DESIGN OF PILLARS
Outline
Introduction
Failure Mechanism
Mining Method
Design Method
Case Histories
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PILLARS
DEFINITION
A column of coal or ore left to support the overlying strata or
hanging wall in a mine,
PILLARS
Pillars are the load bearing
elements between two stopes
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PILLARS
PILLARS
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PILLARS
PILLARS
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PILLAR TYPES
Based on
functions
Support pillars and
Protective pillars
Mine Pillars
Pannel pillar
Pillars between Sill pillar
parallel tunnels Barrier pillar
Crown pillar
PILLAR TYPES
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FAILURE MECHANISM
FAILURE MECHANISM
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PILLARS
Understanding of the properties and performance of pillars
and pillar systems is essential to achieve the maximum,
safe economic potential of an ore body
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Any
Block other
Sublevel caving
Chevron stoping
Stope mining
and method
Room
and pillar
pillar
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r = wo/(wo + wp)
p = pzz[1/(1 r )]
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PILLAR DESIGN
The effects of pillar volume and geometric shape on
strength S are usually expressed by an empirical power
relation of the form
S = So va(wp/h)b = Sova Rb
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PILLAR DESIGN
For square pillars
S = So ha wpb
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PILLAR DESIGN
The effective width, wpe of a pillar of irregular shape, given
by
wpe = 4 Ap /C
where
Ap is the pillar operating area and C is the pillar circumference
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PILLAR DESIGN
Average pillar confinement
Cpav = 0.46[log(w/h) + 0.75]
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CASE HISTORIES
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CASE HISTORIES
CASE HISTORIES
Uniaxial compressive strength of stone mine rocks collected
at mine sites
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CASE HISTORIES
CASE HISTORIES
the maximum horizontal stress vary from 7.6 MPa (1,100
psi) through 26 MPa (3,800 psi) up to depths of 300 m
(1,000 ft) [Dolinar 2003]
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CASE HISTORIES
CASE HISTORIES
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CASE HISTORIES
Bolts, straps, and injection grouting used to rehabilitate the roof at the
site of a major roof fall.
CASE HISTORIES
Support Practices
Grouted rock bolts are the most widely used form of support.
Rock bolts of various types are used to reinforce the roof.
Fully-grouted bolts are the most commonly used bolts; friction
bolts and mechanical anchor bolts are also used, but are less
prevalent.
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CASE HISTORIES
Support Practices
Bolt lengths vary from 0.9 m (3 ft) to 2.4 m (8 ft) with 1.8-m and
2.4-m (6-ft and 8-ft) long bolts making up 67% of the bolts
included in the survey.
Bolt spacing of 1.5 m (5 ft) and 1.8 m (6 ft) are the two most
commonly observed spacings, and the maximum bolt spacing
was 2.4 m (8 ft).
CASE HISTORIES
Support Practices
As with most other roof bolting designs in strong rocks, high
strength and stiff bolts are more likely to provide the desired
rock reinforcement than low strength and low stiffness systems
[Iannacchione et al. 1998].
In extreme situations cable bolts and sealant injection have
been used to stabilize the roof; but roof screen is rarely used.
These items are considered special applications and were not
included in the study.
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CASE HISTORIES
Chart showing the effect of the thickness of the roof beam on excavation
stability in mines that did not experience horizontal stress related instability.
CASE HISTORIES
Horizontal Stress Issues
Shear failure and buckling of roof was observed [Iannacchione
et al. 2003].
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CASE HISTORIES
CASE HISTORIES
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CASE HISTORIES
CASE HISTORIES
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CASE HISTORIES
Diagram showing room and pillar layout modified to counter horizontal stress
CASE HISTORIES
Roof Support
The support system is expected to: Provide suspension
support for a potentially unstable roof beam.
Provide local support to potentially unstable blocks in the roof.
Combine thinly laminated roof into a thicker, stronger unit.
Provide surface control when progressive spalling and small
rock falls occur.
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CASE HISTORIES
Roof Support
The above support functions can usually be achieved by the
1.8-m (6-ft) and 2.4-m (8-ft) bolts used in the stone mines.
When poor ground is encountered locally or when horizontal
stress-related roof failures occur, supplementary bolting, steel
straps and screen, and longer cable bolts
From a design point of view, a stone mine is unlikely to be
economically feasible if heavy support such as cable bolts and
screen would be required on a daily basis.
CASE HISTORIES
Roof Support
Such rock conditions would probably require reduced
excavation spans, and the support costs would be prohibitive.
The first objective in designing an underground stone mine
should be to confirm that the rock mass quality is adequate for
creating the typical 13 m (43 ft) roof spans without resorting to
elaborate support systems.
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DESIGN GUIDELINES
The roof spans affect the pillar stress, and the pillar layout
can have a significant impact on roof stability.
The design, therefore, should be conducted by considering
the ability of both the pillars and the roof spans to produce a
stable overall mine layout.
Start with developing a clear understanding of the
geotechnical characteristics of the rock mass
Next, an appropriate roof span and roof horizon must be
selected.
DESIGN GUIDELINES
The main development direction for the production areas
should then be determined, based on rock structures and
the likely horizontal stress direction.
Support needs are addressed next.
Once the roof design components are complete, the
dimensions of the pillars are set, and any possible changes
to the pillar layout for horizontal stress are made.
Once a design has been implemented, the pillars and roof
are checked to verify that they are performing as expected.
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GEOTECHNICAL CHARACTERIZATION
Adequate geotechnical investigations should be conducted
before the design phase.
GEOTECHNICAL CHARACTERIZATION
The absence of weak, softening bands within the mining
horizon should be confirmed.
Similarly, the presence or absence of large, angular
discontinuities should be identified.
During initial scoping studies, the geotechnical data, such
as the rock strength, rock mass rating, and presence of
angular discontinuities may be unknown.
In these cases, conservative estimates should be used;
however, the appropriate site-specific geotechnical data
must be obtained for the final design.
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ORIENTATION OF HEADINGS
The direction of the headings in the production areas
should be favorably oriented to any expected horizontal
stress and the prevalent jointing.
As with any underground excavation layout, it is preferable
to intersect the main joint strike direction as near to
perpendicular as possible.
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ORIENTATION OF HEADINGS
Because room-and-pillar mines have two orthogonal
directions of mining, the heading direction should be
favored over the crosscut direction when selecting the
orientation of the layout.
If the orientation of the maximum horizontal field stress is
known, and stress-related problems are anticipated, the
heading direction should be oriented parallel to the direction
of major horizontal stress, with due consideration of joint
orientations and crosscut stability.
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REFERENCES
Brady and Brown Chapter 13
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