SHIPBOARD HEATING, VENTILATION AND AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS By Peter Karanzalis J. J. Henry Co., Inc. Moorestown, New Jersey Paper Presented Before The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers Philadelphia Section April 11, 1975TABLE OF CONTENTS SECTION 2 epr4 98 10. ne 12. 13. 4. 15. 16. W. INTRODUCTION FACTORS AFFECTING HUMAN COMFORT A. GENERAL B. EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE C. ENVIRONMENTAL COMFORT CHART D. HEAT PRODUCTION AND REGULATION IN MAN E. HEAT AND MOISTURE LOSSES FROM THE HUMAN BODY MOISTURE CONTENT OF AIR AIR MOTION COLD AND HOT SURFACES ESTINATING OF COOLING/HEATING LOADS PRELIMINARY SYSTEM DESIGN AIR CONDITIONING LOAD ESTIMATE HEATING LOAD ESTIMATE DESIGN TEMPERATURES TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENT "U" VALUES SYSTEMS AND APPLICATION TERMINAL REHEAT SYSTEM DUAL-DUCT SYSTEM CENTRAL STATION AIR HANDLING UNITS SUMMARY CONCLUSION - Hie PAGE u 13 4 15 "7 18 19 20 20 21 22 26 32 34 36INTRODUCTION In air conditioning a ship the designer is faced with all the problems that would arise on a shore installation, plus additional factors. Air conditioning is an absolute necessity for the comfort of passengers and ship's personnel, control spaces, and for preserva- tion of special cargo and stores. The ship's envelope, structure, minimum deck heights, water-tight and fire-tight bulkheads and decks, complicates the installation of ductwork and equipment, and requires a closely coordinated interference system interface, during this design phase. During the past few years the number of crew personnel on modern vessels has been considerably reduced. This reduction which has been made possible through improvements in efficiency and the use of auto- matic and remote controlled equipment, has involved an increased responsibility for every crew menber. This in turn has resulted in the need to pay a great deal of attention to the comfort and well- being of the crew, both at the various working points and in living quarters. Crews' living spaces must not only satisfy high demands with regard to spaciousness and layout but must also meet stringent requirements for proper air conditioning. Today the shipbuilding industry, owing to increased competition, has been compelled to produce efficient ships at low prices. This has naturally affected the design of all the equipment on board and,for most installations, the primary aim is to secure maximum efficiency at the lowest cost. This also concerns the air conditioning plant. It is therefore essential to calculate, plan and design an air conditioning plant (high-side and low-side) which fulfills reasonable requirements of comfort at the lowest possible price. The comfort conditions must be standard throughout the entire accommodation area and should not vary within each space. This requires careful and precise load calculations, planning and design. FACTORS AFFECTING HUMAN COMFORT A, General The designer of cooling/heating central air conditioning sys- tems must be cognizant of number of factors which physiologically affect human comfort. The factors include effective temperature, ‘the production and regulation of heat in the human body, air motion, the effects of cold and hot surfaces within the spaces considered, and the stratification of air. B. Effective Temperature Comfort conditions for individuals, excluding air odors and cleanliness, are dependent upon the dry and wet bulb temperatures and its rate of motion. These three items collectively in various com- binations produce conditions of either comfort or discomfort. Dis comfort may come from unsatisfactory sensations of either heat or cold.The arbitrary index which combines in a single value the degree of warmth or cold felt by the human body in response to the air tem perature, moisture content, and moisture is termed "effective tempera- ture". Effective temperature cannot be measured directly but is fixed as the temperature of saturated still air (velocity 15-25 FPM due to natural turbulence) which induces the same sensations of warmth or coolness as those produced by the air surrounding a person. C. Environmental Comfort Chart Figure 1 illustrates the original ASHVE Comfort Chart as de- veloped by Houghten, Yaglou and Drinker. This chart is for still air conditions, and the diagonal temperature lines represent effective temperatures. Examination of the graph reveals that a number of com- binations of wet and dry bulb temperatures and relative humidity will produce the same effective temperature. Two zones of comfort are shown, i.e., winter and summer comfort conditions which over lap to some extent. The optimum effective temperature for winter weather 4s shown to be 66°F for most people. For summer conditions the chart indicates an effective temperature of 71°F. As the one desired by most people in latitude of Pittsburg, Pa. (approximately 40.5°N) and extending into Southern Canada for cities not more than 1000 ft. above sea level. Because of climatic conditions effective tempera- tures of 73° to 74°F may be desirable in the southern part of the United States. This indicates an increase of about a degree of effective temperature for each 5 degrees of latitude decrease.The optinun effective temperatures of 71°F.for summer, and 66°F. for winter, reflect a range of dry bulb temperature/relative humidity comfort combinations as follows: Summer: 79°F. dbt & 30% RH -74°F. dbt & 70° RH. Winter: 72°F. dbt & 30% RH -68°F. dbt & 70° RH. Although regulation of the dry bulb temperature will produce ‘the same effective temperature with either a high or low relative humidity, it is not always the case that, through the range of condi- tions indicated by a constant effective temperature line, comfort effects exist. Either extremely high