mathematics. The specially
designed activities and materials encourage transcription and reflective mathematical discourse
and are intended to provide a rich mathematical learning environment and to assist the
development of mathematical thinking. The program is designed to allow teachers to custom-
create activities based on the individual needs of their pupils.
A kit for each child was also developed; some of the material is intended to be sent home for
activities involving the parents.
2.3. Initial testing

The pedagogical and mathematical rational of the Senso-Math teaching kits were initially
tested in 20 preschools and validated through observation, data collection, and accompanying
research. They were then were further revised to enrich the curriculum framework. After final
approval by the Israel Ministry of Education, several hundred preschools were chosen to
integrate this program of facilitated preschool mathematical education.
3. The Senso-Math program system

A specially trained facilitator visits the preschool once a week, where she works with groups of
8-10 children at a time, leading them through a 40-to-45-minute session of enjoyable activities
using materials and ideas that invite mathematical exploration and learning in an experiential,
multi-sensory, dynamic way. The activities relate to mathematical problems from everyday life, or
to topics concurrently being taught in the school (holidays, daily routines, etc.). Mathematical
concepts cover counting, numbers recognition, ordering numbers, comparing numbers, sorting,
combining and dividing, adding and subtracting, patterns and templates, geometrical shapes and
spatial sense, organizing data, describing data graphically, and measurement, and match with the
Department of Education recommendations for prerequisites for first grade.
The facilitator encourages the children to think about the activity and express themselves
orally. By experiencing these activities in a personal way, the child has a chance to assimilate what
he has learned and build a firm, base of mathematical concepts and basic operations.
Groups are small enough so that each child receives individual attention and has the
opportunity to express himself. The child can also work independently while still benefitting
from group support and feedback (Klein, 2008(.
Materials: The program comprises approximately 30 learning units. The learning material is
found in the mathematical learning center kit that the facilitator brings with her, in the
individual First Fruits kits that are furnished for each child, and in the Curiosity Box that
remains in the preschool all year.
The facilitators kit is the facilitators toolbox and include equipment and other items to
teach the 30 topics covered in the program. It includes teaching guides for her and learning
material for the children. The childrens kits include individual items that the child can use
according the facilitators instructions. Some of the material offered in the childrens kit is
designated to be used at home with the parents.
At the end of each unit, the children take home a page for their parents with a summary of
what they have learnt and suggestions for additional activities.
4. Facilitator training
Five hundred women took part in the initial facilitator training program. They were academic-
and college-educated, and their suitability for the program was determined through personal
interviews and appropriate certification. Training took place throughout the country in groups of
up to 25.
Each participant attended 128 academic hours in over 20 sessions that spanned two years.
Forty hours of training focused on integrating administratively into the preschool, and 88 hours
of content training focused on mathematical education in early childhood, and hands-on
experimentation and application of the Senso-Math program in preschools. The Senso-Math
facilitators kit was used during the training. This eventually serves as an activity center in the
preschool, and participants were instructed as to its use. The content training included several
areasmethods of teaching and learning, mathematical education, and cognitive abilities of
preschool childrenbased on the premise that the program will work better if the theoretical
concepts behind it are clear to the teacher. Early childhood development, music, movement,
storytelling, puppet shows, and more were also included. Modeling and demonstrations showed
the facilitators how to coach preschool teachers in teaching mathematics. Training included
practical experience in preschools, with 15 hours of one-on-one professional guidance when the
facilitator began her actual work in a class. Upon completion of the course, the women were
qualified to work independently to promote and enrich preschool math.
5. Study of facilitators experiences and attitudes

This study was therefore carried out to determine the worthiness of the program on preschool
mathematics instruction, the changes in attitude that the training afforded the women.
In particular, the study intended to address the following objectives:
1. Did the training affect the participants motivation to work and their responsibility to their
own professional development?
2. Did the training affect the participants conviction of the necessity of mathematics learning
in preschool?
3. Did the training affect the participants confidence in teaching mathematics?
4. To what extent does the program gives facilitators appropriate tools and means for
preschool mathematics teaching?
5. Are participants attitude dependent on their socio-economic group?
6. What effects did the program have on mathematics instruction in the preschool, and what
were the preschool teachers attitudes to the introduction of the facilitator into their classes?
5.1 Population
Of the 500 participants in the initial Senso-Math program, 49 were chosen (randomly) to
take part in this study. Each participant had a diploma or training certificate from a teachers
college or other school of higher education (average years of education was 14.5), and were
mathematically oriented and with the ability to work as mathematical facilitators in preschool.
Although they all had background in early childhood education, none of the participants had
ever worked in preschool education.
The average age was 34 years old (SD = 8.48). The women were of heterogeneous marital
status (38 married, 5 single, 6 divorced/separated), with an average of 2.55 children. They came
from diverse socio-economic and demographic sectors from around the country: 15 were
orthodox Jewish from the center of Israel, 15 were secular new immigrants from the Caucasus
living in Haifa, and 19 were Druze from Galilee area.
5.2. Methods
Research methods were mixed (both quantitative and qualitative), as quantitative data would
supply statistical information, whereas qualitative data would give more information regarding
the participants reaction to the process it underwent, and how it affected them. The quantitative
data was gathered using the Likert psychometric scale, which is a fixed-interval scale for
quantitative assessment, and where 5 indicates strongly agree and 1 indicates strongly
disagree. Means were calculated and the significant standard deviations were calculated using
Cronbachs (alpha) to test internal reliability and examine how the data reflected the correlation
between various variables (e.g. age, number of children, or total number of years studied with the
participants satisfaction with the program). Multivariate regression analysis was used to control
the influence of other factors on employment prospects.
Data collection was done in three phases: The first phase was before the training course
began, the second was at the completion of the course, and the last one was done a year later.
Data were collected through a questionnaire that had been developed by the researchers, and
through semi-structured interviews. Fifteen facilitators (who were not included in the study
group) validated the questionnaires.
The questionnaire included 22 statements to ascertain the participants attitudes to teaching

mathematics in preschool and to the Senso-Math training program. The statements were rated
from 1 (not at all) to 5 (very great extent). Negative statements have been marked. After filling in
the questionnaires, semi-structured interviews were conducted with the study participants to
clarify their approach to the statements on the questionnaire. Relevant background information
was also collected at this time (age, education, place of residence, occupation, socioeconomic
status, etc.). The final interview (a year after completion of the program) also assessed the
employment status of the participants to evaluate the long-term benefits of the program.
5.3 Questionnaire
The questionnaire comprised the following sub-sections.
Statements about attitudes toward learning mathematics: It is important that children
start learning mathematics in preschool; Children of preschool age can learn mathematics; If the
basics of mathematics are learned before first grade, the child will develop a positive attitude
towards the subject; Anyone can learn mathematics; Anyone can enjoy learning mathematics.
Statements about professional confidence: Anyone who aspires to succeed can do it at any
age; Unemployed women should be concerned about their professional development; Teaching
mathematics in preschool requires readiness, knowledge, and professional maturity; The training
gave me professional confidence; The training encouraged me to pursue my professional
aspirations; I am considering making mathematics teaching my main profession.
Statements about self-confidence in teaching mathematics: The training gave me
confidence to teach mathematics; The training encouraged me to start teaching mathematics in
preschool; I see my future in teaching children mathematics; I feel I can incorporate the Senso-
Math program into the preschool; Had I not participated in the Senso-Math program, I
would not have confidence to teach mathematics.
Statements about evaluation of the program: The Senso-Math facilitators kit helped me
in mathematical guidance in the preschool; The Senso-Math activity pages helped me in
mathematical facilitation in the preschool; The course was conducted professionally; The training
gave me tools to facilitate mathematics in preschool; The training gave me tools to teach
mathematics in preschool; I would recommend participating in the Senso-Math program to a
friend.
5.4 Results
5.4.1 Employment status at the beginning, at the end and a year after the study. One aim
of the study was to assess whether participation in the program helped participants find
employment. At the end of the study, 69% of the subjects were working compared with 66% at
the beginning of the study. A year later, 75% were working, of them 10% of them in the Senso-
Math program and the rest in other educational fields. However, according to average scores, it
cannot be unequivocally concluded that participating in the training will encourage women to try
to fulfill professional ambitions and concentrate on teaching mathematics.
5.4.2 Differences in attitudes between married and unmarried participants. A second

aspect was to examine the differences in attitudes between married and unmarried participants.
Statistical studies revealed that marital status did not significantly affect attitude either toward the
Senso-Math program or the notion that math should be taught in preschool. In fact, most of
the participants agreed that math should be taught in preschool.
5.4.3 Attitudes toward teaching mathematics. The average rating of the statements pertaining
to the participants attitude to teaching mathematics was close to 4 and above, indicating that
most thought that preschool mathematics education was important (average 4.65), that they had
developed a positive attitude to the profession (average 4.51), and that they believed that anyone
can learn math (average 4.15). As can be seen in Figure 1, the statement that received the highest
average score is It is important that children start learning mathematics in preschool (average
4.65), while the least important statement is Anyone can enjoy learning mathematics (average
3.88).
Figure 1. Attitudes of participants towards learning mathematics
5.4.4 Developing professional confidence. Regarding statements about professional

confidence, the statement that received the highest average score was Anyone who aspires to
succeed can do it at any age (average 4.40), whereas the statement I am considering making
mathematics teaching my main profession received the lowest score (average 2.45). This
suggests that the training encouraged the facilitators to begin teaching mathematics in preschool
(average 3.67), gave them the ability to integrate the Senso-Math program into the preschool
(average 3.57), and made them appreciate that teaching preschool requires readiness, knowledge
and professional maturity (average 3.79). Statements reflecting average self-confidence and
responsible approach to professional development (Unemployed women should worry about
their professional development.) received a high average score. See Figure 2.
Figure 2. Professional development of participants
5.4.5 Self-confidence in teaching mathematics. An interesting anomaly showed up in the

ratings of the statement The training gave me confidence to teach mathematics (average 3.17)
which showed that the participants believed that the training gave them more confidence,
compared to that of Had I not participated in the Senso-Math program, I would not have
confidence to teach mathematics (average 1.72), which shows the opposite trend (see Figure 3).
However, subsequent interviews with the participants revealed that they had misunderstood the
question because it was a negative statement and therefore rated it incorrectly.
5.4.6 Program evaluation. The results indicated that the participants believed that the Senso-
Math program and materials had value in considerably improving their ability to teach
mathematics in preschool. In general, most of the statements relating to the program and
accompanying kit won high scoresabove 4. Participants showed satisfaction with the teaching
tools that training gave them (average 4.15), with the training for guiding mathematics in
preschools (average 4.18), with the teaching materials (average 4.19), and with the facilitator kits
(average 4.30). They felt that the training was conducted professionally (average 4.19). Most
indicated that they would recommend the program to a friend (average 3.96).
Figure 3. Self confidence in teaching mathematics of participants
5.4.7 Differences in attitude between participants correlated to various demographic and

social conditions. This study also aimed to investigate the difference in attitudes towards
teaching mathematics between various groups of participants, taking into account demographics,
employment status, age, education, and number of children. A comparison of the attitudes
towards teaching mathematics between the sectors showed that Caucasians and Druze expressed
a more positive attitude than the Jewish Orthodox participants. In addition, the highest
satisfaction from the program was expressed by the new immigrants from the Caucasus (average
4.69), whereas the lowest satisfaction was expressed by the orthodox participants (average 3.36).
Regarding attitudes towards the Senso-Math program among employed and unemployed
women, results indicated that there was no significant difference between them. (The statement
regarding recommending the program to a friend was used to indicate the level of satisfaction
from the program.)
Interestingly, results showed that the higher the education, the lower the satisfaction from the
program was, the more negative the attitude towards the program was, and the less they believed
in professional development. The qualitative findings support, strengthen, and clarify the
quantitative findings.
This seems an interesting trend. Perhaps educated women are more critical in general, and this
criticism is expressed by the attitudes they expressed towards the program.
5.4.8 Evaluation of facilitator presence in the preschool classroom. In addition to the
questionnaires regarding the attitudes of the facilitators, an assessment was carried out to study
changes that occurred in the preschools.
In preschools where facilitators were integrated, the mathematical learning environment

become rich and diverse. Reports from both the facilitators and the preschool teachers indicated
that the teachers benefited from a professional colleague (the facilitator) who came once or twice
a week, and who had the responsibility for teaching mathematics to the children. Teachers
received training in how to teach preschool math from the facilitators, but also learned by
observing the facilitators activities in the class (modeling). Facilitators reported that the teachers
often observed their activities with the children and repeated them during the week when the
facilitators were not in attendance.
The involvement of the facilitators also affected the teachers attitudes towards teaching
preschool mathematics. As one of the facilitators reported during her interview, The teacher
told me that since I had begun coming to the preschool, her attitude towards teaching
mathematics changed. She told me that she is integrating daily mathematical activities into her
program.
The program also impressed upon the teachers how crucial professional understanding and
training are on teaching mathematics to preschool children. One of the facilitators observed: In
the beginning, the teacher objected to having me in her preschool teaching mathematics. After
several months, though, we were collaborating nicely. The teacher told me that now she realizes
that teaching mathematics in the preschool is a very important area and that I, the facilitator,
have received training that she lacks.
The introduction of facilitators into the preschools gave new prominence to mathematical
instruction: because the facilitators were engaged for the express purpose of teaching
mathematics, this aspect of preschool education became standard and not merely reduced to
when the teacher found sufficient time to do so.
6. Discussion and conclusion

Changes in curriculum guidelines in Israel and abroad regarding the need for mathematics
instruction in preschool imposes a heavy responsibility on preschool teachers. The Senso-
Math program, which was developed as an answer to this demand, offers resource material and
specially trained facilitators to allow preschool children to experience math in a unique learning
program.
This study showed that undergoing the training program led to a successful area of
employment for participants, as the majority of those surveyed had, a year later, been
successfully integrated into mathematics teaching in preschools, and indicated that the Senso-
Math training had contributed to their professional development and given them confidence to
facilitate mathematics teaching in preschool. Moreover, teaching mathematics in preschool
became a key area of interest to them that was intriguing and challenging. Furthermore, they
recognized that children should and can learn mathematics in preschool (see figure 1).
The study also indicated that once teachers and facilitators collaborate nicely, the addition of
the facilitators in the preschool class becomes accepted as a positive contribution to the learning
environment. The teachers realized that mathematics teaching is a profession in itself.
Finally, the study revealed that the training and the materials provided by the program were of
a professional caliber that considerably contributed to the participants and, subsequently, to the
preschool teachers and children learners success.
The overall results of the study indicate that this program effects a positive change in attitude
in the participants regarding, among other things and notwithstanding demographic factors, the
necessity of preschool mathematics education, and gives participants a viable career alternative
while introducing a positive and much-needed method of increasing preschoolers knowledge of
basic mathematics.
7. References
Baroody, A. J. (2000). Does mathematics instruction for three-to-five-years old really make
sense? Young Children, 55(4), 61-67.
Ben-Yehuda, M., Ilany, B. (2008) The Development of Mathematical Thinking in Young Children: Theory,
Research and Practice in Training Teachers. Machon Mofet Publications, Tel Aviv, Israel (In
Hebrew).
Clements, D. H. (2001). Mathematics in the preschool. Teaching Children Mathematics, 7(5), 270-
275.
Clements, D. H. & Sarama, J. (2006). Young children mathematical mind. Scholastic Parent &
Child, October 2006, 30-37.
Cobb, P. (1996) Accounting for mathematical learning in social context of the classroom. An invited address
presented at ICME, 8, July, Seville, Spain.
Curriculum for the education of mathematics in early childhood (core mathematics program),
(2009). The Department for the Development of School Curricula, Israel Ministry of
Education,
http://cms.education.goc.il/EducationCMS/Units/Tochniyot_Limudim/KdamYesodi.
Early childhood mathematics: Promoting good beginnings. (2002). A joint position statement of the
National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) and the National
Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). Retrieved April 27, 2009, from
http://www.naeyc.org/about/positions/pdf/psmath.pdf
Guo, Y., Justice, L. M., Sawyer, B. & Tompkins, V. (2011). Exploring Factors Related to
Preschool Teachers' Self-Efficacy, Teaching and Teacher Education: An International Journal of
Research and Studies, 27(5),961-968.
Klein, P. S. (2008). A Study in Preschool Education. In P. S. Klein and B. Y. Yaakov (Eds.), The
Committee to Assess Teaching Methods in Preschools. The Israel Academy of Sciences and
Humanities, Jerusalem.[Hebrew]
Klein, S. P. (1996). Early intervention: Cross-cultural experiences with a mediational approach. New York
and London: Garland Publishing.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). (2000). Principles and standards for school
mathematics. Reston, VA: NCTM.
Philippou, G. N. & Christou, C. (1998). The effects of a preparatory mathematics program in
changing prospective teachers attitudes towards mathematics. Educational Studies in
Mathematics, 35, 189-206.
Plucker, J. (1996). Secondary science and mathematics teachers and gender equity: Attitudes and
attempted interventions. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 33, 737-751.
Tirosh, D. & Graeber, O. A. (1990). Evoking cognitive conflict to explore pre-service teachers
thinking. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 21(2), 98-108.
p-ISSN: 1694-2620
e-ISSN: 1694-2639
Television program format preferences and aggression of

football fans
Vehbi Gorgulu, Yonca Aslanbay, Gul Bursa and Ayse Gul Yucel,
Faculty of Communication
Istanbul Bilgi University, Turkey
Abstract
In this study, relations between television program format preferences of football fans and
manifestation of aggressive behavior are examined. Data is collected with a sample of television
football show viewers in Turkey. Results revealed fanship, aggression and format preferences
during hours of football television program viewing are all interrelated. The significant
preference of fan audiences for belligerent football shows among the other major types of
football program formats available on Turkish television stations was found to be in correlation
with aggression trait. Aggression was found to increase the hours of viewing. As a vicious circle,
the hours of viewing the sports television programs further elevates fanship.
Keywords: audience research, football programs, format choice, aggression, fanship.
Introduction
Television is a suitable medium that combines show elements with informative content
and further suggests that the mass consumption of televised sports have created a more complex
feel and appetite for sports (Rinehart, 1994, p.28). Though Internet allows the rapid transmission
of short sports news, television is still the leading media in the context of sports by offering the
being there experience to the audience.
Research on television viewing has gone beyond the limits of television viewing functions
and lifestyle attributes and started to proliferate in 1980s with the work of Bantz (1982). Previous
researches concentrated on general associations between individual motivations and viewing
patterns of regularly scheduled, live and purely entertainment sports program types offered on
television (Gantz & Wenner, 1995). The focus of this study is football television program
audience, representing an essential segment of television viewers (Gantz et al., 2006).
The extent of the research presented in this study is Turkey, where football has been a
commonly shared public concern throughout its history (Berument & Yucel, 2005). There is a
settled structure in soccer industry, along with high number of football supporters. Sert (2000)
explains that football has a strong association with the more general term sports as it turned out
to be a lifestyle with the rapid emergence of football culture through televisualization of sports
beginning from 1960s in Turkey. Thus, the national interest in football is as old as the history of
the Turkish republic itself. By taking Turkish football audience as a case study, this study aims to
explore the complex relationship between football television program format preferences,
aggression and fanship, since fan violence has been a common concern in countries where
football fandom is dominant. The present study, thus, aims to assess the potential impact of
football media consumption patterns on triggering aggressive behavior among fans.
In line with this aim, researchers spotted 51 football programs broadcasted on 21

television channels in Turkey. Football news programs, football entertainment programs and the
rising amount of belligerent football programs are determined to be three major formats
broadcasted on analog and digital Turkish televisions. Within the scope of this study, researchers
assume that there are significant positive relationships between fanship, aggression and time
spent for football show viewing, as well as football television program format choice.
Understanding the relation between television viewing, football fanship and aggression
Exploring the impact of personality traits on broadcasting media preferences is a rising
trend in audience studies. A recent study of Mindset Media (Bulik, 2010), analyzing self-reported
data from about 25,000 television viewers across more than 70 television programs, revealed that
the increased likelihood that a group of individuals who watch a particular television program
will tend to have one or more common personality traits. In the context of television program
format preferences, Shim and Paul (2007) study revealed positive correlations between
personality traits and choice of different television program genres. In parallel, Anderson and
Bushman (2002) explain that individual factors sex, beliefs, attitudes, values, long-term goals and
scripts compose an individuals readiness to aggress as cognitive, emotional and personal
variables that interact with environmental and situational factors. Previous research explained
also that higher levels of team identification relate to state verbal aggression towards opposition
players and officials (Wann, Carlson & Schrader 1999, p.280), higher levels of anxiety (Wann,
Schrader & Adamson 1998) and tendency to commit acts of violence as a result of the intense
loyalty felt towards football teams (Wann, Culver, Akanda, Daglar, Divitiis & Smith, 2005).
Especially in countries such as Turkey, where the football has a privileged position in national
sports culture, football-related violence is not rare (e.g. BBC, 2000; Vanguard, 2012). Thus,
examining the relationship between aggression and sports television program format preferences
of individuals stands as a key area for investigation to evaluate personal dynamics of sports
television viewers as audience.
One of the most studied interpretive communities is composed of fans. In sports