or low relative humidities may produce discomfort regardless of the existent effective temperature. The comfort chart clearly indicates that the optimum effective tem perature of 66°F. for winter is lower than that which may be required during warm weather. The comfort chart, Fig. 1, is limited to use in the United States with certain restrictions. The winter comfort line applies where convection heating with a central plant is used; it does not apply where radiant heating alone is used and in spaces having very cold surrounding walls and excessive amounts of glass areas. The summer comfort line is applicable to living spaces and offices where ‘the occupants have been adjusted to the artificial conditions main- tained. This latter line is not suitable for public spaces where the periods of exposure are less than three hours. The data of Fig.1 -4-0; AIR MOVEMENT OR TURBULENCE 15 TO 25 FT PER MIN WET BULB TEMPERATURE F aA yi OS0 OO oth Are sor Fig. 1... 70 80 DRY BULB TEMPERATURE F Average Summer Comfort Zone ae Optimum Summer Comfort Line Average Winter Comfort Zone —-— Optimum Winter Comfort Line The Original ASHRAE Comfort Chart aiseare for adults who are at rest, or only slightly active. and are normally clothed for the season under consideration. Increased muscu- Jar activity produces conditions not comparable with those of the chart. The human body cannot lose heat from its surfaces, by the pro- cess of convection, when its blood temperature is less than the dry bulb temperature of the air flowing over it. The body surface areas may receive heat from air by convection so that losses of heat by evaporation and radiation from skin areas may result in no change of effective temperature or an increase in its values with a greater rate of air motion. For the major portion of the cases involved in air conditioning for comfort the effects of increased air motion are reflected by reduced effective temperatures. Historical Perspective The original effective temperature scale as proposed by Houghton and Yaglou in 1923, is still often used by physiologists and engineers as a standard in measuring comfort, although it has been recognized by later studies that humidity at lower temperatures was over-esti- mated, and humidity at heat tolerance levels was under-estimated. In a review article in 1961, it was shown that temperature criteria for thermal comfort have risen steadily since 1900, from 65° to 70°F. dbt range to the 75° to 78°F. dbt range in 1960. Thisincreasing trend probably results from the year-round use of lighter weight clothing, and from changing living patterns, diets, and comfort, expectations. The New Comfort Chart In Fig. 2, the most recent applicable comfort envelope from the KSU (Kansas State University) - ASHRAE project is plotted on the coordinates of the ASHRAE psychrometric chart. The comfort zone recommended in ASHRAE Comfort Standard 55-66 is also drawn for com- parison. The new ET* lines are drawn over the two comfort zones. The most commonly recommended design conditions for comfort where the two zones overlap are therefore: ET* = 76°F. Dry-bulb mean air temperature = 76.5°F. (730-80°F. range) Relative Humidity = 40 percent (20-60 range) Air Velocity = less than 45 fpm D. Heat Production and Requlation in Man The human organism is a form of heat engine which derives its energy from the combustion of fuel (food) within its body. This action, termed metabolism, is the process whereby the body produces heat and energy as a result of the oxidation of products within it by oxygen obtained from inhaled air. The rate of heat production is dependent upon the individual's health, his physical activities,Fig. 2... . The New ASHRAE Comfort Chart -8-and his environment. The normal blood temperature for most people in good health is 98.6°F-, which is generally well above the tempera- ture of the surrounding air. The body temperature maintained is dependent upon the heat generated within it and the heat lost from it by the processes of radiation, convection, and evaporation, either singly or in combination. The human organism is capable of some self-adaptation to the surrounding conditions, but its very sensitive methods of heat regulation are limited in the maintenance of heat equilibrium over a wide external temperature range. Therefore not only the amount of clothing worn by the individual but also his envir- ‘onment are important factors in the loss of heat from his body which ‘is necessary for health and comfort. As long as the temperature of ‘the surrounding air is below that of the blood the rate of air motion has a marked effect upon the losses of heat from the body. The human body attempts to maintain its temperature when exposed to cold by the withdrawal of blood from the outer portions of the flesh, by decreased blood circulation, and by an increased rate of metabolism. E, Heat and Moisture Losses from the Human Body Heat is given off from the human body as either sensible or Jatent heat, or both. In order to design successfully any air conditioning system for spaces which human bodies are to occupy, it ‘is necessary to know the rates at which the two forms of heat are given off under different conditions of air temperature and bodily activity.Table 1 EAT DISSIPATION FROM PERSONNEL BIU/HR. PER PERSON SENSIBLE LATENT TOTAL HEAT weat || wear APPLICATION BIU/HR pru/ar || Bru/im Staterooms. 220 180 hoo offices... 200 250 450 Lounges..+.++ 200 300 500 Dance Floors... 270 600 870 Dinning Rooms and Mess Rooms. . 220 330 550 Pantries. 295 hs, 3ho ‘Theaters. 220 180 hoo Shopping Area. 200 300 500 Radio Roons and Chart Rooms 200 250 450 Waiters and Mess Attendants... 