literature, there are various explanations of the term, fanship. Anderson (1979) defines fanship as
the conservative enthusiasm of an individual towards a particular interest. It is suggested that
fanship is similar to social identity, in which an individual's self-concept is formed by her
knowledge on the membership experience of a social group together with the value and
emotional significance attached to that membership (Tajfel, 1978).
Gwenllian-Jones (2002) draws a distinction between fans and ordinary audiences by

asserting fans are viewers who do not merely watch television programs, but also write fan
fictions and cultural criticism, produce fan art, scratch videos, websites and so on (p. 175).
While this assertion applies to fans in general, this study specifically focuses on the relationship
between football fanship and sports television program format preferences since fanship is
considered as a relevant construct in the context of television program viewing. Grossberg
(1992) argues that sensibility differentiates fans from general viewers that fans respond to shows
of those they are fan of with more affect than the general audience. In their study, comparing
television sports fans with fans of other programming genres, Gantz et al. (2006) found out that
sports fans are more likely to strongly endorse feeling of excitement as they tune in to watch
since they care about the outcomes of plays and discussions. Study of Peterson and Raney (2008)
revealed that unfolding nature of suspense is a strong predictor of mediated sports enjoyment.
Covering the literature, this study has four sub questions under two main research questions.
How the extent of football television program viewing and football show format choice are
explained by two different constructs; fanship as an extension of interest in football and
aggression as a personality trait.
Method
Data collection procedure and participants
The data for this study was collected by an online survey with a sample of television
football show viewers in Turkey. The survey instrument was pilot tested before the actual
fieldwork. Participants were recruited for the study via an e-mail containing a summary of the
studys goals and the URL for the online questionnaire. The sample is chosen judgmentally based
on their extent of football program viewing. A total of 180 respondents participated with the
survey. Following the removal of multiple submissions, submissions with missing data, and
minors, the final sample included 150 respondents actively viewing television football shows.
Hence this homogenous sample of viewers gives important cues about the main problematic of
the current study.1
Profiling has always been a significant component of audience studies. It has been
questioned why people watch television or certain type of programs on television. Wenner
(1998) states that demographic characteristics of sports audience play a significant role on how
much sports television programs they are exposed to. According to Wenner (1998) gender is a
significant demographic characteristic since women tend to watch sports less on television.
Cooper and Tang (2009) underline the fact that age influence media usage and demographic
characteristics are related to overall television viewing motivations of individuals. The findings of
the study shows that majority of participants are male (90%) within an age range of 18 to 61 and
average of 25.7 years. Since the participants are selected all among viewers, no significant
difference was found between different ages and sexes about their extent of football show
viewing. The sample highly supports their teams through consumption of licensed products (=
4.01)2, 15.3 % of participants have combined tickets for football matches and 10% have club
membership.
Internet penetration rate in Turkey reached 47.2% by 2012 (TUIK, 2013) and the IPSOS
KMG Report (2009) on Internet use in Turkey revealed that 58.5% of Internet users prefer
reading news online on a daily basis. Findings reveal television is still one of the primary media
of news source with its dominant business models and practices in Turkey. The results
specifically show Internet is the most effective medium (= 5.53) and television (= 4.29) is the
second in terms of respondents preferences in reaching news about both on football and other
issues. Findings about viewing football games point out to be mostly watched on the television
(= 4.77). All participants watch football shows via television and they have certain preferences
on formats. The decision of what to watch on television is generally taken by the participants
themselves freely (= 3.91), not by the other members of the household. Participants of the
research watch also 3.04 hours of television per day while they spend 3.42 hours per week
watching football shows.
1
Considering the complexity of the constructs studies, including aggression and fanship, the results must further
be probed by qualitative research as conducting in depth interviews.
2
The scaled questions were measured by 1-6 points Likert scale, that 1 = definitely disagree.
Measures and Results
This study utilized a cross-sectional design comprising several self-report measures. The
structured online questionnaire contained 28-itemed aggression scale as personality trait (Buss
and Perry, 1992; Evren, nar, Gle, elik & Evren, 2011) and 11-itemed fanship scale (Reysen
& Branscombe, 2010). The aggression scale was translated into Turkish, reliability-tested and was
found compatible with the original version (Buss and Perry, 1992) by Evren et al. (2011). In this
study, reliability analyses have revealed Cronbachs alpha score of .907 for both aggression (= 3,
19) and fanship scales (= 4, 10).
All analyses were performed using the SPSS 21.0 statistical program. Separate regression
analyses were carried out to explain relationship between fanship, aggression, preferred football
show formats and hours of football program viewing. Pearson correlations, regression
coefficients and F-statistics are reported in Table 1 & 2.
Table 1: Television Football Program Viewing (N=150)

Independe Dependent
df F Adj. R2 B SE t Sig
nt Variable Variable
Football
Fanship news show 149 4,221 ,021 ,186 ,090 2,054 ,042
format
Football
Fanship belligerent 149 3,788 ,018 ,204 ,105 1,946 ,054
show format
Belligerent
football
Aggression 149 12,579 ,073 ,154 ,043 3,547 ,001
show
format
Hours of
sports
television Fanship 149 20,398 ,115 ,105 ,023 4,516 ,000
program
viewing
Aggression Fanship 149 8.072 ,052 ,228 ,113 2,841 ,005
Note: All items above were rated on a six-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to 6 (always).
The number of hours audience spends for football show viewing was questioned via ratio scale.
This study shows that fanship, aggression and format preferences during hours of
football television program viewing are all interrelated. Aggression triggered by fanship is
significantly related with the belligerent and football entertainment program format preferences.
On the other hand, only belligerent format significantly raises the aggressiveness that in turn
predicts more hours of sports television program viewing. As a vicious circle, the hours of
viewing the sports television programs further elevates fanship. Findings are, thus, in line with
the argument that fans respond to television programs with more affect (Grossberg, 1992).
Table 2: Correlation matrix (N=150)
Hours of
Football Football
sports
news belligerent
Fanship Aggression television
program program
program
format format
viewing
Fanship
1
Football
news
,167* 1
program
format
Football
belligerent
,158* -,038 1
program
format
Aggression
,228** ,014 ,281** 1
Hours of
sports
television ,348** ,116 ,168* ,174* 1
program
viewing
Higgins et al. (2012) define belligerent broadcasting as a style that offers content with
intense expressions of anger. Belligerent broadcasting is relevant within the context of sports
television shows, that offer talk-show content including aggressive and intense discussions
before and after the football matches, confronting representatives of rival teams or covering
football related scandals. As opposed to football entertainment and football news shows,
belligerent football shows are mostly marked with the high tension felt between hosts through
expressions of belligerence, filled with loud and angry voices (Brownstein, 1995). In this
context, the findings of the current study both shed a light to modes of football television show
viewing and augment to the literature of audience reception studies about television content
fostering aggressive behavior.
Conclusion and discussion

Communication scholars examine continuously changing television program formats
within the rapidly evolving media environment and the role of audiences in shaping the most
attractive forms. Predicting audience behaviors are substantial also for media professionals as
television is still the most widely viewed screen worldwide (The Nielsen Company, 2010). For
instance, television viewing is the most commonly reported activity in the U.S., taking up just
over half of all leisure time (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2011). Similarly, in Australia, people
spend about half of their free time watching television, and across several countries in Europe,
television takes up about 40 percent of peoples leisure time (European Commission, 2003).
Watching television is also reported to be the major leisure activity in surveyed OECD countries,
including Turkey (OECD, 2009).
The extent of this study is Turkey, where the overall population exceeds 76 million
(TUIK, 2014) and countrywide football fanship in total is estimated to be 92%
(MarketingTurkiye, 2012). This study, focusing on a niche area through specific assumptions
augments to the previous discussions by not only adding up the television viewing in terms of a
geographical trend, but also as a case study contributing the global studies of football fanship
and television consumption.
Existing literature sheds light on general TV viewing dynamics. Past research that
explored the aggression in television content (Glascock, 2013) and viewer aggression from
various point of views (e.g. Eyal & Rubin, 2003; Rubin, Haridakis & Eyal, 2009; Haridakis &
Rubin, 2009) indicate, aggressive human behavior is always related with the selection of
aggressive media content. On the same path, findings of the current study offer football fan-
specific insights on relations between television consumption patterns and aggression of fans.
These insights imply that sports fanship represents an important avenue for behavioral media
studies to explore how level of attachments impact on television consumption patterns and how
television consumption patterns trigger aggression that potentially is manifested as violence.
Hence the results of this study call for further questions. Gender differentiations in such
area of research would also make a significant research question in the context of fandom as
previous research proved that media content may have varying effects on men and women
(Gantz & Wenner, 1995; Oliver, 2000; Zillmann & Bryant, 1984, 1986; Zillmann, Hezel, &
Medoff, 1980). A majority of previous research focused on gender portrayals through media
coverage (e.g. Stern & Mastro, 2009; Hardin, Simpson, Whiteside & Garris, 2007; Huffman,
Tuggle & Rosengard, 2004). A comparative exploration of patterns of television consumption
and audience aggression among male and female football fans would potentially be linked to the
analysis of media coverage from gender equity perspective, to find out if television program
format preferences are shaped by approaches to different gender categories and whether the
effect of the media content on the audience is actually a consequence of gender-biased content.
Leisure activities via media are experiential in nature (Madrigal, 2006, p.267) and are
largely shaped by media content, media formats and information technologies (Altheide, 1997).
Considering the vicious circle of relationships presented in the findings of the current study, the
consequences of belligerent format reception in more interactive new media environments
during leisure times by fans are also potential area of research. The changing process of viewing
via complementary basis of these new media, that are personalized to the individual as sources of
football related content and viewing experiences in a broader and virtually-connected arena must
further be probed. Such probation is necessary to reveal how new media formats shape fan
behavior patterns, which also involves media consumption.
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p-ISSN: 1694-2620
e-ISSN: 1694-2639
The Effectiveness of Vocabulary Learning Strategies on

English language Acquisition of the Saudi Learners
Dalal A. Bahanshal
King AbdulAziz University
Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
Abstract
It is widely believed that vocabulary knowledge is so closely tied to language mastery. This tends
to be one of the greatest challenges language learners encounter during their long journey in
language acquisition. The challenge is due to the great number of words that learners suppose to
comprehend and master as to be able to understand, communicate and use the target language
(English) effectively. One of the effective avenues that has been found to greatly impact
vocabulary acquisition are vocabulary learning strategies (VLS). Therefore, the aim of this
qualitative study is to investigate the strategies prioritized by Saudi 2nd high school students when
learning English vocabulary. It is proposed that VLS would aid Saudi learners, of all levels in
general and high school level in particular, to acquire a vast number of vocabulary which
consequently will motivate them to become avid, lifelong learners. The findings show that Saudi
high school English learners employed some strategies, yet unconsciously, more than others.
Guessing words meaning from contexts, using dictionaries and memorizing new words seem to
be the most preferable ones. Other strategies such as note taking and seeking help from others
were less adopted.
Keywords: Vocabulary acquisition; vocabulary learning strategy (VLS); Saudi English learners.
1. Introduction:
Language words are the bridge humans cross to learn new ideas and meaningful concepts. In
light of that, it is believed that vocabularies of any language, either native language, second or
foreign, are crucial as they are tools speakers use to convey and express the world around them.
Gutt (2000) mentions that the powerful form of communication is the linguistic one as humans
are capable of conveying semantic symbols to verbal expression which involves the mental
description of images, sounds and words and that make language and communication as two
sides of the same coin. Thereby, some people look at languages as a matter of words as through
words, new concepts are acquired and through the needs of expressing ideas and emotions
words are created. Considering the importance of words to any language, Stubbs (1986) stated
that when people think of a language, they think almost invariably of words (p. 99). In sum, we
conclude that vocabulary has a large role to play in determining the success or failure of language
learning.
In the field of foreign language learning, in this case English, there are many factors that have
great effects on learners achievement such as teachers teaching styles or proficiency, students
learning styles, students background, attitudes and motivation. One of the greatest challenge
that has been found to hinder the learnings achievement of English learners is the sheer number
of vocabularies learners have to master in order to access the language content and show a clear
understanding of its component. Many studies which are conducted on the domain of second
and foreign language acquisition reveal that vocabulary knowledge is the single best predictor of
language achievement (Richards, 1980; Allen, 1983; Laufer, 1986; Nation, 1990 & 2001). On a
study conducted by Horwitz (1988) investigating learners perceptions towards vocabulary
learning, she found that 25% to 39% of her participants agreed or strongly agreed that achieving
a foreign language depends mainly on learning its vocabulary.
Up until quite recently, language teachers used limited techniques to improve learners
vocabulary acquisition. Trusting vocabulary pivotal role, a demand has been raised for decision
makers, course designers and teachers to pay great attention to vocabulary teaching by providing
ample time to teach vocabulary explicitly. Thus, lacking particular vocabulary knowledge will
negatively influence learners production and comprehension of the target language (TL) and
therefore learners will lose a tool of communication. (Coady & Hucking, 1997) contended that
the size of vocabulary learners acquire is an indicator of general language ability which is crucial
for all aspects related to language such as reading, writing, comprehension and communication.
For that, choosing which vocabulary to be taught should be made in accordance with specific
aims and tasks set forth by course designers and language experts considering words students
need as to gradually reach the lesson objectives.
Coming to know that language learners will not be able to master all or most TL words, teaching
learners various and effective strategies that facilitate vocabulary learning should be a high
priority of all language teachers. However, due to the limited time and the huge number of
words language learners must acquire, language teachers will be confronted with some problems
in choosing the words their students need to learn. Therefore, focusing on training students on
how to use useful strategies merits the time spent in such effective tasks.
2. Significance of the study

Realizing the significance of vocabulary in any language learning context, the present study
attempts to identify VLS preferred and employed by Saudi high school students and discuss the
impact of their preferences of their English vocabulary learning.
It is, therefore, anticipated that the data analysis will expose the least and the most frequently
VLS implemented by the Saudi English learners. Considering the study findings, teachers can
design lesson plans and construct practical strategies which prompt VLS as to motivate less able
students and assist high proficient ones.
3. Definitions of Terms
Language learning strategies (LLS) have been recognized as very important processes when
learning a second or a foreign language. Chamot & Kupper (1989) defined LLS as techniques
which students use to comprehend, store, and remember information and skills (p. 9).
OMalley & Chamot (1990) asserted that LLS are mostly applied in vocabulary learning tasks.
Therefore, research to date has shifted its interest to vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) rather
than LLS bearing in mind that VLS are part of LLS (Nation, 2001). Recognizing the importance
of VLS to language teaching and learning, many scholars have made great effort to define them
and therefore many taxonomies have been presented (Schmitt & McCarthy, 1997; Nation, 2001;
& Gu, 2003). Cameron (2001) defines VLS as actions that learners take to help themselves
understand and remember vocabulary (p. 92). Takac (2008) demonstrates VLS as specific
strategies utilized in the isolated task of learning vocabulary in the target language (p. 52).
Nation (1990) proposed three helpful strategies which facilitate learners vocabulary acquisition
namely; guessing from context, using mnemonic techniques, and using word parts. On a wider
classification, Oxford (1990) has developed another system which categorized VLS into four
groups. First, Social Strategies (SOC) that rely on interacting with others for the purpose of
improving TL. Second, Memory Strategies (MEM) that connect new materials to other
knowledge that are already existed in the learners mind. Third, Cognitive Strategies (COG)
enable learners to engage more mechanical means such as repetition and content analysis rather
than activating the mental process. Finally, Metacognitive Strategies (MET), (memory and
cognitive), are advanced ones that involve learners consciously in the learning process which
requires making decision, monitoring the learning progress and evaluation of the best way to
master TL.
4. Literature Review
Long time ago, Scrivener (1994) has drawn attention to the fact that vocabulary is a powerful
carrier of meaning. Considering such leading role, an interest on vocabulary acquisition has
grown rapidly (Cameron, 2001; Farhady, 2006; Snow & Kim, 2007; Celik & Toptas, 2010;
Wanpen et al., 2013). Many researchers believed that the heart of mastering any foreign language
is through knowing most of its words as vocabulary is the key element for reading, writing,
speaking or understanding. It is to say that the learning of any skill will suffer if learners do not
acquire sufficient vocabulary items. Lending support to that, scholars like (Laufer, 1992b;
Haynes & Baker, 1993; Hu & Nation, 2000) found that the most significant factor that obstructs
proficient reading is neither the lack of adequate reading strategies nor of grammatical
knowledge, but rather the lack of sufficient vocabulary. Cobb (1995) reported his experience
with Omani students where he found that most college students are facing difficulties with
reading English text. He stated that the major weakness on students reading level was due to
their limited vocabulary items. As a consequence of inadequate vocabulary items, students may
encounter difficulties in clarifying their meanings, expressing themselves and verbalizing their
thoughts (Al-Hazmi, 2007). Encountering such difficulties, many students will lose interest in the
language and become less motivated, hence it is imperative to note that all learning activities are
filtered through students motivation.
From reading some of the related literature and getting to know how difficult it is for learners to
acquire most of the language vocabularies, the researcher proposes that teachers ought to pay
great attention to the basics of VLS and teach their students how to adopt and utilize some
various strategies effectively not only to facilitate their vocabulary learning but to aid the mastery
of all language skills as well. This in line with Takeuchi (2003) who asserted that the importance
of VLS has given it a leading role along with other strategies in relation with language skills that
learners need to acquire. Many studies have also shown that apart from curriculums, teachers
styles or teaching methodologies, learners strategy is a crucial factor that affects TL vocabulary
learning. Hence, learners should be well trained to acquire various VLS which will limit the
learning burdens and frustration caused while vocabulary learning. Providing learners with
effective vocabulary instructions will help them to become more autonomous and make their
learning process less challenging (Biemiller, 2001; Marzano, 2004; Carlo, August, & Snow., 2005;
Beck & McKeown, 2007).
What is it that makes successful vocabulary learning so deciding? In fact, it is the various VLS
which are acquired by learners to enhance their vocabulary acquisition. However, far too little
attention has been paid to VLS used by Saudi high school English learners. Investigating some
of these strategies will be of great significance not to Saudi students only but to others who share
similar language difficulties. One of the early qualitative studies that aimed to investigate VLS
and their relationship with the variables of English learners is a study conducted by Wen and
Johnson (1997) where they found that metacognitive and psycholinguistic strategies are
frequently employed by Chinese students majoring in English. Similarly, Gu & Johnson (1996)
aimed to establish VLS used by Chinese university learners of English and the relationship
between VLS and English learning outcome. The results showed that Chinese university learners
use a variety of metacognitive vocabulary strategies.
In one of the early longitudinal experiment conducted by Cohen & Aphek (1980) result showed
that memorizing the unknown words was one of the strategies applied by most of the students.
However, their findings contrast with this study finding as most of the participants showed
negative reaction towards memorization. One possible explanation for these contradictory
reports is that Saudi English teachers are not paying much attention to memorization strategy as
a helpful means to acquire English vocabulary. In the same vein, Kim (2006) conducted a study
investigating the most used VLS by Korean college students. The result revealed that more
practical strategies are often favored over more complex ones. The study participants confirmed
that it is easier for them to guess the meaning when the unknown words occur in a rich context
and that also helps them to retain the correctly-guessed words.
Investigating the Arab context, Medani (1989) set out to examine the use of VLS by some
average and low Arab English learners. The findings of this early study showed that there was
considerable strategy variation between good and low learners as the former implemented a wide
variety of strategies, whereas the latters tendency was to apply fewer or no strategies in most
cases. In sum, the literature leaves us in no doubt that vocabulary has a prominent role in
language achievement. Surely enough, it is toiling and challenging for English teachers to teach
vocabularies in contexts such as the Saudi one where there is no authentic settings for students
to practice TL outside the classroom. Therefore, careful planning from educators and teachers is
required to provide powerful vocabulary instructions and effective VLS that lead learners to take
control of their own learning and gradually gain achievement, proficiency and most importantly
confidence.
5. Subjects and Setting