5 675 1000 @ = Includes 30 BIU/HR sensible heat and 30 BIU/HR latent. heat for dissipation from food. @iseipation from food warmers, toasters, ete., see Chapter 22 of Ref. 3. -10- ® = Heat dissipation from food not included. For heat coffee urns,The rates of heat dissipation from personnel, utilized in Marine HVAC Design, are shown in Table 1. MOISTURE CONTENT OF AIR The discussion of effective temperature brought out the fact that dry bulb temperature, relative humidity, and air motion are interrelated. Once two of the foregoing items are fixed, the third must be whatever is required to give the necessary effective tempera ture to produce comfort conditions. Owing to weather conditions the moisture content of outside air may be low during cold weather and above the average during hot weather as the capacity of the air to carry moisture is dependent upon its dry bulb temperature. This means that, in the winter, in- Jeakage of cold outside air, having a low moisture content, will cause a low relative humidity in heated spaces unless moisture is added to the air by the process of humidification. In the summer the reverse is likely to occur unless moisture is removed from the inside air by a dehumidification process. This is especially true if the space is densely occupied by people, if sources of moisture such as steam tables and coffee urns in messing spaces are present, and if ‘the outside air is humid. For economic reasons the inside air temperature of heated spaces should be carried as low as is possible and that of cooled spaces as high as possible and still produce conditions of comfort. --For people normally clothed and slightly active the usual inside specified air temperature aboard ships is 70°F. dbt in the heating season and 80°F. dbt in the cooling season. A deficient amount of moisture in air maintained at 70°F. dbt, in the winter, will result in more rapid evaporation of moisture from the individual's exposed skin surfaces so that it may be necessary to maintain a dry bulb temperature of air anywhere from 71° to 75°F. to produce a sensation of comfort for the individual. The higher inside air tenperature thus required results in increased operating costs of the heating plant, and the further decreased relative humidity of the air may cause excessive dryness of the nasal passages of the occupants. Excessive moisture in the air, in summer, will result in a condition of discomfort at a given dry bulb temperature owing to the fact that heat losses from the human body by the process of evaporation are materially reduced. In summer cooling, the moisture content of the air must be reduced to the proper value for comfort by the process of dehumidification. In selecting the proper dry bulb air temperature for either sumer or winter conditions the designer must be influenced by the practical consideration of relative humidities which are feasible. For winter conditions, in living spaces, relative humidities of 35 to 50 percent are desirable. In summer comfort cooling the air of the occupied space should not have a relative humidity above 50 percent. -12-AIR_MOTION In all systems of heating, except radiant heating, and in all systems of summer cooling the air of the space conditioned ultimately becomes a carrier of heat. In heating, the air gives up heat; in cooling, it absorbs heat. Therefore if uniform conditions are to be obtained the air must be properly distributed throughout the spaces served. This is necessary in order that the heat either be properly supplied or removed, and it is also necessary to prevent the concentra- tion of moisture, odors, toxic gases, etc., in various locations. No system of heating, ventilating and air conditioning is either satis- factory or successful unless the air handled is properly circulated and distributed. The velocity of the air in the occupied zone is important as it must never be such as to produce an objectionable draft. The air velocity in the occupied zone ordinarily should not exceed 25 to 40 fpm in summer and winter installations and should be just enough to give a pleasant feeling. The air velocities in the space above the occupied zone may be anything which is necessary to produce good distribution of the air in the space, provided of course that the air in motion does not produce an objectionable noise. Whenever possible the flow of air should be toward the faces of individuals in the occupied zone rather than from the rear. -13-COLD AND HOT SURFACES Discomfort may be occasioned by the presence of either cold or hot surfaces in a space. In winter heating, the flow of heat is out- ward from the air of a heated space to the outside air. Areas where ‘the transmission of heat occurs are bulkheads, decks, ceilings, windows, doors, etc. Irrespective of the ship construction the inside surface temperatures of such areas will always be less than that. of air inside the room when an outward flow of heat takes place. The amount of lowering of the inside surface temperature is dependent upon the outside air temperature, the inside air temperature, wind velocity, and the resistance which the boundaries offer to the flow of heat. Areas through which heat flows rapidly will have a lower inside surface temperature than those having a lesser rate of heat flow for the same inside-outside air temperature differential. Cold surfaces at the insides of walls and windows receive heat from ‘the bodies of room occupants by the process of radiation. This loss of heat from the human body often causes a sensation of chilliness and discomfort. The inside surface temperatures of boundaries is usually increased by the use of hull thermal insulation to reduce the rate of heat transmission. Insulated bulkheads and decks which are resistant to the flow of heat are also of benefit in summer cooling installations in re- lieving the air conditioning plant of load and in the production of more comfortable conditions in the air cooled space. -14-