The 30 female participants who joined this study are Saudi 2nd high school students who have
studied English for 6 years starting from grade 6 at the elementary stage. The study was
undertaken in two public high schools in the southern and eastern regions of Jeddah, Saudi
Arabia. Most of the students in these two regions come from families of average or low income.
A big number of schools in these two regions as well as the others, northern and western, are
provided with computer labs and built in data show in many classes. Teachers of all subjects,
where English is no exception, are requested to implement technology in their teaching but many
teachers prefer not to do that and that could be ascribed to their limited knowledge of
technology. Regarding English, it is taught 4 days a week where each class lasts 45 minutes.
Communicative teaching approach is not preferred by many teachers, however, teachers-
students approach is still the dominant one. Each English lesson has a variety of different
language skills; reading, listening, writing and speaking. Vocabularies are taught as part of the
lesson with no concentration on different learning strategies.
6. Research Methodology
6.1. Data Collection
This study aims to investigate some of VLS employed by Saudi 2nd high school students while
learning English vocabulary. The theme of the study revolved around two research questions:
1-What VLS do Saudi 2nd high school students employ to prompt their English vocabulary
learning?
2- What factors are affecting the participants choice of VLS?
Answering the study questions, the researcher believes that it is best to employ the qualitative
approach due to its connection with language acquisition. Supporting that, Ellis (2003) stated
that language is grounded in human experience and in human embodiment and human
experience represents the world in a very particular way and that is qualitative analyses (p. 65).
In this study, questionnaires and interviews were involved to identify and describe VLS which
are used by the participants.
6.1.1 Questionnaires
As a first step, the study data was gathered through questionnaires as they are considered to be
one of the easiest and convenient method to be employed in a study. It is also believed that
questionnaires are effective for accessing the participants point of view (Brace, 2004). The
questionnaire was designed in 2 parts where the first part requested some information about the
participant such as name, age and contact details. Participants were told that the first part is an
optional one but if they choose to respond, guarantees were granted to all that their information
will be kept secret and will only be used for the purpose of this study. The second part of the
questionnaire, had 15 questions rounded about strategies participants employ while learning
English vocabulary. The first 13 questions which put down to investigate the frequent use of
VLS where chosen according to the researcher's long experience in English teaching as well as to
the remarks of some English teachers colleagues. All 30 2nd high school students were
encouraged to choose one response that best describes their usage of VLS from the 5-point-
scale; never, seldom, sometimes, often and always. Such formation makes it easy for the
researcher to control and see the participants responses clearly and therefore draw the expected
results. The last two questions were open-ended questions which give participants some space to
shed the light on other strategies they have tried but not mentioned by the researcher and to
express their views towards English learning in general and vocabulary learning in particular.
6.1.2 Interviews
The second form of data collection are the interviews which were conducted after the
questionnaire analysis to gain more understanding and build on narratives that are grounded on
the participants perceptions towards the study theme (Liu, 2004). Among the thirty participants,
ten interviewees were chosen randomly. Interviewees questionnaires were studied carefully in
order to set different questions for each according to their questionnaires responses. Even
though the interview questions were different, they are still related to VLS. The interviews were
recorded and later analyzed by comparing interviewees responses to each question and that
helped to identify the similarities and differences among participants towards the use of VLS.
6.2 Data Analysis

As a basis of this study, Oxford (1990) VLS categorization were utilized and their frequent usage
by the studys participants was examined. Through analyzing the data, the findings proved that
even though Saudi 2nd high school students were not fully aware of VLS and the best way to
apply them, they employed cognitive and determination strategies more than social and
metacognitive ones. The most and least used strategies used by the study participants will be
explained in details.
7. Result and Discussion

7.1 Guessing Context and Clues Searching
A close examination of the data instruments; questionnaires and interviews, the results reveal
that Saudi 2nd high school students use some of VLS unconsciously and neglect the others as not
being aware of their existence. The most common strategies which were found to be employed
by the study participants are determination and social. Guessing and searching for clues within
the context, which are under determination category, were shown to be the most used strategies.
88% of the participants rely on the previous mentioned strategies while encountering difficult
words or trying to answer exam question such as What does the underlined word refer to?. The
results are consistent with the findings of Oxford & Scarcellat (1994) who found that the most
useful strategy used by their participants was guessing from different given contexts.
Interestingly enough, while interviewing participants about the guessing strategy which they
employed when coming across difficult words or unknown words in any English text, their
answers were quite unexpected. They asserted that they have no knowledge what so ever that
they are some effective strategies which provide great help to comprehend the meaning of TL
words. Elaborating more, they said if we complain to our teacher about the difficulty of some words and
ask her about their meanings, she may provide the Arabic translation or say just read the sentence in which the
difficult word is located and you may understand what it means. We have never been taught how to do
this or if this is a strategy that lead to a successful word recognition.
7.2. Dictionary Use

Another determination strategy which was found to be used by almost more than three-quarters
of the participants was the use of dictionaries. 79% of the participants had clearly stated that it
was only at the beginning of the academic year when our teachers requested to bring a bilingual dictionary to class
yet we never used it. When asking our teachers about the meaning of any word, she would say you
have your dictionary, so go home and check the word. There is no time to do this in the class because we have to
finish the lesson. Getting such replies, students never brought their dictionaries with them but
they got the point of relying on it when they really need to know the meaning of certain words.
The findings of this study are in agreement with others as it is been reported by different
research that despite the proficiency level of L2 learners, many of them rely on bilingual
dictionaries to know words meaning (Kent, 2001 & Jian et al, 2009). Gu & Johnson (1996)
found that guessing and dictionary strategies were the most preferred ones by Malay English
learners whereas notetaking, rehearsal and encoding were less adopted.
7.3. Seeking Others Help

Another social strategy applied by the study participants is seeking others help which is believed
to be an effective strategy for vocabulary learning. The findings showed that 72% benefit from
this strategy where others were reluctant to use it due to culture and social influences.
Discussing this issue with the participants who never asked for help, their reply came to no
surprise. They confessed that we are fully aware that asking others, except your teacher, for help such as an
excellent classmate is the easiest and the fastest way to know the meaning of not only one word but sentences, in
some cases. But, doing that you will be mocked by other students especially the weak ones and you will be ranked
as a fool or a lazy person relying on others to get high marks. Therefore, we prefer not knowing the word rather
than being mocked by almost the whole class. We could say that somehow this result in line with
Marchand & Skinners (2007) who found that the majority of highly motivated L2 learners are
apt more to seek others help than the less motivated ones. Considering the realities, we could
say that great responsibilities lie on the shoulders of English teachers as students should be
taught different effective strategies directly which facilitate their learning and that will arise
students awareness of VLS and then be able to apply them intentionally and consciously when
needed.
7.4. Notetaking
Waring (2002) confirmed that using books to take notes of important vocabularies or other
language skills is very beneficial to language learners. Unfortunately, most of this study
participants did not show much interest in this cognitive strategy where only 41% used notes to
record words synonym and antonym so as to be able to revise them before exams. However,
fewer students, about 19%, used books margin to write the Arabic translation of some difficult
words. Other studies shed some light on this one. Ahmed (1989) surveyed different types of
Sudanese learners and found that most of them prefer taking notes of the new items or writing
notes for meanings or translations in books margins. From what has been said, we could
confirm that more often than not, teaching vocabulary items seems to be a source of frustration
for students and teachers alike. One of the most helpful avenues to overcome this problem is to
train students to incorporate various VLS while learning vocabulary and that will be through
engaging students heavily in challenging activities that develop their skills and arouse their
awareness of VLS.
7.5. Memorization
Another strategy which is one effective means of vocabulary learning is memorization of the new
words. Even though, oral memorization or written one is believed to be an effective strategy
language learners could adopt, Saudi high school students showed negativity towards this
strategy. Only 35% confirmed the importance of memorization especially with new words while
others clearly stated that they practiced memorizing the words only at the beginning of the
semester but later when their teachers neglected dictation and spelling they did not bother
wasting their time studying the new words. One of the students who felt reluctant to memorize
new vocabulary expressed her resistance by saying I do not even know what are the best ways to
memorize words. I tried many times but failed so I decided not to waste any time. I strongly agree that
memorizing does not help because most of the memorized words seem to fly away. However, about 56%
participants proved that they rely on memorization only before the exam day. This finding is in
line with Connells (2004) who stated that Memorizing word lists rarely workswhat is
important is that teachers have deliberate strategies for clarifying word meanings and that
children have opportunities to use those words in context (p. 2).
Answering the open-ended question Is there any strategy that you use to learn new vocabularies which is
not mentioned in the questionnaire?, two helpful strategies were mentioned by the participants which
are listening to English songs and watching English movies. In regard to the first one, 71% of
the participants declared that listening to songs expanded our English vocabulary and improved our
pronunciation as well. The researcher was anxious to know if this strategy was employed by the
participants intentionally or not. Carrying on the discussion, the participants proved that they
never knew that listening to English songs is an effective strategy that will help them to develop
their English vocabulary, however, they listened to songs for fun and enjoyment. They said
loving the music and the song, we always repeat its words and sometime write each line till we are able to sing the
whole song. Saying more, no matter how long is the song. If we like the song, we will keep on repeating its
words no matter how much time it takes.
Questioning the rest of the participants about this strategy which their peers found very
effective, they interestingly replied words of songs are not going to appear in the test paper why should
we waste our time repeating words which we will not use and most importantly we do not like English music or
songs. Summing up the above, it can be concluded that repetition as a means of effective strategy
is favoured by many students even though they do not apply it within their learning context.
Considering students responses, teachers could benefit from the power of songs, rhythms or
even plays by synthesizing some new vocabularies in short songs or poems and encouraging
learners to repeat the lines till they master all the words then exciting challenges and
competitions could be performed by all students.
Watching English movies as a means to learn English vocabularies seemed to be very effective to
many participants. 63% of the participants mentioned that they started only watching movies
because they liked the story and the actions with no intention whatsoever to learn vocabulary.
Adding more, some stated that with time, we picked some words and sentences which we intentionally
repeated in front of our classmates to show ourselves off. Witnessing the interests of others, motivated us to watch
TV frequently in an attempt to grasp more and more English sentences and phrases. As a reply to my last
question Did you know that this is a useful strategy to learn English vocabulary? The participants
response came to no surprise as they confirmed that at beginning we only watched for fun and wasting
time. Later when we gain some sentences and noticed that our spoken English has improved, we deliberately free
ourselves to watch at least one movie a day. But still we do not know how to employ this effective strategy in the
learning of our English books.
Arguing the effectiveness of this strategy as a means to acquire English vocabularies, participants
who showed no interest mentioned that after school, their time to study all subjects is limited
and if they want to watch TV their parents will not allow them. A very interesting response was
professed by one of the participants who said even if I know that watching English movies will elevate
my learning of English vocabulary, how I could convince my parents who believe in books and teachers as the only
means of conveying and presenting information. Considering the realities, we suggest that special
emphasis should be made from the teachers side to raise students awareness of more practical
and applicable strategies that facilitate their learning processes.
8. Conclusion and Limitations

The aim of this study was to examine the strategies that Saudi 2nd high school students employ to
facilitate their learning of the English vocabulary. Base on the discussions of the study data and
the reviewed literature, it is evident that VLS are strong factors that affect language achievement.
From the findings, we conclude that the vast majority of the participants successfully applied
some VLS which prompt their vocabulary mastery. The discrepancy among participants in their
use of VLS were very clear as some employed a variety of VLS, yet unconsciously, others were
reluctant to use any as they believed that vocabulary learning will come with time. Therefore, it
is the teachers role to rise their students awareness of VLS through challenging activities and
intensive classroom practice which will provide opportunities for students to experiment the use
of VLS in meaningful contexts. The primary suggestion of this study would be directed to
syllabus designers and material developers to include explicit teaching of different VLS and train
teachers of different language proficiency to design vocabulary lessons strategically and provide
them with ample practice on how to apply VLS in their teaching and exercises.
One limitation of this study is that, it did not consider the participants level of English
proficiency and it seems to be more effective if two or three VLS have been taught to the
participants and then the effectiveness of these VLS on their English proficiency could be tested.
Most importantly, teachers perceptions towards the explicit teaching of VLS has not been
considered in this study. Therefore, the research topic still call for many further studies not only
within the Saudi context but in others where English is taught and spoken as a foreign language.
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Manuscript received on: 25 January 2015

Manuscript accepted on: 10 February 2015
Camera-ready copy received on: 15 February 2015
Paper published online on: 28 February 2015
p-ISSN: 1694-2620
e-ISSN: 1694-2639
Sources and Means of obtaining Psychoactive Substances

among Adolescents in Public Secondary Schools in Uganda:
A Qualitative Approach
Aloysius Rukundo
Mbarara University of Science and Technology, Uganda
Dr. Grace Kibanja

Makerere University, Uganda
Abstract
Using psychoactive substances is a rampant problem nowadays especially among adolescents in Sub
Saharan Africa. The purpose of this study was to explore sources of psychoactive substances in
public secondary schools in Uganda and to document the means through which students obtain
those substances. We explored sources of psychoactive substances in public secondary schools and
the means through which adolescents obtain those substances. The study was qualitative and
exploratory approach, involving purposively sampled adolescent-participants. Data gathering was
through focus group discussions (FGDs) using a focus group discussion guide. The data was
analyzed through a thematic content analysis, a phase-by-phase manipulation of thematic categories
of data to obtain common themes. The theme were sources of substances in schools and means
of obtaining substances by students. Findings show that small shops,kiosks and bars around
schools were the major sources of psychoactive substances talked about by most of the FGDs
(83.3%). Most FGDs also rationalized that some bold students escape from schools to procure
psychoactive substances. From the findings of the study it was concluded that businesses in school
neighborhoods and premises plays a major roles as sources of psychoactive substances in public
schools. Students employ a variety of means/strategies of obtaining psychoactive substances, and to
a bigger extent they escape from school to access the substances. Based on the findings, the study
recommended that there was need for collaborative partnerships between public schools and their
neighboring communities in reducing students' access to psychoactive substances.
Keywords: Sources and means, psychoactive substances, school adolescents, public schools,
Uganda.
Introduction
The earliest stage of psychoactive substance use among students is being presented with the
opportunity to use the substances (Benjet et al, 2007; Surujlal & Keyser, 2014). The sources and
means through which adolescents in schools obtain the substances seem to provide proximal
opportunities for adolescents to use psychoactive substances. While many studies world over have
explored prevalence of psychoactive substance use in schools, few of the them were able to
establish the sources and means of obtaining such substances by students. Yet prevention strategies
might rely heavily on such knowledge for effective control of substance use in schools. In addition,
the studies that have tried to cover sources and means of obtaining psychoactive substances among
school adolescents however allude to family environments and places of entertainment as viable
sources of substances in schools (Donovan, 2004). This study hence was designed to explore
extensively the sources and the means through which adolescents in schools obtain psycho active
substances.
Literature
In their study to investigate the rural context of illicit drug use among rural school adolescents,
Pettigrew, Miller-Day, Krieger, and Hecht (2012) found that school adolescents obtained
psychoactive substances from home and at parties. Pettigrew and his colleagues also found that
adolescents obtained psychoactive substances during birth day celebrations, family get-togethers, and
beer parties. At the parties, some substances such as prescription pills, cocaine, or marijuana
were offered to rural youth Pettigrew and his colleagues interviewed. And, most participants they
interviewed agreed that alcohol and cigarettes were readily available to whoever attended those
parties.
Elatedly, studies regarding substance use in Uganda and especially alcohol (e.g. UYDEL, 2008) have
noted that most tribes have a culture of brewing alcohol in homes, exposing young people in those
homes to alcohol consumption at a young age. In a similar case, the source above reveals that
unrecorded alcohol, an estimate of alcohol that is not recorded nationally or internationally
consists of home-made beverage alcohol productions. The same source also indicates that
adolescents engage in binge drinking during public events, beaches and parties, at most of which
local alcohol manufacturing companies sell it at discounted prices. Uganda Youth Development
Link further continues to argue that urban schools and institutions of higher learning are
surrounded by an array of bars that provide environment conducive for young people to use alcohol
and other psychoactive substances.
In contrast to homes being sources of psychoactive substances, Hurt, Brody, Murry, Berkel, & Chen
(2012) reported that interviews with adolescents care givers showed those care givers did not keep
alcohol in their homes, though they still believed their adolescents had access to substances in
schools or in neighboring communities. To elaborate their assertions, Hurt and others recorded the
following piece from one of their respondents: I know there is so much going on in the school
system and in the neighborhood : I went in the liquor store and bought it before I was even 16, so
they probably go in the stores themselves.
The statement above points to yet another direction of sources of psychoactive substances in
schools: shops and markets within school neighborhoods. Similar studies have also tried to link
sources of psychoactive substances in schools to neighborhood environments of those schools. For
instance, it has been articulated that disorganized neighborhoods harbor psychoactive substances
that eventually find their way in schools (Barnes, Welte, Tidwell, & Hoffman, 2013; Onya, Tessera, &
Myers 2012). In a similar study to investigate links between school violence and drug usage in
schools, Ramorola and Matshidiso (2014) also established that communities around schools were the
main source of psychoactive substances. They cite one of the participants in their study having said,
the school is located inside a rough community; it is easy for learners to get anything illegal or
prohibited in the school premises when they want to. The assertion above also implies that
communities serve as living conduits for drugs to schools. It remains clear that at the sources of
psychoactive substances in schools at times determine the means of access among students.
According to Ramorola and Matshidiso (2014), access of psychoactive substances among

adolescents is catalyzed by the societies that surround school premises. They argue that due to the
fact that schools are in the midst of social places, students easily access psychoactive substances and
spread them in school premises. To support their argument, the authors above reported as follows:
just across the road about 15 to 20 meters from the school is a bottle store and most of the
people who sell drug, wunga in particular, are there. So, during break time learners will just go there
and pretend to be going to buy something or anything to eat yet they are going to access those
drugs.
Though there are few known studies that have documented means through which adolescents in
schools obtain psychoactive substances, Kacwamu (2010) noted that adolescents smuggle those
substances into school premises by hiding them in their properties where teachers cannot suspect,
usually at the beginning of school terms. Kacwamu further elaborates that boarding students rely
on day-scholars to obtain psychoactive substances from outside school premises. Other sources (e.g.
Pettigrew et al., 2012) suggest that students sneak out of school either at night or even during day
time to access psychoactive substances.
In its report regarding the state of alcohol abuse in Uganda, UYDEL (2008) notes that premises and
some persons within schools are conduits for PASU among adolescents in those schools.
Specifically, school canteens, security guards, non-teaching staff, and some teachers are means
through which the students access substances. Such means hence are known for perpetuating PASU
in schools. The same source also indicates that secondary school students, especially day scholars,
both male and female, stealthily buy huge amounts of alcohol especially spirits (waragi) and smuggle
them into school for sell to fellow students.
Objectives
The present study was guided by two objectives:
I) To establish the sources of psychoactive substances used by students in public secondary
schools;
II) To establish the means of obtaining psychoactive substances by students in public
secondary schools.
Methods
Participants: School prefects were purposively involved in focus group discussions (FGDs). Where
conditions were could allow six prefects namely; head prefects (head boy and head girl),
entertainment, disciplinary, information, and sports were considered for discussions. These prefects
were preferred on the basis of common experiences and being the ones that participate in solving
issues related to substance use. But in a few cases where all of them were not available, the FGDs
could proceed with at least three of them present.
Study Design and Sample: The study was based on a qualitative, exploratory design using purposive
sampling. The study was conducted in four major geographical regions of Uganda that include
western, eastern, northern, and central region. It was conducted among adolescents in public, co-
educational schools, focusing of prefects as participants. Twelve focus groups were conducted, three
from each of the four regions of Uganda.
Measure: We used a focus group guide to generate data from student leaders(prefects), based on the
questions: what are the sources of psychoactive substances in your school?, what means do
students in your school use to obtain psychoactive substances?.
Ethical Consideration: Approval for data collection was initially sought from the Institutional Review
Board of Mbarara University of Science and Technology. We later got clearance from the Uganda
National Council of Science and Technology and from the office of the president of the republic
of Uganda. The final permission to interact with students was obtained from respective heads of
schools. Before the discussions began, written, informed consent was first obtained from the
prefects using the adolescent consent/assent form. Explanations regarding study aim and objects,
right to decline participating or withdrawing, and issues of confidentiality were articulated to the
students prior to commencement of each of the FGDs.
Data analysis was ongoing throughout the period of field work. Thematic content analysis, a phase
by phase manual analysis of thematic categories of data that was ongoing during and after data
collection. Thematic content analysis was preferred because it enabled scrutiny of conceptual
similarities and discovery of patterns of themes, to identify what study participants talked about
most and to collect related themes (cf. Mertens, 2005; Swahn, Harberlen, Palmier, & Kasirye,
2014). In the first phase, recordings of FGDs were played and listened to for at least twice and
then summarized, a benchmark for preliminary coding of emerging trends. During the second
phase, primary transcription of the interviews was completed and we substantively evaluated each
transcript for accuracy and coherency. We then started a more categorical analysis, first in broader
terms and then zeroing to specific categories. Final codes reflecting trends in study topic were
then refined as frequencies and percentages.
Results
We involved 70 prefects in FGDs, mean age of participants =18.51 (SD=1.49); majority were males
and from senior five. Data from interviews was organized into themes and results of each theme
were separately coded. The results originate from themes which were derived from the objectives a)
sources of psychoactive substances in schools; and b) means through which adolescents obtain
those substances. For clarity and anonymity purposes, each participant was assigned a unique
identification code with three initials and Arabic numerals at the end (e.g. xxxx). Those codes were
used during data analysis. The first letter in the codes is an initial that signifies the region of Uganda
where that data was collected, the second letter in the codes is an initial that represents the name of
the school in that region where that data was collected, the third letter in the code is an initial of the
prefects designation while the numeral represents the serial position of the participant in that FGD.
Sources of Psychoactive Substances Used among Adolescents in Public Secondary Schools

The first theme of discussion was about sources of psychoactive substances in public secondary
schools in Uganda. Analysis of students FGD talks regarding the topic revealed that the sources of
psychoactive substances in those schools are diverse. A summary of participants views regarding
sources are presented in the graph below.
Graph 1: Sources of psychoactive substances used among adolescents in public schools
Source: Data from focus group discussions
It emerged that small shops, kiosks and nearby bars around schools were culpable when it came to
sources of substances in schools. Students mainly pointed to packaged substances as having their
main source from those shops and bars. To confirm the argument regarding the sources above, a
student emphasized: There are bars nearby this school, even supermarkets (WMB01, June 13,
2013). Other students argued that they get substances from big shops and specifically supermarkets.
One of the students elaborated: If they dont go to town to big supermarkets to buy packed drugs,
they go to small bars and shops around the school (WMB01, June 13, 2013). To confirm the
argument above, another student had this to say: Kuber...yes, sometimes there are some
supermarkets selling it-even alcohol (WMH03, June 13, 2013). Another student was specific with
the types of supermarkets in which some of the substances are sold: Like Kuber, students in this
school usually buy it from shops and supermarkets operated by Indians (ESD05, July 8, 2013). A
participant from focus group four explained below the reasoning that students procure kuber from
supermarkets:
Now for me I have this experience: One time I also witnessed my friend who was telling me
that they buy this Kuber and from this supermarket near Buganda pub. I think they are also
sold in most shops near us (our school). (NGI04, July 1, 2013).
A student from another group argued in the same tune: Slums like Kijungu-actually Kijungu are a
source on its own. There are specific people who sell those drugs like marijuana and they are not
always known by everybody and they are not common. (WMD04, June 13, 2013). The argument
below by one of the participants in FGD one makes a bigger statement:
. . . because it is a risky job and since students are young, you find that those rare people
who sell those drugs may not show themselves to students for business, so the students can
get those drugs though their friends outside the school. (WMG02, June 13, 2013)
Students also mentioned their homes and especially those in villages around their schools as
other common sources of the psychoactive substances they use. To confirm the suggestion, one of
the students from FGD three had the following to say:
For the case of boarders, you may find that if there is a visiting day like Saturday, you do
phone your parents or relatives who are coming to visit you at school. Mm, maybe if
someone who is visited at school boozes, he or she tells their parents to come with alcohol at
school for her or him. (WME 05, June 14, 2013)
As if to support the above argument, WMG 02 chimed in: For example some parents in Isingiro,
fathers consider it normal for their sons-mostly sons to booze because it is a cultural norm.
Participants from group three also agreed that homes are sources of psychoactive substances in
secondary school. The citation bellow describes students opinions with regard to that matter:
Some of them plant them at home and bring them at school and distribute to others. Drugs
like [hesitation] like cocaine are planted at home to cure cows (the moderator interjects to
correct the student that it is not actually cocaine but marijuana) [hesitation] Yeah, yes
marijuana is grown by parents at home and students get a chance to use it and also bring
some to school for their friends. (WFD08, June 24, 2013)
As if to support WFD08, WFI07 was quick to supplement:
Other students get those drugs from their own parents at home and since their parents were
all that active in drugs, they narrate to their children how they used to indulge in PASU... We
used to take that stuff and students get motivated to take those drugs as well. (WFD07,
June 24, 2013)
Like those in group four, students from other groups supported the above argument: For the case
of marijuana, I think they get it from the village because most of the students have [hesitation] they
just come from very far distances. Yeah, so this is the main source of that substance (NGH05, July
1, 2013).
The most consistently mentioned sources of psychoactive substances talked about under this study
were bars and shopping places, especially for alcohol and kuber. Students arguments to this
direction resonate with the geographical location of schools considered for the present study, given
that the schools were situated in urban areas. Focus group discussions also suggest that to a wider
extent, the sources of substances in schools relate to the degree to which specific substances can be
easily obtained from the nearby communities.
Means of Access of Psychoactive Substances among Adolescents in Public Schools

As a second topic of discussion for the FGDs, students were asked about the means through which
students in their respective schools access or obtain psychoactive substances. The arguments
accruing of those discussions are summarized in the table below.
Means/ways of access Frequency (FGDs) Percentage
Escape from school 10 83.3
Friends/visitors 9 75.0
Day scholars 8 66.7
Fix them in bags, pants, books, sports kits 5 41.7
Gateman/askari 3 25.0
Parties 3 25.0
Water containers 3 25.0
Smell it on another student 2 16.7
Stealing 1 8.3
Teachers 1 8.3
Use mobile phone 1 8.3
The N value represents the number of FGDs conducted during the study
Table showing participants discussions regarding the means through which students in
public secondary schools obtain psychoactive substances (N=12)
Majority of FGDs rationalized that some bold students escape through school gates to buy the
substances for themselves. Other students, it was discussed, ask for permission to buy other things
but end up buying psychoactive substances. For some students, being sent home for school fees
offers an opportunity for them to obtain the substances. Such students hide the substances in their
pockets and bags and smuggle them into school, said WMB01. Escape from school with the aid of
get men/women were also cited as other means through which students in schools obtain
psychoactive substances. The gatemen do not only help students in a way of facilitating their escape
from schools, but assist some students to smuggle psychoactive substances into school as well,
according to focus group nine. The following arguments are included for elaborative purpose:
Yes, other people specifically asikaris (gate men) help students to smuggle substances into
school. Like when a student comes to school with a substance, he doesnt enter with it but
gives it to a boda boda man who will give it to asikari after the student has talked to the asikari
himself. The asikari then keeps it and then after the student returns to pick it and pays him
some money. (EJS05, July 12, 2013)
In some schools, students serve as agents for fellow students or people outside schools to
acquire psychoactive substances. It is meant that students have partners outside school who either
smuggle substances into the school or collude with the students to purchase the substances outside
schools. And, according to the participants, some of the partners pretend to be parents or guardians
as they supply students with the substances. The following quotations support the argument above:
Actually there is a man who sells marijuana in town here. He moves around the town playing
music [hesitation]. Mm [hesitation] playing a guitar. In other words, doing two businesses at
ago: Selling marijuana and playing music around Gaa Gaa area. In case you need the thing
he removes it from his shoes, drops it down and then the customer gives him the money and
picks his goods [moderator asks the student to shade more light on why the man has to
throw the business down]. Ok, the man throws it down because he is doing a secret
mission (hesitation) because the business is illegal so he wants people not to notice what he
is selling. (NAS06, July 4, 2013)
Ok, there are student dealers especially waragi [hesitation] like here in this school we have a
crew called cheers. They drink waragi so much, yeah, and they bring it inside school by
putting it inside their bags, since most of them are day scholars. For the case of cocaine, as I
already told you there is a student in form five who is a dealer [moderator interjects to
inquire whether the participant knew that student very well]. Yeah, he is my friend! Actually
he tells me how he goes to the boarder (with Sudan) sometimes he goes to Juba. Yeah, he
tells me how the other dealers from other country bring to him the stuff and then he buys.
He then leaves the boarder and comes back to Uganda and starts selling to fellow students
and to other wealthy people. (ESG02, July 8, 2013)
According to participants in some of the groups, students use a number of tactics such as
fixing substances in bags, pants, books, sports kits and water containers to sneak some psychoactive
substances, especially alcohol into school. Through girls hand bags, participants in group three said,
students smuggle psychoactive substances into school. That argument was augmented by the
following citations from some of the participants from other groups:
Like in this school there is this issue of containers they are terming it as if it is-mm
[hesitation] it is called in this school. Yeah, SWAG they pretend to be carrying water and
they are never oba interviewed? by teachers or even watchmen or prefects, and through
the process they bring in alcohol in those bottles. (WFE04, June 24, 2013)
Alcohol is always packed in bottles and this gives those who bring it to school an advantage.
Ok, because they smuggle it into school because the staff (teachers watchmen, and school
administration) may assume it is water in those bottles when actually it is alcohol. (ESI03,
July 8, 2013)
Teachers were also unexpectedly blamed for supplying substances to students: You give the
teacher money to go and get them-alcohol (WME05, June 13, 2013).
From the students assertions, it is plausible to conclude that students in schools rely on
coordinated networks to obtain psychoactive substances. Various players including students and at
times dishonest school employees collude in petty business-like manner to help students access the
substances. It might be probable that schools where students commute on a daily basis between
home and school are added advantage to the interplay of various mechanisms involved in the
substance use saga among school adolescents.
Discussion
Sources of Psychoactive Substances Used among Secondary School Adolescents

It emerged that school adolescents mainly obtained psychoactive substances, especially packed ones
from within the vicinity of their respective schools premises. Specifically, shops and kiosks around
schools, and supermarkets were the most commonly mentioned sources. I partially explain this
revelation in the context of the location of the schools considered by the present study. The
schools considered for this study were located either within town centers or nearby suburbs where a
lot of trade in uncensored substances could be taking place. Since traders within those proximities
are not restricted in terms of the commodities they should deal in, it is probable that they sell
psychoactive substances and target students in nearby schools as potential customers. Those sources
therefore provide ready, nearer and perhaps cheap supply of those substances to students in those
schools. The results are in keeping with other studies (e.g. Barnes et al., 2013; Onya et al., 2012) that
have established that the characteristics of neighborhoods in which young people live contribute to
their substance use behaviors.
The present study results also show that the second most mentioned sources of psychoactive
substances were homes/villages/families and fellow students, and confirm previous findings (e.g.
Brook, Pahl, Morojere, & Brook, 2006). It is possible that some substances like marijuana, mirungi,
and tobacco are locally grown in some parts of Uganda. Un-industrialized alcohol products
especially locally made spirits also could have homes as their source. Most of the students in
schools considered by the study being day scholars, they perhaps get access to the substances at their
will as they commute between home and school. The study findings in part agree with Kacwamu
(2010) in her proposition that students in Uganda get psychoactive substances from homes.
Kachwamu (2010) however pinpointed school parties as other sources of psychoactive substances,
which the present student did not confirm. Unlike the present findings, Kacwamu (2010) did not
allude to adolescents friends as other source of psychoactive substance, as the present study results
show.
Other literature from elsewhere also tends to suggest likewise. Wallace and Muroff (2002) and
Pettigrew et al. (2012) point to availability of substances in families when they asserted that
psychoactive substances are easy to obtain, and that their availability in homes and communities such
as neighborhoods contribute to PASU in schools. The authors continue to elucidate that perhaps
even more important than adolescents perception of psychoactive substances being widely available
in their communities is the extent to which those substances are widely available in their proximate
environments. The researchers above assert that the proximate environments from which
adolescents access psychoactive substances include the schools themselves, families and peer
networks. In a similar tune, Ramorola and Matshidiso (2014) agree with Wallace and Muroff (2002)
and hence concur with the present study findings and articulate that families are part of the sources
of psychoactive substances in schools.
In contrast to homes being sources of psychoactive substances, Hurt, Brody, Murry, Berkel, & Chen
(2012) reported that interviews with adolescents care givers showed those care givers did not keep
alcohol in their homes, though they still believed their adolescents had access to substances in
schools or in neighboring communities. To elaborate their assertions, Hurt and others recorded the
following piece from one of their respondents: I know there is so much going on in the school
system and in the neighborhood I went in the liquor store and bought it before I was even 16, so
they probably go in the stores themselves. The statement above points to another important
direction of sources of psychoactive substances in schools that has been described earlier in our
study findings: shops and markets within school neighborhoods.
This study has unearthed a multiplicity of sources of psychoactive substances used by adolescents in
public schools in Uganda. Though the sources of psychoactive substances appear to be many, it is
imperative to understand that those sources are substance specific and the present findings do not
stand in isolation. There are existing studies, though few, comparable to the present study results. It
is also necessary to appreciate that knowledge of the sources of psychoactive substances is very
important in planning interventions and developing preventive strategies in light of the prevailing
circumstances in a given locality. Understanding the sources of psychoactive substances in schools
could also be an essential benchmark in understanding the socio-dynamic of PASU (Yusoff, Sahril,
Rasidi, Zaki, Muhamad, & Ani, 2014), such as means of access of the substances by students.
Means of Access of Psychoactive Substances among Adolescents in Public Secondary Schools

The present results regarding means of access of psychoactive substances among adolescents show
that students mainly escape from school to obtain those substances. The second-most means was
thorough friends/visitors. Perhaps, being mainly day schools, public schools in Uganda do not put
too strict or rigid controls of movements of students and entry of visitors. Linked to some other
large extent, students reported that they obtained substances through day-scholars and through
fixing them in their belongings. Though not directly related to known previous findings, the study
results can be synonymous with Kacwamus (2010) assertion that students smuggle substances into
schools, specifically alcohol at the beginning of school terms, by hiding it in their properties where
teachers cannot suspect. However, the partial difference between this study and the cited previous
study is that during the current study, participants did not mention smuggling psychoactive
substances into school at the beginning of terms.
The partial difference in results of this study and Kacwamus (2010) assertion could have arisen
from the possibility that the current study was conducted in mainly day schools where students go to
school on daily basis and therefore come with those substances any time they desire to bring them at
school. On the other hand, the study results to some extent agree with Kacwamu (2010) that
resident students rely on non-residents (day scholars) to obtain psychoactive substances. Again, this
study confirms findings reported by Kacwamu (2010) that school surroundings play a big role in
adolescent substance use.
There is also a notable partial disagreement of the present study results and other reports from
previous studies. While UYDEL (2008) revealed that school canteens and non-teaching staff are
conduits for psychoactive substances in schools, the current study does not allude to that. For all
the 12 FGDs, means of access as being canteens and non-teaching staff (except for watchmen) were
not mentioned. I may not conclusively assume that the difference in those revelations means that
students in public schools in Uganda do not obtain substances through those means. Rather, I
could attribute the results to the approach used by the present study. For the present study, only (a
limited number of) prefects were included in FGDs, and it would be asserted that student-leaders
might not often interact with support staff and people operating canteens in those schools. The
study results however to lesser degree partially confirm some of the previously cited findings that
school adolescents obtain substances via security guards and some of the teachers.
Conclusions
This study underscores the role of businesses in school neighborhoods in encouraging substance
use among students in public schools in Uganda. The study underpins small and big shops around
schools as being equally responsible for supply and perhaps sustaining use of particular substances
in schools. It was established that students employ a variety of means and strategies to obtain
psychoactive substances, and students to a greater extent escape from school to access the
substances.
Implication to Research and Practice

The present study findings call for an integrated approach in prevention of substance use among
students in schools. It is observed from the study that while designing monitoring and prevention
scheme for drug use, school neighborhoods are to be brought on board. Specifically, involving
business owners in school proximities could yield better substance use intervention results.
Further Research
A more comprehensive study could examine the role of school environments in psychoactive
substance use among students and design a model to limit students in schools from accessing
substances.
References
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disadvantage on problem gambling and alcohol abuse. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 4, 1-87.
doi: 10.1556/JBA.2.2013.004.
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Rojas, E. (2007). Drug use opportunities and the transition to drug use among adolescents
from the Mexco City Metropolitan Area. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 90(2-3), 128-134.
Brook, S.B., Pahl, T., Morojere, N.K., & Brook, D.W. (2006). Predictors of drug use among
South African adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 38(1), 26-34.
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doi:10.1177/1010539514542425

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Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.

Viewing the influences of the global on education in Ghana from the 10

Senso-Math Mathematical Facilitators in Preschools: Training, 27

Television program format preferences and aggression of 38

The Effectiveness of Vocabulary Learning Strategies on English language 47

Sources and Means of obtaining Psychoactive Substances among 57

Cognitive and behavioural frequencies of justice and care

Keywords: moral reasoning, dilemmas, justice, care.

Kohlbergs cognitive-developmental theory on moral reasoning (1969, 1984) was

Following Kohlberg, Gilligan (1982) pointed out a different understanding on moral

Although, at first sight, there seems to be a different methodological as well as theoretical

This suggested (df(1), n=327)=38.158 (38.16), p<.001, Cramers V=.342.

An alternative explanation of the results, in connection with Kaufmans argument (1989),

An improvement, according to Kaufman (1989), could be to be examined in such a study

Tangney and Dearing (2004), by expanding Walkers consideration on moral emotion,

Justice-Based Criteria for identifying moral reasoning

Care-Based Criteria for identifying moral reasoning

Viewing the influences of the global on education in Ghana

Moses Ackah Anlimachie

Concept of globalization and its dialectic with the local

The Contrasting Views and Criticisms of the Rights Theory

Educational Challenges in Ghana and its dichotomy

Post- colonial era and education

Discussion of some specific educational programmes in Ghana

The Free Compulsory Universal Education Policy (FCUBE)

The Ghana School Feeding Programme (GSFP)

Funding, Aid Dependency and Vested Interest in Ghanas Education

The Current State of Affairs in Ghana: Success and Challenges

Discussion of the research findings

ECOWAS Protocol on Education and Training (2003). Retrieved from

Senso-Math Mathematical Facilitators in Preschools:

Keywords: mathematics, pre-school, training, integration.

1.1 The preschool teacher as a teacher of preschool mathematics

Regular preschool teachers are, in effect, director-administrators of an educational

2. The development of the Senso-Math program

The Senso-Math program recognizes that a childs mathematical development is generated

The Senso-Math program was developed by D. Hassidov, M. Klugman, and J. Oberman

2.2. Program curriculum and contents

2.3. Initial testing

3. The Senso-Math program system

5. Study of facilitators experiences and attitudes

The questionnaire included 22 statements to ascertain the participants attitudes to teaching

5.4.2 Differences in attitudes between married and unmarried participants. A second

5.4.4 Developing professional confidence. Regarding statements about professional

Figure 2. Professional development of participants

5.4.5 Self-confidence in teaching mathematics. An interesting anomaly showed up in the

Figure 3. Self confidence in teaching mathematics of participants

5.4.7 Differences in attitude between participants correlated to various demographic and

In preschools where facilitators were integrated, the mathematical learning environment

6. Discussion and conclusion

Television program format preferences and aggression of

Keywords: audience research, football programs, format choice, aggression, fanship.

In line with this aim, researchers spotted 51 football programs broadcasted on 21

One of the most studied interpretive communities is composed of fans. In sports

Gwenllian-Jones (2002) draws a distinction between fans and ordinary audiences by

Table 1: Television Football Program Viewing (N=150)

Aggression Fanship 149 8.072 ,052 ,228 ,113 2,841 ,005

Conclusion and discussion

The Effectiveness of Vocabulary Learning Strategies on

2. Significance of the study

5. Subjects and Setting

6.2 Data Analysis

7. Result and Discussion

7.2. Dictionary Use